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A Reconstruction of Zhuangzi's Philosophy on Transcendence

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A Reconstruction of Zhuangzi's Philosophy on Transcendence religions Article The Big and the Great: A Reconstruction of Zhuangzi’s Philosophy on Transcendence Limei Jiang Center of Value & Culture, School of Philosophy, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; [email protected] Received: 29 November 2018; Accepted: 25 December 2018; Published: 4 January 2019 Abstract: This essay attempts to demonstrate the logic of Zhuangzi in his different attitudes toward “debate on big and small” by bringing into discussion the two versions of translation in the English languages, which provide a new approach to analyze the difference in the controversial commentaries on Zhuangzi. This essay points out that the ideal of “free and easy wandering” is a type of positive pleasure. By means of rational thinking and imagination, one’s searching for the external values is turned into the internal pursuit for wisdom in the transformation of things. Zhuangzi’s theory of transcendence not only provides the subject with multi-perspectives, but also substitutes the self-identity with self-value. Through the interaction between self-awareness and self-reaction, the subject can be unified with the great Dao through purposive activities. However, Guo Xiang’s commentary cancels the necessity of self-cultivation and negates the purposefulness of the subject, which underestimates the value of Zhuangzi’s construction of transcendence. Keywords: positive pleasure; purposiveness; self-awareness; self-reflection; no-self 1. Introduction The “debate on big and small” (xiaoda zhi bian小'K¨) was raised in the first chapter, Free and Easy Wandering (xiaoyaoyou逍e8), of the Zhuangzi. It is also discussed in other chapters such as On Making Things Fit Together (qiwulunPiº) and Autumn Waters (qiushuiË4). However, there are two different kinds of attitudes towards the big and the small in the text, which are: (1) it praises the big and disparages the small; (2) the coming together in unity of the big and the small. The former has been regarded as an expression of a philosophy of transcendence and the latter has been viewed as relativism or skepticism which rejects distinctions. The transmitted commentaries have also revolved around these topics resulting in controversy. Guoxiang郭a argues for the consistency of the status that the large and small can both achieve, while Lin Xiyi林希8, Luo MiandaoW勉S, Shi DeqingÊ·清, and Wang Fuzhi王+K hold that the large is much better than the small. In order to solve this confliction, Liu Xiaogan put forth a two-world framework of Zhuangzi: an earthy or secular world and transcendent and spiritual world (Liu 2014, p. 204). Chad Hansen explains the reason and logic in Zhuangzi’s relativist position from a pluralistic and naturalistic perspective on language (Hansen 1992), while Coutinho uses theoretical appreciation to point out that Zhuangzi is a pragmatist and not a relativist (Coutinho 2004, p. 165). This essay argues that Zhuangzi’s philosophy is a transcendent philosophy with humanism. By utilizing two different English translations of “da'”, this essay attempts to demonstrate the internal logic of Zhuangzi’s theory on the relationship between the two and also explores the possibility of connecting the Free and Easy Wandering chapter with the On Making Things Fit Together chapter. Moreover, this essay also points out some problems and insufficiencies with Guo Xiang’s interpretation of Zhuangzi. By offering a close reading of selected parts of Zhuangzi with respect to the topic of big Religions 2019, 10, 30; doi:10.3390/rel10010030 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2019, 10, 30 2 of 10 and great, the essay aims to demonstrate Zhuangzi’s theory of individual transcendence from the perspectives of value/fact, self-transformation/transformation of things, and self-identity/self-value. 2. The Big and the Great In Chinese, the concept of “big/great” (da') and “small” (xiao小) has many connotations and a high degree of ambiguity. They are used not only to describe the size of things, but also to describe the quantity and height of things. In addition, “big” and “small” in Chinese can be used as an adjective and as a noun; however, when used as a noun it is mainly used as word type.1 In contrast, there are two types of translation in English translations of the Zhuangzi, and in essays which discuss the “debate on big/great and small”. One translation is “big and small,” used for example by Watson(1968) , and Ziporyn(2009). Another kind of translation is “great and small,” employed for example by A.C. Graham (Graham 1981), James Legge (Legge 1891), Mair(Mair 1994), Hyun Höchsmann with Yang Guorong (Höchsmann and Yang 2007) and Liu Xiaogan (Liu 2014), among others. Chad Hansen simultaneously uses both of these translations; he points out that stories in the first chapter deal with the great and small, while large and small in the second chapter discuss the relativity of comparative distinctions (Hansen 1992, p. 272). If we look at how these translators treat instances of “da'” in the Free and Easy Wandering chapter (the form underneath), we may conclude that Graham, Ziporyn, Höchsmann and others do not specifically differentiate “da,” while Legge and Mair both use “da” very precisely. Both of them tend to use “big” or “huge” to describe the largeness of a thing’s shape, and choose “great” to explain formless and imageless things, emotions, knowledge, etc. Translator Great Big Large Huge Boat, bird’s Graham Wings, tree back Wind, knowledge, Boat, calabash, Legge accumulation of water, words bottle-gourds, tree, yak Mair Knowledge, speech, fear Fish (kun), tree Gourd Bird (Peng) Watson Wings Gourd, tree Boat Kun, gourd Ziporyn Gourd Gourd Gourd Kun, tree Höchsmann and Boat, bowl calabash, Wings Yak, clouds Yang tree, yak Peng, bird, Bird, gourd, Liu gourd Peng, In English, what “big” and “small” point to is the differences of a things’ quantity, degree, shape in space, while “great” denotes a state of superiority in addition to its original meaning of “large.” However, in Chinese, these two concepts are used in combination. If we bring the difference between the English words “big” and “great” into our discussion, we may have a different approach to demonstrate Zhuangzi’s attitude toward “da',” which will also provide a different perspective for understanding divergences in later commentaries on the “debate of big and small.” Zhuangzi prefers to employing very concrete beings to provide inspirations for imaginative space, which helps to create a psychological feeling of being “vast and far off.” The Free and Easy Wandering chapter opens with the back of Kun and the wings of Peng, orientating readers towards the imagination of their largeness. Zhuangzi then describes even greater spaces through proceeding descriptions: (1) 1 Chris Fraser makes a distinction between word type and word occurrence in the using of nouns in Chinese. He states that a word type is a word as identified generally, apart from its use in any particular context, while a word occurrence is a particular instance of a word in a particular sentence (Fraser 2007). Religions 2019, 10, 30 3 of 10 the Northern Darkness and Southern Darkness which can contain Kun and Peng and (2) the movement from the Northern Darkness to the vaster cosmic space of the Southern Darkness. The size of boats, winds, trees-of-heaven, and gourds in the following paragraphs are all used to express “largeness” in terms of their spatiality. He Bo of the Autumn Waters chapter and the story of Ren Gongzi fishing in the Externalizing Things (waiwu外i) chapter also express an appreciation for “largeness,” in order to illustrate the shallow knowledge of the subject due to their shortsighted views and limited mind. The quest for the essence of “da” not only fits with the rules of life and growth, but also reflects people’s pursuit for space.2 Confucius also mentioned that “benevolent persons enjoy mountains, wise persons enjoy rivers,” people become more open and carefree in their hearts when they enjoy the vastness of mountains and oceans, obtaining an appreciation for beauty and spiritual happiness. Moreover, Zhuangzi uses his exasperation with the turtledove and cicada to compare the difference in abilities and in the relative superiority of opinions that come from the size of the body in order to explain the exquisite spirit contained in “pursuing to fly south” (tunan zhi zhi图WK志). He uses the term “its vision below” (shixia Æ下) to explain the diverse viewpoints people have according to their respective positions. Based on the foundation of the original spatial meaning of “da,” Zhuangzi expands it to temporal and spiritual levels. He states that “small knowledge does not come up to large knowledge, and that few years do not come up to many years,” “big/many and small/few” (both use da'and xiao小) being used here portrays the quantity of one’s years and of one’s wisdom. Through the discussion of the relativity of the big/great and the small (especially the relativity of the big), Zhuangzi rebukes the people’s blind opinion of themselves as high, reminding them of the limitations inherent in the shape of their bodies, lives, and wisdom and thus he “gives us a greater and more accurate appreciation of our true place in the world.” (Ivanhoe 1996, p. 210) As a result, people are encouraged to break out of their own limitations to seek the unlimited, constantly seeking for the big and bigger until they finally become great. Zhuangzi artfully uses the continuity between “big” and “great” to turn people’s search for greatness into a subjective intuitional feeling and rationally deduced autonomy, people’s quest for an externally great space is been turned into a quest for an internal wisdom. Therefore, in Zhuangzi’s opinion, obtaining spiritual freedom is the process of a subject moving towards “dependencelessness” (wudai无待).
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