237 HARVESTING THE SMALL FOREST

ARTHUR M. SOWDER

Harvesting the woodland crop^ or periods, equal to 5 percent of the work- loggings is the last stage in the pro- day. duction of the crop. It is like the final Before he starts his tree harvest, the step in producing potatoes or doing owner should know the outlets for the farm chores, such as milking. A farmer crop. If they are to be marketed, the does not sell his potatoes while they products should be contracted for by are in the ground or the milk while it written agreement. It is worth while to is in the cow. By doing his own harvest- inquire about the products in demand, ing or chores, he is selling his services. and study the logging of those products In the South, for instance, about as to quantity and quality, with the one-half the value of some harvested equipment available. Also, before start- forest products, such as sawlogs, is rep- ing, it is well to mark the trees to be resented by the standing tree—hence cut with , crayon, or lime spots. one-half comes about through logging In marking, the owner should bear in and hauling. In other words, harvest- mind that it usually costs more per ing doubles the sawlog returns from cord or per thousand board feet to log the woodlands. small trees than it does large ones, but Owners of small who do their in time the owner will learn which are own logging are apt to practice good the profitable tree sizes and species and forestry. When one does his own log- how long it takes trees to grow to a ging according to a sound plan, he will profitable logging size. It is a good idea exercise more care to get better utili- likewise to consult a local forester or zation, avoid damage to future crop the county agent. They will know local trees, leave the area in better shape for conditions and markets and be able to forthcoming operations, and—more advise on the practicability of doing than likely—protect his woodland from the logging one's self or letting it out fire, insects, and diseases. on contract. If any help is to be hired, Logging generally can be done in they can give good advice on the going slack seasons. Often it is a welcome wages, tJhe phases of the work that change from other farm work. It can have been declared too hazardous for fit in nicely with a balanced farm pro- under-age workers, and the workmen's gram. Usually winter is the best season compensation requirements. for the woods work: Snow, frost, and Mechanical equipment, such as frozen ground facilitate skidding and power , splitters, and tree hauling, although they increase the ac- planters, has helped make some of the cident rate and, for products that must work easier. be peeled, cold is a handicap. As with other types of farm work, Logging is hard work, but it is sur- scarcity of help has led to increased prising how some jobs can be made mechanization in woodland operations easier by planning, how quickly experi- in order to maintain production. In ence makes one more efficient in the logging, however, mechanization has use of and equipment, and how not materially lowered the production much effort is saved by keeping tools costs on the smaller operations. sharp. In fact, farmers often say that Many small operators have aban- after a day or two in the woods they doned the use of the power chain , enjoy the work. The hardest part is because they have found it more ex- to get started—and, after starting, to pensive than hand tools. The two-man remember that experienced woods gas saw is too costly to use on inter- workers usually take breathers, or rest mittent, low-production jobs in the 238 Yearbook of Agriculture 1949 small timber. To be economical, it 2. Skidding products from stump to requires enough timber to keep a crew skidway, landing, or assembly point. of three to five men busy. One-man The essential tools and equipment power chain saws^ now on the market, arc: promise to be better suited to use on Skidding chain. small jobs in small timber. If one owner Peavey. of a small woodland cannot afford to Pow'Cr (animal or machine). buy mechanized equipment, he might Rigging. go in with other owners and purchase Ax. it jointly. Or, equipment is available The optional tools and equipment sometimes on a custom basis, the same are: as threshing machines and corn pickers. Tongs or grapple hooks. Another possibility is to trade labor or Skid sled. arrange through a service type of log- Skid pan, etc. ging ring, operated on a fee basis not Extra rigging. unlike the spray rings employed in Wagon. horticulture, for some of the work. Log cart. But even with ordinary tools, the 3. Loading the products on wagon work is made easier by using one's head, or truck (and perhaps unloading at keeping the tools sharp and in safe the destination). working condition, planning the log- The essential tools and equipment ging work and lay-out, and taking ad- are: vantage of gravity. Peavey, or cant hook. Three steps arc involved in log- Cross-haul line. ging, but the ways of doing the w^ork Pole skids. in the suggested steps will vary ac- Power (animal or machine). cording to the woodland and the prod- Rigging. uct harvested. The steps are : Wagon or truck or sled. 1. (or falling) the tree and The optional tools and equipment preparing the products, which in- are: cludes : Loader or jammer. a. the tree; Pulp hook. Z?. Bucking it into product size; Block and tackle. €. Peeling, splitting, and hewing One should be careful, so as to avoid the products, when required : accidents. The most common accidents d. Slash disposal, if necessary. in the woods arc due to , saws, The essential tools and equipment suspended broken branches, and being for this step are: on the downhill side of rolling logs. Fibcrboard safety helmet. Even in lifting there is a right and Ax. wrong way. Properly done, the arms Saw. and back are kept straight and the legs Wedge. bent, so that the lifting is done with Hammer. the leg muscles. Wherever possible, di- Measuring stick. rect lifting should be avoided and use Coal oil. made of a peavey or pole. A fiberboard Saw file. safety helmet, a part of the essential Whetstone. equipment, protects the head from fall- The optional tools are: ing limbs, or, in woods language, the Peavcy, or cant hook. widow makers. Log jack. Pulp hook. THE AX is probably the most impor- Peeling tools. tant of all logging tools. It is in use Tie-making tools. about one-half of the woodsman's Wood splitters. working time. For that reason, if any Harvesting the Small Forest 239 choice is possible, one should give care- ering limbs, treetops, and working in ful consideration to its selection—to fit post-size material. the ax to the work contemplated. For large timber, the length of the Of a hundred patterns and sizes, a saw should be about twice the diam- few pointers to consider are: eter of the largest material to be cut, The wider blades are better suited so that one can use long, straight for ( the evergreens ) and the strokes and bring out the accumulated narrower blades for . in the gullets. The handle should be of straight The tooth pattern varies with the grain, smooth, free of defects, and lined species of wood to be cut and condi- up in the same as the cutting tion of the wood, its seasoning, whether edge of the head, with the head well it is frozen, and so on. A narrow, down on the shoulder. Rough handles curved is better suited to raise blisters. wedging in smaller timber than the The weight, single or double bit, and wide, straight-backed type. hang will vary according to preference A properly sharpened saw makes and use. An ax weighing from 3 to 4 shavings, not saw^dust. As with the ax, pounds is about the right weight. there is no substitute for practice, either Properly forged and tempered steel in using the saw or in fitting it. axheads are usually found in the better It is best to carry the crosscut saw axes. with only one handle attached. The For productive and safe work, the ax blade should be over the shoulder with should be kept sharp. The user must the teeth out. One should be sure no have good footing wdth a firm grip on one is following close behind. If nec- the handle. Room is needed to swing essary to carry the saw at one's side, the ax. The most common obstructions, the teeth should be kept up so the saw low limbs and brush, should be re- can be thrown aside in case of a fall. moved. The can be slung over the The ax should be carried at one's shoulder, teeth to the rear. Either type side, with the hand just behind the can be protected by a piece of garden axhead. One-fourth of the accidents or fire hose, slit lengthwise, and tied in the woods are attributed to ax cuts. over the teeth. Burlap offers some pro- A single-bitted ax is somewhat less dan- tection. The saw should be kept in a gerous to use than a double-bitted one. safe place when it is not in use. Saw- The ax should be kept in a safe place tooth injuries are usually serious. when not in use—such as standing Powxr saws arc finding a place in against a tree or stump, with the han- larger operations and on a custom basis dle up. It is unwise to use the side of on small jobs. Plans for home-made an ax for a sledge hammer in wedg- types of crosscut power saws suitable ing; a sledge hammer or mall should be for bucking logs will be sent by the De- used for wedging. partment of Agriculture on request.

A SAW is used about a third of a METAL WEDGES^ preferably of un- woodsman's working time. The one- tempered steel, are useful for falling, and two-man crosscut saws in 51/^- to bucking, and splitting. They should 6-foot lengths are the most common. be driven with a sledge hammer or The bow saw, 3 to 4 feet long, with mall, not with the side of an ax. They a tapered saw blade held under ten- are of various sizes and shapes. They sion, and easily operated by one man, are cumbersome to carry around and is well adapted for timber up to a foot easily misplaced, but are indispensable. in diameter, such as pulpwood, fuel A wedge with a badly mushroomed wood, posts, poles, and the head is dangerous, because metal frag- smaller sawlogs. ments may fly off when it is struck. A smaller bow saw is handy for sev- Steel wedges are not recommended 240 Yearbook^ of Agriculture 1949 for use with a power saw—rather, It takes no special skill to use the wooden or specially made wedges of peavey for prying, but there is a knack soft metals, aluminum or magnesium. in using it for loading, unloading, and Wedges made of shock-resistant, sea- rolling logs. The beginner should first soned woods, such as ash, , , learn to use the peavey from behind the dogwood, gum, , ironwood, log or bolt. , , or persimmon, are satis- A log jack—an adaptation of the factory and often can be made lo- cant hook—is a used in raising the cally—even on the logging job. Satis- log being sawed a few inches off factory dimensions of wedges are 4 the ground so as to avoid sawing into inches wide and 7 inches long, with a the ground, or to keep the saw^ from thickness and taper comparable to that binding. of metal wedges. A handy tool for getting hold of Explosive wedges sometimes are very short bolts or pulp wood is the pulp helpful for splitting large logs, but only hook, which resembles the common an experienced person should use them. hay hook. Injuries while using the A hammer weighing 4 or 5 pounds pulp hook usually come from missing is recommended for driving wedges. A the wood and striking the leg instead. large driven into the eye of the A half dozen hand tools and several hammerhead, and sharpened spikelike, types of machines for removing the permits the hammer to be stuck into a bark of forest products are on the mar- log, so that one can keep track of it. ket. The common hand tools are tim- For pitchy woods, such as and ber shaves, peeling spuds, a garden , coal oil is essential for cleaning spade, or merely an automobile spring the saw blade to prevent sticking. It is leaf. The type to be used depends best applied from a flat bottle, a size chiefly on the size of timber, the species, convenient to carry in a trouser pocket. and the season of the year. For peeling Another essential tool is an 8-foot, timber the size of pulpwood and posts, straight, measuring stick made from a support, or shaving "horse," can be a board or a sapling, w^ith 1-foot mark- conveniently made. ings plainly indicated. It saves time in There arc several mechanical peel- measuring off the proper lengths of ing machines. Some shave the bark off felled trees. A hook on one end facili- with revolving cutter heads; others tates its use. The specified trimming knock the bark off with a fast-revolv- allow^ance ( 3 or 4 inches for most saw^- ing, short-chain length or hammers. logs) may be added by eye, but one The broadax is of standard design. should be careful not to cut ofi: the end It is used in hewing building logs and of the measuring stick when making ties. Skill in handling it comes through a mark with the ax. An inch or two practice. It is heavy and hazardous to short may place the log into the next use. shorter length class, thus wasting wood Farm-made machines for splitting and lowering the selling price. wood have proved successful in the A good file with a handle is easy to Lake States and North Central States. carry in the woods and can be used to There are two general types. One uses sharpen tools during rest periods. Some a fly wheel, 3 or 4 feet in diameter, to woodsmen prefer to use a whetstone which a splitting w^edge is attached. for sharpening their axes. The other has a wedge welded to a moving piston head. The first seems to THE OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT includes be the more versatile; splitting a cord the peavey, or cant hook, which is cum- of stove wood an hour with it is not bersome to carry about the woods but unusual. More than 300 machines of is helpful in rolling or prying logs, ties, this type are in use by farmers in and bolts, and in bucking, skidding, North Dakota. loading, and unloading. So much for the kinds of tools and Harvesting the Small Forest 241 equipment used in the first step of log- cut. Properly done, the undercut ging—felling the trees. Some sugges- guides the direction of fall. The main tions about the operation follow. saw cut is then made on the opposite side of the tree, slightly above the base FELLING TREES is hazardous and dif- of the undercut. When the saw begins ficult. More men lose their lives while to bind, it is time to use a wedge. Be- felling trees than on any other woods fore the final cut is completed, sound job, because tree fallers have a tend- plenty of warning to all in the vicinity ency to take chances instead of pre- by yelling "t-i-m-b-e-r." Sometimes a cautions. A beginner would profit by 15- to 2Ü-foot pry pole (never an ax) working with an experienced faller. against the tree is an aid in felling it. The tools best adapted to a particu- As the tree starts to the ground, with- lar felling job depend on the species, draw the saw and quickly move to a size, and character of the timber. A safe distance; stand facing the falling two-man crew works to good advan- tree and watch the top, preferably tage for timber of average size. from behind a large tree. Do not try to In felling, a common logging waste carry tools, but be on the lookout for occurs by leaving high stumps, for usu- widow makers. Trees with unbalanced ally the best grade of is cut from crowns, with excessive lean and defec- the stump portion of the tree. Low tive trunks, and so on, often give diffi- stumps save wood and mean less ob- culty and occasionally get hung up in structions in the skidding operations neighboring trees. Then one must use to follow. For trees up to 20 inches in his ingenuity to free them and, in doing diameter, stump heights should be kept so, the utmost in care and alertness is to 8 inches or less, and 12 inches for demanded. larger trees. To determine the direction of fall LIMBING AND BUCKING is done when for a tree, one must consider the lean the tree is down. To facilitate handling of the tree; wind movement; slope of and skidding, the limbs should be cut the ground, and subsequent skidding; flush with the stem. openings on the ground ; possible dam- Limbing is done mostly with an ax; age to other trees, including future that, too, can be a dangerous job if the crops ; soundness of the tree at the cut ; ax is used improperly. As a precaution and the ground cover (rocks and logs). against injury when swinging an ax, Felling should be done with a thought overhead branches should be removed. to skidding. The object is to fell the The chopper should work with his feet tree without breaking it or damaging on the ground (not standing on a log other trees and to drop it in a spot or limb) and cut the branches on the from wehere it can be easily skidded. opposite side, thus swinging the ax Brush and limbs that interfere with away from the body. use -of the tools should be removed Bucking—that is, cutting up—the first. A quick get-away route should tree is an exacting job. In bucking, the be determined before the tree starts logger largely determines the grade of to fall. Trees dropped uphill on steep each product by separating the high- slopes are especially dangerous, for they value sections from those of low value. are apt to slide. Proper bucking permits cutting out defects, eliminating crooked portions, IN FELLINGJ tw^o cuts are made on and the like. The entire merchantable opposite sides of the tree, the undercut tree length should be considered and and the main saw cut. The undercut m.easured carefully, and allowances is made with a saw on the side the made for any necessary trimming. tree wall fall, and into about one-third Bucking trees into sawlogs and ve- the diameter. A wedge-shaped section neer logs is more difficult and more is then chopped out to form the under- involved than making pulpwood or 802002=—49 17 242 Yearbook^ of Agriculture 1949 fuel wood. Bucking usually requires Railroad ties made in the woods are from one-tenth to one-fifth of a log- usually fashioned with a broadax and ger's time. cut to specification. In the woods, the under limbs often The slash—limbs, tops, and debris— are left on to furnish support in buck- accumulated from the felling and limb- ing. Blocking may be necessary to prop ing operations may have to be gotten ends of the logs to avoid pinching the out of the way of the skidding opera- saw or to keep the wood from splitting. tions. They should be left so as not to Such a prop is called a "dutchman." be a serious fire hazard or a handicap Sometimes sawing is done on the un- to the remaining trees or seedlings. In der side to avoid pinching the saw. A general, slash should be chopped to peavey, or log jack, comes in handy to lie flat on the ground so it will decay put the pieces into sawing positions. more rapidly. Under certain condi- Working alone, the buck er should tions, it should be piled and burned. work on the upper side of logs^ or block them to prevent rolling. THE SKIDDING EQUIPMENT needed to When the main tree stem is to be move products from the stump to an made into a variety of products (saw- assembly point depends on the size, logs, pulpwood, pihng, fuel wood, and length of product, skidding distance, posts) according to the utilization and lay of the land, soil conditions, season markets, the terms "integrated log- of year, and how the logs were felled. ging" or *'integrated utilization" are Animals or machines supply the used. That is often accomplished by draft power needed to move the prod- skidding the entire merchantable length ucts from the stump to skidding termi- to the skidway, landing, or assembly nal—skidway, landing, or the assembly point, and doing the bucking there. point. Often a horse or a mule can It is helpful to have the stem off handle small products economically the ground during bucking; that is over short distances of several hundred done at the skidway or the landing by feet. Large material and longer hauls rolling the material on skid poles. recjuire a team or tractor. If the log has to be peeled, the bark A peavey, to pry and lift log ends is most easily removed in spring and and roll the products at the skidway, early summer, immediately after fell- landing, or assembly point, makes the ing. Some of the products from which lifting work easier. bark is removed are fence posts, poles, A 12- to 15-foot skidding chain or piling, ties, building logs, and, some- wire-rope choker (with a slip hook to times, pulpwood. The type of peeling circle and hold the log and attach the tool to be used depends on the species free end to the rigging of the draft of wood, size of timber, and season of power) makes up the necessary skid- year. Some of the peeling machines ding outfit. Log tongs and grapple now available arc rather costly and are hooks can be considered optionaL not adapted to small jobs. Occasionally Extra items, which it may pay to peeling is done to recover the bark for buy, include various skidding aids such industrial uses. as skidding pans, the yarding sleds, Splitting is usually necessary for wheeled bummers, the logging scoots, fuel wood, bolts, large fence posts, wagons, and log carts. and the like. Splitting mauls, wedges, and hammers are used. For stove- SKIDDING, OR YARDING, is the first length fuel wood, portable splitting movement of products from the stump. machines, previously mentioned, are Usually they are dragged over the efficient. Outlets and markets for prod- ground to the skidway, landing, or as- ucts to be split should be well known sembly point. or contracted for before performing It pays to give considerable thought the work. to skidding in order to do the job eco- Harvesting the Small Forest 243 nomically and with little damage to landings, affects the output of skidding the future woods crop. Careful plan- and later loading out of the products. ning means less delay. Under normal At least two long, straight logs or skids, operations it has been estimated that strong enough to support the logs, delay time takes up 40 percent of the poles, and piling, are necessary. They working day. Poorly constructed skid are slightly inclined to make the roll- roads account for 15 percent of this. ing toward the loading point easy. Battered rocks, mud holes, as w^ell as When it is necessary, the logs, poles, broomed stumps are unnecessary ob- and other products can be piled or structions in the skid trail. Obviously decked on skidways by using skid poles skid trails should be wide enough for and peaveys. Care must be taken to pre- the draft power and products to clear vent the pieces from rolling and in- on curves. Strategic location of skid- juring the w^orkers. way sites and skidway construction also If the volume of timber, ground con- are important to loading and hauling. ditions, and skidding distance w^arrant, Dragging over the ground is called equipment might well be provided for ground skidding. Teamsters should raising the front end of the log off the always work on the uphill side of the ground. A sled, known as the go-devil, log and never attempt to ride a log or even a wooden crotch, is used for being skidded. There is danger of being the purpose. They can be made in the struck or crushed by the logs as they workshop. are dragged through the woods. The Another handy device to prevent danger is greatest when curves and logs from nosing in the ground is a roughness of the skid trail may cause pan, which can be made of boiler plate. the logs to roll or swing unexpectedly. The front end of the log rests on the For pulpw^ood, posts, and fuel wood pan. Yarding sleds, drays, logging (where roads are suitable), it is often scoots, log carts, and wheeled bum- practicable to load right on the means mers are other types of equipment for of final transportation and eliminate more distant skidding to keep the front the skidway stop. This is called "hot" ends of logs off the ground. Plans for logging. making all these can be had from the For ground skidding small logs and Department of Agriculture. Equip- poles, where a single horse or mule with ment for skidding large timber over harness and rigging is the draft power, greater distances usually includes fac- a skidding chain with a slip hook is tory-made mechanical or hydraulic about all that is needed. For large tim- log carts, arches, and logging sulkies; ber that requires a team of horses or all of them require the high-powered tractor, some additional equipment is tractors. The jeep has also been put needed: Skidding tongs, grab chains into service for logging small tracts. A or "dogs," and a hammer to drive the logger in Indiana put an A-frame arch "dogs" or hooks into the wood and re- skidding-unit trailer mounted on dual move them at the destination. wheels on his jeep, attached a crosscut- Pulling logs by the small ends and saw rack on the left rear fender, and beveling or nosing them wdth an ax installed a rack for a power chain saw helps in skidding. Maintaining skid over the right front fender. trails and roads in good shape usually Some savings in logging costs are reduces skidding costs. Especially for realized by skidding long logs, even the animal skidding the trails should be entire tree length to a merchantable arranged to take advantage of gentle top. That requires rather straight skid slopes. Large logs that slide too fast trails, more power, and generally uni- can be snubbed by wrapping chains form ground conditions. At the skid- around them. way, roadside, or mill, the long pieces The construction of the skidding ter- are cut into proper lengths more ad- minals, the skidw^ays, rollways, and vantageously and economically than 244 Yearbook of Agriculture 1949 in the woods. Also, power saws are are not piled on the vehicle. Special more effective under such situations. types of loaders have been made to handle products in bundles or pack- FOR LOADING AND UNLOADING, the ages. Such package loading of pulp- third step, the essential tools and wood has cut down loading costs on equipment include the peavey, cross- larger operations. The loaders are op- haul line, pole' skids, draft power, rig- erated by a hydraulic lift arrangement, ging, and the conveyance. The draft or the package is raised by a crane. power, animal or machine, has been Unloading is usually done likewise. mentioned ; so has the pcavey. Special loading devices have been A cross-haul line is a Ys-'mch chain, made according to the products, such or chain and cable combination, 30 to as end loading of a truck for long poles 40 feet long, usually crotchcd and with and piling. Other types of loaders and grab hooks in the frc^e ends. Pole skids unloaders, using booms and cranes, are made on the job from pole-size both swing and fixed, are designed for material. Loading requires little more handling large volumes. in the way of tools and equipment than Wagons, trucks, and sleds, depend- is necessary for skidding. ing on available equipment and season Loaders or jammers are of various of year, are the usual types of convey- designs, some of which can be made in ances for moving timber. Trucks are the home workshop. Plans for a simple generally used for long distances. The one, easily moved, call for a substan- average w^agon is not built to trans- tial skid base and an A-frame boom port heavy logs, nor for distances structure of timbers, the necessary greater than a c[uarter-mile. A tractor- cable, blocks, guy lines, and hooks. trailer combination, such as might be Three methods are economically available on some farms, is satisfactory. suited for loading out skidways of logs, The load must be properly blocked, poles, piling, and comparable round balanced, and securely wrapped with material on small jobs. They are roll- chains to keep it intact during transit. ing by hand, cross hauling, and moving It is not unusual for an owner of a with loader or jammer. The latter two small w^oodland tract to sell his forest require draft power. A loading crew products at the skidway or roadside usually consists of two or three men. and thus eliminate the loading and The simplest loading possible is from hauling. It hardly pays to buy special a skidway so located as to permit equipment and conveyances for the gravity loading onto the conveyance. purpose, and the ordinary vehicles Two skid poles, readily fashioned on found on the farm are usually too light the job, are set to permit rolling the for sawdogs, poles, and piling. As men- round pieces onto the truck, wagon, or tioned, many products, such as pulp- sled. Round pieces, if they are not too wood, fuel wood, distillation wood, large, can also be rolled up by hand fence posts, and stave bolts are loaded on skids from the ground level, but the by hand at the stump or landing. This job is easier wdth draft power and limits the size of the sticks. A pulp hook cross-haul line. is an aid to loading such small pieces. The A-frame jammer is worth mak- Most unloading of short pieces is ing if there is much loading out to be still done by hand. A dump truck done from the ground level, \yith this sometimes is used. Sawlogs, poles, and method there is less chance that rolling piling are often removi^d from convey- logs will injure workmen. ances by quick release devices so that Conveyor-type loaders, not unlike the load readily rolls off, those built to raise bales of hay from the ground to a wagon, can be used to ARTHUR M. SOWDER is an extension good advantage for small forest prod- forester in the Department of Agricul- ucts. Load capacity is reduced if pieces ture,