Südosteuropa Im Spätmittelalter : Akkulturierung – Integration – Inkorporation?

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Südosteuropa Im Spätmittelalter : Akkulturierung – Integration – Inkorporation? Südosteuropa im Spätmittelalter : Akkulturierung – Integration – Inkorporation? VON OLIVER JENS SCHMITT (1) Das südosteuropäische Spätmittelalter als Forschungsproblem S. 81. – (2) Demogra- phische Folgen der osmanischen Eroberung S. 91. – (3) Die Gesellschaft S. 94. – (3.1) Die osmanischen »Markgrafen«geschlechter S. 94. – (3.2) Der osmanenfreundliche ortho- doxe Balkanadel S. 96. – (3.3) Der teils orthodoxe, teils islamisierte örtliche Dienstadel S. 101. – (3.4) Vlachen S. 104. – (4) Integration durch »innere Kolonisierung« und fiskali- sche Privilegierung S. 105. – (4.1) Übernahme bestehender Verwaltungs- und Gesell- schaftsformen S. 109. – (5) Die christlichen Kirchen und der Islam als Religion der Er- oberer und der neuen Herrenschicht S. 111. – (6) Turkisierung und Islamisierung S. 114. – (6.1) Zuwanderung in den ländlichen Raum S. 116. – (6.2) Städte S. 118. – (6.3.) Nomaden S. 120. – (6.4) Islamisierung S. 121. – (6.5) Derwischorden S. 126. – (6.6) Mate- rielle Kultur S. 129. – (7) Versuch einer Deutung S. 131. (1) Das südosteuropäische Spätmittelalter als Forschungsproblem Während am Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts auf einer der beiden großen Halbinseln des eu- ropäischen Kontinents, der iberischen, die islamische Herrschaft endgültig verdrängt wurde, unterwarf am anderen Ende Europas ein aufstrebendes Großreich, dasjenige der Osmanen, die Balkanhalbinsel für lange Jahrhunderte1). Diese welthistorische Umwäl- zung im europäischen Südosten hat die Geschichtsforschung seit langem beschäftigt und die unterschiedlichsten Deutungen hervorgebracht, deren Pole durch die Vorstellung vom »türkischen Joch« und von einer »Friedensherrschaft«, einer pax ottomanica, gebil- det werden. Letztere wird mit Nachdruck von der modernen Osmanistik vertreten, die nach 1945 die Deutungshoheit über die Bewertung der osmanischen Eroberung des Bal- 1) Ich danke Irène Beldiceanu-Steinherr (Paris) für viele wertvolle Hinweise und eine gründliche Kritik des Textes. Sämtliche Wertungen und mögliche Fehler liegen ganz in der Verantwortung des Verfassers. 68784_umbr_vuf78.indd 81 16.04.14 (16) 11:17:21 82 OLIVER JENS SCHMITT kans übernommen hat, begünstigt auch von der Tatsache, dass andere Deutungen nun- mehr vornehmlich jenseits des Eisernen Vorhangs entstanden und daher weniger Gehör fanden. Die Gesamtdarstellungen des osmanischen Reiches aus der Feder führender Os- manisten behandeln die Eroberung Südosteuropas zumeist als Etappe des Aufstiegs ei- nes von ihnen mitunter mehr oder weniger offen bewunderten Reiches, in einer Meister- erzählung, die nicht selten einen »Helden« aufweist, die Osmanen, deren Gegner ganz im Schatten bleiben oder als kulturell rückständig, politisch zerstritten und gesell- schaftspolitisch repressiv dargestellt werden2). Erhebliche Mühe verwendet die Osmanis- tik auch darauf zu zeigen, dass der islamische Glaubenskrieg im Gegensatz zu älte ren 2) Halil İnalcik, An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1600, Cambridge 1994, S. 15–20, 31–32 (Population movements), erwähnt die massiven Fluchtwellen besonders aus dem westlichen Balkan nicht, hebt aber hervor, das osmanische Reich sei immer offen für Flüchtlinge gewe- sen, wobei er die sephardischen Juden anführt. Während, so diese Sicht, christliche Reiche andersgläu- bige Gruppen verdrängten, habe das osmanische Reich Toleranz walten lassen; Halil İnalcik, Ottoman Methods of Conquest, in: Studia Islamica 2 (1964), S. 103–129. Eine emotionalisierte Begrifflichkeit (mit Termini wie »Hetzschriften« bezüglich der Türkentraktate des 15. Jahrhunderts, S. 12) oder dem Zeit- geist verpflichtete Bewertungen (»Mehrere Quellen bestätigen, dass Mehmets Anliegen darin bestand, ein multikulturelles und religiös tolerantes Weltreich zu schaffen«, S. 8) verwenden die Herausgeber eines jüngst erschienenen Sammelbandes zu Mehmed II. (Sultan Mehmet II. Eroberer Konstantinopels – Patron der Künste, hg. von Neslihan Asutay-Effenberg und Ulrich Rehm, Köln 2009; vgl. die kriti- sche Besprechung von Thomas Woelki in hsozkult, http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/rezensio- nen/2010-1-026), wo dieser als gütiger Humanistenfürst dargestellt wird, was bei einem Blick auf die Verwüstungen und die Opfer von Mehmeds Eroberungszügen doch als verkürzte Sicht erscheinen muss. Die Politisierung osmanischer Geschichte auf dem Balkan ist bislang nur in einer Richtung aufgearbei- tet worden, nämlich als – dies sei hier unterstrichen – durchaus berechtigte Kritik an dem sehr negativen Osmanenbild in den nationalen Historiographien Südosteuropas. Die ebensowenig unpolitische Ideali- sierung des osmanischen Reiches und die dabei wirksamen wissenschaftlichen Netzwerke (unter ande- rem durch von der türkischen Regierung unterstützte Lehrstühle, etwa in den Vereinigten Staaten) sollten aber ebenso kritisch hinterfragt werden; zur Politisierung der bulgarischen Osmanistik siehe Elena Grozdanova, Bulgarian Ottoman Studies at the Turn of Two Centuries: Continuity and Change, in: Études balkaniques 2005/3, S. 93–146; zur selben Problematik in Albanien Dritan Egro, Historia dhe ideologjia. Një qasje kritike studimeve osmane në historiografinë shqiptare (nga gjysma e dytë e shek. XIX deri më sot), Tirana 2007. Dass die osmanistische Forschung in Teilen zu stark von osmani- schen Quellen bestimmt ist, hob Irène Beldiceanu-Steinherr hervor (Besprechung von New Ap- proaches to State and Peasant in Ottoman History, hg. von Halil Berktay und Suraiya Faroqhi, Lon- don 1992, in: Turcica 26 (1994), S. 386. Zur Diskussion um das osmanische Erbe in Südosteuropa siehe Die Staaten Südosteuropas und die Osmanen, hg. von Hans Georg Majer, München 1989; La perception de l’héritage ottoman dans les Balkans/The Perception of the Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans, hg. von Sylvie Gangloff, Paris 2005; Centres and Peripheries in Ottoman Architecture. Rediscovering a Bal- kan Heritage, hg. von Maximilian Hartmuth, Sarajevo 2011; Images of Imperial Legacy. Modern Dis- courses on the Social and Cultural Impact of Ottoman and Habsburg Rule in Southeast Europe, hg. von Tea Sindbaek und Maximilian Hartmuth, Berlin 2011. 68784_umbr_vuf78.indd 82 16.04.14 (16) 11:17:22 SÜDOSTEUROPA IM SPÄTMITTELALTER 83 Vorstellungen kaum als Hauptmotivation der Eroberer angesehen werden könne3). Ins- gesamt erscheint die osmanische Eroberung – besonders in den Augen türkischer Histo- riker (prägend wirkte H. Uzunçarşılı, dessen wichtige »Osmanische Geschichte« 1947 erschien) – als Akt der Zivilisation, des politischen, wirtschaftlichen und kulturellen Fortschritts; über die zerstrittenen Christen wölbte sich ein Reich der Toleranz, des Friedens und des Wohlstands. Stimmen, die auf die Verwüstungen durch die Kriege, den Widerstand der Bevölkerung des Balkans, auf jede Form von Widerständigkeit und Wi- dersetzlichkeit verweisen, werden entweder überhört oder als Rufe aus dunkler nationa- listischer Vergangenheit abgetan4). Die Haltung vieler gerade nicht-türkischer Osmanis- ten ist freilich vor dem Hintergrund jener sehr negativen und sachlich oft falschen Deutungen zu verstehen, die die südosteuropäischen Nationalhistoriographien teils bis in die Gegenwart vertreten. Das Thema dieser Arbeit besitzt daher eine Metaebene, die in dieser Deutlichkeit herausgestellt werden muss, um die eigentliche Forschungsfrage anzugehen, die sich mit den gesellschaftlichen und vor allem kulturellen Folgen der osmanischen Eroberung 3) Heath W. Lowry, The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, Albany 2003; Rudi Paul Lindner, No- mads and Ottomans in medieval Anatolia, Bloomington 1983; Paul Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire, London 1938; vgl. Ernst Werner, Die Geburt einer Großmacht. Die Osmanen 1300–1481, Wien 21985. 4) An wichtigeren Darstellungen aus der angelsächsischen Osmanistik Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire 1300–1481, Istanbul 1990; Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire 1300–1650, Basingstoke 22009; Kemal Kafadar, Between two Worlds. The Construction of the Ottoman State, Berkeley 1995; siehe auch die gesammelten Aufsätze der bulgarischen Osmanistin Rossitsa Gradeva, Rumeli under the Ot- tomans 15th–18th Centuries: Institutions and Communities, Istanbul 2004. Wichtig sind wegen ihrer kritischen Sicht Rudi Paul Lindner, Explorations in Ottoman prehistory, Ann Arbor 2007; Karl Bins- wanger, Untersuchungen zum Status der Nichtmuslime im Osmanischen Reich des 16. Jahrhunderts, München 1977. Zur historiographischen Diskussion siehe Klaus-Peter Matschke, Research Problems concerning the Transitions to Tourkokratia: the Byzantinist Standpoint, in: The Ottomans and the Balkans. A Discussion of Historiography, hg. von Fikret Adanır und Suraiya Faroqhi, Leiden 2002, S. 79–113; Klaus-Peter Matschke, Das Kreuz und der Halbmond. Geschichte der Türkenkriege, Düs- seldorf 2004; Heath W. Lowry, The Shaping of the Ottoman Balkans 1350–1500. The Conquest, Sett- lement & Infrastructural Development of Northern Greece, Istanbul 2008; als neueste und aufgrund des Publikationsorts maßgebende Darstellung aus osmanistischer Sicht ist zu werten: Machiel Kiel, The Incorporation of the Balkans into the Ottoman Empire, 1353–1453, in: The Cambridge History of Tur- key, Bd. 1: Byzantium to Turkey, hg. von Kate Fleet, Cambridge 2009, S. 138–191, dessen Darstellung besonderen Wert auf eine Kontinuität türkischer Besiedlung des Balkans von der vorosmanischen zur osmanischen Zeit legt. Hinzuweisen ist in diesem Zusammenhang auf die mahnenden Worte des Basler Orientalisten Maurus Reinkowski: »They (türkische Historiker, O. S.) will also have to look at South East Europe not only from an imperial perspective,
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