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Science in Society VOLUME 4 ISSUE 3 The International Journal of Science in Society SCIENCE-SOCIETY.COM The International Journal of Science in Society ………………………………… VOLUME 4 ISSUE 3 2012 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE IN SOCIETY www.science-society.com First published in 2013 in Champaign, Illinois, USA by Common Ground Publishing LLC www.commongroundpublishing.com ISSN: 1836-6236 © 2012-2013 (individual papers), the author(s) © 2012-2013 (selection and editorial matter) Common Ground All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the applicable copyright legislation, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process without written permission from the publisher. For permissions and other inquiries, please contact [email protected]. The International Journal of Science in Society is peer-reviewed, supported by rigorous processes of criterion- referenced article ranking and qualitative commentary, ensuring that only intellectual work of the greatest substance and highest significance is published. EDITOR ………………………………… Karim Gherab Martín, Spanish National Research Council, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Spain EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD ………………………………… Carlos Elias, University Carlos III of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Christopher Impey, University Distinguished Professor, Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ Michael Peters, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA Kayte Spector-Bagdady, Presidential Commission for Bioethics, Washington, D.C., USA ASSOCIATE EDITORS ………………………………… Sulaiman Al-Balushi Elizabeth Garcia Almanza Peter Chamberlain Nicole Clare Collie Tanietta Delauney Andrew Domondon Julia Dordel Seval Güven Chris Impey Tuula Keinonen Narayan Khanal Erika Landau Fiona Lee Alex Lobos Joyce Lucas-Clark Fhatuwani J. Mundalamo Loreta Vivian Ramel-Galima Natasha Sarkar Michael Skoumios Maneerat Suthanthangjai Ryan Sweeder Louis Trudel Julie Wilson Meili Yang Scope and Concerns MODERN SCIENCE, CONVENTIONALLY UNDERSTOOD ………………………………… Conventional, modern science has had a number of characteristic features, which remain resilient today, but which are now also increasingly coming under challenge. Conventional science is about the physical-natural world, relatively autonomous of the social world. It is disinterested, striving to be independent of human agendas, values and interests. Its methods are consistent, stable and replicable, allowing the objective phenomena of the natural-physical world, external to human understanding, more or less to speak for themselves. It circulates its knowledge making practices amongst initiates to a self-enclosed discipline—an exclusive institutional, methodological and discursive space accessible only to participants who have been duly apprenticed as learners and passed tests of disciplinary entry. The connections between science and the everyday lifeworld are primarily through a unilinear, transmission model, from basic to applied science and from science to technology. Evaluations of social impacts are incidental rather than an integral to systemic feedback at the core of the scientific endeavor itself. CHANGING SCIENCE: TOWARDS GREATER SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT ………………………………… The Science in Society Conference, Journal, Book Imprint and News Weblog recognize the strengths, power and historic achievements of modern science in its conventional public and professional forms and self-understandings. However, they also explore the emergence in recent times of a more socially engaged science. This is a socially reflexive science, a science which reciprocates its understandings of the natural-physical world with the social world. It is a more open and dynamic science. Here are some key propositions about the relations of science and society in a new, reciprocal science: Society is deeply intertwined with science. Clear-cut and definitive separations cannot be made between the social-human and the natural-physical. This is both an epistemological proposition (our knowing the natural-physical world) and an ontological one (our being of and in the natural-physical world). Our methods may deceive when they purport to represent external phenomena in an unproblematized way. Science is intrinsically interested. At its most cogent and most productive, science is engaged, responsible and accountable to the social world. It is integrally linked to agendas, interests, values and ethical stances. These need to be declared and exposed to examination, just as much as science’s propositions about the character of the natural-physical world itself. A constant and searching investigation of human interests goes to the heart of the question of the social credibility and ongoing viability of science. Science’s methods are as humanist as they are objectivist. The methods of science must test the human-social context of knowing as much as they do knowable realities in the natural- physical world. Reciprocal science provides a full account of the conditions of knowing, not only in the microdynamics of observation, induction and calculation in relation to the natural-physical but also the broader social contexts of agenda-setting, risk assessment and application. Interested, reciprocal science is increasingly interdisciplinary. The most pressing questions of our times—sustainability, climate, health, well-being, to name just a few of the great contemporary human interests—require holistic answers. Scientists need to cross disciplinary boundaries to answer them, not only the various disciplines amongst the sciences, but also the social sciences, humanities and professions. Scientists routinely cross disciplinary boundaries, and they need to do so if they are to have a science which changes the world, albeit in small and incremental ways much of the time, and maybe also in potentially big ways. A dynamic, socially engaged science must be an open science. It should not favor particular geographic, national or cultural centers. It should not be skewed by demographic closures which restrict access for some kinds of potential participant. It will cross many sites of knowledge making, some conventional and some new: companies, communities, schools, non-government organizations, the public sector, informally self-constituted groups. It must be decentralized in its locations and distributed in its modes of operation. It should be pluralistic, tolerant of paradigm clashes and open to new disciplinary and interdisciplinary practices. It should be collaborative in its spirit, bringing together cross-disciplinary teams marked by the complementarity of their differences. It should be as equitable and fair as it is rigorous in its modes of evaluation of intellectual quality and practical applicability. Reciprocal science is subject-driven as well as object-oriented. Rather than establishing a primary investigator-instigated relation as has been conventionally the case in modern science, the new science should equally start with social questions. Such questions beg scientific investigation of natural-physical phenomena and their human context. This requires a change in the balance of agency between the lay public and the scientific expert, blurring the boundaries of where scientific questions are raised, how they are addressed and where they are answered. Reciprocal science is more powerfully recursive. The knowledge system of reciprocal science is enabled in part by new technologies and social processes of scientific communication. Peer review is opened out, its criteria more explicitly stated rather than embedded in implicit professional and network-bound processes. The review process becomes more reflexive and responsive in its rating and moderation systems. Scientific writers and readers come from a wider variety of places, and evaluation of scientific worth is without prejudice to the geographical or institutional source of scientific knowledge-making. Science and scientists are exposed to a wider public, and for that become more accountable. None of this is to say that that the newer, socially engaged science is unequivocally good. The more conventional modern science still has a role to play in many places, and is not without its peculiar merits. Although the Conference and its associated publication venues are future- oriented and agenda-setting, they do not assume a partisan position, supporting new kinds of science unequivocally against the heritage practices of science. Rather, these discussion spaces offer an open forum for debate. In moments of resolution of this debate, participants might be able to decide what of conventional disciplinary science that we want to preserve and what we might want to renovate. Whichever model of science we chose to practice, one thing likely can be agreed. Science faces great challenges in these times. These are not only to be understood in terms of the depths and breadths of the questions it is expected to address. But science also faces a dialectic in which there seems simultaneously to be greater public trust in science today, yet also greater skepticism about its costs and benefits. Table of Contents Geoengineering: Reflections on Current Debates ........................................................ 1 Paula Curvelo and Ângela Guimarães Pereira Modern Western Science in Initial Chinese Archaeological Development .............. 23 Meili Yang Using a Cross-disciplinary Investigation to Inform Questions about an Insecurely Provenanced Middle Eastern Manuscript: A Case Study
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