A multi approach to understanding participation in professional management education.

Jane Simmons

Hope Business School, Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, England

Hope Park Liverpool England L16 9JD

Working paper

Stream: Vocational Education and Training and Continuing Professional Education and Development Email [email protected] Telephone 44 (0)151 291 3911

This paper presents the outcomes of research which has been framed by a multi capital approach. It reflects, and illuminates the rationale for engagement in continuing professional development and focuses on a case study of employees, and their employers, who are engaged in Chartered Management Institute professional courses at a university in the northwest of England. This phenomenological study used two methods sequentially, quantitative by the use of questionnaires and qualitative by the use of interviews. These were used by the researcher to construct the stories of the respondents. Fifty questionnaires were completed by employees and fifteen interviews were undertaken, out of a total population of eight one. The entire population of twenty four employees completed a questionnaire and six of them were interviewed.

In this study the researcher aimed to describe, as accurately as possible, the phenomena, professional management education, lifelong learning and the cultural, economic, human and social capitals of the respondents. It was concerned with the lived experiences of the people involved, or who were involved, with the issue that is being researched. The respondents were encouraged to reflect on their lived experiences, which were explored by way of their stories.

The outcomes of the research highlight the changing nature of the workplace in the twenty first century together with the impact of the current adverse economic climate. They illustrate how these factors have impacted on government policies, organisations and their employees in the UK. This has led to a need for the acquisition of new skills by workers at all hierarchical levels in organisations.

Economic capital is expressed through engagement in lifelong learning by employees in order to enhance their knowledge and skills, in order to improve their employment prospects. Here economic and are linked as the acquisition of qualifications potentially lead to promotion and to increase earnings. was evidenced by both employers and employees as lifelong learning facilitates a move to a knowledge based economy, where government agendas and skills initiatives are relevant.

The of employers was found to be important in mentoring and encouraging employees to engage in learning. This has helped to facilitate the emergence of learning organisations which require workers to be flexible to learn continually and actively. Cultural capital was evidenced by the desire of employees to equip themselves with new skills and knowledge, in order to remain in employment and to advance their careers. Many of the respondents gained cultural capital through their early life experiences of home and school and their relationships with mentors. Overlaying their motivation to learn was their social capital, in their need to remain geographically close to their networks of family and friends.

Keywords: capitals, cultural, economic, human, social.

Introduction

This study is a critical investigation of the reasons why both employers and employees, engage in continuing professional development after they have completed their compulsory education and have entered employment. Its aim is to explore the influence which economic and human capitals have on employers’ motivation for funding learning opportunities in this area for their staff and how social or cultural capital might cause them to encourage employee learning on professional management education courses. This continuing professional development is intended to allow individuals to enhance their knowledge and skills, by engaging in learning opportunities throughout their working life. In the context of lifelong learning, continuing professional development is important because of the changing nature of work which requires highly skilled staff.

The relevance of social, cultural factors and their economic capital for employees who engage in professional management education are also explored. The study seeks therefore, to explore the perspectives of both the employees who are engaged in continuing professional development and their employers, many of whom fund the courses.

It focuses on the perspectives of employees, and their employers, who undertook Chartered Management Institute (CMI) courses at a university in the North West area of England and those of their employers. These qualifications range across all academic levels and are designed to meet the needs of employees at various hierarchical levels of management, and to allow them to gain formal qualifications. These employees are people who have completed their compulsory education and who are engaging in continuing professional development of their own volition or at the behest of their employer.

This research is framed by a multiple capital approach as it reflects, and illuminates, the rationale for engagement in lifelong learning and professional management education. It does not consider the direct effects of learning on income, nor does it explicitly address academic theories of motivation, rather it adopts a multi capitals approach, drawing on the work of, among others, Becker (1993), Bourdieu (1972) and Putnam (1993).

Continuing professional development

Traditionally learning was focused on people in their early lives, now emphasis is being placed on continuing education, with few areas of employment being immune from the requirements of continuing professional development, (Morgan-Klein and Osborne, 2007, p.85). Rogers (1996, p.11) divided adult learning into three categories, first, their occupation requires employees to pursue learning; factors which are relevant here are changes in the nature of jobs, work and potential of being, or remaining, employed. The Commission on Social Justice (1991, p.185) suggested that ‘the mass-production economy did not need a well educated mass of workers,’ however, the ‘new high performance organisations…depend upon a high level of skill and creativity throughout their workforce.’ There are echoes here of the economic, and human capital, of employers. Secondly, throughout their life people take on new roles in society, their social capital, and these are redefined during their lives and require new learning for example to cope with adult life. Finally, as adults grow older their interests and attitudes change, here their cultural capital is relevant.

UK Government initiatives in relation to work based skills

The prosperity of UK economy depends on its skills base; in common with other developed economies the UK government has advocated the creation of a high skilled, high waged economy by upgrading the skills of its workforce. It has launched a series of initiatives to attempt to address the educational and training needs of the workplace. Arguably, its policies influence the human capital of organisations and employees, together with the cultural capital of employees and the economic capital employers.

However, it has met with mixed success. In 1989 Gavyn Davies, Chief UK Economist at Goldman Sachs at that time, was quoted as saying ‘a modern developed economy can only prosper if it has a labour force with skills and education to compete with the best. Ours patently hasn’t,’ The Guardian (16/8/1989). Moving forward fifteen years the same problems were still being identified. Gordon Brown (2004), the British Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time, stated that ‘if we are to succeed in a world where off shoring can be an opportunity…our mission (is) to make the British people the best educated, most skilled, best trained in the world..’

In 1990 the UK government introduced Investors in People (IiP) as a national standard, or benchmark, for the quality of training and development in organisations. It is a quality standard which, emphasised investment in human resources and development. It represented a key lever in the government’s attempt at producing a skill’s revolution in training and development and it is ‘one of the few admissions that the internal workings of the firm have to be addressed if training policy is to succeed,’ (Keep and Mayhew, 1996, p.319). This points to businesses improving performance, and thereby profitability, through training and developing their employees, continuing professional development is concerned with maximising the potential of employees.

Yet in 2006 the Leitch Review of Skills identified that over 70% of the UK 2020 workforce had already completed their compulsory education and summarised the position that time in this way ‘our nation’s skills are not world class and we run the risk that this will undermine the UK’s long term prosperity,’ (Leitch Review of Skills, 2006, p.1). That report held that even if the current targets to improve skills were met, the UK’s skill base would still lag behind that of many countries by 2020, (Leitch Review of Skills, 2006, p.3)

Capitals

As has been indicated this study, and analysis of the findings, are framed by a multiple capitals approach. Social capital is generally understood as the property of the group rather than the property of the individual. There are many possible approaches to defining social capital; however, there is some consensus, within the social sciences, towards a definition that emphasises the role of networks and civic norms, (Healy, 2001). Social capital is productive but it may be depleted if it is not renewed, (Coleman, 1990). Putnam (2000) suggested that the more people work together the more social capital is produced; the less people work together the more community stocks of social capital will be depleted.

One way in which the definitions of social capital vary is whether they focus on the ties an individual has with others, that it has an external focus, or the structure of the ties among individuals within a group, that has an internal focus or both, (Adler and Kwon, 2002). A definition that encompasses the internal and external focus is that social capital is the goodwill which is available to an individual, or group, its source lies in the structure and content of an individual’s social relations and its effects flow from the information and influence which it makes available to the individual, (Adler and Kwon, 2002, p.23). This definition of social capital encompasses the structure of individuals’ social networks, as well as the costs and benefits stemming from those networks. It is well aligned with the concept of mentoring, which traditionally has been defined in terms of the structure of a particular kind of relationship and in terms of the resources or functions of that relationship.

A seminal writer in this area Kram (1985) identified two functions which mentors fulfil, these are career and psychosocial. They are distinct, but related, career functions which include aspects of mentoring that assist the mentee to progress their career such as coaching and sponsorship and psychosocial functions. These are those aspects of a mentoring relationship which enhance the mentee’s sense of competence and self image, such as friendship and counselling, which promote their social capital. Kram (1985, p.1) also held in relation to her own study in the USA, that when people are asked to reflect on the 'major satisfactions and frustrations at work,’ they ‘consistently mention others who influenced them.’ These include relationships with ‘superiors, subordinates, friends, peers and family members’ all of whom are, or have been, vital sources of support during times both of crisis, or transition, and during their ongoing careers.’ All of these people form part of an individual’s social or cultural capital. Investment in social capital serves as a mechanism of exchange other for capitals, notably economic capital.

Economic capital relates to economic resources, such as cash and other assets. It consists not just of monetary income, but also of accumulated wealth and ownership of productive assets. Economic capital involves investment in resources, for example, labour, equipment and supplies, for the production of economic profit whilst human capital involves investment in education or training for the production of skills and knowledge, social capital involves individuals investing in social ties to gain access to the resources of others in the group, or network, (Lin, 2001).

It is the most liquid capital in that it may be more readily converted into other capitals, (Rudd, 2003). This is especially important in the current economic climate where individuals may find that their jobs are not secure. Its potency in the educational field is manifest in the capacity of some individuals to purchase different types of educational services, for example continuing professional development courses, together with associated resources, such as books. Economic capital is the focus of both governments and employers where all learning opportunities need to be relevant to the demands of the economy to ensure continued economic competitiveness. However, economic capital alone is not sufficient to buy status or position, as individuals rely on its interaction with other forms of capital.

The human capital concept is important in understanding learner identity whilst social networks, are an important influence on, and expression of, identity, (Morgan- Klein and Osborne, 2007). It is a measure of the economic value of an employee's skill set. It emphasises the value of investing in economic development and growth not only for the individual and also for society, (Morgan-Klein and Osborne, 2007, p.2). This is exemplified by the promotion of part time learning which may be regarded as ‘a means of combining learning with earning,’ Field (2003, p.138), as the learner is not required to leave their job to study.

It is a means of production, into which additional investment yields additional output, and leads organisations to look to a return on their investment for any educational opportunities which they make available to their employees, whilst for individual employees their concern is likely to be career progression. The concept of human capital recognises that not all labour is equal and that the quality of employees can be improved by investing in them. The education, experience and abilities of an employee have an economic value for employers and for the economy as a whole. Becker (1976) considered that the term human capital is recognition that people in organisations and businesses are important and essential assets who contribute to their development and growth.

Cultural capital has been considered an aspect of human capital; it is something that an individual can accumulate over time through talent, skills, training and by exposure to cultural activity. The concept was initially devised by Bourdieu (1973) as an attempt to explain the unequal scholastic achievements of children from differing social classes by relating academic success to the distribution of cultural capital amongst and within classes, rather than their inherent ability, (Bourdieu, 1986). It attempts to construct explanations for things like differential educational achievement in a way that combines a wide range of differing influences such as those that are investigated in this study. In this respect, almost any cultural feature of people's lives can, under the right circumstances, be applied to an explanation of achievement, or underachievement. The term cultural capital is used because, like cultural inheritance can be translated into social resources, wealth, power and status. The cultural capital that individuals accumulate from birth can be expended in the education system as people try to achieve things that are considered to be culturally important, such as educational qualifications.

Bourdieu (1997) emphasised that ‘ability or talent is itself the product of an investment of time and cultural capital...the scholastic yield from educational action depends on the cultural capital invested by the family,’ (Bourdieu, 1997, p.48). However, the process of transmission of cultural capital, within a family grouping, is linked to the amount of economic capital which that family group possesses.

Methodology

This phenomenological study was conducted by the use of two methods sequentially, quantitative, questionnaires, and qualitative, in depth interviews, in order to provide a richness of detail and expand its breadth. These methods were used in a complementary way as the researcher believed that a single method could not adequately shed light the phenomena being investigated. The data from the questionnaires was collated, analysed and coded in order to develop areas of difference, and commonality, between employers and employees, and the results were used to shape the questions used in the subsequent interviews.

During the interviews the personal stories of the respondents, their own experiences of home, family, education and employment were explored. This story method of interviewing is a phenomenological approach to research, (van Manen, 2002), as it focuses on the understandings and significance that people give to their life experiences. In order to access their experience, the researcher had to find ways that allowed the individual participant to share his, or her, life experiences in as full, and open, a way as possible to facilitate them sharing their own unique experience. This promised a rich understanding of the capitals of both employers and employees in the domain of professional management education and allowed the quantitative data to be illuminated by the stories which were constructed by the respondents during their interviews. Each person’s story is unique, it is embedded in their own particular cultural, social and economic contexts. By studying these stories it was possible not only to gain understandings of the individual’s experiences but also to gain insights into the particular social structures and dynamics and cultural values, mores, and norms in their lives, (Rosenthal, 1993, 1998).

During the analysis of the interview data a variety of themes emerged, which were derived from the data and addressed the research questions, which were being tested in the investigation. Content analysis was used to analyse the data which was produced from the interviews. Units of meaning were then clustered to form themes by grouping units of meaning together and the researcher identified units of significance. Rigorous examination of the list of units of meaning then allowed the researcher to elicit the essence of meaning of units within a holistic context. In this step the phenomenological researcher engaged in something which cannot be precisely delineated, because she was ‘involved in that ineffable thing known as creative insight,’ (Colaizzi, 1978). The researcher went back to the recorded interview and forth to the list of non-redundant units of meaning to derive clusters of appropriate meaning. There was overlap in the clusters, which was to be expected, considering the nature of human phenomena. By interrogating the meaning of the various clusters, central themes were determined, ‘which expresses the essence of these clusters’ (Hycner, 1999, p. 153). Care was taken not to cluster common themes if significant differences existed.

Findings

Theme 1 The individual seeking to navigate their career through difficult economic times

The individual employee is a lifelong learner who is seeking to maintain their employability, and future career, in an environment which may be both challenging and uncertain. As a result of changes in the nature of work as been that employment now accounts for more social interaction than it has in the past. People were found to derive social capital from the relationship in the workplace and in the classroom from their peers. They value their networks of family and friends and seek to maintain these. Just as work and the economy has changed so has society, people now live in complex relationships. They may, for example, spend part of their life living away from their family or their marriage may break up. Their cultural capital is derived from interplay of parental and family influence, the influence of their school teachers and as adults from mentors, who may include their line managers. They have a number of influences on them which are encapsulated in their capitals; these are considered in the following themes.

Theme 2 Lifelong learning

In response to changing economic circumstances people in employment have to be prepared to engage in continuing professional development and learning throughout their working lives. This leads them to become lifelong learners, which evidences their cultural capital, whereas human capital comes into play in relation to the desire to remain in their existing job role with their current employer by increasing their knowledge and qualifications. This reflects the UK government agenda of development of work based skills. Their social capital is relevant as learning forms part of many the self development plans of individuals. Economic capital is highlighted by employees seeking promotion and potentially to increase their income.

Theme 3 Funding of learning opportunities

The employee respondents evidence human capital in viewing the acquisition of qualifications as assets which would help to progress their careers. In their minds learning and their organisational effectiveness are linked. Some of the employees were prepared to self fund attendance on professional management courses. Learning has financial costs which are clearly rooted in economic capital and investments in learning form part of an individual’s, or organisations, human capital. It may also require that the learner sacrifices part of their social capital, time with family and friends, in order to engage in learning opportunities. However, by achieving an award the individual will increase their cultural capital. Whilst, most employers highlighted their human capital by an insistence that any course which they funded would have to have a demonstrable benefit to the organisation. Organisations were seeking external funding to finance learning opportunities for their employees, and increase their human capital.

Theme 4 Organisational approaches to training

Organisations which compete in a knowledge economy have to be able to manage, and change, to survive in an environment which is almost constantly changing. They seek to develop a learning culture and to become a learning organisation and to meet the demands of external regulatory bodies and those of the UK government. In the current economic climate finances available to provide higher level skills are limited, so they have to seek out external funding. Their approaches to staff development and rooted in both economic capital and human capital. The learning of employees provides organisations with human capital and has an economic value for them. Meeting external requirements by regulatory bodies and government agencies was also significant for some employers.

Themes 5 School, parents and family members

Both social and cultural capital are important influences on the early life experiences of many of the respondents in shaping their attitudes to learning. The continuing importance of this to adult learners cannot be discounted as cultural capital which consists of educational attainment is likely to lead to high levels of social capital. These in turn should lead to increased cultural capital, it was clear that a number of parents had wanted their children to have more cultural and economic capital than they had enjoyed.

Arguably the individual, inspired by their early life experiences, becomes a lifelong learner as they engage in continuing professional development, updating both their skills and knowledge. In this way they increase their cultural capital and potentially their economic capital. The influence of mentors who shared social capital with respondents, inside and outside of the workplace, were also an important catalyst in the decision to engage in learning opportunities.

Theme 6 Skills

Both employees, and by inference their employers, are able to derive human capital from engaging in structured learning activities. By increasing their skills an individual should be able to perform more effectively in the workplace and in this way they contribute to the profitability of the organisation. There is a clear UK government agenda in relation to the development of work based skills. Indeed the Leitch Report (2006) held that the prosperity of the UK economy is increasingly dependent on having skilled workers, who are prepared to learn.

The findings are illustrated in the following diagram:

Figure 1. A model of lifelong learning.

Concluding comments

These findings have relevance first for the employees themselves as their capitals, life experiences and relationships both inside and outside the workplace, shape their attitudes to learning. Secondly they are important to employers, and line managers, in developing educational programmes for their staff as their motivation to study is wider than the workplace and career progression. The findings, area of research and the methodology employed have value to employees, their employers, and providers of continuing professional development in a higher education context.

Short biographical notes on all contributors

Jane Simmons has been a senior lecturer at Hope Business School since 1999, she has responsibility for professional management programmes in the school. She has an MBA and a MA in Education. Jane is currently completing a doctorate which explores the various cultural influences on both employers and employees in relation to lifelong learning.

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