Dryland Farming in the Northwestern United States: a Nontechnical Overview

NORTHWESTERN UNITED STATES A Nontechnical Overview Proper citation: Granatstein, David. 1992. Dryland Farming in the Northwestern United States: A Nontechnical Overview. MISC0162, Washington State University Cooperative Extension, Pullman. 31 pp.

About the Author and Project

David Granatstein is Project Coordinator for the Northwest Dryland Cereal/Legume Cropping Systems Project, based in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Wash- ington State University, Pullman, Washington. Work for this publication was conduct- ed there with cooperators from Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and Utah, under project numbers 3481 and 4481.

This material is based on work supported by the Cooperative State Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, under Agreement No. 88-COOP-1-3525, with funding from the Western Region Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture or Washington State University Extension.

Permission to reprint Figure 1 granted by the American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.

All photos except the cover were provided by David Granatstein.

Cover photo: An artistic display of wheat sheaves at an agricultural exposition in the early 1900s. Photo courtesy of Historical Photograph Collections, WSU Libraries. Contents

Introduction ...... 1

What Is Dryland Farming? ...... 2 What Is Sustainable Agriculture? ...... 3

History of Dryland Farming in the Northwestern States ...... 5

The Columbia River Country...... 5 The Oregon Trail and Northern Plains...... 8

Dryland Farming: Principles and Practices...... 11

The Semiarid Environment in the Northwest...... 11

Cropping Systems of the Region ...... 13 Rotations in the wheat-fallow area...... 13 Rotations in the annual crop area...... 15 Government programs...... 16 Organic farming ...... 16

Tillage and Equipment...... 17 Conservation tillage...... 18

Fertility Management ...... 18 Organic matter management...... 19 Nitrogen...... 19 Other nutrients and soil amendments ...... 20 Improving management...... 21

Pest Management...... 21 Weeds ...... 21 Diseases ...... 23 Insects ...... 23

Resource Conservation...... 24 Energy ...... 24 Soil conservation ...... 25 Water conservation...... 26 Atmospheric conditions...... 26 Human resources ...... 26

Prospects for Sustainable Dryland Farming...... 28

References ...... 30

Acknowledgments ...... 31

Tables

1. Wheat acreage and average yields in the Northwest, 1987-1989...... 1 2. Dryland moisture characteristics...... 3 3. Number of Montana farms ...... 9

Figures

1. Major dryland farming areas of the United States and Canada ...... 2 2. Mean annual precipitation (inches) in the western United States ...... 12

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S.1

INTRODUCTION

Most of the region’s grain is exported

The staff of life. Our daily bread. Amber are raised on over 10 million acres of land waves of grain. All these references evoke im- using dryland farming techniques (Table 1; Fig- ages of wheat, the most prominent grain in the ure 1). Dryland farming generates significant American diet.Yet images of the Dust Bowl, de- economic revenues for the region and provides serted farm houses, and silt-choked rivers are large amounts of food and feed commodities also associated with wheat farming, especially for both domestic and foreign markets. Farm- in the drier, more marginal farming regions. ing activities also greatly impact the land, air, Today, more people than ever through- water, and biological resources of the region. out the world rely on American wheat farmers to provide a steady and affordable supply of grain. At the same time, public concern about Table 1. Wheat Acreage and Average Yields the viability of our food system is growing as in the Northwest, 1987-1989. part of an expanding environmental aware- Includes irrigated Acreage. ness. Many people feel that the enormous successes of farm productivity have not come Planted Area Average Yield State (1000 ac) (bu/ac) without a cost. In the brief history of farming in our nation, more soil has been eroded than Montana 5322 25.2 in many civilizations a thousand years old. Washington 2457 55.3 Rural populations and communities have dis- Idaho 1297 69.1 appeared because of changes created by using Oregon 865 64.1 new technology and by the world marketplace. Wyoming 268 25.4 The loss of prairies and wetlands has reduced Utah 195 38.9 biological diversity. Thus, sustainability is Source: USDA, 1990 crucial to agriculture to maintain food production and the natural and human resources that support it. In 1988, a group of researchers, exten- In the northwestern states of Washing- sion workers, farmers, and private agricultural ton, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyo- organizations initiated the Northwest Dryland ming, wheat and other drought-tolerant crops Cereal/Legume Cropping Systems project to

2 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. explore sustainable dryland farming options in ern United States, contains detailed research the six-state region. This publication provides information on moisture management, crop an overview of sustainable dryland farming in rotations, and soil quality. It is intended for use the region. It defines and presents the history by growers, researchers, and other agricultural of dryland farming and the concept of sustain- professionals. It also has a resource guide to able agriculture. A companion publication, sources for technical information and assis- XB1025 Amber Waves: A Technical Sourcebook for tance about dryland farming in the six states. Sustainable Dryland Farming in the Northwest-

What Is Dryland Farming? Most rain fed dryland agriculture oc- Dryland regions are those geographic curs in semiarid and subhumid zones. These areas in which biological productivity is nor- are typically grassland ecosystems in their mally limited by available moisture. They oc- native state. The moisture characteristics of cupy an estimated one-third of the earth’s land drylands, as reported by UNESCO (1977), are surface. Through irrigation, the moisture limi- presented in Table 2. tation has been overcome for many dryland Land resources in dryland regions may sites. But for large geographic areas, limited suffer irreversible losses of productivity if water resources prevent irrigation develop- careful management is not practiced. In much ment. Thus, Strategies that improve moisture of the world, poor management has led to conservation will continue to be crucial to desertification, which poses a growing threat agriculture in dryland areas. to the livelihoods of people reliant on dryland

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 3 farming. Canadian researchers estimated the management. The variability of the dryland annual cost of soil degradation in their prairie environment often makes it difficult to ex- region to be 622 million dollars in lost agricul- trapolate research results or farmer experience tural productivity in 1984 alone (Dixon et al., from one location to another a short distance 1990). Thus, sustaining the resource base is a away. Many dryland farmers rely on their own crucial issue for drylands in developed as well experimentation and innovation to develop a as developing countries. successful management system. Government farm programs have played a large role in shaping dryland agri- Table 2. Dryland Moisture culture during this century. Price supports Characteristics. for wheat help keep many dryland farmers in business during periods of depressed grain Semiarid Subhumid prices. At the same time, the programs have influenced farm management in ways that often MAP/PET 0.20-0.50 0.50-0.75 contradict resource conservation goals. Thus, MAP range (in.) 12-32 s 20-32 8-20 w -- in addition to climatic uncertainties, dryland Rainfall variability 25-50% <25% farmers have had to cope with policy issues more than most other farmers. (MAP=mean annual precipitation; PET=potential evapotranspiration; S=summer rainfall regime, W= winter rainfall regime) What is Sustainable Agriculture? Source: UNESCO, 1977. The Northwest Dryland Cereal/Le- gume Cropping Systems project explored pros- Dryland wheat farming has been prac- pects for sustainable agriculture on the region’s ticed in many parts of the world for centuries, dryland farms. Sustainable agriculture is best but it is only about 100 years old in the north- understood as a concept or goal, rather than a western United States. In that short period, specific set of farming practices. It focuses on dryland farming techniques have undergone agriculture’s long-term viability, particularly much change due to a steady flow of new concerning the use of natural resources. Ideally, equipment, research, and farmer experience. a sustainable agriculture is profitable, environ- A number of practices and tools are unique to mentally sound, and socially beneficial, both in dryland regions. The widespread practice of the short and long term. Presently used indica- summer fallow stores moisture from two years tors of agricultural success, such as crop yields for use by a single crop. Farmers alternate a or annual profits, do not accurately measure crop and noncrop year, and control weeds the sustainability of our farming systems. during the noncrop year with tillage and/or The current interest in sustainable agri- herbicides. The desire to conserve as much of culture is the result of public concern about the the moisture as possible has spawned creative environmental impacts of modern agriculture, technology. For example, the rodweeder is a and grower concern about farm profitability. tool unique to dryland regions; it is used to While simple solutions are lacking, a growing maintain a moisture-conserving dust mulch number of profitable, efficient, productive and during the summer fallow period in a crop-fal- environmentally friendly farms that embody low system. the goals of sustainable agriculture provide Successful dryland farming requires positive examples. The results from these farms favorable soils that can store moisture, adapted refute claims by critics of sustainable agricul- crops that can withstand the climatic extremes, ture that the only alternative to our present and innovative farmers who can tailor a man- agriculture is a return to horses and hoes. The agement system to fit their local environment. sustainable agriculture concept draws on all Many dryland farms cover thousands of acres possible options, ranging from historical farm- in order to form a viable economic unit, due ing techniques to the use of modern biotech- to low per acre yields and profits. The weather nology. and soils can vary dramatically across an A number of terms are used to describe individual farm, further complicating farm approaches to developing more environmen-

4 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. tally sound agricultural methods, including al- sustainable. Key principles include enhancing ternative, ecological, regenerative, organic, and biological diversity, recycling nutrients and biodynamic. The term “organic farming” spe- waste products, increasing reliance on renew- cifically implies a system that uses no synthetic able and internal production inputs, informa- fertilizers or pesticides. Production practices tion-intensive and site-specific management, are often defined by public or private certifica- and recognition of both long- and short-term tion programs. The term “low input” refers to costs and benefits of farm practices. reducing purchased, external, or nonrenew- Sustainable agriculture is not a cure-all able inputs. Low input does not mean doing and it is not a new concept. The term “perma- nothing while magically maintaining crop nent agriculture” was used by Oregon wheat productivity. Farmers successful in reducing farmers in the early 1900s. Many similar con- purchased inputs such as chemical pesticides cerns were expressed during the Dust Bowl may intensively scout fields for pests, release era. But problem solving in agriculture has biological controls, and apply botanical pesti- often been narrowly focused Eliminating one cides more frequently. This approach requires concern frequently created new ones. Sus- a greater knowledge of the biological relation- tainable agriculture stresses problem solving ships present in farming systems. in a broader context, with new partnerships Sustainable agriculture as a concept across academic disciplines, among all sectors encompasses all these approaches to more of agriculture, and between urban and rural environmentally sound farming. For example, populations. It emphasizes a greater role for both sustainable agriculture and organic farm- knowledge and use of biological processes on ing encourage rebuilding of soil organic matter. the farm than in the past several decades. But organic farming prohibits the use of syn- Wendell Berry, a noted writer and thetic fertilizer, while sustainable agriculture Kentucky farmer, points to the need for “ag- does not. ricultural solutions to agricultural problems.” Sustainable agriculture represents a He feels that many of our approaches over the continuum of diverse farming practices. There past century have been “industrial approach- are no firm standards by which a farm might es,” more suited to factories than to farms. He be judged “sustainable,” in contrast to strict defines an agricultural solution as one that standards set for organic farm certification. “creates more solutions, not more problems.” However, a number of principles and strate- That may be a good guidepost in the search for gies are common to farms striving to be more a more sustainable agriculture.

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 5

HISTORY OF DRYLAND FARMING IN THE NORTHWESTERN STATES

Alternate wheat-fallow strips help control wind erosion

The dryland regions of the northwest- eastern states over the Oregon Trail. Most set- ern United States were considered a part of the tlers passing through the dry country were in a “Great American Desert” throughout much of hurry to reach the moister climate west of the the nineteenth century. The reports of Lewis Cascade Mountains. But several missions were and Clark did not offer encouragement about founded in eastern Washington and northern the agricultural potential of the vast expanses Idaho, where both irrigated and dry farming of dry country they passed through. But farm- were practiced. In 1843, Henry Spalding specu- ing did find its way to the northwestern states lated that the rolling hills of the Palouse region by two routes—the Columbia River, and the might be able to produce wheat. By 1846, he Oregon Trail. Each route has its own history, as had raised several grain crops without irriga- well as a common one. The small grains which tion near Lapwai, Idaho. have been the cornerstone of dryland farm- Isaac Stevens, later governor of Wash- ing in the region, especially wheat and barley, ington, recognized the agricultural potential of came with the European settlers and replaced the Columbia Basin prairies in the mid-1850s the perennial grasslands that had been build- and compared them to the famous steppes in ing fertile soils for thousands of years. Russia. Walla Walla became a major center for dryland grain production, with the first thresh- The Columbia River Country1 ing machine arriving in 1861. White wheat was first planted in fall 1863, and yields of 33 bu/ac The early white explorers throughout were harvested from upland benches. As wheat the Northwest were fur trappers who had little production expanded around Walla Walla in in interest or time for agriculture. As part of the the 1860s, the price dropped from $1.25/bu to geopolitics of the early 1800s, the Hudson Bay $0.30/bu. In 1867, about 1000 barrels of wheat Company decided to initiate food production flour were exported to San Francisco, and then in the region to bolster their strategic hold and exports to New York and London began. By to cut costs. Large gardens were started at sev- 1870, gang plows and steam threshers were in eral of the Company forts, and in 1826, what use around Walla Walla, and wheat production was probably the first wheat crop in the dry- exceeded 100,000 bu/yr. land Northwest was planted at Fort Colville In the early 1870s, dryland farming ex- (Washington). By the 1840s, settlers flocked to panded to other parts of the Columbia prairies. the fertile Willamette Valley in Oregon from the Some settlers moved to dryland areas from the

6 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. Willamette Valley as word of the successful At this time, investment groups began crops spread. The first railroad in the Pacific to develop large farms of several thousand Northwest was built in the late 1870s to carry acres in the interior drylands. These were pat- wheat from Walla Walla to the Columbia River terned after the “bonanza” farms of the Red at Wallula Gap. Average wheat yields of, 35-40 River Valley in North Dakota and the Sacra- bu/ac were convincing evidence that the hills mento Valley in California. offered tremendous farming opportunities. New farm equipment has always inter- By 1880, 50,000 people had settled in the dry ested dryland grain farmers. Various cultivat- region of the territory and were producing 1.5 ing tools were tried as the use of summer fal- million bushels of wheat from some 360,000 low expanded. The first combine was brought total cultivated acres. in from California in 1888, with the first side As the more productive areas of the hill model available in 1891. In 1893, steam Palouse were claimed, settlers moved into drier tractors were tried at Harrington, Washington, areas. By 1884, transcontinental and ocean rail- and Umatilla, Oregon. The first gasoline-pow- road connections were completed. This opened ered “caterpillar” farm tractor was marketed in the area to a flood of settlers, improved access 1906. to technology from the East, and provided Agricultural experiment stations were transport routes to markets for farm products. established at Pullman, Washington (1891), The railroads themselves initiated promotional Moscow, Idaho (1892), and Moro, Oregon campaigns to convince settlers of the virtues (1899). Variety improvement was a priority of dryland farming. This was especially true in from the start. New varieties were recom- Montana. The “dry farming” movement spon- mended for the low (Bluestem, Turkey Red), sored a number of large conferences, including intermediate (Little Club, Red Chaff, Jones the 5th International Dry Farming Congress Fife), and high (Fortyfold, Red Russian) rain- held in Spokane, Washington, in 1910. fall zones. Wheat breeding began at Pullman Initially, spring-planted wheat pre- in 1899 under the direction of W.J. Spillman. dominated. Fall sowing gradually increased Problem weeds at the time were wild oat, Rus- as better management practices and varieties sian thistle, china lettuce, Jim Hill mustard, and became available. The principal wheat variety morning glory. in the late 1800s was Little Club, introduced Scientists at the experiment stations from California. It had poor cold tolerance and began to express concern about soil erosion fall plantings often died. Wheats from North around 1910. Their critical remarks about farm- Dakota, such as Scotch Fife, were then intro- ing practices drew considerable farmer resent- duced. Farmers soon recognized the need for ment, and pointed out that the soil was not many varieties to suit the diverse conditions of inexhaustible. But one scientist likened Palouse the region. For example, Pacific Bluestem, an soils to those in Sicily which had grown wheat Australian wheat suited to the drier areas, was for over 2000 years; farmers were reassured by reported to have raised yields by 25% at Ritz- the idea that the soil could “fertilize itself.” ville, Washington. Over the next 20-30 years, changes in Farmers began to consider crop diver- farming practices led to a dramatic increase in sification during the 1890s. They grew barley soil erosion. The use of summer fallow greatly for stock feed, for export, and to supply North- increased, both in the drier and wetter areas. west breweries. Oats and hay were grown for It was essential for moisture conservation in horses. Both spring oats and barley tended to the drier areas, and also accumulated nitro- yield better than a second successive crop of gen released from the soil organic matter and wheat. Orchards, rootcrops, and livestock were provided weed control. In the wetter areas, all promoted and tried. About 1400 acres of the latter two benefits of summer fallow were dryland sugarbeets were planted in 1899 near substantial, but the increased tillage and higher Waverly, Washington. But the more intensive levels of residual soil moisture increased the management required by diversification was erosion hazard. The intense tillage hastened not well received by growers accustomed to the loss, of soil organic matter and the break- wheat farming. down of soil structure, which left the soil more

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 7 of conservation farming techniques. Many improvements were made, including stubble mulch farming, contour strip- cropping, rotations with perennial grasses and legumes, and combine straw spreaders to eliminate the need for stubble burning. But adoption of these practices was minimal and soil erosion continued to diminish the soil resource. After World War II, commercial fertilizers became widely available and affordable. The use of nitrogen fertilizer dramatically boosted dryland Combines revolutionized wheat production grain yields, as low soil nitrogen levels often limited erosive. Erosion then stripped off the topsoil production. Chemical herbicides and insecti- with the highest organic matter content, thus cides helped reduce crop losses from weeds accelerating the erosion cycle. Farmers began and insects. These materials, along with vari- using a wheat-pea rotation in the wetter areas ous government commodity programs, shifted as a way to avoid summer fallow. Intensive till- cropping away from diversified rotations to age often accompanied peas, as did the burning more intensive cash-cropping. Although ero- of crop residues and the introduction of many sion continued at serious levels, crop yields new weeds. Technological advances in farming increased steadily due to the numerous tech- were just able to compensate for the declining nological advances. soil productivity. From 1900 to 1935, the winter One of the most important advances in wheat yield from dryland acres in Washington modern wheat production was the develop- averaged a relatively constant 23 bushels per ment of semidwarf wheats. The first semi- acre. dwarf variety, Gaines, was released in 1963 By the 1930s, the dramatic shift from by Orville Vogel, a USDA wheat breeder at animal traction to machine power was well un- Pullman, Washington. This variety did not der way. As the ground speed of tillage imple- lodge and thus could be fertilized for higher ments increased, an individual farmer could grain yields. Vogel’s work has made a last- manage more land and do more cultivations. ing contribution to increased food production This increased soil pulverization and magnified worldwide. the problem of tillage erosion. The new technologies produced sever- National attention was focused on the al troubling side effects. Farm size has steadily problems of soil erosion during the Dust Bowl increased, made possible by the technology years. A Soil and Water Conservation Experi- and often made necessary to afford the tech- ment Station was established near Pullman, nology. This impacted rural communities and Washington, in 1930 to research the erosion played a part in the widespread farm insol- problems in the region and develop conserva- vency of the 1980s. Cumulative use of ammo- tion farming practices. The research results nium-based nitrogen fertilizers has been impli- were used by the Extension Service and the Soil cated in significant reductions in soil pH in the Conservation Service to spread the adoption higher rainfall areas. Heavier farm machinery

8 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. has compacted the soil. Weed resistance to the Salt Lake Valley in Utah in the summer of certain herbicides has been documented. The 1847. Creeks were immediately diverted to wet impacts of current farming on the groundwater the land for plowing, and crops were planted. resource are largely unknown, but degrada- Irrigated farming has been the backbone of tion of surface waters from agricultural lands a productive Utah agriculture, but dryland continues. farming began in 1863 and was developed on Nonetheless, significant improvements considerable acreage during the late 1800s, par- are being made with regard to soil conserva- ticularly for wheat. Many doubted that crops tion, efficient fertilizer use, and improved could be grown without irrigation. In fact, one handling of pesticides. Potential exists for farmer near Nephi was indicted for perjury af- new crops such as canola or small red lentils. ter testifying about his good yields of dryland An increased research emphasis on biological wheat. Dryland acreage peaked between 1910 processes and whole systems in agriculture and 1920 due to the high wartime prices. Of the will help reduce environmental impacts and total land area in the state, about 3.3 percent enhance sustainability. is tilled, and about one-third of all cropland is not irrigated. Northeastern Utah has the largest The Oregon Trail and Northern Plains2 concentration of dryland farming, with other The trappers and explorers of the early small areas occurring throughout the state. 1800s eventually found an overland route Early dry farming successes in Utah across the Rocky Mountains that was passable helped pave the way for its expansion to other to wagons, later known as the Oregon Trail. parts of the Northern Plains. The oldest dry- Thousands of people followed it through the land experimental farm in America, located at Great Desert to the promised land of the Or- Nephi, Utah, was established in 1903. In 1911, egon Territory. Virtually all migrating pioneers Professor John Widtsoe published a classic on the Oregon Trail passed by Fort Laramie volume entitled Dry Farming: A System of Agri- in Wyoming. This strategic point was often culture for Countries Under a Low Rainfall, which relied upon for provisioning, and early farm- outlined the scientific principles developed at ing efforts were made in the 1830s to grow that time. One of the first county agricultural some food locally. This included dryland grain, agents in the Northwest was hired in Utah in probably the first production in the Northern 1913. Plains. Southeastern Wyoming remains the Soil erosion on dryland acres has primary dryland wheat producing area in that caused serious damage in many areas of Utah. state today, where a winter wheat-summer The Salt Lake series, perhaps the most credible fallow system agricultural soil in the predominates state, has been particu- in the dry, cool larly vulnerable. In many climate. cases, only a few inches One of topsoil cover the wide- group, the Mor- spread Salt Lake forma- mon followers tion, an unproductive of Joseph Smith calcareous material. Ex- and Brigham posure of this formation Young, delib- on dryland grain fields erately headed has increased 250% since for a different 1930, and productivity destination, the of wheat often drops isolated area from 30 to 3 bushels per now known acre. Thus, development as Utah. The of suitable conservation first Mormon farming systems has settlers reached been a priority, both for Subsoil packing was suggested at the turn of the soil and water.

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 9 As early trappers moved into Montana, farming practices for dry lands were discussed they established routes that were later used in hopes of creating an enduring agriculture. by prospective settlers. The number of farms The fragile nature of dry lands and the high grew slowly during the 1800s and then rapidly risks of farming there were stressed. Thomas increased at the turn of the century (Table 3). Shaw, a former professor and agricultural The major influx of settlement occurred once agent for the Great Northern Railroad, brought the northern railroads were open, and people much credibility to dryland farming practices. emigrated west through the already settled He stressed adapted crops and varieties with lands of Minnesota and North Dakota. A “back drought resistance and early maturity, promot- to the land” movement emerged in the 1890s, ed winter wheat, and emphasized the value as did a concern with food scarcity, and both of legumes and livestock in the system. Crops contributed to expanded crop production in such as durum and spelt were brought in by unsettled areas such as Montana. Favorable Russian immigrants and proved to be drought weather, high grain prices, and relatively cheap resistant. A number of educational efforts were land all enhanced the rapid expansion of dry undertaken, including model farms, “Better farming in the early 1900s. Farming Trains,” and local agricultural education programs. Dryland farming in Utah and large-scale wheat farming in the Red River Val- Table 3. Number of Montana Farms. ley provided the foundations for dryland farming practices in Montana. Alternate crop-fallow Year Number of Farms was reportedly common in the Red River Val- ley during the 1860s. The first use of summer 1870 851 fallow on the Northern Plains is attributed to 1880 1519 1890 5603 Angus MeKay of Indian Head, Saskatchewan. 1900 13097 In 1885, he apparently was unable to sow his wheat due to a local uprising that drew away Source: Hargreaves, 1957 all the laborers. He did plow one field and kept it weed-free for the summer. Wheat seeded the following year on that field yielded 35 bu/ac The railroads actively promoted dry- compared to an adjacent field which yielded land farming in Montana in hopes of luring only 2 bu/ac. settlers who would then be reliant on rail Summer fallow expanded slowly at transport to get their harvest to markets. Much first, in part due to warnings about its dan- propaganda extolled the virtues of fertile land ger from agricultural scientists. The increased and nutritious crops, but failed to mention yields and reduced risk associated with sum- the droughts, grasshoppers, and isolation that mer fallow were verified during drought hampered farming efforts. M.W. Hargreaves periods. But wind erosion was soon evident (1957), in her book Dry Farming in the Northern wherever soil was pulverized. Farmers were Great Plains, contends that this propaganda encouraged to keep low-yielding lands as itself was a major innovation of the dryland permanent pasture. In 1918, the Koole broth- farming movement in the early 20th century. ers tried using alternate narrow strips of crop A series of Dry Farming Congresses were held and fallow that were perpendicular to the wind throughout the West, often with financial sup- to reduce wind erosion on their Alberta farm. port from railroads. Promoters such as H.W. It worked. Strip farming spread rapidly and Campbell devised “systems” for dry farming, was a crucial practice for farm survival during many of which were at odds with the recom- drought cycles. mendations of scientists. These propaganda ef- Due to the great variability of condi- forts attempted to dispel the negative concepts tions in Montana, scientists cast doubt on of semiarid lands, and did so with considerable the development of any one “system” of dry success. farming that could ever be broadly applied. Yet The promotional period was followed by 1907, they were endorsing dryland farming by one in which the general principles of sound and recommending many of the practices sug-

10 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. gested by the maverick Campbell, such as deep fallow to protect the soil with crop residues. fall plowing, subsoil packing, dust mulching, Ironically, loss of organic matter from summer and summer fallow. But long-term research fallow increased the soil’s susceptibility to ero- results were sorely lacking. The first state fund- sion and made summer fallow more necessary ing for specific dryland studies in Montana in order to store sufficient water and release came in 1905. Demand for information grew nitrogen for a crop. Saline seep was another with the expanding farm population. In 1914, problem caused by continual use of a crop-fal- the first four county agricultural agents were low system over large land areas. Excess water hired, and by 1917, this service was expanded stored in the soil leached below the root zone. to most Montana counties. Summer tillage In soils with an impermeable layer, it moved clubs were formed in the early 1920s, as was laterally to a seep point downhill, carrying the Montana Farm and Loan Bankers Associa- high concentrations of dissolved salts which tion. The latter group issued rules dictating accumulated on the soil surface after evapora- production practices to growers as a condition tion. This problem became evident in the 1940s, for a loan. and by the late 1970s, saline seep was estimat- Plant exploration efforts by the USDA ed to have removed some 200,000 acres from yielded many promising crops suited to dry crop production. lands in Montana and in neighboring states. Continued research has provided new Crested wheatgrass, bromegrass, several alfal- options for dryland farmers in Montana, Utah, fas, and hard winter wheat varieties are some and Wyoming to tackle soil erosion and mois- examples. Kharkov wheat was introduced in ture conservation. Improved snow manage- 1900. Early crop breeding often had conflicting ment can dramatically increase soil moisture goals of high yield versus drought resistance. storage, as can reduced tillage. Recent research The best-yielding wheat varieties ranged from indicates that continuous cropping can be more 10 to 40 bu/ac, depending on location. productive and profitable than a crop–fal- Large dryland farms were common- low system. The flex-cropping approach was place in Montana during the early 1900s. As developed to reduce saline seep and improve gasoline-powered mechanization became avail- moisture use. It suggests that decisions about able in the 1920s, further expansion of both planting or fallow be based on available soil farm size and total dry farm acreage occurred. moisture in the spring, but federal commod- The drought of 1917-1920 caused numerous ity program rules generally discourage flex- bankruptcies, but it again illustrated the value cropping. The use of legumes in rotation with of summer fallow. cereals is being explored as a way to increase The drought of the 1930s confirmed the soil organic matter and reduce summer fallow. early warnings about tillage-intensive sum- New crop choices such as spring canola offer mer fallow. The conservation programs of the further diversification for dryland farming and federal government helped spread the strip potential rotation benefits. farming practice and introduced stubble mulch

1. The material for this section came primarily from the following sources: Meinig, 1968; McGregor, 1982, and Jennings et al., 1990.

2. The material for this section came primarily from the following sources: Widtsoe, 1911; Utah State, 1941; Hargreaves, 1957; Haas et al., 1974; and Ford and Krall, 1979.

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 11

DRYLAND FARMING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

Microbial control of weeds being tested near Pullman, WA

The Semiarid Environment in the fied Mediterranean type in which most of the Northwest precipitation falls in the winter with little The geoclimatic character of the north- rainfall during the summer. Temperatures tend western United States is shaped by one over- to be moderate year round due to the moder- riding influence—mountains. Since the pre- ating maritime influence East of the Rockies vailing winds are from the west, those lands (Montana and Wyoming), a continental climate east of mountain ranges typically fall in a rain dominates and most precipitation occurs dur- shadow, and thus are arid or semiarid. Most ing summer. Temperatures tend to be more mountains in the region run north-south, but extreme in both summer and winter. Southeast many minor ranges exist which often are not Idaho and northern Utah have an intermoun- contiguous with the predominant chain. Thus, tain climate that is transitional between the the climatic patterns of the farmlands are other two with relatively even precipitation highly variable over short distances but are throughout the year. These climatic differences generally moisture deficient (Figure 2). have shaped the farming practices found in The relatively warm currents of the various parts of the dryland region. Pacific Ocean have a moderating effect on most The soils of the region, while highly of the region, despite the northerly latitude. diverse, share several common traits. The low This effect diminishes as one travels east, but rainfall conditions limit the weathering and is still evident in north-central Montana. The leaching processes, thus favoring soil fertil- moderating effect allows winter wheat produc- ity. Many of the soils are young, due to their tion in many areas. Where winter precipitation formation after the last glaciers some 10,000 predominates, farmers can make more efficient years ago. The widespread loess deposits of use of the moisture, since summer rainfall the Palouse region were formed from wind- is often ineffective due to high evaporation. blown glacial dust. Other fertile soils formed Potential evapotranspiration (PET) decreases from sediments under glacial lakes. The silt farther north and at higher elevations, leaving loam texture of these soils is ideal for storing more moisture for crops. plant-available soil moisture. This has been a Three general climatic regions exist decisive factor in the success of dryland farm- in the dryland Northwest. West of the Rocky ing in the region. But these soils are also easily Mountains (eastern Washington and Oregon, eroded by wind and water. and northern Idaho), the climate is a modi-

12 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S.

Figure 2. Mean annual precipitation (inches) in the western United States. Source: Hass et al., 1974.

Deep-rooted perennial grasses and ter and good soil structure. The organic matter shrubs are well adapted to the semiarid con- contained a substantial reserve of nitrogen and ditions. Most of today’s wheat lands were other plant nutrients. Early grain farming drew covered with perennial grasses in the native down this reserve in the absence of fertilizer condition. This native vegetation led to the inputs and reduced organic matter levels by development of high levels of soil organic mat- 30-50%. This caused the breakdown of soil

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 13 structure or tilth, which increased the erosion a crop-summer fallow system. Fallow greatly potential and the need for more tillage power. dampened the wide swings in moisture con- Loss of organic matter also lowers the poten- ditions and reduced the risk of crop failure. tial of soils to store moisture. Fortunately, the Farmers used fallow for weed control, and semiarid environment is conducive to soil additional nitrogen accumulated in the soil improvement when it is well managed. during fallow that countered declining fertility. The low humidity and infrequent Fallow also spread out the peak demands rainfall of semiarid climates inhibit many foliar for field work. The wheat–fallow system was diseases of crops in the region. This climate constantly refined over the years and remains favors the maturing and field-drying of crops, as the cornerstone of dryland farming in the making harvest easier. A dry climate also pro- region today. vides more suitable days for field work with The introduction of tractor power machines because the soil is not too wet. But greatly altered cropping systems on dryland temperature extremes that commonly occur farms. When horses provided farm power, a can damage crops through frost or extreme portion of the farm needed to remain in forage heat at sensitive growth stages. and pasture production. This use protected vulnerable lands from erosion and could be Cropping Systems of the Region rotated through fields to improve their fertility. Early white settlers used the semiarid The smaller farms of the horse era often had lands primarily for livestock grazing, since livestock enterprises such as cattle, sheep, or the lands were considered generally unfit for hogs, for diversification and home use. These cultivation. Small areas, especially flat lands livestock further justified the use of perennial along watercourses with subirrigation, were grasses and legumes in the cropping system. first used for crop production. But inquisitive When tractors replaced horses, the forage acre- individuals soon began to experiment with age was converted to grain cropping on most crop production on the drier lands. As word of farms. The loss of the soil-building rotations, their success spread, other landowners began and the annual cultivation of fragile lands add- to plow and plant cereals on parts of their ed to the soil erosion problems of the region. farms to test out the idea, and dryland farming expanded rapidly. Rotations in the wheat–fallow area. A wheat- The early cropping systems were rela- fallow rotation is still used on the largest acre- tively crude, often no more than a transplant of age of dryland farms in the region. Where the Midwest practices into an unsuitable environ- winter is not too severe, farmers plant winter ment. A field was normally planted every year, wheat. Winter wheat generally has a higher po- with grain crops predominating. Most grain tential yield than spring wheat due to greater crops were adapted to the dry conditions. The use of stored soil moisture and because flower- grain was relatively nonperishable and eas- ing occurs before periods of excessive heat. But ily shipped, an important consideration in a unusually cold weather can kill a winter wheat sparsely populated region far from markets. crop, requiring farmers to replant in the spring. The native soil fertility generally produced Winter wheat is almost universally used by good yields if there was adequate moisture, farmers in the Pacific Northwest, Utah, south- weed control, and plant stands. Weeds were east Wyoming, and north-central Montana, not a problem at first, but the increased influx while spring wheat is more common in eastern of settlers, livestock, seed, and feed rapidly Montana and at higher elevations in all states. infested the region. The newly plowed fields The wheat–fallow system stores two were relatively resistant to erosion, with their seasons of moisture for use by one crop. This high organic matter levels and good soil struc- has been the key strategy for raising crops ture. This deteriorated during the first 10-20 in dry areas, especially in areas with winter years of farming and erosion was then recog- precipitation. Where soils are shallow (e.g., nized as a serious problem. 18-24 inches deep in the Pacific Northwest), the The dry and variable climate led farm- profile may be normally recharged each year ers to eventually replace annual cropping with even under low precipitation; some farmers

14 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. use annual cropping in these areas. But fallow the winter capture more snow and can increase does maintain moisture near the soil surface, moisture storage enough to allow more annual which allows for timely planting and germina- cropping. tion of fall crops such as winter wheat. There are fewer opportunities to modi- Farmers and researchers in Montana fy the wheat–fallow system in the drier areas of and Wyoming are experimenting with rota- the Pacific Northwest than in the Northern tions that reduce or eliminate summer fallow. Plains. While mean annual precipitation may One system is modeled after the ley farming be similar, the distribution pattern is very dif- system used in Australia, where an annual ferent. With the winter rainfall pattern, Pa- legume (medic or clover) is alternated with cific Northwest farmers must be sure there is wheat. The legume fixes nitrogen, provides enough seed zone moisture in the early fall to ground cover, and can be used for pasture and allow timely planting of winter wheat. Since green manure. In Montana, over twenty le- the probability of summer precipitation is gumes have been evaluated for their potential low, summer fallow is crucial for keeping soil use in such a system. The legumes are mostly moisture near the surface. Crops that replace annuals with shallow roots and low water fallow, such as the legumes used in Montana, consumption. Initial results indicate that soil may not greatly affect total moisture available moisture in the spring following legumes is no for the wheat crop, but they will dry the soil to different than after fallow. a depth below that needed for fall seeding. In moving away from a wheat–fallow Researchers at Pendleton, Oregon, have system, Montana farmers are trying rotations proposed a strategy similar to the flex-crop sys- that include spring barley, lentil, several types tem. They encourage annual cropping, with the of pea, flax, buckwheat, and oilseeds. The rota- choice of winter or spring planting dependent tions are typically complex and are continually on soil moisture conditions. A farmer near Wal- adjusted to reflect current weather and market la Walla, Washington, has been experimenting conditions. Farmers who raise cattle as well as with continuous no-till hard red spring wheat crops can incorporate perennial grasses into in an 8-10 inch rainfall area with sandy soils. the rotation. Farmers using more diverse rota- He compared net returns from this system to tions must search out markets for minor crops and may find conflicts with government commodity programs. But they report favorable changes in terms of lower weed pressure, lower costs for fertilizer, better soil tilth, and less soil erosion. In general, modern farming practices have improved moisture conservation to the point where an alternating crop–fallow system is not always necessary. For example, planting decisions are based on the presence of adequate soil moisture with the flex- cropping system. Practices such as grass barrier strips and stubble retention over The rodweeder is an important moisture conservation tool

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 15 his normal wheat-fallow rotation over several weed suppression, and profitability in moving years and found the continuous cropping to be to a three-year rotation such as winter wheat- more profitable. Any system that relies on con- spring barley–spring pea. In certain areas, tinuous wheat or cereal cropping faces many lentils are traditionally grown more frequently potential problems, but periodic use of this than peas. Chickpeas are also being tried as approach within a wheat–fallow system offers another legume cash crop. possibilities. Earlier this century, rotations that The use of perennial grass in a wheat- included a soil-building phase were common. fallow system is another option. Many farmers Biennial sweetclover was a popular choice that use the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) only removed a field from grain production for as a way to maintain income from a perennial one year. Several years of alfalfa provided the grass stand. A farmer near Waitsburg, Wash- greatest benefit to the soil, and some income ington, in a 14-16 inch rainfall zone includes could be derived from hay production. Peren- three years of intermediate wheat grass after nial grasses were used on the more fragile three or four wheat–fallow cycles. He finds lands and they were grain-cropped only for yield benefits of 7-10 bu/ac in the following short intervals. three wheat crops. He harvests the grass seed A few growers continue to use these ro- for sale when the market is good, or for his tations, and recent economic analyses indicate own use in replanting other acres. Drought- that they perform comparably to the standard tolerant oilseeds such as safflower and canola rotations, with fewer potential environmental fit well in a wheat–fallow rotation. Farmers problems. One grower near Lewiston, Idaho, replace small acreages of wheat with oilseed in uses a rotation of winter wheat–spring pea– a crop–fallow system. The oilseeds have ben- winter wheat–spring pea seeded with red–clo- eficial rotation effects by increasing the interval ver red clover green manure. Austrian winter between wheat crops. Production practices pea is another popular green manure crop that are very similar for winter canola and winter can be planted in the fall. Other farmers use a wheat, and markets for canola are expanding. winter wheat-spring grain-green manure rota- Areas in the Pacific Northwest receiving tion. 14-18 inches of annual precipitation are consid- Continuous wheat systems are be- ered to be transitional between strict wheat-fal- ing tested by farmers and researchers. No-till low and annual cropping. Many growers have continuous wheat controls erosion very well shifted from a wheat–fallow system to winter and can be profitable. But farmers find it neces- wheat–spring barley–fallow. This reduces the sary to burn the wheat stubble to avoid seri- amount of fallow land by one-third, which ben- ous problems with diseases and weeds. Future efits soil conservation. This rotation also helps restrictions on field burning will discourage control problem weeds and diseases. Other the use of no-till continuous wheat. crops with potential for this zone are small A number of farmers in the annual crop red lentils, winter lentils, and desi chickpeas. region produce grass seed. It is a premier crop They are relatively drought tolerant, but a lack for soil conservation, but volatile prices make it of weed control options and firm markets are economically risky. Growers using grass keep a slowing their expanded use. stand for 7-10 years, and then raise grain crops for 10-20 years. By killing the grass with her- Rotations in the annual crop area. Annual bicides, growers can no-till plant into the dead cropping is standard practice in the Inland sod and minimize soil erosion associated with Pacific Northwest where annual precipitation plowed sod. exceeds 18 inches. Growers still use summer Canola (or rapeseed) is another rotation fallow, primarily on set-aside acres. Fallow is option. Winter canola must be preceded by not needed for moisture conservation since the summer fallow in order to achieve germination soil is normally recharged every year. The most with an August planting. A few growers are ex- common rotation is winter wheat-spring pulse perimenting with recropping canola right after (pea or lentil). But researchers and farmers a grain, and they have even tried aerial seeding have found benefits in yields, disease control, canola into wheat just prior to harvest. Timely

16 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. rains are critical to the success of this practice. all parts of the farm are considered to be as cru- Weed control and erosion control are both cial as individual practices, and recent research excellent with winter canola. Spring canola supports this idea. yields considerably less than winter canola, but The dryland environment poses many its use helps diversify spring crops. Growers challenges to organic farmers due to the mois- report that soil structure and tilth are improved ture constraint. Yet a number of large, com- from the root system of canola. mercial organic grain farms exist in the region. The geographic distribution is not uniform, Government programs. The federal govern- however. The Pacific Northwest has only a ment has instituted a steady stream of com- small acreage of commercial dryland organic modity programs and rules over the past 50 grain production. No dryland farm is entirely years. These programs have attempted to regu- under organic management. Typically, growers late the supply of major farm products, includ- manage selected fields for several years according grains, and to help stabilize farm income ing to the certification rules, and then rotate in the process. The programs have impacted them back into conventional production. Weed the nature of dryland cropping systems in the control and nitrogen fertility are two major region. They have encouraged the intensive constraints. In contrast, a growing number of production of subsidised crops, and discour- dryland grain farmers in the Northern Plains aged many resource-conserving practices such are succeeding with organic management. as flex-cropping, perennial grasses, and alter- Their farms range from 200-3000 acres in size. native rotations in general. Cropping systems These farmers follow practices that meet certifi- in Canada, where government programs are cation requirements so they can capture pre- not based on historic acreages and yields, are mium prices for their products, where possible. often more diverse and innovative than their Their rotations are very complex with minimal counterparts across the border. summer fallow, while neighboring farmers Legislators are now being encouraged continue to rely on a wheat–fallow system. to design commodity programs more in concert As with conventional farming, organic with conservation programs. This has not been farmers cite crop rotation as one of the key the case in the past. Many farmers feel frustra- elements for success. A suitable crop rotation tion with the conflicting messages they receive helps maintain soil fertility, suppresses weed, from the government, and they cite commodity disease, and insect pest problems, lowers risk programs as a major barrier to further resource through diversification, maximizes biological conservation. In discussing sustainable agricul- interactions, and minimizes production ex- ture for dryland regions, the role of commodity penses. Soil fertility is enhanced with legumes, programs must be addressed since wheat, the nutrient accumulator plants such as buck- primary crop, is included in the program. The wheat, ground rock minerals, and foliar sprays. programs chosen by Congress directly impact Soil-building rotations increase organic matter the cropping systems that farmers choose, and levels, which adds fertility and water storage are a powerful force that affects farm income, capacity. Tillage, rotation, and crop competition resource conservation, and rural communities. suppress weeds. Purchased inputs are minimal, and budget analyses have shown variable Organic farming. Organic farming is one costs for organically grown wheat to be as low possible approach to increasing agricultural as $30/ac, compared to about $68/ac for a con- sustainability. Organic systems are strictly ventional farm. defined by the types of inputs they can and Organic farms are a valuable informa- cannot use. Both state and private organic cer- tion resource for all farms in the region. Cer- tification programs exist to regulate the farms tain aspects of organic farm production can be and guarantee the product to consumers. Syn- readily adapted to other farms. For example, thetic fertilizers and pesticides are excluded, conventional farmers can adopt the rotations and use of diverse crop rotations, animal and and green manures used by organic farm- green manures, and mechanical and biological ers without other changes. More importantly, pest control are required. Interactions among organic farms are living laboratories. They

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 17 breaking up compacted or impermeable layers. This can also decrease soil erosion potential. And in a wheat–fallow system, conservation of stored soil moisture has been achieved through numerous surface tillage operations. But there are several undesir- able consequences of tillage. It is probably responsible for more soil degradation in the region than any other human activity. Each tillage operation exposes more of the soil to acceler- ated decomposition of soil organic matter. This lowers the inherent soil fertility and makes the soil more susceptible to erosion. Tillage normally breaks down and buries surface crop residues and degrades soil structure, again increasing the erosion potential. Federal farm program agencies On sloping lands, most tillage operations move soil downhill, accelerating pose numerous questions for further research soil loss from hilltops through tillage erosion. and contain biological interactions not found Thus, it is not surprising that both researchers on conventional farms. For example, unique and farmers have focused much of their atten- insights on weed dynamics and control can be tion on reducing the negative impacts of tillage gained from farms which have not used her- in dryland agriculture. bicides for many years, but have used other The moldboard plow has been the stan- weed control strategies. dard primary tillage tool for over a century. It Organic farming is not a panacea for was crucial for breaking up the native sod. It sustainable agriculture. It requires a high level buries crop residues, making seedbed prepara- of commitment and management, including tion and seeding easier, but leaving bare soil marketing activities. Like other farms, organic exposed to erosion. The burying action helps farms can suffer soil erosion unless proper minimize certain diseases and weeds. When conservation measures are taken. The markets the furrow is thrown downhill, the amount of offering premium prices are small, but produc- soil moved by tillage erosion can be large. But tion costs for cereals are also low. The diversity many growers who still use a moldboard plow of experience among organic growers further throw the furrow uphill, and they contend it is contributes to the possibilities for making dry- the only tool other than a dump truck that can land farming more sustainable. reverse downslope soil movement. Another key tillage implement that is Tillage and Equipment unique to dryland farming is the rodweeder. Tillage has always been an essential This device consists of a rotating square metal component of dryland farming. It serves rod that is pulled at a shallow depth through several purposes, including seedbed prepara- the soil to uproot weeds and create a dust tion, moisture conservation, weed control, and mulch which breaks the capillary action of the modification of soil physical conditions. Plows soil. Silt loam soils in particular can lose tre- were needed to kill the native grasses and mendous amounts of moisture to evaporation expose the soil for planting. Prior to herbicides, through capillary action. Weeds also extract tillage was the primary tool for weed control. much stored soil moisture if left unchecked. Tillage implements such as subsoilers attempt Thus, the practice of “dust mulching” in a to improve water infiltration and storage by wheat–fallow system was developed to con-

18 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. serve moisture, and the rodweeder was in- the cost of nonselective herbicides decreases, vented to do the job. But repeated rodweeding chem-fallow systems are becoming more eco- pulverizes soil structure and increases erosion nomically attractive. The impacts of increased potential during summer fallow and in the herbicide use must be balanced with reduction subsequent wheat crop. in soil erosion when assessing its net effect on As farm equipment has become larger sustainability. and heavier, the potential for soil compaction In certain areas, conservation tillage has increased. The greatest problem occurs on systems must also address special soil prob- wet soils, conditions more common to spring lems such as restrictive layers or frozen soil crops. Tillage will alleviate compaction in the conditions. Farmers in eastern Washington find tillage zone. But the extent of compaction deep- fall chisel plowing to be helpful. Various sub- er than that, and the impact on crop growth, is soiling tools can deeply fracture the soil to in- not well established. crease water and root penetration. A slot-mulch Conservation tillage. In the 1930s, concern machine was invented by USDA researchers to over soil erosion captured national attention. create a straw-filled trench on the contour that Soil conservation research was greatly expand- remains open to infiltration when the topsoil is ed, and it continues today. The development of frozen. The Dammer-Diker implement creates conservation tillage systems was a major result. surface pitting with small basins, or infiltra- Conservation tillage refers to a broad set of tion reservoirs, every few feet to slow runoff farm practices, singly and in combination, that and erosion. The subsoil/ridger tool forms maintain agronomically suitable conditions a ridge of soil mixed with straw over a deep for a crop while reducing the potential for soil chisel mark to improve infiltration and residue erosion and water contamination. Two dry- decomposition. land farms seldom have identical systems, but Through the innovation of dryland growers increasingly use some common prin- farmers, researchers, and private industry, a ciples and practices to conserve soil and water. large number of conservation tillage tools and Conservation tillage relies on several systems are available today. These include basic ideas. Minimizing the number of tillage no-till drills, one-pass drills, and shank and operations helps retain soil structure, organic seed systems. And new options are still being matter, and surface residues. Operating costs developed. for the farmer are generally lower with re- Research in the Northwest dryland duced tillage. Surface residue retention is region clearly shows that those practices that increased through less inversion tillage (e.g., minimize soil erosion tend to maximize water moldboard plow or large disc), choice of higher conservation. The additional stored moisture residue crops, or no-till planting. Where pri- increases the potential productivity. Conserva- mary tillage is needed, a chisel plow or sweep tion tillage systems achieve this by reducing plow is preferred. Certain implements leave a the number and severity of tillage operations rougher soil surface, which also reduces ero- and maximizing the surface residue, thus sion. benefitting both farm profitability and environ- Another practice being evaluated is mental protection. chemical fallow. Nonselective herbicides such as glyphosate replace one or more tillage op- Fertility Management erations. Chem-fallow no-till systems are con- Most of the soils of the Northwest serving more moisture and drastically reduc- dryland region were very fertile when the first ing soil erosion in certain areas. But on many settlers plowed up the sod and began to farm. of the soils in the region, some tillage is needed Soil organic matter levels as high as 8%were during the fallow period to break the capillary reported. Gradually, the effects of tillage, ero- action. Partial chemical fallow, where the initial sion, and crop harvest depleted the native tillage is delayed until late spring, has become fertility, and farmers and researchers explored a popular practice. It improves weed control, strategies to provide more crop nutrients. In water storage, and residue retention, but still the 1920s and 1930s, green manure crops, such maintains seed zone moisture with tillage. As as sweetclover, became commonplace and led

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 19 to substantial improvements in wheat yields residue additions, while burning straw acceler- where moisture competition was not a prob- ates SOM decline. lem. Once fossil-fuel based nitrogen fertilizers became widely available and inexpensive after Nitrogen. As the native soil fertility declined World War II, green manure use faded. Over in the region, cereal crops began to suffer from time, research and experience indicated a need nitrogen (N) deficiency. Cereals demand more to add sulfur and phosphorus to many soils. N than other plant nutrients for high yields, as Fertilizer has been one of the best it is a major component of the protein in grain. investments for a dryland grain farmer over Crop yields respond to N fertilization on the years. However, rising fertilizer prices in most soils in the region. The N can come from the 1970s and increasing concerns about water organic (manure, green manure) or inorganic quality have spurred a closer examination of (commercial fertilizer) sources. Most commer- fertilizer use. Many fertilizers are also pro- cial N fertilizers require substantial amounts duced from nonrenewable resources. While of fossil fuel (usually natural gas) for produc- it is unlikely that fertility inputs can be elimi- tion. But they are relatively inexpensive and nated in a cropping system that exports large widely available. The N fertilizers most com- quantities of nutrients, fertility management monly used are ammonium-based materials, can be improved through more efficient ap- especially anhydrous ammonia (82% N). These plication, better soil testing, and return of more fertilizers are quickly converted to the plant— organic residues to the soil. available nitrate form by soil microbes if the soil is moist and warmer than 45°F. Plants can Organic matter management. Soil organic use either the ammonium or nitrate form, and matter (SOM) plays a major role in the physi- may actually prefer a mixture of both. Nitrate cal, chemical, and biological nature of a soil. is very mobile in the soil and easily leaches out SOM helps to create and maintain favorable with water moving downward or laterally in a soil structure. This benefits water infiltration, field. Slow-release formulations of N and split soil aggregation, root penetration, tractor fuel fertilizer applications can help reduce leaching economy, and erosion control. The water-hold- and N losses. ing capacity of a soil increases with increasing SOM levels. About 95% of the nitrogen in the soil is stored in SOM, and 2- 4% of this is made available to plants each year by soil microbes. SOM also can release significant amounts of phosphorus and sulfur for crop use. SOM adds to the cation exchange capacity of a soil, which affects the nutrient-sup- plying power. The biological activity of the soil is directly linked to SOM levels, influencing residue decomposition, nutrient availability, disease problems, and other factors. Intensive tillage stimulates the loss of organic matter. Thus, reduced tillage slows the loss of organic matter and even reverses it when more plant or animal residues are retained or added. According to results from long-term plots at Pendleton, Oregon, annual cropping conserves more SOM than fallow systems due to greater A point injector for improving N efficiency

20 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. Unfortunately, ammonium-based fertil- weeds or diseases. Assigning economic values izers make soils more acid. The soil pH in the to these benefits is difficult. However, those dryland Pacific Northwest has declined in farmers still using green manures find them to direct proportion to the cumulative amount of be a profitable practice in the long run. fertilizer N applied historically. Since the high- A green manure can often replace most er rainfall areas have a higher yield potential, or all of the N fertilizer normally used by a they have received the highest N applications. cereal crop, despite the fact that no more than This, coupled with the lower native soil pH, 10-20% of the N in the green manure is actually has significantly acidified the soil. Wheat can used by the cereal the first year. The N replace- generally tolerate pH to about 5.4, but legumes ment value of the green manure exceeds its such as peas, lentils or clover need a pH greater actual N contribution due to “rotation effects.” than 5.6. Liming is not considered economical, These loosely refer to biological or physical but the subtle side effects of a lower pH, such benefits to the cereal crop from the green ma- as more disease and weed problems, may cost nure that improve yields. more than is now realized. Since N fertilizer is relatively cheap, Other nutrients and soil amendments. The farmers have been rewarded for using an soils in this region generally contain sufficient “insurance” approach to their N manage- levels of most nutrients, other than nitrogen, ment. They have often fertilized for their best for crop production. One exception is the wide- yields rather than their average yields, hoping spread need for phosphorus (P) on Montana for good moisture conditions. Without more soils. Crop responses to added sulfur (S) are precise weather prediction for a growing sea- also now common, as this nutrient is used with son, it is difficult to dramatically improve the nitrogen to make protein. Canola needs high S precision of fertilizer rates. But high residual levels. Phosphorus deficiency is showing up on soil levels indicate that much fertilizer is being eroded areas in the Pacific Northwest. Substan- wasted, and studies are examining the move- tial amounts of P are lost in the organic matter ment of N to streams and groundwater. Setting of topsoil, and the lower biological activity in realistic yield goals, based on soil moisture and the remaining soil further reduces P availabil- historic precipitation, would help achieve im- ity. proved N fertilizer management. This, coupled Most soils contain adequate potas- with better fertilizer placement, formulations, sium, calcium, and magnesium. There is debate and timing, can increase fertilizer efficiency about the importance of the ratios of calcium and help prevent environmental problems due and magnesium. Certain soil testing services to excess N. recommend achieving a specified balance. Re- Legumes fix their own nitrogen from searchers are currently trying to verify farmer the atmosphere and are a renewable source reports about the positive benefits from this of N. The term “green manure” refers to a balancing. crop grown solely for its soil fertility benefit. Fertilizer companies and consultants Legumes are often used as green manures increasingly suggest that farmers use micro nu- because they add new nitrogen to the system. trients, which are applied in small amounts as In annual cropping areas, a cash crop is sac- foliar sprays. Growers are exploring the need rificed when a green manure is grown. But in for zinc on wheat and boron on canola. Several wheat–fallow areas such as Montana, farmers seed treatments containing micro nutrients are and researchers are exploring the use of green also available. While micronutrient deficiencies manures to replace fallow. This cuts fertilizer are well documented for legumes (e.g., molyb- costs while improving soil conservation. The denum), less is known about their importance biggest problem is moisture use by a green in cereals. Other products are often applied manure that can reduce yields in the subse- with micronutrients to enhance plant growth. quent crop. While green manures are often a These may be seaweed materials, wetting more expensive source of N than fertilizers, agents, enzymes, or other formulations. Several they do more than add N. They can improve farmers report a significant reduction in the use soil structure, increase SOM, and inhibit certain of commercial fertilizer and some pesticides

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 21 where they have used nontraditional fertility by dryland farmers. For example, an 80-bushel products. Growers are encouraged to carefully wheat crop at 10% protein will remove 77 evaluate any new products in replicated on- pounds of N per acre in the harvested grain. farm tests for several years to determine their Long-term nutrient removal without fertility effectiveness. inputs can degrade the soil. Dryland cereal farming can become more sustainable by Improving management. Researchers have improving the three “R’s” of fertility manage- intensively studied fertilization practices, espe- ment—reduce (erosion, leaching, over fertil- cially for N, for decades. Yet the actual man- ization), recycle (crop residues, soil nutrients), agement of soil fertility is relatively crude. One and renew (organic matter, fertilizer, nitrogen problem lies with soil testing. A recent survey fixation). More and more growers are doing of dryland farmers in the Palouse region indi- just that. cated that about half of them did regular soil testing and based their fertilization on the re- Pest Management sults. But many farmers report frustration with Dryland farmers face significant pest soil testing, complaining that the reports are problems from weeds, diseases, and insects. hard to read and understand. Results can be Average precipitation and annual weather pat- highly variable from year to year in the same terns both influence pests. Certain pests thrive field. Fertilizer recommendations for the same in dry conditions while others prefer a moist test results can differ dramatically. Soil testing environment. But a healthy, vigorously grow- should be used along with a grower’s experi- ing crop is the universal first line of defense. ence. But when regular tests are taken from a Pest-resistant crop varieties are the second field, and the results kept on file, this history line of defense. A healthy crop can crowd out can be used to improve fertility management. weeds and outgrow many insect and disease Another problem faced by farm- pests. Management practices that prevent plant ers is the great soil variability within many stress due to moisture or fertility problems also fields that are fertilized uniformly. An eroded help control pests. ridgetop has quite different yield and fertility needs than a fertile bottomland. The concept Weeds. Weeds are usually highly competitive of variable field management, especially for invasive species well adapted to disturbed fertility, is receiving much attention. As the conditions. The greatest threat to a crop from appropriate knowledge base and tools are de- weeds is generally in the first 30-60 days of veloped, farmers will be able to vary fertilizer growth. If a crop can be kept relatively free of rates to match soil conditions while in the field. weeds during this period, it will out compete This may reduce fertilizer costs and the poten- them. tial for contamination from excessive fertiliza- All weeds were not created equal. Thus, tion on certain parts of the landscape. weed control strategies should consider the Other diagnostic tools can be used to individual nature of each species. Some weeds refine fertility management. Tissue and grain are very well adapted to the typical dryland analysis can help determine if nutrient levels cereal cropping System (e.g., wild oat, kochia, are in the optimum ranges. Excess protein in Russian thistle) and will lower crop yields, soft white wheat is often due to over fertiliza- while others may be present but pose little tion with N. Novel tools such as the refractom- economic threat. Others can become a problem eter are being tested by growers for monitoring very quickly (downy brome) or are very tough plant “health.” Infrared aerial photos can help to control once established (field bindweed). spot crop stress and different yield potentials Jointed goat grass is a weed that is genetically within a field. But our ability to improve fertil- similar to winter wheat. It thrives under con- izer management will ultimately be limited by ditions where wheat thrives, and will only be our inability to predict the moisture supply for killed by herbicides that also kill wheat. Con- a crop in the highly variable dryland climate. stant monitoring of weeds is crucial to a suc- As long as farm products are exported cessful weed management program. from the region, nutrient inputs will be needed

22 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. While herbicides may be regarded sistence in soil. Thus, if two compounds are as the most important tool for weed control equally effective in controlling weeds, a farmer today, many other cultural practices contribute can choose the one with the least potential for to overall weed control. Farmers should use environmental problems. Current pesticide ap- weed-free seed. Crop rotation is an effective plication equipment is quite inefficient. A large weed control strategy when crops with a life percent of the material is not applied to the cycle different than the weed are grown. For target pest. Improved equipment is being de- example, downy brome is a winter annual signed to help lower application rates, improve plant much like winter wheat. Planting spring herbicide effectiveness, and reduce drift. Stick- crops such as barley in rotation can reduce er/spreaders and other spray adjuvants are downy brome problems. Farmers in eastern commonly used to increase the effectiveness Washington have reduced weed problems by of herbicides and reduce rates. Many grow- shifting from a wheat–pea to a wheat–bar- ers are experimenting with reduced rates for ley–pea rotation in the annual cropping cost control. Novel approaches such as spray area, or from winter wheat–fallow to winter water acidified with vinegar are being tested. wheat–spring barley–fallow in the drier areas. By scouting fields for weeds, farmers can vary Significant increases in weeds occur in crops herbicide application according to the actual that are uncompetitive or that do not have ef- weed problem present. Recommendations for fective herbicide controls, such as peas. Several herbicide choice and use can be obtained from growers using green manures report decreased local county extension offices. weed problems in those rotations. With increased environmental concerns, Tillage practices can reduce weed prob- biological control strategies for weeds are lems by burying or exposing weed seeds. Weed receiving more attention. Several rangeland seed that does not survive long in the soil can weeds have been successfully controlled with be killed by burial with a moldboard plow. But introduced insects that feed only on that weed, this same tillage may bring long-lived seeds to such as Klamath weed and tansy ragwort. This the surface where they can finally germinate. strategy is more difficult to implement in an Conservation tillage systems, particularly in annual cropping system since the habitat for short or continuous cereal rotations, have been the biocontrol insects is often destroyed each very weedy in the early years, but weed prob- year. One possible solution is to leave buffer lems often diminish over time. Organic farm- strips in fields to provide suitable habitat for ers who do not use herbicides may lightly till the beneficial insects. Researchers are examin- a crop after planting, sometimes with special ing the potential for microbial herbicides. They harrows for this purpose. In erosion-prone first identify naturally occurring disease organ- areas, substituting more tillage for herbicides isms that attack a specific weed. A spray is then must be balanced against soil conservation made of the organisms and applied to the field needs. Summer fallow with intensive tillage to suppress or kill weeds. Much testing is need- is an effective weed control strategy that also ed to insure the disease affects only the target. increases soil erosion. Microbes may be useful below ground as well. Fertilization practices affect weeds. Researchers have identified naturally occurring Deep banding fertilizer near the seed row helps bacteria (Pseudomonads) in eastern Washing- get more nutrients to the crop and less to the ton wheat fields that suppress downy brome weeds. Broadcasting fertilizer increases certain in wheat. Problems with field application have weed problems, particularly grass weeds such not yet been resolved. as wild oat and downy brome. A nutrient-defi- Weeds are the most obvious pest prob- cient crop is not as competitive as a well-fertil- lem for dryland farmers, and control is costly. ized crop, resulting in increased weed compe- Do-nothing weed control is a recipe for disas- tition. Soil tilth may also be a factor. Growers ter. Sustainable agriculture relies on internal, report that soil compaction appears conducive biological controls for both economic and en- to certain weed species such as bindweed. vironmental reasons. Long-term studies, such Herbicides can be grouped according as the Integrated Weed Management project to their potential for leaching and their per- at Pullman, Washington, are providing impor-

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 23 tant biological and economic data on whole soil productivity. Conservation tillage systems cropping systems. Much remains to be learned leave more residues on the surface and near about the weed ecology in a complex cereal/ the seed. This has exacerbated certain disease legume rotation. Those farms that use little or problems in short crop rotations. The residues no herbicides and successfully control weeds feed the disease organisms and mulch the soil, offer a special opportunity to learn more about creating ideal conditions for diseases such as nonchemical weed control mechanisms. Rhizoctonia root rot, Pythium root rot, and Take-all. Research has shown that no-till drills Diseases. Dryland farmers must contend with a fertilizer shank in and below the seed with several potentially serious crop diseases. row provide enough soil disturbance to mini- Some are soil borne, others spread through mize Rhizoctonia problems present in many the air, by insects, or on seed. Some attack the no-till systems. Also, when herbicides are used foliage, others the roots. Several diseases can to kill volunteer cereals before planting, a mini- attack more than one crop in a rotation. Strate- mum 2-3 week waiting period is recommended gies that reduce the potential for one disease to allow the proliferation and decline of disease may increase it for another. The effects of dis- organisms feeding on dying roots. eases are often slow to develop and hard to rec- Soil conditions affect disease problems. ognize, so they receive less attention by many Compacted soils often have more diseases due farmers than weeds. Yet their impacts can be to lack of oxygen. Crop roots are weakened un- devastating. Crop breeders have developed der these conditions, enhancing diseases such varieties resistant to certain diseases, notably as Pythium and Fusarium foot rot. Adding rusts, footrot, and grain smuts. Breeding for animal manure in long-term plots near Pend- disease resistance is an ongoing process since leton, Oregon, suppressed disease. An increase the diseases are constantly evolving as well. in the general soil microbial population may But selection of an adapted, resistant variety is help to out compete disease organisms. As a good first step in disease management. Also, soils become more acid, Pythium root rot and for seed borne diseases, growers should only Cephalosporium stripe become more severe, buy seed that is certified disease free. while Take-all is inhibited. Thus, judicious use Researchers are examining the potential of acid-forming fertilizers can play a role in for biological control of diseases. One strat- disease management. egy is the inoculation of seed with “friendly” Changes in disease problems should organisms that prevent diseases from attacking prompt closer investigation by a grower. While roots. Most crop seeds are currently treated effective fungicide treatments are available with fungicide to ward off diseases, and seed for many diseases, they are expensive and can treatment with other control materials offers a potentially contaminate the environment. Dis- convenient approach to disease control. eases can develop resistance to certain chemi- Crop rotation is another key element in cals, such as Pseudocercosporella (strawbreaker disease control. In areas restricted to crop–fal- footrot) resistance to benomyl. A decline in low, periodic substitution of canola for winter disease problems may signal improved bio- wheat can have a positive effect, since canola logical functioning of the cropping system, an is from a plant family that does not host many indication of sustainability. cereal diseases. A wheat–barley–pea rotation in the Palouse region has less disease problems Insects. Compared to many horticultural than a wheat–pea rotation. Several farmers crops, dryland crops are relatively free of insect using green manures in rotation report mini- pests. But as in any monoculture, once a pest mal disease problems in the wheat after green settles in a field, serious damage can escalate manure, alleviating the need for fungicide. quickly. Farmers are subject to the arrival of Crop residues are an important food new pests as well. This occurred in the past source for many soilborne diseases. Field decade with the Russian wheat aphid, which burning is an effective sanitation technique spread across the United States in less than for disease control, but it degrades air quality two years after its initial discovery in Texas. and reduces soil organic matter and long-term Many alternate crops have serious insect pest

24 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. problems and require more control measures The shrinking number of chemical in- than cereals. For example, canola grown in secticide choices, particularly for minor crops, eastern Washington is almost always sprayed will hopefully spur the development of new with parathion to control the cabbage seed pod biocontrols and other control practices for the weevil. This highly toxic chemical is losing its insect pests of dryland farming. Biotechnol- registration, so alternative control measures ogy may provide opportunities to increase must be developed. crop resistance and to tailor biocontrols such as Several types of aphids feed on cere- Bacillus thuringiensis to the cropping systems of als in the region. They seldom cause eco- the region. In the long run, innovative redesign nomic damage, although they can transmit of our dryland cropping systems may pro- barley yellow dwarf virus to cereals, reduc- vide the best avenue for insect management. ing yields. The Russian wheat aphid causes the most damage to water-stressed plants, Resource Conservation which frequently occurs with spring wheat Agriculture relies on a broad resource or barley. But seasonal weather patterns base to remain viable, including biological, markedly affect its development, and con- physical, and human resources. Agriculture can trol may not be needed in wetter years. only be sustained by conserving and improv- Aphids are chronic pests of peas ing its resource base. Specific farming prac- and can transmit several pea virus dis- tices must be considered for their agronomic eases as well. Weevils can damage peas and value as well as their role in sustainability. lentils. Pea growers normally treat their crop with an insecticide. Grasshoppers oc- Energy. The primary purpose of agriculture casionally damage all crops as well. is to convert solar energy into food or fiber. At As with diseases, resistant crop vari- present, virtually all modern farming systems, eties offer one insect management strategy. conventional or organic, rely heavily on fos- Damage by the sawfly in Montana has been sil fuel inputs to accomplish this conversion. greatly reduced by use of resistant cereal crop Farmers are making great strides in improving varieties. Breeders are working on develop- the efficiency of fossil energy use in agricul- ing cereal varieties resistant to Hessian fly ture. Conservation tillage reduces fuel use. (e.g., Wakanz) and Russian wheat aphid. Legumes replace energy-intensive nitrogen The release of biological control agents fertilizers. Drip irrigation reduces electricity shows promise, but it involves a lengthy use by pumps. But most systems would fail process of testing, particularly if the agent if fossil energy sources were no longer avail- is not native to the United States. Research- able. Energy sustainability is more evident on ers are field-testing several parasitoids and Amish or developing country farms, but these predators for the Russian wheat aphid. systems are not feasible for dryland farmers Nosema locustae, a naturally occurring dis- in the Northwest. Nonetheless, farmers must ease organism of grasshoppers, is an effec- continue to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels tive alternative to chemical insecticides. as much as possible. Insect pests can be affected by crop Energy efficiency provides a better management. Researchers have found that yardstick of sustainability than yield or worker conservation tillage reduces the attraction of productivity. Crop yields per person-year have greenbug to cereal crops. This appears to be dramatically increased due to large infusions due to a difference in the light reflected from of fossil fuels. A better indicator of the use of the ground when crop residue is present on the nonrenewable resources is the energy input per surface. A grower near Spokane, Washington, pound of crop produced. One study in eastern observed that aphids did not enter a field inter- Washington compared similarly sized conven- cropped with barley and peas, while they read- tional and alternative dryland grain farms for ily fed on an adjoining pea field. In contrast, their output and energy use. The alternative farmers near Lewiston, Idaho, are finding in- farms used fewer purchased inputs and more creases in Hessian fly damage in conservation complex rotations with legumes, resulting in farming systems with higher surface residues. a 25% reduction in energy use. Soil conserva-

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 25 tion helps conserve energy since more energy Many time-tested soil conservation (about 12 gallons of fossil fuel energy-equiva- practices are available to farmers. They include lent per acre) is needed to maintain current conservation tillage; rotations with high resi- productivity on a field for each inch of soil lost due, green manure, or perennial crops; strip to erosion. Average wheat yields have steadily cropping; windbreaks; and conservation struc- increased in the Palouse region despite serious tures (e.g., terraces). Practices that conserve soil soil losses, due in part to increasing fossil fuel generally reduce runoff or blowing snow, lead- inputs. ing to more storage of moisture in the soil for crop use. Thus, once conservation systems are Soil conservation. In his 1937 report entitled working, they should pay their way in more “Conquest of the Land Through Seven Thou- stable or increased productivity. But adoption sand Years,” W.C. Lowdermilk (1975) cata- of these practices has been limited in the past logues the numerous past civilizations that fell due to their real or perceived economic costs due to deterioration of the soil. For over fifty and conflicting messages from government years, our nation has worked to reduce soil commodity programs. Unfortunately, more erosion, but the problem is still serious. Wes attention has been directed toward the cost of soil conservation than toward the cost of erosion. The conservation compliance provisions of the 1985 Farm Bill are forcing a base level of soil conservation by farmers to maintain eligibility for commodity support payments. This has spurred innovation and adaptation of technologies and techniques in the dryland region. Major challenges include maintaining adequate surface, residue, farming with higher residue levels, and maintaining profitability where there are added costs for the soil conserving practices. Perhaps the largest reduction in erosion has come from those highly credible fields planted to perennial grass under the Conserva- tion Reserve Program (CRP). These Farmers are striving to protect water resources fields must be in permanent grass cover for 10 years. Once established, Jackson, a researcher studying prairie ecosys- the grass eliminates erosion in most cases and tems in Kansas, talks of the problem of agricul- it will help restore soil structure and organic ture, rather than problems in agriculture. He matter, leading to less future erosion. Farmers implies that systems reliant on annual crops using soil-building rotations are interested in and tillage will always degrade the soil in measuring improvements in soil quality that fragile regions, such as drylands. Jackson has can be credited as part of their conservation proposed a “perennial polyculture” as a future program. alternative. There is a wide spectrum of opin- In the Northern Plains, some soils are ion about soil conservation strategy that ranges susceptible to the development of saline seep. from “trying harder” to a radical redesign of This problem is a result of the widespread use how we produce food. of a crop–fallow system in which stored soil moisture exceeds crop use. The excess moisture

26 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. reaches below the rooting zone, carrying salts agriculture. Irrigated farming appears to pose a with it, until it reaches an impermeable layer higher contamination than dryland farming, and moves laterally through the soil, eventu- but few studies have been done on the water ally breaking out on the surface lower on the quality impacts of dryland farming. landscape. Salts are deposited as the water evaporates, reducing soil productivity. Seep Atmospheric conditions. The role of agri- areas are difficult or impossible to farm. Crop culture in global climate change and the green- management strategies that increase moisture house effect is currently the subject of much use, such as flex-cropping, are essential to pre- debate and research. Historically, agriculture vent and control saline seep. Growing alfalfa has released significant amounts of carbon into can accelerate reclamation of saline seep areas, the atmosphere as soil organic matter levels and is an important soil conservation measure have declined. Researchers are now discussing

in parts of Montana. the potential of soil as a sink for CO2 and effective agricultural practices to accomplish this. Water conservation. Farming practices af- Agriculture affects other greenhouse gases, fect both the quantity and quality of water particularly methane and nitrogen compounds resources in dryland regions. Since leaching The net impact of farming is not clear. Nitro- below the root zone is minimal in a water-ef- gen fertilizers and cows have been implicated ficient dryland cropping system, impacts on by several scientists as significant sources. But surface water are probably more significant simple answers are elusive due to the complex- than for groundwater. But investigations into ity of the global system. groundwater quality and nutrient arid pesti- Other impacts of agriculture on the cide transfer are beginning to establish baseline atmosphere are more obvious. Dust from wind information for dryland farming areas. For erosion is a public health and safety problem. example, a large amount of lateral flow in the In 1991 alone, dust storms in eastern Wash- subsoil appears to occur in certain soils of the ington darkened the sky several times, closing Palouse region, which redistributes moisture highways and causing numerous car accidents. and soluble chemicals across the landscape. The dust is acutely harmful to people with Water and chemicals may move off hilltop respiratory problems. Similarly, controversy positions and accumulate in low-lying areas surrounds the practice of field burning. Grass where leaching may occur. Landscape position seed producers burn fields annually to main- may need to be considered in future pesticide tain production. But more farmers are becom- and nutrient management strategies. ing interested in field burning as a production Runoff from snow or rain can carry sed- tool, especially in systems such as burn, no-till, iment, nutrients, and pesticides into streams continuous wheat, a potentially profitable and and rivers. While the runoff water helps to soil conserving system. The political and envi- maintain minimum streamflows, the contami- ronmental repercussions from expanded field nants can hurt fish and wildlife, recreation, burning will probably limit this practice in the and reservoirs. Economists estimate that these future. off-site costs of soil erosion are nearly twice the on-site costs (Moore and Miller, 1987). Where Human resources. Human innovation soils are not fully recharged, this lost water and motivation are two important renew- also reduces yields. Soil conservation practices able on-farm resources that must be encour- reduce runoff and surface water contamina- aged. Farmer innovation has made important tion. contributions to dryland farming techniques. Groundwater provides the drinking Motivation is tied in part to economic rewards water for most rural residents in the region, and optimism about the future. Thus, a farm- so protecting it is a priority. When nitrates ing environment that is unprofitable, risky and are found in well water, it is very difficult to stressful, and increasingly regulated does not determine their origin. The risk of contamina- encourage human talent in agriculture. tion depends on the geological conditions, The human resources necessary to de- the average precipitation, and the intensity of velop a more sustainable agriculture are being

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S. 27 undermined by several pervasive trends—ru- the development of sustainable agriculture ral depopulation, increased absentee owner- has expanded significantly, but their funding is ship, and continued farm consolidation. Young unstable. Publicly-funded land-grant uni- people leave their rural areas as educational, versities need to focus On the problems and social, and economic opportunities decline practices that will not be addressed by private with the continued loss of the population base. industry. For example, studies of crop rota- The income goals of absentee landowners tion offer little promise of economic return for removed from the complexity of contemporary industry and therefore should be a university farming may conflict with stewardship goals of priority. In contrast, economic incentives exist the farmer operator. This can strongly influ- for development of herbicide resistant crops. ence the farming practices of an area, since the The nonfarming public has an impor- average farmer in the region now leases over tant role to play in the development of sustain- half of his/her farmland. As farms continue able agriculture. Consumer buying habits are to grow in size, resource efficiency may de- quite influential. Urban legislators represent cline. Studies by the Center for Rural Affairs in a large vote that can support policy favorable Nebraska indicate that medium-sized family to sustainable agriculture. New marketing farms produce the most dollar output per unit strategies that bring farmers and consumers of direct resources consumed (Strange, 1988). closer together can benefit both groups. Urban Agricultural research and education are residents desire clean water and air and an under fiscal pressure throughout the region. aesthetically pleasing rural environment along Programs at land-grant universities are being with abundant, inexpensive, and unblemished steadily cut. Ironically, the increased urbaniza- food. But a sustainable agriculture cannot exist tion in the region which reduces political sup- in a society that is not ecologically sound. The port and funding for agriculture also pressures human resources of both farm and city must agriculture to become more sustainable. The work, together to fashion a more sustainable role of private, nonprofit groups in supporting society, a truly great challenge.

28 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S.

PROSPECTS FOR SUSTAINABLE DRYLAND FARMING

People, the key resource for sustainability

Sustainability is a long-term goal for Much of the interest in oilseeds is based on agriculture. Unfortunately, a loss of sustainabil- potential sales to the Asian market. Thus, ity is much easier to determine than a gain. The growers remain heavily influenced by currency moisture constraints in dryland regions limit exchange rates, transportation charges, foreign the options. But farmers can make changes that quality standards, and the cost of production will increase the sustainability of their opera- in other exporting countries. The current loss tions. Every step in that direction increases the of pea markets to Canadian producers un- safety margin for our food production systems derscores the vulnerable but crucial nature of in light of an unpredictable future and continu- export markets. ing population and resource pressures. Sustainability can be improved by Wheat is the premier crop for dry increasing the diversity of crop rotations. farming in the region. It is well adapted to the Farmers in all parts of the dryland Northwest environment, and is more consistently profit- are exploring new crops and combinations. able than any other crop, in part due to gov- Rotations have positive impacts on pest control ernment subsidies. This has led to a general and soil fertility. The use of fallow-replacing lack of diversification in the region, prompting legumes in the Northern Plains or perennial numerous studies of alternative crops. Un- grass in the pacific Northwest can help reverse fortunately, none have been able to compete soil degradation. Even in the driest wheat–fal- with wheat. Barley, peas, and lentils are grown low areas, the use of oilseeds such as cariola on significant acreages, often for rotational or safflower can increase the diversity of the benefits for the wheat. Canola and chickpea rotation. Rotations impart both short- and plantings are currently expanding, and may long-term benefits. Government commodity offer profitable alternatives. However, a crush- program rules provide a strong incentive to ing plant in the region is necessary to support grow wheat, which can discourage expanded a significant acreage of oilseed production. use of more diverse rotations. Growers rely on markets outside of Farmers are expanding their use of con- the region. Over 80% of the wheat from all six servation tillage practices and systems. These states is exported from Portland and Seattle. efforts pay off in several ways: reduced soil The Asian market is crucial for the soft white erosion, increased water storage, and lower wheat from the Columbia River region. Pea fuel consumption. Farmers need to continue and lentil markets rely heavily on consump- to fine-tune practices to individual situa- tion through Food for Peace program exports. tions. When a conservation farming system is

Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S.29 started, an adjustment period often occurs as can be designed and coordinated so that new the biology of a field seeks a new equilibrium. information from farmer testing is scientifically This poses a degree of risk that has slowed the valid and available for others to learn from. adoption of conservation tillage in the past. The Farm Improvement Club approach being But the conservation compliance mandates of used in Montana can accomplish this while recent farm legislation provide a strong incen- also providing mutual support and hope for tive to adopt conservation tillage. the future of farming. Farmer participation in Given the substantial variation within the research process through new opportuni- many dryland fields, farmers and research- ties such as the federal Sustainable Agriculture ers are developing practical and cost-effective Research and Education program is changing variable resource management schemes. These attitudes about the farmer-extension-researcher include variable fertilizer and pesticide rates, relationship. This will hopefully improve the specific rotations and crop varieties for differ- ability of public institutions to address the ent landscape positions, and yield monitoring needs of the farm community. systems to identify different management units Other areas do not hold much promise and monitor their responses to variable crop at this time. Few viable alternatives exist to management. the heavy reliance on herbicides. While energy More futuristic ideas for sustainable conservation is improving, our farms remain dryland farming are being pursued by several very dependent on fossil fuels. National and groups, with a common focus on perennial world pressures to keep food prices low create crops. Wes Jackson of the Land Institute in Sa- short-term, unprofitable conditions for many lina, Kansas, has proposed the concept of a pe- sustainable farming options, thus discouraging rennial polyculture that mimics the ecosystem their use. Rural communities continue to lose functions of a native prairie. His researchers population and services, increasing business are testing combinations of potential food- costs for farmers and lowering their quality of producing perennial plants, such as cool sea- life. son and warm season grasses, legumes, and In summary, the prospects for a more sunflowers, that could be grown together in sustainable agriculture in the Northwest region a polyculture. The goal is to eliminate annual are good. Dramatic change will not happen tillage, and to choose crops that will provide overnight, and public policy will strongly in- natural nitrogen fertility and weed control. fluence the pace. Innovative farms in the region Other researchers at Montana State University that have made significant strides towards and the Rodale Institute are exploring peren- sustainability despite all the barriers provide nial wheat. An increase in the use of perennials proof that change is possible. The resilience of in dryland farming would help sustain the soil dryland farmers to the adversities of climate, resource. pests, prices, and policies is testimony to their There is a growing interest in farmer- fundamental dedication to the land. managed experimentation. On-farm testing

30 Dryland Farming in the Northwestern U.S.

References

Dixon, J.A., D.E. James, and P.B. Sherman.1990. McGregor, A.C. 1982. Counting Sheep: From Dryland Management: Economic Case Open Range to Agribusiness on the Columbia Studies. Earthscan Publications, London. Plateau. Univ. Washington Press, Seattle. 482 pp. Dregne, H.E. and W.O. Willis (eds:). 1983, Dryland Agriculture. Agronomy Meinig, D.W. 1968. The Great Columbia Plain. Monograph 23, Amer. Soc. Agron., Univ. Washington Press, Seattle. 576 pp. Madison, WI. 622 pp. Moore, W.B. and S.F. Miller. 1987. Off-site eco- Ford, G.L. and J.L. Krall. 1979. The history of nomic impacts of soil erosion. In L.F. Elliott summer fallow in Montana. Montana (ed.). STEEP Conservation Concepts and Acc- Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 704, Bozeman. omplishments. WSU Publications, Pullman.

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Acknowledgments

This publication and the Northwest Dryland Cereal/Legume Cropping Systems Project that produced it were entirely funded by the USDA Western Region Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program (SARE, for- merly LISA). The project, based in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences at Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, included cooperators from Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming. The author served as project manager and appreciates the dedication of the researchers, growers, nonprofit representatives, and other agricultural personnel who contributed to this effort to improve the sustainability of dryland farming. Special thanks go to Dr. David Bezdicek, Washington State University, for originally pulling the project idea together and securing the funding. Other major contributors include Dr. Baird Miller, Washington State University, for his creative input; Bob Klicker, Progressive Farmers Inland Northwest, for his unending enthusiasm and support; Nancy Matheson and Al Kurki of AERO, Helena, Montana, for their farmer contacts; Dr. Jim Sims, Montana State University, for his relentless pursuit of a new farming system; Dr. Phil Rasmussen, Utah State University, for his work with crop rotations and computers; and Drs. Hal Collins, Paul Rasmussen, and Richard Smiley, Columbia Basin Agricultural Research Center, Pendleton, Oregon, for their insights from the long-term experimental plots. Drs. David Schlegel and Patrick Madden with the Western SARE Program deserve special recognition for their leadership and innovation in starting the SARE program and steering it through uncharted waters. Thanks to B.C. Miller, P.E. Rasmussen, N. Matheson, R.J. Veseth, and D. Bezdicek for their helpful review of the manuscript. A special thank you to Jill Whelchel for her superb help in editing and producing this publication and XB1025. Issued by Washington State University Extension and the U.S. Department of Agriculture in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. WSU Extension programs and policies are consistent with federal and state laws and regula- tions on nondiscrimination regarding race, sex, religion, age, color, creed, national or ethnic origin; physical, mental, or sensory disability; marital status, sexual orientation; and status as a Vietnam-era or disabled veteran. Evidence of noncompliance may be reported through your local WSU Extension office. Trade names have been used to simplify information; no endorsement is intended. Published June 1992. MISC0162E