Chapter 3 T h e Å l a n d

C h u r c h e s p r o j e ct

a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y

o f i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y

r e s e a r c h Chapter 3 ABOUT The Åland Churches project

An important aim of the project was to employ systematic implementation of to put an end to all speculation about scientific methods of analysis on a large 14 the age of these significant churches. scale. This priority of the natural C analysis of fragmentarily preserved wood New approaches are needed this time. sciences has come as a surprise to Less well preserved wood, not datable through dendrochronology, such as fragments from wooden scaffolding or organic fragments embedded in the It is not enough to use traditional many art historians. Scholars have even mortar, has systematically gone through radiocarbon analysis. Together with humanistic methods, instead the expressed concern that such an the results from dendrochronology, this material has provided an important churches themselves should provide approach might overshadow humanistic databank with age control for comparative research. the historical sources. Archaeological aspects such as architecture, art history, artifacts and coins do not necessarily and style. Yet interdisciplinarity and the date stone churches, as they can derive implementation of scientific methods in the pattern of the annual rings with the provide an exact date for the wood in from older buildings on the site, and fact often provide the very basis for pattern of the master curve individually question, but not necessarily for the they may also belong to later periods. archaeological, architectural and art developed for different geographical original building stage. Therefore, the The lack of written sources must be historical analyses. Only with reliable regions, it is in principle possible to initial results were somewhat disappoint- compensated by all available methods. results is it possible to draw conclusions establish the exact year when the ing. All experts should be consulted. concerning the medieval history of the timber was felled. So far the method Although dendrochronological Now was finally the time to establish Åland Islands, about the building has primarily been used for oak and analysis could not always determine the the true dates of the churches. To reach activity, and about the art of the pine. date for the first building stage of the an objective chronology, I was prepared churches. Thus dendrochronology was the first construction, the benefits of the Ideally this chapter should function scientific method implemented by the implementation were soon evident. as a guide through the large numbers project, and all available timber in the Dendrochronology could determine the of complicated scientific processes. Åland churches was tested. The analyses ages for secondary building stages, such Above all through the different steps of were performed in 1991-1992 by as towers, vaults, porches, and sacris- developing mortar dating, which have Thomas Bartholin, from the National ties, which meant that we had valuable been taken within the Åland Churches Museum of Copenhagen and the material for comparative analysis, and project. Other methods used are also University of Lund. Of a total of 283 for the interpretation of an internal described, as is the interdisciplinary samples 159 yielded results, and out of building history of the churches. collaboration and the result of this these 107 were of medieval origin. This Peter Tångeberg, the Swedish approach. material was to form the basis for an conservator and art historian, was Åland master curve. However, a large consulted about the wooden sculptures Dendrochronology part of the samples were of spruce, a in Åland; he suggested that I should To begin with, everything seemed timber which is not easily dated by this contact Peter Klein from the University straightforward and easy. Dendrochro- method. Often, it would also show that of Hamburg, in order to complement nology was the method to solve all the annual rings were too few for a stylistic analysis with dendrochronologi- problems. It was to be implemented on determination of the age. cal dating of the sculptures. Klein has all the churches, on all building stages. It was also demonstrated that well developed an important non-destruc- Of all scientific dating methods preserved timber mainly derived from tive method for wooden sculptures, dendrochronology is the most reliable. secondary building stages, or from later where a nailbrush and a loop replace The sample is drilled from the sapwood repairs. Due to rot and fire, many parts the drilling into the wood. The analysis  Fig. 167. Peter Klein analyzing a to the inner core, if possible with all of the roof constructions had been of individual wooden sculptures is wooden sculpture in Finström church, annual rings included. When comparing renewed. Dendrochronology can described in their respective contexts. July 2005.

134 about The Åland Churches project Diagram of AMS analysis Final particle detector

Radiocarbon sample 12 13 14 Tandem accelerator 3 Mill. volt 12 Ion source 13 14 Magnet Argon Analyzing magnet

Radiocarbon dating As a method radiocarbon dating (14C with the same number of protons (6 for 6000 years the organism contains only prepared graphite sample is placed in analysis) was developed at the end of carbon), but with different numbers of half of the original amount of 14C an ion source, after which the ionized the 1940s by Willard F. Libby, who neutrons in the nucleus. There are three isotopes. Furthermore, a Beta particle is carbon isotopes pass through two received the Nobel Prize for this different naturally occurring carbon triggered for each decaying atom. angled magnets on each side of the discovery in 1960. In the atmosphere of isotopes: the 12C isotope, which in At the beginning, the measure- accelerator. Already by the first magnet the earth, carbon exists primarily as addition to 6 protones includes 6 ments were done conventionally, by a number of 12C and 13C isotopes are carbon dioxide (CO2). In the inner neutrons (a total of 12 nuclear particles), Beta counting, or measuring and thrown out of their course. The circulation of the carbon, carbon the 13C isotope with 7 neutrons, and detecting of Beta emissions from 14C remaining isotopes (14C) reach the dioxide is bound to the earth through finally the 14C isotope which has 8 atoms over a period of time. Conven- tandem accelerator, which they pass the photosynthesis of plants. From the neutrons. By far the most common is tional dating requires large samples. with accelerated (hence the name) plants it is further spread to animals and the stable isotope 12C which represents One kilogram raw-material (mortar) is speed, only to force the remaining 12C to different living organisms in the food 98,9% of all carbon isotopes. The 13C needed to get the necessary amount of and 13C isotopes off course at the next chain. isotope, equally stable, amounts to 1-2 grams of pure carbon. Since only magnet. Thus only the 14C isotopes The amount of 14C stored in plants 1.1%. Thus, together the two stable isotopes decaying during the period of reach the final detector, where every and animals, in the oceans and in the isotopes form about 100% of all carbon analysis are measured, the conventional single 14C isotope is counted: the fewer global carbon reserves, remains rather isotopes. Unlike the other carbon method is less precise and the statistical the 14C isotopes that reach the final constant through the ages, which isotopes, however, the 14C isotope is uncertainty becomes larger for small particle detector, the older the sample. means that the 14C contents of living unstable, and is only a minimal part of samples. Radiocarbon dating is a statistical organisms is largely the same as in the the entire whole. That is, only one of a For radiocarbon dating the introduc- method, with built in error margins atmosphere. Radiocarbon dating is million millions carbon atoms is a 14C tion of accelerator mass spectrometry presented as ± values. based on the ratio between radioactive isotope. It is radioactive, and therefore (AMS) in 1977 meant considerable 14C and the stable isotope 12C, a relation characterized by radioactive decay, improvement. The system requires a that mirrors the atmospheric concentra- which starts when the living organism tandem accelerator, which includes two tion of the isotope in living organisms. dies. The decay has a half life of 5730 separate phases of acceleration. The Isotopes of an element stand for atoms years, which means that after less than diagram demonstrates the process: the

about The Åland Churches project 135 Calibration A basic fact concerning all 14C dated curve falls irregularly, which affects Church Churchof Jomala,tower of Jomala,tower LemböteL embötechapel chapel materials, not only mortar, is that the the precision of the results. Where combined calibrationcombined calibration combined calibrationcombined calibration result is presented as a BP (“Before the curve is falling steeply, the margin 720±12BP 720±12BP 642±15BP 642±15BP

Present”) age. Paradoxically “present” of error is only a few years, but where1000 BP 1000 BP 1000 BP 1000 BP in this case is identical to the year the curve is largely horizontal, or 900 BP 900 BP 900 BP 900 BP 1950, since after that the amount of when it wiggles and turns upwards, carbon dioxide was disturbed by the measurement becomes less 800 BP 800 BP 800 BP 800 BP repeated atomic tests and nuclear precise. For medieval Scandinavia 700in BP 700 BP 700 BP 700 BP

power stations. Since the ratio of the general, and for medieval Åland 600 BP 600 BP 600 BP 600 BP isotopes in the carbonate of the especially, the irregularity during the sample reflects the carbon dioxide at 14th century is a greatly disturbing 500 BP 500 BP 500 BP 500 BP the time when the mortar hardened, factor. Where the chronology has 400 BP 400 BP 400 BP 400 BP this BP age is converted to calendar been a matter of disagreement, 300 BP 300 BP 300 BP 300 BP years using a calibration curve. This however, it is still very valuable to be 1100 AD 1100 AD 1100 AD 1100 AD 1400 AD 1400 AD 1400 AD 1400 AD 1300 AD 1300 AD 1500 AD 1500 AD 1300 AD 1300 AD 1500 AD 1500 AD 1200 AD 1200 AD 1200 AD 1200 AD calibration curve is based on 14C able to place individual buildings dating of annual rings in trees of within the right century. known age, and it observes the continuing changes in the concentra-  Example of calibration uncertainties during the 14th century. tion of atmospheric 14C. Therefore the

2000BP The irrationality of the calibration curve

Two Åland examples are presented to comes to Lemböte chapel, the BP age 1500BP demonstrate the effects of calibration cuts the calibration curve when it is on dating: to the left, the tower in irregular and occasionally turning 14C age BP Jomala, with the BP age of 720±12, to upwards, which means that the BP age 1000BP the right, Lemböte chapel BP 642±15. cuts the calibration curve in two In both cases the margin of error is rela- different places. Regardless of the error tively small. The BP age is marked margin in the BP age being relatively horizontally in blue. The vertical line in small, the dating result is broad and 500BP mauve marks the calendar age defined uncertain. This time the calibration when a BP age cuts the calibration results in two different ages, that is, curve. In Jomala the BP age hits the 1295-1310 and 1360-1387. 0BP calibration curve in a position where it is falling steeply. In this case the cutting CalBC/CalAD 500AD 1000AD 1500AD 2000AD is sharp and obvious and results in an Calibrated age exact age, 1270-1285AD. When it  The calibration curve between the birth of Christ, and 2000 AD. Oxcal.

136 about The Åland Churches project 14 CO2 from atmosphereatmosphere CaCO + H O 3 CO 2 2 + H O 2

CaCO 3 CaO Ca(OH) +sand 2

 Fig. 168. The chemical process of mortar (Pia Sonck-Koota, modified version of Hale et al. 2003).

14C analysis (AMS) of mortar Mortar – unlike other materials– is the ideal matrix for 14C dating (Fig. 168). To rejuvenating effects. project should also transfer to 14C AMS only one to be found in large quantities make mortar, limestone has to be analysis of mortar. From now on, all and from every stage of construction in heated up to at least 900oC. After the New procedures, earlier results from conventional 14C its original composition. Therefore carbon dioxide has been released in the new collaboration in 1994 analysis were to be disregarded, and mortar dating has a great potential for process, calcium oxide (unslaked lime) Mark Van Strydonck, at the 14C Dating the entire process was to start all over. archaeology. The first time I heard of remains. Later, when this calcium oxide Laboratory, Royal Institute for Cultural Hereafter, only AMS analysis of mortar the method was in 1989, when Högne is slaked with water, slaked lime occurs. Heritage, Brussels, has been one of the would be considered. The samples Jungner, head of the Laboratory for In the next stage, slaked lime is mixed pioneers in dating mortar. He aban- were analyzed at the AMS 14C Dating Radioactive Dating at Helsinki Univer- with water and aggregate, usually sand. doned the method in 1993, believing it Centre at Aarhus (Fig. 169), which sity, presented the results from In the hardening process the slaked was too complicated. Before that, meant that the project became more conventional 14C dating at a Franciscan lime reacts with atmospheric carbon however, he declared that 14C analysis interdisciplinary and international in conference at Källskär, Kökar, in the dioxide, and calcium carbonate is of mortar could be developed as a character. outer Åland archipelago. I immediately produced. Thus the mortar absorbs the method, provided that AMS-analysis realized the great potentials of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere was implemented. He based this on method, and the need to distance and thereafter behaves as if it were experiments of his own. Some of the myself from all earlier theories and organic. first experiments with AMS analysis of speculations. From now on mortar The principle behind mortar dating mortar were done already in 1990 by dating was to be implemented on a was known as early as the 1960s, but it L.E. Tubbs and T.N. Kinder. They, large scale. It would, of course, be done involved well-known risks, with a however, only analyzed small fragments parallel with other methods, both negative effect for the development of of charcoal within the mortar, not the archaeological and scientific. In August the method: The mortar could contain mortar itself. 1989 an interdisciplinary group was unburned limestone, due either to In 1994 Högne Jungner and Jan 14  Fig. 169. The tandem accelerator at the immediately formed, consisting of the insufficient burning, or contaminating Heinemeier (from the AMS C University of Aarhus, Denmark. physicist Högne Jungner, the archaeolo- carbonate in the sand. These yield ages Laboratory at the University of Aarhus, gists Kenneth Gustavsson and Milton that are too ancient. Mortar can also Denmark) received promising results A great advantage of AMS analysis, Nuñez, and me, an art historian and result in ages that are too recent, which from implementing 14C AMS analysis on compared to conventional analysis of archaeologist. happens if the lime has gone through mortar from the so-called Viking Tower mortar, is that smaller samples are Mortar is not an organic material. re-crystallization. If the mortar sample is in Newport Rhode Island, in the United required. For the AMS-analysis a Yet the chemical process in the taken deep within the construction, a States. After some sleepless nights, I handful of mortar per sample is hardening in principle makes it into an delayed hardening occurs, with equally decided that the Åland Churches sufficient, and as little as one milligram

about The Åland Churches project 137 of the prepared sample will be International cooperation and makes it possible to harden under processes, including both mechanical enough for the analysis (Fig. 170). challenges in 1997 water. Roman pozzolana mortar is and chemical separation. In addition to the material analyzed, In the autumn of 1996, I was invited stronger than other concrete-like Mechanical separation: For an the remaining part of the sample is to be a guest professor in architectural materials, and so it became one of the optimal collection and enrichment of collected for any possible re-dating, history at the University of Louisville prerequisites for the architectural the datable, soft and porous mortar and for different types of chemical (UofL), in Kentucky, with far reaching revolution, when the Romans could carbonate, every single sample is and geological analyses. consequences for our project. In 1997 liberate themselves from old rules of carefully crushed in a mechanical The results from the transition to Stephanie Maloney, professor of Art masonry and create freely. Even if we separation. The process aims at AMS analysis meant that such Åland History at UofL, invited me to join have had remarkable successes in excluding or at least minimizing the mortars as had earlier been analyzed their excavations at Torre de Palma, testing AMS analysis on pozzolana hard and unburned limestone, which conventionally were now corrected. Portugal, the largest Roman Villa on mortar from well known buildings of contains old carbonates and therefore Within individual building units the the Iberian peninsula. Thus the firmly documented ages, such as the can yield ages too ancient in the results were more coherent and more project expanded to include also Colosseum and Trajan’s Market, and analysis. Then the samples are sifted recent, with the margins of error Classical Archaeology. Help was buildings in Ostia, harbor and holiday in a sieving system that varies in grain diminishing. needed to establish the chronology of retreat for the Romans, we already size from 20 to 500 microns (1 micron the site. At Torre de Palma, the mortar now know that pozzolana mortar is is 1/1000mm). The finer grains of the is like Åland mortars in principle - it is much more complicated to date than mortar pass through the rougher a matter of non hydraulic lime mortar. non hydraulic lime mortars. Lynne sieves, where they are separated from With the aid of mortar analysis a Lancaster, from Ohio University in the larger grains of the aggregate, chronology could be established for Athens, Ohio, an expert on Roman which can include both calcite the site, from the first century AD building technique, has been our crystals from re-crystallizations and until ca 639 AD. At the same time guide in Rome. contaminating, unburned limestone. preliminary experiments were done So far, all dating analyses con- For the final AMS analysis we on Spanish mortars from Merida and nected to Åland have been done at normally choose a grain size window Barcelona. John R. Hale, classical Aarhus, as have many samples from of 39/46-75 microns. The prepared  Fig. 170. Jan Heinemeier and Alf archaeologist from UofL, became an our international projects. Other powder is then subjected to cathodo- Lindroos sampling mortar in the church active member of the international dating laboratories involved in our luminescense microscopy, which of Kumlinge in 2007. research team. He suggested that we international collaboration are since reveals any possible remains of 2005 the Oxford Radiocarbon unburned limestone. The geologist Alf Lindroos joined the should try the method in Rome, to see Accelerator Unit, England and, since project in 1994, marking another how it worked on well-known 2006 the NSF (Natural Science important step forward for the buildings, firmly dated by historical Faculty) - Arizona Accelerator Mass project. Since then he has been the sources. Spectrometry (AMS) Laboratory, central figure of the team, in charge of Sampling Roman pozzolana Tucson, United States. the scientific development of the concrete in Rome thus began in 1998, method. To solve problems with which meant a real challenge for the development of the method. Chemi- Development of the mechanical contamination and re-crystallization, and chemical separation he focused on preparatory proce- cally, hydraulic Roman pozzolana To avoid risks from contamination of dures. Since then the Åland Churches mortar is entirely different from lime unburned lime-stone and from the  Fig. 171. Chemical preparation using project has been the only team to mortars in Åland and in Portugal. effects of re-crystallized calcite, the phosphoric acid in two carbon dioxide systematically develop the method “Hydraulic” in this case means that the fractions. On the left the phosphoric acid mortar samples have to go through internationally. mortar includes volcanic ash, which is still isolated, on the right it reacts with different types of preparatory the mortar carbonate.

138 about The Åland Churches project Chemical separation: In the subse- isolated during the subsequent hours. (Fig. 172). The process results in age Exceptionally, as with mortars that quent chemical separation an 85% Since the mortar carbonate dissolves profiles that illustrate all stages of the have been damaged by fire, the solution of phosphoric acid is poured so much faster than unburned dissolution process. For Åland in conclusive age is revealed later in the under vacuum over the mechanically limestone, the carbonates from the general, the first OC 2 fractions reveal age profile. separated mortar, at this stage a fine mortar dominate the beginning of the the correct age (cf. Fig. 180a). powder of approximately one mg. A dissolution process. The first carbon chemical reaction occurs, which dioxide fraction is therefore expected begins very fast. The mechanically to be less influenced by slowly Five CO2 fractions separated sample is still isolated from dissolving unburned limestone, and the phosphoric acid in the side arm of thus these first carbon dioxide First Second Third Fourth the vial (to the left in Fig. 171). To the fractions are supposed to come closer CO2 fraction CO2 fraction CO2 fraction CO2 fraction right in Fig. 171 it bubbles in the vial to the hardening of the mortar than when the phosphoric acid reacts with the later ones. Until 2002, the mortar the binding carbonate. Thus, the samples were separated and analyzed C age (BP) carbon dioxide is liberated from the in two carbon dioxide fractions. 14 sample in the form of gas. The carbon One big step forward in the dioxide from this first reaction is chemical separation was taken in Fifth identical to the first carbon dioxide 2002, when our experiences from CO2 fraction fraction, a term frequently used in this Roman pozzolana mortar had 0 CO2 (%) 100 text. This gas is collected in vials at demonstrated the importance of different stages of the dissolution following the dissolution process in process. The first carbon dioxide the interpretation of the results. To  Fig. 173. Example of an age profile with the individual CO2 fractions marked. In fractions are isolated within seconds, maximize this information, all samples this case the correct age is identified in the horizontal plateau at the beginning of the profile. (CO2 fractions 1-4). The contamination does not affect the result until whereas the second takes a few from then on went through a chemical the last fraction. minutes. The next fractions are separation in five successive fractions Five CO fractions Vacuum 2 pump First Second Third Fourth Fifth CO2 fraction CO2 fraction CO2 fraction CO2 fraction CO2 fraction

Carbon 3 4 5 dioxide C age (BP) Cold trap 1 2 Liquid 14 for nitrogen moisture Carbon dioxide Phosphoric acid increments Sample

0 CO2 (%) 100  Fig. 172. Chemical separation in five successive carbon dioxide fractions. In this case the process has lasted a few minutes and two CO fractions have 2  Fig. 174. Example of an age profile where the first CO fraction reveals the right already been isolated. The third fraction is being chilled by fluent nitrogen, 2 age, while a slight contamination can be traced already in the second CO fraction. while the two last ones, which take hours, have not yet been isolated. 2

about The Åland Churches project 139 Scientific dating and the Åland churches

Eckerö

Dendrochronological analysis from the particle embedded in the mortar. A Calibrated date for the first CO2 fractions + church of Eckerö presents results fourth wooden sample, partly outside AD 1275 -1300 (68.2%) = 695 -22 BP 1400 typical of the Åland churches – rather the margins of error for the other than revealing the age of the first nave, samples, may depend on a secondary we see a large spread of results varying replacement of the wood. The other 1200

from around 1554 and 1650 (Fig. 175). uniform samples were later confirmed P B

r Wooden

Obvious marks of secondary repairs, in a renewed analysis in a complete age e 1000 samples BP d l

partly confirmed in the archives, can be profile of Eka 030 (cf. 176a). å - C

seen. In this case the real age of the 4 C C age

1 800 nave is based on scientific dating 14 Charcoal methods of different materials, such as mortar, charcoal, and wood (Fig. 176a). 600 Combined calibration of eight mortar samples from the nave yields the 400 age 1275-1300AD, which agrees with 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 the 14C analysis of the fragmentarily Amount of carbon dioxide in the sample (%). Andelen koldioxid i provet (%) preserved scaffolding and the northern wall plate. This time the results coincide  Fig. 176a. Results of scientific dating of the nave at Eckerö: mortar dating in two 14 14 carbon dioxide fractions and C analysis of poorly preserved wooden construc- with the C analysis of a charcoal tions. The first carbon dioxide fractions of eight mortar samples are inscribed in a red circle, the second fractions in a blue circle. One of the samples has further been analyzed in five fractions to form a full age profile. Eckerö ÅR 1400 1425 1450 1475 1500 1525 1550 1575 1600 1625 1650 NAVE AAL 2039 AAL 2040 68,2% probability AAL 2041 900BP AAL 2043 1275AD (68,2%) 1300AD AAL 2044 800BP 95,4% probability AAL 2045 1260AD (80,9%) 1310AD

AAL 2047 BP 700BP 1360AD (14,5%) 1390AD AAL 2048 600BP

TOWER C age C-ålder BP AAL 2049 14

AAL 2050 1 4 500BP AAL 2051 AAL 2052 400BP AAL 2053 AAL 2054 AAL 2055 AAL 2056 AAL 2057 AAL 2058 AAL 2059 WINCH(in the tower) 1100AD 1200AD 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD AAL 2060-61 Calibrated age AD  Fig. 175. Dendrochronological analysis from the church of Eckerö.  Fig. 176b. Combined calibration of all first carbon dioxide fractions (encircled in red) yields the age 1275-1300AD, at a probability of 68,2%.

140 about The Åland Churches project Geta In Geta church, the results from fractions yields the age 1435-1455 AD. dendrochonological analysis were The result is additionally supported by a 650 Mortar: confusing. Every second roof truss wooden splint, embedded in one of the Geka 001, 002, 005 seemed to belong to the 1590s, whereas samples, falling within the same error 600 (AAR 10599 1-5, 10600 1-5, 10602 1-5) the rest of the timber was felled in the margins. Thus, in the church of Geta Grain size 46-75µm 550 1820s (Fig. 177). mortar dating confirmed that the only Only one timber, the northern wall dendrochronologically established P 500 plate, suggests a medieval origin, sample from the Middle Ages really BP sometime after 1450. This was a case belongs to the original construction. In age B 450 C which only mortar dating could solve. this case the implementation of different 4 1

In this case the three age profiles are methods and different materials yields C age 400

14 Charcoal unusually convincing (Fig. 178a). All first uniform results. carbon dioxide fractions converge within 350 Wood: Charcoal: Geka 001W Geka 006C Wood the range of the same error margins. In (AAR -10604) (AAR -10605) addition all four introductory fractions in 300 one of the age profiles (Geka 002) form a 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 Amount of carbon dioxide in the sample (%). horizontal line. We see an almost ideal Amunt of carbondioxide in the sample (%).  Fig. 178a. Three age profiles of mortar analysis in the church of Geta. profile, without contamination from Especially important is the horizontal age profile of Geka 002, enhanced in either ageing or rejuvenating effects. A red. Within the same error margins also fits a wooden splint embedded in combined calibration from all first theK mortar.ombin erad kalibrering, långhuset i Geta : 436±16BP

Geta 600BP ÅR 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 68.2% probability NAVE 1435AD (68.2%) 1455AD 500BP 95.4% probability AAL 2206 1430AD (95.4%) 1470AD AAL 2204 400BP AAL 2205 AAL 2209

AAL 2211 C age BP 300BP AAL 2212 BP 1 4 AAL 2213 200BP AAL 2214 C C age

AAL 2216 14 AAL 2217 100BP AAL 2218 AAL 2219 AAL 2220 AAL 2221 AAL 2222 AAL 2223 AAL 2224 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD 1600AD 1700AD AAL 2225 AAL 2226 calibrated age AAL 2227 AAL 2228  Fig. 178b. Combined calibration of the first carbon dioxide fractions from individual age profiles, 436 ±16 BP, yield the age 1435-1455AD, which is in  Fig. 177. Dendrochronological analysis from the church of Geta. complete agreement with the dendrochronology (vertical in red).

about The Åland Churches project 141 Finström 650 The church of Finström is one of the results were extremely well disciplined, Fika 057, 058, 059, 060 best preserved medieval buildings in all of them reaching identical results at (AAR -10150.1 -5, 10151.1 -5, 10152.1 - 5, 10153.1 - 5) entire Finland, but the building history the first carbon dioxide fractions. The 600 Grain size 46 - 75µm of the church is confusing. results are in complete agreement with 550 059 Dendrochronology seems to the dendrochronology of the nave. 058

provide explicit results from different BP P 500 B building units. The sacristy from the 057 age

1440s is oldest, closely followed by the C age 450

C 060 14 4

nave around 1450, the porch from the 1 1450s, and finally the tower, which was 400 erected in 1467 (Fig. 179). Such a late date for the entire building is surprising. 350 Therefore a number of mortar samples Wooden timber surrounded by mortar. Fika 060W (391+33 BP) 300 - were taken from the walls of the nave. 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 It was important to test the dendrochro- Amount of carbon dioxide in the sample (%). nology. Amunt of carbondioxide in the sample (%). Four of the samples were analyzed  Fig. 180a. The first carbon dioxide fractions in four age profiles converge at the 414±16 BP age. Yet once more, one of the age profiles, Fika 060, is in complete age profiles F( ig. 180a). almost horizontal and completely free from contamination. The embedded From a technical point of view the wooden fragment, Fika 060W, fits well into the picture with the age 391±33 BP. Finström ÅR 1400 1425 1450 1475 1500 1525 1550 1575 1600 1625 1650 NAVE 414±16BP AAL 2063 600BP 68.2% probability AAL 2065 1440AD (68.2%) 1465AD AAL 2068 500BP 95.4% probability AAL 2070 1435AD (95.4%) 1485AD AAL 2073 AAL 2074 400BP AAL 2081 BP AAL 2082 300BP

AAL 2270-76 C age BP SACRISTY C age 14 14 AAL 2076 200BP AAL 2077 AAL 2078 AAL 2079 100BP TOWER AAL 2085 AAL 2086 AAL 2087 AAL 2088 AAL 2089 AAL 2090 AAL 2091 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD 1600AD 1700AD AAL 2092-98 PORCH Calibrated age AAL 2101  AAL 2102 Fig. 180b. Combined calibration of the first fractions yields 1440-1465AD, at a probabilityFins oftr öms68,2%, välvni whichng is och in agreement ombygg nawithd the dendrochronology,  Fig. 179. Dendrochronological analysis from Finström. 1450AD. gemensam kalibrering : 414±16BP, 1440-1485 AD 142 about The Åland Churches project 900BP 68,2% probability 1265AD (68,2%) 1285AD 800BP 95,4% probability 1256AD (95,4%)1290AD 700BP

600BP

C-ålder BP 500BP 1 4 400BP

1100AD 1200AD 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD Calibrated age Hammarlands kyrka, äldsta långhuset

1400 Haka 18, 42Th, 52, 53Th, 54, 57, 58, 62 1300 (AAR-1465.1-2; 2521.1-2; 2168.1-2 1200 2168.2.1-5; 2174.1-2; 2176.1-2; 2184.1-2;) 1100

BP 1000 900 C C age C-ålder BP 14 800 1 4 700 Charcoal 600 500 400 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 Amount of carbon dioxide in the sample (%).

 Fig. 181a. The church of Hammarland. The results from mortar dating from the first building stage of the nave, analyzed in two carbon dioxide fractions. One of the samples was later analyzed in five successive fractions. The first fraction of the age profile confirms the earlier results.

900BP 68,2% probability 1265AD (68,2%) 1285AD Hammarland 800BP 95,4% probability 1256AD (95,4%)1290AD 700BP In Volume I of the Åland Churches, vaulting of the nave. The first BP covering Hammarland and Eckerö, four stage of the nave was erected 600BP different ages were presented for the 1265-1285, while the following Cage 14 th nave in Hammarland, based on mortar stage belongs to the 14 C-ålder BP 500BP 14 analysis and C dated wooden samples, century. 1 4 depending on the age difference 400BP between the individual results being uncomfortably large. It is now obvious, however, that eight mortar samples from the nave, all of them representing CI, differ from the others in a remark- able way (cf. Fig. 181a). It has gradually 1100AD 1200AD 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD become clear that the results actually Calibrated age represent two different stages – the Hammarlands kyrka, äldsta långhuset nave and a later secondary stage, which  Fig. 181b. A combined calibration from the first fractions (encircled in 1400 red Fig. 181a) yields the age 730±20 BP, or 1265-1285AD, at a probability among other thingsHaka includes 18, 42Th, 52, the 53Th, 54, 57, 58, 62 of 68,2%. 1300 (AAR-1465.1-2; 2521.1-2; 2168.1-2 1200 2168.2.1-5; 2174.1-2; 2176.1-2; 2184.1-2;) about The Åland Churches project 143 1100 1000 900

C-ålder BP 800 1 4 700 Charcoal 600 500 400 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 Långhuset i Sund, kombinerad kalibr : 758±17BP

900BP 68.2% probability 800BP 1255AD (68.2%) 1280AD 95.4% probability 1225AD (95.4%) 1285AD 700BP der BP der

ål 600BP C-

14 500BP

400BP

1100AD 1200AD 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD Calibrated age Långhuset i Sund, åldersprofiler 900 Sund 014, 017 850 Grain size: 46–75 µm 014 800 AAR-7564.1-5 017 750 AAR-7563.1-5 700 BP 650 e BP e 600 C C age C ag 14 550 14 500 017 450 014 400 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 Amount of carbon dioxide in the sample (%).

 Fig 182a. Two age profiles from fire damaged mortars from the nave coincide within the same error margins on the horizontal platfoms formed later in the profile.

Långhuset i Sund, kombinerad kalibr : 758±17BP

900BP 68.2% probability 800BP 1255AD (68.2%) 1280AD Sund 95.4% probability 1225AD (95.4%) 1285AD There are, unfortunately, no results horizontal platform of the age profile 700BP from dendrochronology at Sund. often reflects the known age. A der BP der BP

All available wood from the nave has combined calibration yields 1255- ål 600BP

repeatedly been damaged by fire. The 1280AD at the highest probability C-

14 C C age

only wooden material left was a couple (Fig. 182a-b). 14 500BP of charred fragments of the moulding These atypical age profiles have to forms from the tower staircase. These be interpreted critically and carefully, 400BP were also 14C analyzed. since real age control is lacking. Still, our Thus the only remaining way to experiences from other fire damaged ascertain the age of the nave was by constructions where age control is analysis of mortar badly damaged by available have supported our hypoth- fire. From the nave, including the vault, esis that the correct age in case of fire, there are a total of five age profiles, all is reached later in the profile. Our of them radically different from other experiences from Sund have given 1100AD 1200AD 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD Åland samples. Two of the profiles important insights into the identifica- Calibrated age remind us of the profiles from hydraulic tion, interpretation and dating of Långhuset i Sund, åldersprofiler Roman pozzolana mortar, where the buildings damaged by fire.  Fig. 182b. Combined calibration of the platforms yield 758±17 BP, 900 or 1255-1280AD, at a probability of 68,2%. Sund 014, 017 850 144 about The Åland Churches project Grain size: 46–75 µm 014 800 AAR-7564.1-5 017 750 AAR-7563.1-5 700 650 e BP e 600

C ag 550 14 500 017 450 014 400 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 Långhuset i Sund, kombinerad kalibr : 758±17BP

900BP 68.2% probability 800BP 1255AD (68.2%) 1280AD 95.4% probability 1225AD (95.4%) 1285AD 700BP der BP der

ål 600BP C-

14 500BP

400BP

Vårdö 005 kolpartikel: 394±41 BP

Vårdö 005 murbruk: 415 37 BP 1100AD 1200AD 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD Calibrated age 68,2% probability 68% probability 800BP 1430AD (62,3%) 1500 AD 800 BP 1440 AD (55,6%) 1520 AD Långhuset i Sund, åldersprofiler 1600AD (5,9%) 1620 AD 1550 AD (12,6%) 1620 AD 900 95,4% probability 600 BP 95,4% probability Sund 014, 017 600 BP 850 1420AD (78.2%) 1530 AD 1430AD (62,6%) 1530AD Grain size: 46–75 µm 014 1550AD (32,8%) 1640AD 800 1570AD (17.2%) 1640 AD 400 BP AAR-7564.1-5 017 400 BP 750 AAR-7563.1-5 700

C-ålder BP C-ålder BP C-ålder 200 BP

BP 200 BP

650 14 14 e BP e 600 0 BP C C age 0 BP C ag 550 14 14 500 017 -200 BP -200 BP 450 014 400 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1

1200AD 1400AD 1600AD 1800AD 2000AD 1200AD 1400AD 1600AD 1800AD 2000AD VårdöCalibrated 005 kolpartikel: age 394±41 BP Calibrated age  Fig. 183c. AMS analysis of mortar (Vårdö 005) yields 415±37BP, that is, after  Fig. 183a. Vårdö church, the exterior. Vårdö 005 murbruk: 415 37 BP calibration 1430-1500 at the highest level of probability, in agreement with the Långhuset i Sund, kombinerad kalibr : 758±17BP dendrochronological analysis (vertical in red).

900BP 68,2% probability 68% probability 800BP 800 BP 68.2% probability 1430AD (62,3%) 1500 AD 1440 AD (55,6%) 1520 AD 1600AD (5,9%) 1620 AD 1550 AD (12,6%) 1620 AD 800BP 1255AD (68.2%) 1280AD 95.4% probability 600 BP 95,4% probability 600 BP 95,4% probability 1225AD (95.4%) 1285AD 1420AD (78.2%) 1530 AD 1430AD (62,6%) 1530AD 700BP 1570AD (17.2%) 1640 AD 1550AD (32,8%) 1640AD 400 BP 400 BP der BP der BP

ål 600BP  Fig. 183b. Vårdö 005, mortar sample taken from the C-

C-ålder BP C-ålder BP C-ålder 200 BP 14 200original BP east gable of the nave. C C age 14 14 500BP 14 0 BP 0 BP 400BP

VÅRDÖ first fraction (415±37BP) after calibra- -200 BP -200 BP Fig. 183b above, shows an interior from tion coincides with the dendrochrono- the attic of the nave at of the church at logical analysis of the northern wall Vårdö, where the original east gable has plate. Exceptionally, in this case the been preserved. The red square embedded charcoal particle of Fig. indicates the sampling of Vaka 005, a 183d, (394±41) yields the same result 1100AD 1200AD 1300AD 1400AD 1500AD mortar sample1200AD which also1400AD included an 1600ADas the mortar.1800AD Usually, as2000AD is well known, 1200AD 1400AD 1600AD 1800AD 2000AD embedded particle of charcoal. The the charcoal particles are older than the Calibrated age Calibrated age Calibrated age calibrated age in Fig. 183c represents mortar, but in no case could they be  Fig. 183d. AMS analysis of charcoal particle embedded in the mortar Långhuset i Sund, åldersprofiler Vaka 005, a mortar sample where the younger. (Vårdö 005). This is a rare case where the charcoal, 394±41BP, yields the 900 same age as the dendrochronology. Sund 014, 017 850 Grain size: 46–75 µm 014 about The Åland Churches project 145 800 AAR-7564.1-5 017 750 AAR-7563.1-5 700 650 e BP e 600

C ag 550 14 500 017 450 014 400 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 COMPARISON BETWEEN MORTAR ANALYSIS AND OTHER SCIENTIFIC DATING METHODS

JOMALA, tower joka 005 735±30BP ECKERÖ, tower joka 011 675±25BP Eka 015 370±120BP joka 013a 765±30BP Eka 016 350±70BP joka 014 735±30BP Dendro 1465 joka 016 715±30BP Dendro 1283 FINSTRÖM, nave Fika 057 406±35BP LEMLAND, tower Fika 058 415±29BP Leka 002 595±30BP Fika 058Li 376±37BP Leka 008 710±30BP Fika 059 418±35BP Leka 009 665±30BP Fika 060 416±31BP Dendro 1318 Dendro 1450 FINSTRÖM, tower SALTVIK, nave Fika 018 390±50BP Saka 103 595±45BP Dendro 1467 Saka 104 625±45BP FINSTRÖM, sacristy Saka 105 625±30BP Fika 071 392±35BP Saka 106 625±30BP Dendro 1445 Saka 109 625±30BP Saka 133 635±40BP GETA, nave Saka 146 615±40BP Geka 001 463±31BP Saka 147 705±35BP Geka 002 444±31BP Saka 148 645±40BP Geka 003 396±29BP Saka 151L 600±45BP Geka 005 466±37BP Saka 152 610±40BP Dendro 1453 Saka 152 610±40BP Dendro 1371 HAMMARLAND, roof of the chancel SALTVIK, tower Haka 051 340±45BP Saka 110 620±35BP Dendro 1466 Saka 113 670±45BP Saka 155 670±35BP VÅRDÖ, nave Saka 118 630±55BP Vaka 005 415±37BP Dendro 1381 Dendro 1473 800AD 1000AD 1200AD 1400AD 1600AD 1800AD 800AD 1000AD 1200AD 1400AD 1600AD 1800AD Calibrated age Calibrated age

 Fig. 184. Mortar samples from Åland (calibrated dates from the first CO2 fractions marked horizontally in black) confirmed by dendrochronologically dated wooden structures (vertical in red). The time has come to submit the priority. Of all Åland mortar results, 38 samples from mortar dating to compara- can be weighed against dendrochronol- tive analysis. Constructions which have ogy, of these 36 mortar samples agree been firmly established by dendrochro- with dendrochronology (Fig. 184). nology of course have the highest

146 about The Åland Churches project 22 Reliabilit y criteria

Our experiences from Åland lime Not valid for independent mortar Age Control, 79 samples No age Control, 71 samples mortar, so far covering 150 samples analysis, requires age control: 75 samples agree with age control CI analyzed, has made it possible to Dendro formulate four criteria of validity. Criterion III (CIII) Simultaneously they serve as criteria for When the first OC 2 fractions coincide in CI- CII different degrees of reliability and as two samples from the same building Dendro and CI conclusive 14C W results 45 auxiliary tools in the interpretation of unit. Dendro cases where age control from other Och 14CW methods and other materials are Criterion IV (CIV) CII CI lacking, in short – when mortar dating When the first OC fraction in one Inconclusive 2 results 26 is the only option. To avoid misinterpre- single sample from a building unit CI-CII CIII, CIV, tations the criteria have been kept as 14C W CII results in an age which is acceptable Too few samples strict as possible on purpose. compared to other building units within per building unit, fire damaged Valid for independent mortar the same construction. 4 samples mortars, with CIII disagree profiles impossible analysis, without age control: CII to interpret CIV The Åland mortar samples with age Criterion I (CI) control versus no age control are When the first two carbon dioxide divided 52% to 48% (Fig. 185). 75 out of  Fig.185. Classification of results from Åland mortars. The staple in red fractions in the analysis coincide (in this and yellow to the far left represents samples with age control, based on 79 samples with age control agree with dendrochronology and/or 14C dated wooden structures. 75 samples out of a case one single sample per building unit the known age, which means that they total of 79 agree with the known age. The adjoining narrow white staple is sufficient). In principle Criterion I is have to be regarded as conclusive. Thus reveals the proportions of the different validity criteria. Four samples in green deviate from the known age. In the staple with different shades of thus void of disturbing contamination, 95% of all samples with age control are and shows only a minimal gradient blue represents 45 mortar samples without age control. They can still be in agreement with the known age. The considered conclusive, since they represent only Criterion I and Criterion II. between the first two OC 2 fractions. In requirements for Criterion I have been Another staple in green to the far right represents 26 inconclusive results. cases where the samples have been so strictly formulated that they only analyzed in full age profiles, a horizontal match 33% of all conclusive samples platform at the beginning of the profile with age control. Only four samples criteria, Criterion I, which means 38% of The staple to the far right represents 26 is expected to show the same minimal deviate from the age control. So far we all conclusive results. Criterion II inconclusive results. These results are not gradient, if at all. don’t know why. represents the majority of the conclusive uniform, but we normally know the A subdivision of Critierion I is made Of the remaining 71 samples without results. 92 samples, or 62% of all samples, reason why. They often represent up of age profiles where the correct age age control, the majority, or 45 samples, belong to series where three or more Criteria III and IV, which means that too is revealed by a horizontal platform later follow the strict requirements for samples from the same building unit few samples have been analyzed per in the profile. This can occur when Criterion I and II. The results in the blue reach identical results with the first OC 2 building unit. Even if several of the results hydraulic pozzolana mortar is analyzed, staple are therefore conclusive, which fractions. In this case we have contamina- indicate a certain age, it is not conclusive and when the mortar is damaged by fire. means that the total percentage of tion from unburned limestone, but it has enough without age control. This conclusive results amounts to 80%, Criterion II (CII) been successfully eliminated with the aid category also includes fire damaged regardless of age control. of mechanical and chemical separations. samples from the church in Sund, When the first OC fractions coincide in 2 In regard to non-hydraulic Åland 42 samples (28%), which represent both samples which result in age profiles a series of three or more samples from mortars, we generally find that only 57 Criterion I and Criterion II simultaneously, without horizontal plateaus, and the same building unit. samples meet with the strictest of all must be seen as especially reliable. therefore impossible to interpret.

about The Åland Churches project 147 COMPARISON BETWEEN ÅLAND MORTAR SAMPLES, 14C SAMPLES OF WOOD AND DENDROCHRONOLOGY

ECKERÖ CHURCH FÖGLÖ CHURCH HAMMARLAND CHURCH Unit: tower Unit: tower Unit: oldest nave Eka 021W 440±80BP Foka 004 338±41BP Haka 018 695±65BP Eka 029W 395±55BP Foka 007 323±35BP Haka 042 725±55BP Eka 016 350±70BP Foka 008 356±46BP Haka 052 756±44BP Eka 015 370±20BP Haka 053 755±45BP Dendro 1469 FINSTRÖM CHURCH Haka 054 710±90BP Unit: nave Unit: first nave Haka 057 680±50BP Eka 010W 680±70BP Fika 033 680±55BP Haka 058 795BP Eka 012 800±110BP Fika 051 740±50BP Unit: vaulting of nave (?) Eka 011W 780±80BP Unit: rebuilding of the church Haka 009W 660±75BP Eka 025 715±65BP Fika 002W 555±60BP Haka 002W 630±70BP Fika 002 535±60BP Haka 010W 570±80BP Eka 026 810±100BP Fika 018W 555±60BP Haka 047W 640±80BP Eka 027 750±90BP Fika 018 390±50BP Haka 047 810±50BP Eka 028y 740±80BP Fika 057 406±35BP Haka 041 510±70BP Eka 028i 705±55BP Fika 058 415±29BP Haka 055 575±70BP Eka 030 690±55BP Fika 058Li 376±37BP Haka 061 640±60BP Eka 030W 840±90BP Fika 021W 630±60BP Haka 044 615±55BP Eka 031 670±75BP Fika 021 440±50BP Haka 044L 635±60BP Eka 018W 550±80BP Fika 059 418±35BP Haka 045 815±50BP Unit: porch Fika 060 416±31BP Haka 046 625±50BP Eka 007W 1100±90BP Fika 061W 391±33BP Haka 056 615±50BP Eka 008W 290±70BP Fika 063 543±34BP Haka 059 615±50BP Eka 003 280±55BP Dendro 1450 Haka 060 615±50BP Unit: sacristy Unit: ”murklack” JOMALA CHURCH Fika 071 392±35BP Haka 001 545±65BP Unit: nave Dendro 1440 Haka 040 715±41BP Joka 030 849±40BP Unit: porch Unit: tower Joka 031 836±29BP Dendro 1452 Haka 024W 860±80BP Haka 061 640±60BP Unit: tower Unit: tower Dendro 1467 Haka 062 740±70BP Joka 005 735±30BP Haka 048 690±75BP Joka 011 675±25BP GETA CHURCH, nave Haka 049 680±50BP Joka 013a 765±30BP Geka 001 W 426±33BP Unit: chancel Joka 014 735±30BP Geka 001 463±31BP Haka 031W 520±60BP Joka 016 715±30BP Geka 002 444±31BP Haka 038W 480±45BP Dendro 1283 Geka 003 396±29BP Haka 038 510±60BP Geka 005 466±37BP Haka 039 480±55BP 500AD 1000AD 1500AD Dendro 1453 Calibrated age 500AD 1000AD 1500AD 500AD 1000AD 1500AD Calibrated age Calibrated age  Fig. 186a-c. Comparative results of all conclusive Åland samples that have been Green rectangles frame building units that have been dated with both 14C analysis of scientifically analyzed. Calibrated results of 14C analysis of wood is marked horizon- wood and mortar. Rectangles in blue mark building units where mortar dating has tally in yellow, mortar horizontally in black, and dendrochronology vertically in red. been the only option.

Results of different scientific dating available, i.e., either dendrochronology (Eka 007W, Haka 024W) or just a little results (Haka 047 and Haka 045) in an methods implemented in the Åland or 14C analysis of fragmentarily pre- older (Fika 018W, Fika 21W and Fika otherwise very uniform line. They are churches are presented in Fig. 186a-f. served wooden constructions and 063W). Where the odd wooden therefore included in the 5% that With the exception of the fire-damaged wooden fragments embedded in the sample, in an otherwise homogeneous deviates from age control. Further, note church in Sund, and the fire-damaged mortar, the results from mortar and series, exceptionally is more recent (Eka that results of dendrochronology, when east gable in Kumlinge, it is always the wood agree with one another. In some 18W) secondary repairs can be available, coincide with both mortar 14 result of the first OC 2 fractions that rare cases the wooden fragments suspected. In two cases, the mortar and C analysis of wood. Results from counts. Note that where age control is deviate. They can be considerably older samples show considerably older dendrochronology for the nave at

148 about The Åland Churches project Unit: roof construction of the chancel SALTVIK CHURCH Unit: tower higher level, vaulting of tower Haka 051 340±45BP Unit: sacristy and early nave Saka 115W 510±70BP Dendro 1466 Saka 119 655±60BP Saka 114 495±45BP Unit: sacristy Saka 120 760±45BP Saka 154W 580±40BP Haka 050W 450±60BP Saka 121 665±55BP Saka 154 480±35BP Haka 050 375±50BP Saka122 750±80BP Saka 116 535±30BP Saka147 705±35BP Saka 117 590±30BP HAMNÖ CHAPEL RUIN Saka132 720±45BP Saka 126 585±50BP Hamnkap 001 310±35BP Unit: rebuilding of nave Unit: west gable of nave Hamnkap 002 460±35BP Saka 107W 520±70BP Saka 013W 540±80BP Hamnkap 005 395±40BP Saka108W 640±70BP Saka111W 530±70BP Hamnkap 006 365±40BP Saka105 645±30BP Saka112W 480±75BP KUMLINGE CHURCH Saka 106 625±30BP Saka 130 475±30BP Unit: westgable of the nave Saka 109 625±30BP Saka 129a 490±40BP Kumka 001 428±34BP Saka103 595±45BP Saka 129b 460±30BP Kumka 002 538±29BP Saka 104 625±45BP Kumka 003 512±36BP Saka152 610±40BP SUND CHURCH Unit: eastgable of the nave Saka151 600±45BP Unit: nave Kumka 004 610±21BP Saka 133 635±40BP Suka 017 745±44BP Kumka 005 549±20BP Saka 146 615±40BP Suka 014 779±25BP Saka148 645±35BP Suka 024 687±20BP LEMBÖTE CHAPEL RUIN Dendro 1373 Suka 025 760±32BP Unit: east gable Unit: tower Suka 026 764±22BP Lembo 003 590±30BP Saka 163W 615±35BP Unit: tower Lembo 004 675±35BP Saka 165W 650±30BP Suka 005W 623±38BP Lembo 005 610±40BP Saka 164W 670±30BP Suka 007W 659±38BP Lembo 008 705±45BP Saka 110 620±35BP Suka 006 690±25BP Lembo 001 710±35BP Saka 113 670±45BP Suka 038 668±25BP Lembo 002 580±40BP Saka 153 690±45BP Unit: burial chamber in sacristy Saka 118 630±55BP LEMLANDS KYRKA Suka 010 362±20BP Unit: Nave Saka155 670±35BP Leka 021 821±31BP Dendro 1381 VÅRDÖ CHURCH Unit: East gable of nave Dendro 1249 500AD 1000AD 1500AD Dendro 1285 Vaka 005 415±37BP Unit: tower Calibrated age Dendro70 Leka 002 595±30BP Leka 008 710±30BP 500AD 1000AD 1500AD Leka 009 665±30BP Calibrated age Dendro 1318 500AD 1000AD 1500AD Calibrated age  Fig. 186d-f. Comparative results from all conclusive Åland samples analyzed scientifically (continuation from previous page).

Hammarland, which represent repairs independently valid for the dating of because they usually yield old and Green rectangles framing the results after a fire in the 1440s, are not the church. More samples, however, uneven results, depending on the old of individual building units mark the age included in the diagram. should be taken before a scientific wood effect. Such an effect arises indicated by mortar dating and age Regarding mortar analysis and the analysis can show the existence of an when only the inner core of a timber control from 14C analysis of wood and first stone church in Finström, we still early stone church in Finström. The remains after the fire. Yet, for the sake dendrochronology. Rectangles in blue have to be cautious. The samples Fika same thing is true for the nave at of comparison charcoal particles are are especially important, since they date 033 and Fika 051 indeed both meet the Lemland. also analyzed. They can be contempo- structures where mortar has been the requirements of Criterion I, and Charcoal particles embedded in the rary with the mortar, but obviously they only material available suitable for therefore, in principle, they should be mortar are missing in the survey. This is must not be more recent. scientific dating.

about The Åland Churches project 149 Kronologi för Ålands kyrkor 1200-t A CHRONOLOGY TAKES SHAPE Kronologi för Ålands kyrkor 1300-tal

Chronology for the Åland churches 13 th C Chronology for the Åland churches 14 th C

JOMALA CHURCH Nave,mortar 830± 26BP SUND CHURCH LEMLANDS CHURCH Tower,mortar 679±18BP Nave, mortar 821± 31BP Tower, wood 641±27BP Nave, dendro 1249 Nave, dendro 1285 KUMLINGE CHURCH Nave, east gable, mortar 579±15BP SUND CHURCH Nave, mortar 785±17BP HAMMARLAND CHURCH Rebuilding and vault, mortar 618± 38BP ECKERÖ CHURCH Rebuilding and vault, wood 627± 38BP Nave and sacristy, mortar 737±13BP Nave and sacristy, wood 706±40BP SALTVIK CHURCH Rebuilding and vault, mortar 633± 11BP HAMMARLAND CHURCH Rebuilding and vault, wood581± 49BP Nave, mortar 724± 20BP Nave, dendro 1373 Tower, mortar 683± 31BP Tower, mortal 655± 18BP Tower, wood 641± 16BP JOMALA CHURCH Tower, dendro 1381 Tower, mortar 720±12BP Tower, dendro 1283 LEMLAND CHURCH Tower, mortal 630± 21BP FINSTRÖM CHURCH Tower, dendro 1318 Nave, mortar 713±37BP Sacristy, dendro 1306 Porch, dendro 1366 SALTVIK CHURCH Nave and sacristy, mortar 712±19BP LEMBÖTE CHAPEL East gable, mortar 642± 15BP 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Calibrated age AD Calibrated age AD  Fig. 187a. The chronology for medieval stone churches in Åland, the 13th and 14th centuries.

The chronology of the Åland stone scientific dating of wood. In the activity spreads relatively evenly from so called mother churches, on the main churches consists of a combined analyses mortar and wood generally the 13th century onwards. Even if it is island (Jomala, Lemland, Sund, Eckerö, calibration, partly of mortar samples, come close to one another. possible to find that building activity has Hammarland and Saltvik, probably also partly of wooden samples (Figs. Once more it has to be stressed that been more intensive in some periods Finström) were erected more or less 187a-b). Note that the chronology analysis of mortar often is the only way than in others, no hiatus in the building simultaneously during the 13th century. remains the same, regardless of to reach the oldest building stages. We activity can be discerned. Of these Jomala and Lemland seem to whether it is based on mortar dating or can further see how the building The naves of the main churches, the be more ancient that the others, but as

150 about The Åland Churches project Kronologi för Ålands kyrkor 1400-tal Kronologi för Ålands kyrkor 1400-tal Chronology for the Åland churches 15 th C Chronology for the Åland churches 15 th C

KUMLINGE CHURCH Nave, west gable, mortar 496± 19BP FINSTRÖMS CHURCH ECKERÖ CHURCH Sacristy, mortar 392± 35BP Tower, mortar 390± 36BP Sacristy, dendro 1440± 4 Tower, wood 410± 45BP Rebuilding of nave, vault, mortar 414± 13BP Tower, dendro 1469 Rebuilding of nave, vault, wood 502± 20BP Porch, mortar 280± 55BP Rebuilding of nave, vault, dendro 1450 Porch, wood 290± 70BP Porch, dendro 1455 Tower, dendro 1467 HAMMARLANDS CHURCH Chancel, mortar 484± 41BP GETA CHURCH Chancel, wood 494± 36BP Nave, mortar 445± 14BP Roof of the chancel, mortar 340± 45BP Nave, wood 426± 33BP Roof of the chansel, dendro 1466 Nave, dendro 1453± 2 Sacristy, mortar 375± 50BP Sacristy, wood 450± 60BP HAMNÖ CHAPEL, KÖKAR Chapel ruin,mortar 383± 19BP VÅRDÖ CHURCH Nave, mortar 415± 37BP FÖGLÖ TOWER Nave, dendro 1470± 2 Tower,mortar 336± 23BP 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Calibrated age AD Calibrated age AD

 Fig. 187b. The chronology for medieval stone churches in Åland, the 15th century. with Finström, these results so far rely both dendrochronology and mortar included in the different surveys (Figs. described in the so-called Danish on too few samples analysed. analysis. Further, the campanile in 186a-f; Figs. 187a-b). But other, Itinerary, was either erected at the very Most early datings are based on Jomala seems to be the only one dated non-scientific evidence such as coins end of the 13th century, or in the 14th mortar analysis alone. The results fulfil from the 13th century, with the possible and preliminary mortar results, indicate century. In this case, the uncertainty the strict demands of Criterion I and II, exception of the tower in Hammarland. that Föglö also can belong to the 14th depends on the wiggles in the calibra- often in combination of the two. The The chronology of the 14th century century. We still lack results from tion curve for the 14th century. But nave of Lemland is so far the only one is not quite clear. As already mentioned, mortar dating in Kökar, but other thanks to dendrochronology we now to be dated to the 13th century by it is a century which cannot easily be materials that place the complex in the know that this century also was a dendrochronology, even though only established through 14C analysis. We 14th century have been scientifically dynamic period for Åland church few samples are available. The dating of are still waiting for results from the confirmed. The stone chapel of building. That was the time for an the west tower in Jomala to the 1280s is archipelago churches in Föglö and Lemböte, on the old sailing route intensive period of tower building, and very convincing with uniform series of Kökar. Therefore, they are not yet between Denmark and Estonia, and many secondary building units such as

about The Åland Churches project 151 porches and sacristies take shape. At picture with a map focusing on the vital sources was to be of great importance. beginning by one researcher in the field Saltvik radical rebuilding and vaulting points, the naves (Fig. 188). With At an early stage it became clear that of medieval stone churches, who has takes place in the nave at the end of the different centuries marked in different mortar dating, together with the reached very different results in his 14th century. colors a clear pattern can be discerned. implementation of all other possible estimation of a chronology for the The period 1450-70 means another It is quite obvious that the 13th scientific methods, would provide an Åland churches. intensive building period in Åland. We century is the most intensive building important opening. In retrospect we The project International Mortar can now witness an almost total period, with at least six mother can claim that it was more than Dating marks an important opening rebuilding of the church of Finström. In churches, marked in orange, erected fortunate that the big challenge - to nationally, and as part of our interna- this case scientific dating indicates a close to one another on the main island. develop an objective dating method for tional project, sponsored by the more substantial rebuilding than just the Finström, which remains unclear, is archeological questions – was initiated Academy of Finland since 2007, the vaulting of the nave and the erection of marked with diagonal orange lines. The in the Åland Islands. Here mortar was method is being tested on Turku the west tower. It also involved the 14th century meant that stone church very well behaved, and there is plenty Cathedral and on a number of churches heightening of the nave and the building reached the archipelago of comparative material available from in the Åboland archipelago outside sacristy. A porch was added to the parishes, with naves marked in green. other methods. Regardless of whether Turku. nave, and the impressive new tower, For Föglö and Kökar, the dating so far Åland mortars are analyzed in two or The comparative research and the

surrounded by four turrets reflecting depends on analyzing other materials five OC 2 fractions, it is generally the first development of the method also contin- influence from the Turku Cathedral than mortar. On the main island the fraction that counts. The results are ues on an international level, and here completes the rebuilding. focus was on secondary additions to easy to interpret and they generally the corpus of Åland mortars is an Three other towers were erected existing naves. The 15th century is yield distinct dates. important source of information. The relatively late, at the end of the 15th dominated by the vast rebuilding of the Exciting and enjoyable collaboration discussion concerning the different century, i.e., in Eckerö, Föglö and church in Finström, marked in blue, in within our research team has had credibility criteria, which has been of probably also in Kumlinge. The west addition to secondary building units fruitful results. Even if details certainly fundamental importance for the gable of Kumlinge church was built in added to several of the naves. Com- will be refined, and results will become interpretation of the results, so far 1410-30. The only completely new pletely new are the stone chapels of more precise, we have come close to concerns Åland mortars especially. A buildings from this century are the Geta and Vårdö, likewise marked in our ultimate aim: a chronology for the complete table covering all Åland stone chapels in Geta and Vårdö, blue. Furthermore, wooden chapels of medieval stone churches in Åland. We samples has recently been published belonging to the mother churches of unknown age but most probably have seen that mortar dating is often (Heinemeier et. al. 2010, see also www. Finström and Sund respectively. Very medieval, have been traced to Lumpar- the only way to reach the first building kyrkor.ax). We also know that the surprising is the late date of “Kappalska- land, Sottunga and Brändö. periods of the churches. Hopefully our criteria work outside the Åland Islands, tan”, the little wooden chapel at Hamnö, experience from scientific dating in in Portugal and in Gotland in Sweden, Kökar. Here no wooden material Conclusion Åland can inspire future research. For where the lime mortar is non-hydraulic. remained, but mortar from the socle A long time has passed since my us, such an interdisciplinary approach We aim at a general refinement of the level indicates that it could, together longing to get an answer to the has provided the necessary basis for method, where we will define the limits with the tower at Föglö, belong to the enigmatic and fascinating past of the reliable results. for mortar dating and map areas where very latest medieval ecclesiastic Åland Islands was triggered. I had The scientific community has the method works. constructions in Åland, erected around hoped that one day it might be possible followed our research with great The mortar dating study of the 1500. to understand the larger context, and to interest. Internationally, the response churches of the Åland Islands repre- From the chronological survey (Figs. take part in comprehensive interdisci- has been positive. The most prominent sents a significant development in 187a-b) one might get the idea that the plinary research– collaboration resulting researchers and laboratories in the field medieval archaeology in recent years. 15th century was the most dynamic in an objective and reliable chronology are now actively participating in the And while much research remains to be period as far as activity in building for the medieval stone churches in development of our method. done, it is hoped that this study will churches in Åland is concerned. It is Åland. Developing new tools to In Finland, however, our work has serve as a new basis for further therefore important to complement the compensate for the lack of written been continuously criticized from the development in the field.

152 about The Åland Churches project 13th Century 14th Century 15th Century Medieval wooden chapels

 Fig. 188. The Åland churches, the chronology of the naves marked on the map.

om projektet ålands kyrkor 153 Church with double naves, rectangular plan including chancel Church with single nave, and a narrower chancel in the east, no apse

Congregation Chancel Congregation Chancel Glossary

Aisles part of the church, passageways base for vaults and protruding building Corpus central part of an altarpiece, Hall church 1. Church with aisles but on either side of the nave, often lower units flanked by wings which can be closed without a clerestory, approximately than the nave against the corpus for certain liturgical uniform height throughout the interior (in Calvary group a scene from Golgotha feasts, such as Lent, etc German Hallenkirche). 2. A single nave Ambo medieval pulpit where Christ Crucified is flanked by church, where the interior forms a uniform Mary in mourning to the left and John, Course horizontal level range of stones space within the rectangular ground plan, Apse semicircular addition to provide mourning apostle to the right, see Fig.15. or bricks in the construction of the wall, with chancel or choir included in the space for the high altar, usually placed laid evenly rectangle not forming separate building at the eastern end of the nave, generally Chancel (often also called Choir) in a units (in Swedish Salkyrka) lower than the nave hall-church, without an apse, the space Cross arm as the shorter parts of a in the eastern part of the rectangular plan cruciform plan Iconography art historical terminology Axis in architecture a straight line, reserved for the clergy, with the high alter for the interpretation of images and along which elements of the plan are Cross vault intersecting barrel-vaults for the liturgy of the mass. Can also be a symbols symmetrically or systematically disposed separate narrow building unit, either with forming a groin-vault a straight eastern wall or finished by an Iconoclasm conscientious destruction Baldachin decoration in the form of a Dendrochronology scientific dating apse towards the east of images, often connected to the sheltering roof placed above wooden method based on the master curve of Reformation sculptures in an altarpiece, usually Choir (often also called Chancel) in a the annual rings in the felled timber in openwork, protruding and fastened on to hall-church, without an apse, the space building constructions or in wooden Jamb vertical support for an arch or a the back wall of the altarpiece, see Fig. 66. in the eastern part of the rectangular plan sculptures vault, carrying the weight of the arch or reserved for the clergy, with the high alter the vault Barrel-vault barrel-like, formed as a half- Double nave church consisting of two for the liturgy of the mass. Can also be a cylinder with a semicircular cross-section parallel naves, divided by columns or separate narrow building unit, either with Joint meeting point of two building units. pillars along the central axis. Can have a If bonded at the joint, they were probably Bay regular and uniform structural a straight eastern wall or finished by an rectangular ground plan without an apse, built at the same time. A vertical joint subdivision of a church, the space apse towards the east or a rectangular ground plan with an apse without bonding may suggest different enclosed by the two transverse arches and Choir-screen a screen wall or partition building stages the two wall arches in a single nave, or Eaves-board board fixed under the dividing the choir or chancel from the nave by the transverse arches and longitudinal overhanging of the roof shingles Man of Sorrows Christ rising from the arches in a church with double naves, or a Column freestanding vertical support, dead, demonstrating all his wounds. Groin sharp crease-like edge formed church with one nave and two aisles consisting of base, shaft and capital. The Often with the arms of passion by the salient between two intersecting shaft usually has a circular cross section. Bracket projection from a wall with a vaults, as in two barrel-vaults joined in Usually forming the division between the Molding any continuous projecting carrying or supporting function, used as right angles nave and the aisles in a church or inset architectural member with a

154 THE VOICE OF THE ÅLAND CHURCHES Church with short nave, two cross Church with barrel vaulted nave and vaulted bays, a narrower chancel Hall church, rectangular nave two narrow aisles with a straight east wall including the chancel Sacristy North portal Sacristy

West tower West tower Chancel Congre- Chancel withdrawn, gation Nave Chancel included in built on rectangular plan western bay Priest door West tower South portal Priest door Porch Porch

contoured profile defining and separating Porch southern entrance hall to church, Sacristy separate space towards the instance an altarpiece consisting of architectural details usually later addition in front of original north, for keeping vestry and church silver corpus, flanked by two wings main portal etc., also used as changing room for the Nave the main body of the church clergy Triumphal arch between chancel and between western wall and chancel, Rapakivi easily split Åland red granite nave, to mark the separation between whether aisled or not, used by laity or the Side-altar in addition to the high altar, clergy and the congregation congregation. Reliquary casket for or holder of relics, medieval churches had at least two side- see Fig. 37. altars, one in north devoted to Mary and Triumphal crucifix hanging in the Ordovician geological term for limestone the other to the patron saint triumphal arch found in Åland, Öland (Sweden), and in Rib vault carried by a structural skeleton Estonia of ribs Shell structure outer and inner shell of Transept in a cruciform church the larger fieldstones, with the smoother side transepts are the wings perpendicular to Ridge turret little tower riding on the Palmette frieze ornamental dividing facing the exterior, filled with mortar and the nave that complete the cross form; a ridge of the roof, see Fig. 133. frieze, see Fig. 16. aggregate transept is often of the same section as the nave, and may have no aisles Ring crucifix the cross-arms united by Paten plate for the oblates, see Fig. 33. Socle foundation wall, protruding from a ring, with the center of the circle in the the wall Turrets miniature towers Patron Saint a church is dedicated to a intersection of the cross, see Fig.15. patron saint Spandrel wedge shaped downwards Wall arch inside the wall, or parallel to a Ring vault in a stellar-vault the narrowing parts in the inner corners of the wall, anchoring for the vaults Pillar vertical support with square intersection of the ribs are circumscribed vault section, with or without base and capital, by rings, see Fig. 120. Wall–pier pillar erected against the wall, dividing nave and aisles, or the parallel Springing of vault the lowest course of often a later construction Rood beam cross beam between naves in double nave churches a vault, supporting structure chancel and nave, or across the nave, for Wall plate longitudinal timber set on top Pietà presentation of Mary in mourning, the carrying of the crucifix, synonym for Stellar vault late medieval development of a brick and masonry wall, on which roof holding her deceased son in her arms, see trabes, see Fig. 15 of rib-vaults, with the ribs arranged in the trusses, joists and rafters are resting Fig. 43. pattern of a star Roof-beam horizontal beam in a roof Predella horizontal and narrow lower truss uniting the rafters Transverse arch placed at regular part or base of an altarpiece, see Fig. 43. intervals across the nave, and the aisles, Roof-truss triangular structure carrying supporting the vaults Priest door separate entry from the the roof. Consisting of roof-beam and south for priests directly into the chancel rafters, resting at regular intervals on the Triptych tripartite construction, for wall-plates

GLOSSARY 155 Index of Names

Adam av St. Victor, 28 Haapanen, Toivo, 28 Lindgren, K.R., 81 Ringbom, Sixten, 42 Adelcrantz, Carl Fredrik, 131 Hale, John R. 138 Lindroos, Alf, 4, 138 Ringbom, Åsa, 5 Andersson, Aron, 30 Hartlin-Piimänen, Anders, 51, 97, 101 Lindström, Eric, 121 Rothof, Brita, 79, 81 Arnberni, Laurencius, 31 Hartlin-Piimänen, Mikael, 131 Lindström, Jonathan, 79 Rusch, Jacob, 79, 81 Bartholin, Thomas, 5 Hartvigsson, Kort, 38, 79, 95 Lönnroth, David, 59 Sadelin, P.U.F., 117 Bengts, Thure, 92 Hausen, Reinhold, 52, 103, 117 Magnus Eriksson, 70 Schewe, FD, 33 Berg (later Bergenstjerna), Johan Olufson, Hedberg, Anders Andersson, 111 Maloney, Stephanie, 138 Schulman, Allan, 103 50, 108, 109, 111 Hedemorus, Mathias Benedictij, 103 Mendes, Augusto, 4 Segerstråle, Lennart, 73 Berggren, P., 119 Heinemeier, Jan, 4, 137 Merisalo, Outi, 33 Sigurd av Finnaström, 27, 28, 70 Bergman, Jonas, 65, 76, 77, 119 Hellsten, Målare, 60 Murenius, Boetius, 41, 43, 48, 49, 50, 72, 79, Sipelius, Johan, 60 Boman, Isak, 79 Hildebrand, Bror Emil, 103 113, 115, 119, 130 Sipilä, Matts, 60 Brummer, ätten, 79 Häggblom, Dick, 77 Myra, Abraham, 49, 125, 126 Sjöberg, Pia, 4 Chiewitz, Georg Theodor Policron, 75 Johan III, 46 Niemi, Oskari, 73, 81 Sonck, Lars, 53, Dreijer, Matts, 11, 33, 69, 76, 117 Johannes Peterson, 29 Nikander, Bo, 5 Sonck-Koota, Pia, 4 Dreijer, Stig, 33 Johansson, Mårten, 48, 49, 115, 125, 131 Nikolai I, Kejsare, 77 Sundwall, Johannes, 27 Ekman, Robert Wilhelm, 52, 77, 106, 115, 129 Jungner, Högne, 137 Nyman, Valdemar, 7 Sten Sture d.ä., 49, 115 Eriksson, Hugo, 69 Katarina Jagellonica, 46 Nordberg, Petter, 120 Sveidel, G.G., 99 Fagerlund, L.W.,117 Kiellin, Bryniel Magni, 49, 125 Nunez, Milton, 137 Såltin-Frosterus, Alexandra, 60, 126 Fellström, Eric, 131 Kiljunen, Veikko, 81, 96, 108 Olaus Magni, 36, 37, 72 Tavaststjerna, Alarik, 85 Footangel, Harald, 49, 113 Kinder, T.N., 137 Pedersdotter, Kristin, 50, 108, 111 Tempelman, Olof Samuel, 51, 131 Forsberg, Matthias, 77 Klein, Peter, 5, 11, 134 Peter, arch bishop of Uppsala, 27 Tubbs, L.E., 137 Frankenhaeuser, Carl F., 53, 73 Kråkström, Erik, 76, 77 Petrus Henriksson, 42 Tångeberg, Peter, 5, 30, 134 Fällström, Eric, 131 Lancaster, Lynne, 138 Pilou, Gustaf, 65 Valdemar Atterdag, 31 Gustav Vasa, 28, 46, 47, 117, 119, 130 Lange (Langh), Klas (Claes), 111 Pitkänen-Darmark, Anna-Maaret, 4 Van Strydonck, Mark, 137 Gustavsson, Kenneth, 4, 101, 137 Laurentius Petri, 46 Radloff, F.W., 16 Westerholm, Victor, 52, 111 Gylich, Pehr Johan, 77 Lehtinen, Anja-Inkeri, 28 Remmer, Christina, 4 Westling, Woldemar, 90 Gyllenflög, the family, 79 Libby, Willard, F., 135 Reiman, Mathias, 58 Åman, Nils, 79, 81 Gäddnäs, Kerstin, 4 Lindberg, Bo Ossian, 4, 16, 19, 22, 36, 154 Reinhold, Bernhard, 64

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Åland Åland's museum, 80, 93, 94, 96, 171

Aarhus, Denmark AMS 14C Dating centre, University of Aarhus, 169, 135, sketch

Individuals Lars Berggren, back cover portrait

L.W. Fagerlund 1923, 150

Kenneth Gustavsson, 128

Reinhold Hausen 11, 131, 132, 149

Bo Ossian Lindberg, 10, 15, 20, sketches 37, 188

Alf Lindroos, 172, 176a, 178a, 180a, 181a, 182a

Augusto Mendes, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8a-b, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30a-b, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41a-b, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59a-b, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 92, 95, 101, 104, 105, 107, 114, 115, 116, 116, 119, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 129, 130, 133, 135, 136, 136, 139, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161a-c, 162, 164, 165, 167, 169

Anna-Maaret Pitkänen-Darmark, 2. inauguration cross, plans and façades in 1, 5, 27, 38

Åsa Ringbom, 17, 18, 33, 34, 40, 49, 62, 75, 88, 90, 91, 97, 98, 99, 100, 103, 106, 113, 117, 119, 130 detail, 138, 140, 141, 167, 170, 171, 175, 176b, 178b, 179, 180b, 181b, 182b, 183b-d, 184, 185, 186a-f, 187a-b

Pia Sonck-Koota, 173, 174, and the maps pp 12, 26, 34. The reconstructions based on information from the National Land Survey of Finland in combination with the present coastline, and Fig. 6. Ringbom & Remmer 1995, 19.

Kjell Söderlund, front cover

160 THE VOICE OF THE ÅLAND CHURCHES