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0000101122 11310N1 ID ON 0011 2C 000 203 TITLE tasaus Indiana A Collection of Short Biographies. INSTITUTION Bureau of Indian Affairs (Dept. of InteriOr), Washington, D.C. POS DATE 74 VOTE 55p. AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (StockNo. 2402-000361 $1.05)

EDRS PRICE 14P-$0.75 HC-$3.15 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS American History; *American Indians; *Biographies; Dooklists; Cultural Background; *Developing Nations; *Individual Characteristics; *Leadership Qualities ABSTRACT A collection of 20 short biographies of American Indian warriors, statesmen, prophets,and scholars highlights leaders in the often tragic, yet inspiring,saga of North American Indians. Most of the heroes and heroines whose livesare briefly described were chiefs; some of them have become famous around the world.All were leaders in a great struggle to preserve treasured landsand lifeways. With their tribesmen, theyare inseparably linked to our country's history from its earliest beginningsthrough generations of growth. A suggested reading list with headingsfor "General Background," "Tribes and Individuals," and"publications on Indians by the Bureau of Indian Affairs for SaleThrough the Superintendent of Document" concludes the document. (AH) UST COPYWWII

FAMOUS INDIANS

A Collection of ShortBiographies

Warriors, statesmen, prophets, andscholars; the firmest of friends and most formidable of foes: thereare heroes (and heroines) of mans kinds in the often tragic, yet inspiringsaga of North American Indians. Mustbut not allof the Indianpersonalities whose livesare briefly described herewere Chiefs; some of them have become famous aroundthe world.All were leaders ina great struggle to preserve treasured lands and lifeways.With their tribesmen, theyare inseparably linked to our country's history from its earliest beginningsthrough generations of growth.

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Pocahontas, as visualized by an unknown artist of the 19th century, who portrayed the Powhatan -child of nature" in the romantic style of his own period. Photo: Smithsonian institution. - - -eve tfT;,... >7",

MT COP/ AVAILABLE

FAMOUS INDIANS POWHATANAND POCAHONTAS A Collection of MASSASOIT AND KIN° PHILLIP POPE Short Biographies JOSEPH BRANT

PONTIAC

SACAGAWEA

TECUMSEII

SEQUOYA

JOHN ROSS

BLACK HAWK

OSCEOLA

COCHISE

a. SEArrt

RED CLOUD

CRAZY HORSE

SITTING BULL

WOVOKA

JOSEPH!

QUANAH PARKER

GERONIMO

Suggested Reading List

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POWHATAN ANDPOCAHONTAS

BEST COP!AVAILABLE (Powhatan)

wiEN F.Nt3.511 SrITIIRS founded Jamestown est daughter," Poelhontas, a girl of about 13at the Colony in 1607, all of what isnow Tidewater time of the English arrival, Virginia was occupied bya confederacy of Algon- Many legends havegrown up around Pocahon- quin Indian tribes headed by a powerful chief tas,One of the most famous of these tellsthat known as Powhatan(his proper namewas when John Smith, having intrudedtoo far on Wahunsonacock). Although Chief Powhatan ,was captured and about to be could easily have destroyed the entire young col- beheaded at Powhatan's order,Pocahontas saved ony, he and his people were generally friendly his life by throwing Ierselfover his body. Then, during the pioneers' first difficultyears. the story continues, Powhatan, yieldingto Poca. Capt. John Smith, the English colony'sleader, hontas' pleas, pardoned the Englishleader and sent described Powhatanas a tall, dignified man in his him back to Jamestown inpeace. Ors, with a grim suspicious face anda reputation In 1609, makinga diplomatic effort to maintain for cruelty to anyone who got in his way. the Indians' good will, the English settlerscrowned Hut Powhatan hada very soft heart for his "dear- Chief Powhatan king of theterritory. Much

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r \ Wahunsonacock, chief of the PowhatanConfederacy, is being crowned "King Powhatan"by Captain John Smith in this pencil sketchby an anonymous 20thcentury artist. Photo: Smithsonian Institution. pomp and ceremony went along with the crown- But white she was living among the ritglish nt ing,' but, according to Captain Smith, it was not a Jamestown, Pocahontas had met John Rohe, "an complete success.Powhatan was more interested honest gentleman and of good behaviour." rec. in the gifts which went along with the event than orris of the time describe him. The two fell In In the crown itself, and was reluctant to bow his love.After Pocahontas had been converted to head even long enough for the crown to be placed Christianity and baptized under the name of "the upon it. Lady Rebecca," she and Rolfe were married. Indian-white relations became less friendly after The match was much to the benefit of English colonists, for Powhatan kept peace with them John Smith's return to England, Lid promises were until his death in 1618. broken on both sides. The English intruded upon In 1616, Mr. and Mrs. Rolfe and several other Indian lands, and the resentful Powhatans cap. Indiansaccompanied Jamestown Governor tured settlers and made otT with colonists' belong - Thomas Dale to England, where Pocahontas was ings. There were several years of minor warfare. received as a princess.She lived happily there In 1613, taking advantage of Powhatan's great until, at about 22, she died of smallpox.Her only love for his daughter, the English decoyed Poca- son, Thomas Rolfe, returned as a young man to hontas onto a Bridsh ship which lay at anchor in the home of his mother, and later founded one of the Potomac, arid carrid her off to Jamestown. America's most distinguished familiesthe Ran- With so valuable a hostage, the settlers were able dolphs of Virginia. Several remnant groups, rep- to arrange ransom terms: English prisoners and resentative of the historic Powhatan Confederacy, goods were returned, and Pocahontas was restored are found todayinVirginia.Of these, the to her father. Pamunkey and Mattaponi are best known. 1.7.7 7-r 7.- .7 Fri eV . r:-.-rf,,,173 .7 . 'err MASSASOIT A.ND KING PHILIP , (Wampanoag)

DVRING THEIR F1R5T hard years the New When Massasoit died in 1661, the English, un- England wilderness, the Pilgrims might not easy over the loss of their most powerful Indian have survived without the help of Massasoit, Chief friend, hastened to cultivate the good will of the of the Wampanoags, whose territory included pat is great chief's two sons. As a mark of esteem, they 1 what are now Massachusetts and Rhode Island. bestowed English names upon the two young chief- In March 1621, a few months after the Mayflower tains: Wamsutta, Massasoit's elder son and suc- Landing, the powerful Massasoit, accompanied by cessor, became "Alexander;" the younger, born several other chiefs, visited Plymouth colony and Metacomet, was ren:uned "Philp." When Alex- in a treaty of peace which followed, gave gen- ander died suddenly a few months after taking erous amounts of land to the white men. office, young Philip was made Chief of the As long as he lived Massasoit remained a friend Wampanoags. and loyal ally of English colonists. One Pilgrim Philip reaffirmed his father's peace treaty, and wrote: "There is novt great peace among the In- the colonists, in turn, agreed to stop buying land for dians themselves, and we, for our part, walk as 4 years.But within 1 year, white settlers were peaceably in the woods as in the highways of Eng- again moving in on Indian territory, and scattered land. We entertain them familiarly in our houses, Indian hostilities grew into rumors of war.In and they, as friendly, I. estow their venison on us." 1671 white authorities summoned Philip to Taun- The Indians shared not only their deer, butt ton and demanded new peace measures that in- their planting and cooking secrets as well. The eluded surrender of Indian guns. Philip, although colonists learned to cultivate corn and to make bitterly resentful, agreed to these conditions. such delicacies as corn pone, planked shad, baked But most of the Indians refused to part with beans, and roasted clams.In the winter of 1623, their guns.Philip himself, although publicly ac- when (Thief Massasoit was dangerously ill, the knowledging himself a subject of the English grateful Pilgrims helped nurse him back to health. king, had privately spent his first 9 yearsas Wam- The story goes th:.t Gov. Edward Winslow, the panoag chief in preparation forwar to avenge colony's leader, personally carried a nourishing his people's humiliations. By 1674, havingrecog- broth through seven- snowy miles to Massasoit's nized that his tribe could not defeat the colonists home near what is now Bristol, RI, alone, Philip secretly sent messengers to other First clashes between Indians aad settlerscame tribes: war between the Indians and the white from quarrels and misunderstandingsover land. men was inevitable, he told them, if the great In most cases, the New England colonists had Algonquian Nation was to survive. honorably paid Indians for land, which they then In January of 1675, :he war since known as considered their own. The Indians, however, did "King Philip's War" began, when an Indian not understand such European ideas as exclusive named John Sassamon was found dead under the land ownership, and continued to hunt and fish ice of a pond near Plymouth.Sassamon, who where their ancestors always had. To the English had been converted to Christianity, spoke English this was trespassing, and trespassing meantarrest, well, and for a time had forsaken his white friends trial. and conviction.Tensions increased between to return to the wilderness as Philip's secretary. Indians and settlers. His real loyalty, though, remained with the colo-

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Metacomet(King Philip).From a 17th century engraving.Photo: Smithsonian Institution.

4 - 4Pir fi=c. '*-2r/.."4 "'Mrinfr-'1.11-15C1 alas, to whom he betrayed Philip's conspiracy. completely destroyed.Hands of Nipmucks at Three Wampanoags, caught by the English, tacked settlers in Massachusetts, while were convicted as Sassamon's killers and executed. Philip's own warriors, allied with Sakonnets, The move infuriated the Wampanoags, who Pocassets, and others, struck villages in the Con- wished to administer their own justice in their own necticut River Valley. way. Historians generally agree that if the Indian To a messenger sent by Governor Winslow to tribes had steadfastly maintained their alliance, ask Philip why he planned a war against England, ihey might have wiped out the colonists.In any the Indian chief haughtily replied "Your gover- event, the tide began to turn against Philip, anti nor is but a subject of King Charles of England, on August 12,1(76, in a savage battle at Kingston, I shall not treat with a subject.I shall treat of R.I., his Narragansett warriors were overwhelmed peace only with the King, my brother. When by colonists allied with a group of Mohegans. he comes, I am ready." Some time lava., King Philip himself was captured The following June the war began in earnest. and beheaded. Today, very small groups of Wam- At first Philip and his allies were triumphant: Of panoags still survive in Massachusetts, notably on 90 cdonial towns, 52 were attacked and 12 were Cape Cod and on Martha's Vineyard. 9.rfilr.:-;""rfer Fk"` .nus157: POPE (Pueblo)

FOR HUNDREDS OF years before the Spanish colo- Runners secretly carried this message to all the nized the Southwest, Indians had lived along Pueblos, and one by one, native towns enthusias- the Rio Grande in what is now . tically joined the plot.Every precaution was They were successful farmers, made handsome taken to keep the Spanish from learning of the pottery, and wove fine cotton cloth.Above all, conspiracy: Pope, suspecting even his own brother- they were extremely religious.The supernatural in-law of treachery, had him put to death. influenced everything they did, August 13, 1680, was the date set for the attack. In 1598, colonists and priests from Mexico under Somehow, however, the news leaked out, and Don Juan de Onate established among these Pope's wily hope was to strike at once, On Au- Indians the first Spanish community in the South- gust 10, with the force of a long-suppressed hatred, west.The newsettlerscalledtheIndians the Indians attacked. "Pueblos" (the name by which they have since Nearly 500 of the 2,500 Spanish population were been known), because of the Indians' remarkable killed.About 30 priests were murdered in their villages of large timber and adobe houses.°nate, missions,the',. bodies stacked upon the altars. the new settlement's governor, had Catholic mis- Santa Fe, the Spanish capital, was beseiged, and sions and churches built, and in 1610 established a its 1,000 inhabitants took refuge in official build- territorial capital at Santa Fe. ings for about 10 days.Then, after forcing the The Pueblos' ancient way of life was soon Indians to a temporary retreat, they abandoned threatened.Considered subjects of the Spanish Santa Fe, and, with the remaining Spanish popu- crown, Indians were required to pay taxes in the lation of the area, tied to El Paso del Norte (now form of cloth, corn, or labor.Their villages were El Paso, Tex.). renamed after Catholic saints, and their own cere- Having driven mit the occupiers, the triumphant monies and religious practices were forbidden. Pope then set out to erase all traces of them. But although they gave lip service to Christian- Everything brought by the "Metal People" was ity, and pretended to submit to Spanish rule, the ordereddestroyed.Indianswhohadbeen resentful Indians continued to follow their own baptized as Christians were washed with yucca sacred practices in the secrecy of their kwas (under- suds, and use of the Spanish language and all ground ceremonial rooms). baptismal names was prohibited.In Santa Fe, In 1675 a lode' arose among the Pueblo Indians cattle were herded into churches that had escaped in the person of Pope, a medicine man from a burning.Pope did all he could to restore the old Tewa Pueblo renamed by the Spanish "San Juan." Pope had been one of several Indians imprisoned Pueblo way of life. by the Spanish under suspicion of witchcraft and For a time, Pope was received with great honor the killing of several missionaries, and he bitterly as he traveled from Pueblo to Pueblo in ceremonial hated the white occupiers.Released from prison, dress.But his success made him a despot.Hos- he went into hiding in Taos Pueblo, and there tilities broke out between pro- and anti-Pope planned and organized an all-Pueblo rebellion. Pueblos, and he was deposed.In 1688 he was re- The spirits, he said, had ordered him to bring back elected Pueblo leader, but shortly thereafter, he theIndians'traditionalbeliefsandcustoms. died.

6 The Pueblos were masters of their own country There was peace in the Pueblos thereafter. The for 12 years.In It02 after brief mu brutal light. Spanish remained as occupiers for Bo years jut Spanish rule was reinstated under Vargas. longer, but their domination was never again as strong as before.

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View of San .Juan Pueblo, from a photograph made in 1879.Home of Pope, leader of the all-Pueblo rebellion, the New Mexico pueblo had changed little in the nearly 200years follow- ing Indian insurrection.Photo: Smithsonian Institution.

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.1 'i josvph BrantThaytmciancgva )."'ht. origioal of tin*, painting of the famed Mohawk chief hangs in tht' Suitt. I lousy at Philakiiphia.

`.1 JOSEPH BRANT (Mohawk)

DUICN6 ME AMERICA REVOLVTION and the years lish.British success in driving Washington out just preceding it, the most powerful Indian of New York in 1776, and the influence of his sister friend British settlers hadwas Joseph Brant (horn Molly (now widow of Sir William), helped him "Thayendanegea"), a warrior chief of the Mohawk persuade the Senecas, Cayugas, and Onondagasto tribe.His lifetime devotion to the Englishcause loin his Mohawks. Members of thetwo other started in 1755 when, only 1.3years old, he fought League tribes, Oneidas and Tuscaroras, chose the under Sir William Johnson in the Battle of Lake American side or were neutral. George. Commissioned as a British officer, Brant led Johnson, who became British superintendent of strong bands of combined Tories and Iroquois Iroquois tribes in what is now upstate New York, warriors in border raids and battles up and down was to play a most significant part in the young the Mohawk Valley, acquiringa reputation for Indian's life. He had made friends with the both savage ferocity and fighting skill.He sur- Mohawks, learned their language, and married rendered only in the fall of 1781, when Washing- Molly Brant, young Joseph's sister.Sir William ton sent General Sullivan and his men into the took Brant under his wing, bad him educatedat field, overwhelming English and Indian forces at a mission school (which later became famous as the Battle of Johnstown, and endingwar along Dartmouth Colleue), and made him his assistant. the Mohawk. In addition to these duties, Brant, who had joined In 1783. the Revolution at an end, Brant, still the Anglican Church, worked at revising the commissioned by the British and retainedon half Mohawk prayer book and translated parts of the pay, was rewarded with a grant of English land Biole into the Mohawk language. along the Grand River in Ontario, where he Ikv 1775 Brant had become a prominent leader, settled with his Mlhawk followers.Other In- not drily of his own tribe, but of the five others dians from the Six Natioas joined them, and the which made up the powerful Iroquois League of area became le sown es the Six Nations Reserve. Indian Nations.As the Revolution began, he Brant ruled it in peace until his death in 1807, accompanied Guy Johnson, Sir William's nephew, on a trip to England, acting as Johnson's secretary. when his youngest son, John, became chief of the The Mohawk chief was presented at court, had Mohawk tribe. tea with Boswell, and sat to have his portrait He is buried near a small church which he had painted by the celebrated and fashionable English built on the Grand River near Brantford, Ontario. artist. Romney. A marker reads: "This tomb is erected to the Brant returned to America completely dedicated memory of Tilayendanegea, or Captain Joseph to the British side in the Revolution.Although Brant, principal chief and warrior of the Six Na- the Iroquois League had declared itself neutral. tions Indians, by his fellow subjects, admirers of Brant determined to bring it over to the Eng- his fidelity and attachment to the British Crown."

9 PONTIAC (Ottawa)

ONTIAC, THE orrAwA Indian chief who orga captured, and a 10th abandoned by its occupants. nized one of the greatest alliances f Indians Only Detroit, and Fort Pitt in Pennsylvania, still In American history, was born in around held.With great difficulty, British forcesman- 1720.Hi: domain was the Great Lakescountry, aged to hold otT a combined Indian force of about occupied tile French until their defeat by the 900 at Detroit, receiving occasional reinforcements English in Co tutda in 17(t). through the water route to the Niagara. The Fort Ottam; s th.,1 other Algonquian tribes of thearea was almost exhausted when help came in October. had lived pe..cefullyamong the French, and inter- In a bloody battle, Capt. James Dalyell and 220 married with them.Pontiac was at first inclined men clashed with Pontiac at the head of 400 Otta- to be frig tt;y to the new English occupiers, agree- was and Chippewas. The Indians were victorious, int: to acknowledge King Georgeas an "uncle," and I)alyell, captured, was killed.But Detroit if not as a superior.But the Indians soon discov- was reinforced.Pontiac, too, strengthened his ered that the British were quite unlike thegener- forces, and the siege resumed. ous and easy-going French, regarding them as At Fort Pitt, two Scottish regiments relieved the unwelcome squatter:: on lands rightfully English. post, which had been under heavy attack by allied With a decree forbidding themto buy rum, the Delawares,Mingoes, Shawnees, and Hurons. Indians' grievances intensified until by 1763 the After heavy losses on both sides, whites forced the entire district was in turmoil. Indians to retreat, and Fort Pitt was safe. Pontiac, who had been impressed byan Indian All this time, Pontiac, confident that French help mystic known as the "Delaware Prophet," deter- would come, had not known that Great Britain mined to lead an all-out campaignto right Indian and France had signed a peace treaty in London wrongs.Having sent the war belt of redwam- the February before. When he received a letter pum to Indian tribes from Lake Ontario to the from the French commander at Fort de Chartres Mississippi River, the Ottawa chief,a powerful in Louisiana Territory, Pontiac knew there was and persu::sive speaker whose air of command no longer any real hope of Indian success.Writ- marked hip._ as a leader, calledupon the Indians ten in fatherly terms, the letter urged "my French to throw the British out.The French were sure children" to bury the hatchet.The French would to help the Indian cause, he said, and they could not abandon their children, but would supply them stay.He persuaded the Indians to joina daring from across the Mississippi. Now, the letter con- conspiracy: allBritish -held posts were to be at- cluded, the Indians must live in peace.Pontiac tacked simultaneously.Detroit, key post of the had no choice but to end the siege of Detroit. Great Lakes forts, was to be the prime target. Although he continued to oppose the British The plot was launched on May 7, 1763, whena through the fall and winter of 1764-65, his Indian group of Pontiac's warriors, sawed-off muskets hid- allies rapidly lo :t the will to fight.One by one, den under their blankets, entered Fort Detroiton Hurons, Senecas, Ottawas, and other tribes gave up. a pretext.The fort was not captured, for its com- In April 1765, Pontiac admitted defeat, and mander had been warned.Elsewhere, however, helped British forces to subdue scattered Indian the conspiracy was successful. bands.Winning the admiration and respect of Within a few months, 9 British forts had been the British, he lost much Indian support.By 1768,

10 the man who had inspired the alliance and revolt a council of his tribe to murder Pontiac, and on of the great Algonquian trill,. had become the April 20 of that year, in Cahokia, 111., a stab in the target of their jealousy and hkAtility.In 1769, a back ended the life of the great Ottawa thief. Peoria Indian named Black 1).11.; was assigned by

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This portrait, believed to be of Pontiac, is attributed to John Mix Stanley, one-time resident of Detroit famed for his paintings of Indians.If genuine, it is the only likeness known of the great Ottawa chief, and is published here for the first time.Photo: Detroit Historical Museum.

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A village, as portrayed by artist Carl Bodmer in 1833.It was in such a Mandan settlement that Lewis and Clark met and her husband in the winter of 1804. Photonuthsonian Institution.

12 SACAGAWEA ()

QO MANY KoNtANTIC legends have beeninspired party of men is a token of peace." by Sacagawea, the Shoshone Indian woman Across the , Lewis and Clark who accompanied Lewis and Clark on much of were faced with the snow-capped Rocky Moun- their epoch-making expedition of 1804-06, that tains.Crossing them would be impossible with- even today her biographersdiffer in many details. out horses.Going on ahead, Lewis met a band However, the historic Journals of the two ex- of Shoshone Indians, and persuaded them to return plorers, and their later letters, tell us much about with him to the expedition. the famous "Bird Woman," as her Mandan In- When she saw the Indian band, say the journals, dian name may be translated. Sacagawea "danced with extravagant joy."She One of President Jefferson's Liajor purposes in began sucking her fingers to show that these were commissioning Lewis and Clark to explore the her people, among whom she had grown up. A newly acquired Louisiana Territory had been the particularly moving episode was the Indian girl's establishing of friendly relations with Indian tribes reunion with her brother, who had become chief between St. Louis and the Pacific Ocean.Indian of the tribe.With the tremendous advantage of chiefs were to be given Jefferson "peace medals" Sacagawea's relationship, the explorers were able at these historic first contacts with white men. to barter for 29 fine Shoshone horses, and the In the winter of 1804, some 1,600 miles from journey continued. their St. Louis starting point, Lewis and Clark Across the Rockies, the party built canoes and arrived in the North Dakota country of the Man- followed the Columbia River to the Pacific.The dan Indians, where they were befriended by the two explorers frequently praised Sacagawea's en- tribe and spent a peaceful winter. Living among durance and fortitude in their Journals.She must the were a French Canadian fur trader, have been undemanding as well. Lewis wrote of Toussaint Charbonneau, and his young Indian her: "If she has enough to eat and a few trinkets wife, Sacagawea. When the expedition left Man- to wear, I believe she would be perfectly content dan country, the couple went with it: Charbon- anywhere." neau, hired as an interpreter for $25 a month; Sacagawea was among those Indians honored and Sacagawea, her newborn baby on her back. with the prized Jefferson peace medal, evidence of It seems likely that Sacagawea's main reason for the genuine fondness Lewis and Clark felt for accompanying the explorers was a longing to see her.After the journey, Clark wrote to Charbon- her own Shoshone people again.Five years neau: "Your woman who accompanied youthat earlier, at about 12, she had been stolen by Crow long, dangerous, and fatiguing route to the Pa- Indians, taken far from her Rocky Mountain cific Ocean and back deserved a greater reward home, and sold as a slave to the Missouri River for her attention and services on that route than Mandans.In time she had again been sold, this we had in our power to give her." time to Charbonneau. Most historians now believe that Sacagawea died If less than the heroine she has sometimes been around 1812at the age of about 24.Several pictured to be, Sacagawea was unquestionably of monuments honor her memory. One of the best great value to the expedition in her role as peace known is that erected by the Historical envoy and intermediary with Indian tribes. Clark Landmark Commission on U.S. Highway 287, 2 said of her"Sacagawea reconciles all the Indians miles east of what is thought to be her burial place as to our friendly intentions. A woman with a in a Shoshone graveyard.

13 TECUMSEH (Shawnee)

TECUMSEH, THE SHAWNEE warrior-statesman The two brothers established.t Indian settlement widely considered thegreatest American In- on the Wabash River, near the mouth of the dian leader of all time, was a famed fighter against Tippecanoe. There Tecumseh settledmore than white settlers while stilla young man in the Ohio 1,000 Shawnees, Delawares, Wyandots,Ottawas, River country.Warfare with whiteswas a family Ojibwas, and Kickapoosas the beginning of his tradition: Tecumseh's father, alsoa chief, had great alliance.Liquor was forbidden in the In- died fighting frontiersmen in 1774when Tecum- dian villages, and tribesmen livedaccording to seh was a boy of six. Two olderbrothers later ancient patterns. fell in battles with colonial soldiers. Tecumseh then traveledacross the country, Daring and courageous warrior that hewas (his urging Indians from Floridato St. Louis to unite. name may be translated as "Shooting Star"), The Shawnee chiefwas a magnificent figure whose Tecumseh was noted for his humanity.He would impact was felt by Indians and non-Indians alike. not torture prisoners, nor allow his peopleto A white observer of the period who heardhim follow this widespread practice. speak reported that Tecumseh's voice "resounded By the 1780's, Tecumseh was acknowledged as over the multitude...hurling out his words like the leading Indianstatesman of the Ohio area. a succession of thunderbolts." Profoundly disturbed by the growingmenace to To every American and British leader who Indian lands and life represented by whiteexpan- would listen Tecumseh argued tirelessly that the sion, he worked outa great plan for his people's U.S. Government had no rightto buy land from future. The only Indian hope, hebelieved, lay a single tribe, since the entire Ohio Valley country in uniting. He dreamed ofa powerful confedera- had belonged to all the tribes incommon. His tion of tribes which wouldcreate a great Indian repeated position was that the Treaty of Green- state centered around the Ohio Valleyan Ithe ville, made in 1795, had guarantc,d the tribes,as Great Lakes. one people, all. Ohio land which had not specifi- Tecumseh's surviving brotherwas a visionary cally been ceded to the whites. who called himself Tenskwatawa theProphet. The NorthwestTerritory's new Governor, In 1805, Tenskwatawa, who claimedto have had William Henry Harrison,was all too conscious revelations from the spirit world, announceda of these provisions protecting Indian interestsin new dogma to Shawnees and their allies.There the Greenville Treaty, andwas equally determined must he, he proclaimed, no more intermarriage to undo them. He and Tecumseh, the area's two with whites, and Indianswere to abandon all the outstanding figures, met frequently.Harrison white man's ways.Only when they returned to refused to recognize the Shawnee chief'sargu- the old way of life would Indians findthe peace ments; Tecumseh refused to give up his plan for and happiness their ancestors had enjoyed.Indian Indian unity."It is my determination." he told witchcraft and the white man's firewaterwere Governor Harrison, "nor willI give rest to my denounced alike. feet until I have united all the red men." Tenskwatawa's prophecy named his brother. Hoping toobtainBritishhelp, Tecumseh Tecumseh, as the leader who would unite the traveled frequently to . He returned with Indians and guide theirreturn to traditional ways. gifts of ammunition, arms, and clothing from his

14 friends, but could not yet be sure enough of Eng- lish support, nor of complete Indian cooperation, to risk an open attack. Meanwhile, Governor Harrison was steadily underminin the Greenville Treaty by making separate agreements with some 11 tribes. He dis- missed Tecumseh's protests with the dubious logic that the Shawnees, Tecumseh's own people, had not been involved in these deals.Harrison recog- nized a formidable adversary in Tecumseh, whom he described in a letter to the Secretary of War as "one of those uncommon geniuses which spring up occasionally to produce revolutions."If the whites were any weaker, Harrison went on to say, Tecumseh might succeed in setting up a great empire within the . In the spring of 1811, while Tecumseh was in the south attempting to persuade Creeks, Choc- taws, and Chickasaws to join his alliance, Indians at Tippecanoe launched a series of thefts and other harassments of colonists.Harrison, taking advan- tage of Tecumseh's absence, sent some 900 soldiers Tecumseh in the uniform of a British officer. to Tippecanoe. Uniform, cap, and medal were added to this In disobedience of Tecumseh's explicit instruc- 1808 pencil sketch after thy: Shawnee chief was tions, Tenskwatawa ordered the Indians to attack, commissioned during the War of 1812. The touching off the Battle of Tippecanoe. At its end, red cap wa., ornamented with colored porcu- the Indians were defeated, scattered, and disillu- pine quills and a single, black eagle feather. sioned as well, for they had believed the Prophet's Photo: Smithsonian Institution. claim that white men's bullets would be made harmless. Tecumseh returned to find his alliance shattered, Allied English anti Indian forces were completely his hopes all but destroyed.He went to Canada defeated by Harrison (by then also a brigadier as the War of 1812 was beginning, and the British, general) and his men. Tecumseh himself fell in who greatly respected him, made the Shawnee the battle,at 45 finally defeated by his old chief a brigadier general.Re,plendent in uni- adversary. form, Tecumseh led white and Indian troops in Perhaps he had felt the approach of death, for four major battles against the Americans. the great leader had changed from army uniform In October, 1814. the British made their last to Indian buckskins before the battle.His body stand in the Battle of the Thames in Ontario. was never found.

15

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Sequoya.The inventor of the Cherokee alphabetwears the silver medal presented to him by the Cherokee legislature in82-i to honor his achievt.ment. Photo: Smithsonian Institution. SEQUOYA (Cherokee)

BY THE EARLY 1820's, Cherokee Indians of the Twelve years after he had first dreamed of a southeastern United States had reached a re- Cherokee writing system, Sequoya returned to his markable level of civilization.They were good people, bringing a written greeting from Chero- farmers; owned plows, wagons, and thousands of kees in the v, °st.He had succeeded in inventing livestock; they wove their own cloth for clothing; an alphabet, made up partly of English characters operated sawmills and grist mills, blacksmith (but with sounds differing from English) and shops and ferries; and had built roads, schools, and partly of new ones of his own. The first Indian churches.They governed themselves, with a con- writing system north of Mexico ever devised with- stitutional system tl.ey had patterned after that of out white help, it was a brilliant achievement that the United States. revolutionized Cherokee education. The tribe's outstanding achievement, in 1821, Within a year, thousands of Cherokee Indians of was the development of a system of writing the all ages had learned to read and write their own Cherokee language.It was the invention of language.Parts of the Bible were printed in Sequoya, a tribal member sometimes called George Cherokee in 1 g74, and in 1828, having acquired a Gist. a press of their own, the tribe began publication Sequoya, who had grown up among the Chero- in Cherokee and Englishof a weekly newspaper, kees, had been a hunter and fur trader until per- The Cherokee Phoenix. Sequoya was honored by manently crippled in a hunting accident. He had the Cherokee Legislature with a silver medal and never gone to school, and could neither speak nor a lifetime pension, the first ever given by an understand English.But he was by nature a In Tian tribe. thoughtful and talented man. Having observed Sequoya lived among the Arkansas Cherokees as the importance of reading, writing, and printing a leader and teacher until 1842, when his thirst for among whites, he pored over English letters in knowledge led him on another search.This time mission-school primers, and set out to develop a he hoped to find a "lost" band of Cherokees sup- 3 Cherokee alphabet. posed to have crossed the Mississippi many years Some of his tribesmen, frightened at the strange- before, and to look for similarities of speech and looking symbols on which Sequoya was con- grammar among various tribes. He disappeared stantly at work, suspected him of witchcraft.His into the southwest, and was not heard from again. cabin and all his working p.,pers were burned, Three years later, a Cherokee named Oo-no-leh, and Sequoya left Cherokee country for the sake sent 'o look for Sequoya, wrote from Mexico City of his great project, settling for a time in Arkansas (in the Cht..okee language) to the tribe that their among those Cherokees who had emigrated west. mos.: honored leader had died there in 1843.

17 JOHN ROSS (Cherokee)

T N OCTOBER of 1828, a blue-eyed, fair-skinned lands.In 1822 the Huuse of Representatives voted I man stood before the General Council of the to take away Cherokee land titles. To this move Cherokee Indian tribe, raised his right hand, and the Cherokee Council responded by voting to pledged: "I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully make no more treaties with the United St..tes. execute the office of Principal Chief of the Chero- Neither persuasion, threats, nor the bribery at- kee Nation, and will, to the best ofmy ability, tempts of two commissioners, sent to the tribe preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of from Washington, could change Cherokee re- the Cherokee Nation." sistance. John Ross, the man who took the oath of office But Georgia continued to maintain that the so much like that of incoming Presidents of the Indians were only tenants on their lands, and United States. had much white ancestry.But his between 1828 and 1831 the Georgia legislature Scottish immigrant father, while having the boy ruthlessly stripped the Cherokees of all their civil educated by white teachers, had brought up "Tsan- rights.When gold was discovered on tribal Usdi" (Little John) as an Indian among Indians. lands, Cherokee fate was sealed: answering de- John Ross considered himself a Cherokee,grew up mands of the Georgia legislature, the U.S. Con- to marry a Cherokee girl, and was to devote his gress appropriated $50,000 for removal of the life to leadership of the people he loved. tribe. By the time Ross took his oath as Principal Chief John Ross worked tirelessly in defending the of the new Cherokee Government, the tribe had right of Cherokees to their ancestral lands, and gone far toward civilization.They were accom- headed several delegations to Washington, but plished farmers, cattlemen, and weavers; had built without success. His own home was confiscated, roads, schools, and churches, and, through the in- and for a time he was imprisoned.The tribal vention by their great tribesman Sequoya ofa newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix, was suppressed. .erokee alphabet, were largely literate.In 1826 In 1835, under the Treaty of New Echota, all the Cherokee Nation formeda government pat- Cherokee lands east of the Mississippi were ceded terned after that of the United States, its capitalat and the tribe was given 2 years to move to Indian New Echota, Ga. Territory (Oklahoma)No official of the Chero- John Ross was the logical choice as Principal kee Nation had been a party to the removal agree- Chief, for he had beena tribal leader since 1813. ment, and some 16,000 Cherokees signed a petition when he had fought under General Jackson and his to Washington declaring that their tribesmen had men against the Creeks.As president of the been tricked by white negotiators at New Echota. Cherokee National Committee from 1819 to 1826 The petition and all Ross's pleas were ignored by he had promoted the education and mechanical President Jackson. training of the Indians, and worked in development Although about 2.000 Cherokees had gone west of the new government. after 1836, the remaining 15.000 stayedon, hope- But the Cherokees' "golden age's was to be a ful that Ross would succeed in his fight.In May. brief one. for as early as 1802 the Federal Govern- 1838. Gen. Winfield Scott and 7,000 men arrived ment had promised the State of Georgia that Cherokee country and herded the Indians into Indians would, in time, be removed from their stockades in preparation for forced removal. The

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John Ross.This 1858 photo was made while the Cherokee leaderwas in Washington, D.C.. on tribal business as principal chief of the United Cherokee Nation. Photo: Smithsonian institution.

October ihev seer released-111d to Ross Cherokee -old settlers.- eventually marshaled their tell the sad taskit leading his people from their forces, formed new cotlstitutuMll. and at a na- ht iiue.. tional Cherokee convention elected John Ross. More than1.11fri Cherokees died of exposure. Principal Chief of the United Cherokee Nation hungcr. and sickness during the terrible ti-inonth. in its new capital .it Tahlequah. Okla.Although long trip \vest.Ross\ wife was among them. and dissens: ins caused by the Civil War led the Fed- the( licrokee leader buried her inLittle Rock. eral Government to depose him fura time. he .\rk.The to. rile to the \Vest became \vas returned to office. (Therokee chief ( :hen Ike.... as Nuna-da-tit --The statesman to the endcontinued to lead his people Frail \Vilr, Cried.-I litur reiirds it as until lie died in 1Shh whilein Washington arks I'Frail of ing un a treaty to continue Clicrokeu Gourn- Iilth.11: crriiiir% the nemigrants. lowing mem.

1 9 BLACK HAWK (Sauk)

N 1M04, MEMBERS of the closely related Sauk and soil.Nothing can be sold but such things as can IFox Indian tribes were persuaded to surrender be carried away." to the U.S. Government all their homelands east Despite Keokuk's efforts to persulde them, of the Mississippi River. A provision of the treaty Black Hawk and his followers refused to leave specified that the two tribes would remain un- their villages.By 1831, as the Indians disturbed until white settlement extended to their found themselves unable to farm their own lands, lands. Black Hawk ordered whites to get out or be killed. For centuries, Sauks and Foxes had hunted and Soldiers and Illinois militia moved in and evicted fished in the rich prairie valleys of what are now the Indians. Illinois and Wisconsin.Most tribesmen knew As Pontiac and Tecumseh had done before him, nothing about the 1804 treaty until, in the 1820's, Black Hawk visualized an Indian confederacy streams of white settlers pushed into their terri- strong enough to withstand the whites. He set tory. The immigrants appropriated the Indians' out to enlist the support of the Winnebagos, Pota- cornfields, plowed among their graves, and began watomies, Foxes and other tribes, while, at the to press for their complete removal. same time, seeking to undermine Keokuk, his Indian ranks split into two factions. One was rival. headed by the Sauks' head man, Keokuk, who had In April 1832, Black Hawk with several hundred bowed to the inevitaole, cultivated American warriors returned to Illinois prepared to drive out friendship, and led his followers to new lands in the whites and retake tribal lands, and the fighting Iowa. known as "Black Hawk's War" began.Only His rival, Black Hawk, a Sauk of the Thunder the Foxes had joined Sauks in Black Hawk's con- clan, bitterly opposed the Americans. From boy- federacy,- but it was a dangerous enough threat hood, when his hero had been the legendary Pon. to force the American Government to put troops tiac, Black Hawk had hated white men. His fame into the field.For 3 months the Indians managed as a warrior began at15, when he killed and to elude the Army, winning several skirmishes and scalped his first man.Black Hawk went on to terrorizing the Illinois frontier. fight, first, enemy Indian tribes, then Americans, The tide turned as more soldiers poured in, pur- throughout the War of 1812. suing the Indians across Illinois to the Mississippi. Above all else, Black Hawk furiously resented There, trapped between the steamship "Warrior" the 1804 treaty which had taken away Sauk and on one side and the Army on the other, Black Fox lands.He repeatedly denounced it, main- Hawk's hand was nearly destroyed.The Sauk taining that it was invalid since Indian signers leader himself escaped to a Winnebago village, had been made drunk and were deceivzd into surrendered, and was taken in chains to a prison agreeing to its terms. "My reason teaches me that land cannot be camp.Several months later he was released and sold," Black Hawk was to write in his autobiog- sent on a trip to the East which included a visit raphy many years later."The Great Spirit gave to President Jackson. it to his children to live upon.So long as they "We did not expect to conquer the whites," the occupy and cultivate it they have a right to the Sauk warrior told the President."I took up the

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Black Hawk.From a painting by George Catlin, made in 1832at Jefferson Barracks near St. Louis, Mo., where the Sauk chiefwas imprisoned at the close of the Black Hawk War,Photo: Smithsonian Institution.

hatchet to revenge injuries whichmy people could Nation, which would from thenon have onl one no longer endure.Had I borne them without hand instead of two.In IM3M, at the age of 71. striking, my people would have said `Black Black Hawk died in his lodgeon the Des Moines Hawk is a woman: he istoo old to he a chief: he River, on the reservation ruled by Keokuk. is no Sauk.' In accordance with his request. Black Hawk's Black Hawk was receivedas a hero in several body was seated on the ground undera ooden eastern cities, and returned with gifts from Ameri- shelter, in old Sauk tradition. Hewas dressed in can officials.Again in 1837 he traveledto the the military uniform given him by Jackson and East, this time with Keokuk. decorated with medals from John Quincy Adams. Bur,soonthereafter,theoldwarrior was the President, and the city of Boston.Between crushed when PresidentJackson ordered that his knees was a cane, the gift of statesman Ilenr Keokuk he made principal chief of theSauk Clay.

21 OSCEOLA (Creek)

TN 114A2 A FEW members of the tribe terms, and would du all he could to encourage I of signed an agreement with U.S. Seminole resistance.Thompson had Osceola ar- Government officials which was to become hated rest-A1, put into irons, and imprisoned. among the as the Treaty of Payne's The wily Osceola quickly got himself release') Land ng. by pretending that he had changed his mind Under it, within 3 years the entire tribe would the treaty and would sign it.As soon as he was surrender allits Florida lands, move to Indian free, he began to organize his resistance campaign. territory (Oklahoma), and there join members Osceola was too experienced to attempt open of the Creek tribe.These harsh terms became battle against the whites' superior military power. even more hateful with a later declaration that stead, he formed small parties of Indian war- no Negro would be allowed to accompany the riors, instructed them to cause Government forces tribe west.For more than 20 years the Seminoles as much irritation as they could, kill when possible, had riven refuge to the escared slaves of both and then vanish into the wilderness. Women, Indian and white owners, had in turn enslaved children, and the old and sick of the t_'ibe were them and intermarried with them. The no-Negro hidden in the depths of the Florida swamps. decree would mean the breaking up of many The leading Seminole signer of the treaty, Charlie Seminole families. Amathla, was killed. Most members of the tribe indignantly repudi- So successful was Osceola's guerrilla warfare ated the treaty.As time for removal neared, their that U.S. troops were sent into thefield. On resistance to it intensified under the leadership of Christmas Eve, 1835, more than 100 soldiers under Osceola, a handsome young Indian of Creek and Major Dade set out from the military post at Fort possibly some European ancestry. King, confident of capturing the Seminoles' leader. Osceola was less than 30 at the time, and not Three day: all but three were dead, having a chief either by election or inheritance, but was been ambushed and cut down by Osceola and his acknowledged as the Seminoles' strong man. He men. The Indian leader went on to avenge the had fully demonstrated his courage and intel- despised Payee's Treaty by killing Gen- ligence as a warrior during fights against General eral Thompson and tour other officers.The Sec- Jackson and his men in the First Seminole War ond Seminole War had begun. (1819).Osceola expressed open contempt for the For the next 7 years a deadly game of cat and 1832 treaty and repeatedly refused to signit, mouse was played in the Flo, ida swampsand despite pressure from Gen. Wiley Thompson, its Everglades, as the U.S. Army tried to catch Osceola chief sponsor. and his people.Immediately after the December Continuing his effort to get unanimous Semi- massacres, 7(X) men, sent to bring in the most nole approval, General Thompson called weedier wanted Indian, faced Osceola and his warriors in a group of tribal leaders in 1835.Most of the the b,ittk of the Ouithlacoochee River.After chiefs who opposed the treaty stood by silently, heavy losses on both sides, the Indians were forced refusing to take the pen offered them, but Osceola to retreat, but Osceola, although wounded,escaped. furiously plunged his hunting knife into the paper, Officer after officer, and more and more troops, declaring that he would never agree to the treaty's went to Florida to bring in the elusive Osceola,

22 Osceola.This portrait by George Catlin was made in 1838, just before the handsome young leader of Seminole resistance died while a prisoner at Fort Moultrie, S.C.Photo: Smithsonian Institution. who remaine.1 invisible.In May of IS37. Gen. were imprisoned in Fort Moultrie. Fla. T. S. Jesup. latest in a long line of commanders The Swamp Fox could not endure captivitr, and sent to bring the Seminole War to an end. called rapidly wasted away in prison.Within 3 months, a peace council attended by Osceola and some 3,111 in January of 183s. Osceola died. Indians.Jesup was so sure of success that he had The Second Seminole War was to go on for 4 24 transports standing by. ready to take the Semi. more ea7s, as a succession of military leaders de- Holes west.Hut Osceola got wind of the plot. clared that the Seminoles could never be defeated. The next nwrning. every Indian had vanished. The Indians came out of the swamp only in the "No Seminole provt's false to his country, nor fall of I441, rather than forfeit the lives of a group has a single instance ever occurred of a tirst-rate of their tribesmen. who had been captured and held warrior having surrendered." wrote the frustiatcd as hostages.After a peace treaty in Is42. most of Jesup.Failing to capture Osceola inbattle or the Seminoles moved to Indian territory. through "peacemaking" tactics. Jesup finally suc- Several bands refused to move.Their descend- ceeding in seizing Osceola old% %iolating a ants( some of whom. although unrelated to the 11.ig of truce tinder which the Indian leader was great rcitance leader. bear the name "( seeola") awaiting Jesup for a conference requested by the are stillthere, making up today's Seminoles of General.Osceola and a group of his tolls Florida.

23

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Min WILD CHIRICAHCA of Arizona eastern Arizona to put down the Apaches and territory, although almost constantly battling re-establish communications between the Pacific their traditional enemies, the Mexicans,were not Coast and the East.Cochise, Mangas Coloradas unfriendly to American settlers of the 1850's, and (a leading Apache chief of the Mimbreilo band), some members of the band even worked for them and their warriors defended Apache Pass against as woodcutters at the station in Apache the Californians until forcedto give way before Pass. the howitzers of white volunteers. But in 1861, when the child ofa settler's family With the death in prison of Mangas Coloradas was abducted, Chiricalmas were assumed to be "while attempting to escape" the red-hot bayonet guilty.Six of their chiefs, among them the youth- of a white soldier, Cochise became principal chief ful leader Cochise,were called in for questioning of the Apaches. As troops returnedto Arizona by troops from the 7th . A white flag of territory following the Civil War, an all-out drive truce flew over the commander's tent in which they to exterminate the Apaches got underway. 'net. Driven into the mountains, Cochise, with not As the Apaches steadfastly denied their guilt and more than 200 warriors, was to hold the U.S. Army refused to confess to the crime, the commander at bay for over 10 years.The Apache chief and ordered them seized arrested.One Chiri- his men were tough, skillful warriors, constantly cahua was killed, and four otherswere held, but alert, and able to vanish as if by magic.Although Cochise, cutting through the side of thetent, they were forced deeper and deeper into their escaped, three bullets in his body. mountain hideaways, they continued to carry on Cochise at once begana campaign to avenge his guerillawarfare. White settlements,ranches, tribesmen, who, following hisescape, had been and mines were reestablished, but no Apache band hanged by Federal troops.He directed Apache was ever captured, and the raids hands in attacks up and down the territory which continued. were so ferocious that the troops were forged to In June of 1871, the famed Indian fighter, Gen. retreat.For a time Arizona was at themercy of , took command of the Department the triumphant Indians. A territorialnewspaper, of Arizona, under orders to restore peace and law the Arizoniun, reported in August 1861: "Weare to the territory and subdue the Apaches.Despite hemmed in on all sides by the unrelenting Apache. his military skill, Crook was a fair and just man Within but 6 months, nine-tenths of the whole wh did not believe in exterminating the Indians. male population have been killed off, andevery He recognized the Apaches' just claims, respected ranch, farm, and mine in thecountry has been their ability as warriors, and dealt honorably with abandoned in consequence." them. He won their respect in return. With the recall of troops from Arizona forts for Crook determined to fight fire with fire.Since Civil War duty in the East, the Apacheswere con- alliances among Apaches as a whole had never vinced that they would succeed in preventing been strong, he was able to win over a good many Americans from settling in Apache land.By the warriors, whom he then used to fight those who end of 1862, Gen. James Carleton andan army remained hostile.Crook's became of 3,0(X) volunteers marched into south- famous, and within a few months, most of the

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Cochise's stronghold in the Dragoon Mountains of Arizona.Such forbidding territory as this helped the Apache leader and his followers to attack and elude the U.S. Army successfully for many years.Photo : .Smithsonian Institution.

Indianshad beenbrought ontoreservations. mer of 1872, he again gave himself up.There the Cochise himself surrendered in September, 1871. great Apache leader lived peacefully until his death The following spring, resisting transfer to the in the summer of 1874.A few hundred Apache newly established Tularosa Reservation in New "renegades- were still at large. War against them Mexico, Cochise and some 200 followers escaped. went on until the end of that year, when Crook but when the Chim alma Reservation ( lam dis- could claimfor a timethat peace had been continued) was established in Arizona in the sum- restored to .

15 (Suquamish)

THE NAME OF SEATTLE, Suquamish Indian chief, But as more white immigrantscame to the lives on not only in Washington's largest city, Northwest, relations with the Indians became but in its State history, which gratefully records strained and stormy. During the winter of 1854- him as "the greatest Indian friend white settlers 55, several northwest tribes organized in the hope ever had." of driving whites out of thecountry.In January Seattle, son of Chief Schweabe, witnessedas a 1855, 's first Governor and boy the 1792 arrival in Puget Sound of British Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Isaac I. Stevens, explorer Vancouver and hismen, in their "im- called Seattle's bands together, and told them of mense whitewinged bird ship," the Discovery. plans for a treaty which would place themon The wonderful new riches, and the friendliness reservations. of the first white men he hadever seen, profoundly Seattle, over 6 feet tall, broad-shouldered, deep- impressed Seattle, who became convincedas he chested, an impressive and powerfulorator, replied grew up that peace, not war, was the right path to the Governor in a resounding voice which all for all men to follow. his people assembled along the beach could hear. It was a revolutionary belief.Battle and pillag- According to a white spectator's translation, the ing were a long-established way of lifeamong dignified old leader's words, although marked by Pacific Coast Indians, andas a young man, Seattle sadness and resignation,were poetic.They arc planned and led an alliance of six tribes against said to have gone, in part: "horse tribes" to the northeast.Although his suc- "Whatever I say, the Great Chief at Washington cess in the undertaking won the young chief the can rely on," Seattle said."His people are many, high position of "Chief of the Allied Tribes" (the like grass that covers vast prairies.Our people Duwamish Confederacy), itwas his last feat as a once covered the land as waves of a wind - ruffled warrior.Seattle devoted the rest of his lifeto sea cover its shell-paved floor, but now my people promoting peace. are few. When Catholic missionaries entered the North- "Our great and good Father sends us word that west in the 1830's, Seattle became a convert to if we do as he desires he will buy our lands... Christianity and took the baptismalname "Noah," allow us to live comfortably... protect uswith after his favorite Biblical character. He inaugu- his brave warriors; his wonderful ships of war will rated regular morning and eveningprayers among his people, a practice they continued after his fillour harbors. Then our ancient northern death. enemies will cease to frighten our women, children Seattle had ample opportunity to demonstrate and old men. his belief in brotherhood. White settlers who "But day and night can not dwell together. founded a small communityon Puget Sound in The red man has ever fled the approach of the 1851 received unlimited friendship and help from white man as morning mist flees the rising sun. him, and shared his people's fish, seafood, and It matters little where we pass the remnant of venison.In 1852, the little settlement which had our days. They will not be many. The Indian's first been hopefully called "New York," and later night promisestobe dark... afew more "Alki Point," was renamed, for all time, "Seattle." moons ... afew more winters."

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Seattle.The original painting by Eleanor Peardis of Seattle, Washington, was made from a recently-discovered photograph on a very old post card.The Duwamish Chief holds a hat of fine basketry, beautifully decorated in design typical of the area.Photo: Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Seattle was the first signer of the Port Elliott dead man's name disturbs his spirit, Seattle levied Treaty of 1855 which placed Washington tribes a small tribute in advance upon the citizens of the on reservations. new town named after him. At about 86, he died But in the wake of the new treaties, several on Port Madison Reservation. Indian groups, placed on reservation lands which An Indian burial ground at Suquamish, Wash., did not include hunting or fishing areas, opened 14 miles from Seattle, contains the grave of the attack on white settlers."Horse" tribes of east- great chief. A granite shaft erected there by the ern Washington combined to lead a war in which people of Seattle is inscribed: "Seattle, Chief of they tried to enlist "canoe" Indians. Some coastal the Suquamish and Allied tribes, died June 7, tribes did join the alliance, but Seattle's followers 1866, the firm friend of the Whites, and for him the remained generally loyal to whites and were evac- City of Seattle was named by its founders." Each uated in sloops and canoes to Port Madison Reser- year the grave is the scene of a memorial ceremony vation.Throughout this and other Indian wars conducted by local Boy Scouts on Scout Anni- of the period, Seattle faithfully supported the versary Day.In Seattle itself, a bronze statute white cause. at the same time continuing to be a represents the Indian leader in a typical pose, his true and powerful leader of his own people. hand outstretched in a gesture of perpetual peace In line with the tribal belief that mention of a and friendship.

1" ( )

AMAGNIFICENT SPECIMEN of physical manhood, for passage of emigrants and construction of forts as full of action as a tiger." along the trail. This time, Red Cloudwas present So Mahpiva Luta ("Red Cloud," from ameteor as a leading representative for the Indians. With which turned the sky scarlet at the time of his great force and dignity, he repeated his refusal to birth), was described by famed Indian fighter endanger the hunting grounds of his people: the Gen. George Crook, as the Oglala Sioux chief, then Great Spirit had told him, he said, what would 44, led Indian opposition to Government proposals happen to the Indians if the became to construct forts along the Bozeman Trail in a major route. 1865. But even while discussions were taking place,a No white encroachmentwas more bitterly re- strong force of troops had arrived and begun occu- sented by the Teton, or Western Sioux, and the pation of Wyoming's Powder Rivercountry. than this attempt to fortify the wild Upon learning this the furious Red Cloud seized road across the western part of the continent his rifle, shouted a defiantmessage, and stalked through Wyoming to the newly discovered gold out of the meeting tent with his followers. fields of , for the Bozeman Trailcut The Army proceeded tocarry out orders to across the best remaining buffalo grounds. fortify the trail.When Red Cloud's protestswere The Indians had a powerful voice of opposition ignored, he organized his forces, threatened death in Red Cloud. One of the principal chiefs of the to any whites who ventured onto the trail, and Oglala Teton Sioux, hewas a foremost warrior began a constant harrassment which was togo on who had counted a large number ofcoups (sepa- for 2 years and become knownas "Red Cloud's rate deeds of bravery in battle), a natural leader War." The largest post on the trail, Fort Phil who had become spokesman for his people through Kearny, was kept under relentless seige, and not his own force of character. Hewas in his own even a load of hay could be brought in from the right chief of the powerful Bad Face band of prairiesexcept under strongly armed guard. , and influencedmost of the other Oglala When Capt. William J. Fetterman, with 80men, Sioux bands. attempted to rescue a woodcutting party under Red Cloud was grimly determinedto keep the attack near the fort in December 1866, Red Cloud's Army out of Indian hunting grounds. Witha warriors lured them into ambush and killedevery party of Sioux and Cheyennes, he intercepted the one. first small detachment oftroops sent out to begin Although there were some white victories, Red Cloud and his followers resisted so effectively that constructions along the Bozeman Trail in thesum- mer of 1865, and kept them prisoner for more than again the Government attempted to negotiate. The new meeting was called for November 1868. 2 weeks. When commissioners were sent to treat Red Cloud's ultimatum was complete abandon- with the Sioux that fall, Red Cloud refused to al- ment of all posts and of all further attempt to open low transactions to start, and himself boycotted the the Montana road. He refused to signoreven cou nci I. be presentuntil the garrisons had actually been The following June, whitenegotiators again withdrawn and he had seen the hated forts burn attempted to get Sioux and Cheyennepermission to the ground.

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Red Cloud.Although dressed in full regalia, the Oglala Sioux warrior, aged and almost blind, had made his home on Reservation in for many years at the time this picture was made.Photo: Smithsonian Institution.

Red Clo id's victory was complete.The Oglala las.There, his running feud with Agent McGilli- chief stands alone in the history of the American cuddy became legendary, primarily because of as the chief who won a war with the United agent's persistent efforts to rob him of his prestige States. and authority as chief of his people. While he Having signed the Fort Laramie Treaty, which advocated peace, Red Cloud was opposed to efforts created the vast area known as the Great Sioux Res- to rush Indian acceptance of white men's ways, ervation, he agreed to lay down his arms and settle and was a persistent critic of the Federal Govern- at in . He kept his ment. He left the house built for him by the Gov- promise to live peacefully, but not without cost: ernment on Pine Ridge to travel to Washington on his acceptance of reservation life brought him the several occasions, and his views became known to scorn of and other Oglala leaders, newspaper readers throughout the country. who continued to fight the whites.Red Cloud A few years before his death, Red Cloud and his took no active part in the Sioux hostilities of the wife were formally baptized as Roman Catholics; 1870's, although many of his followers, and his he took the baptismal name "John," and she be- own son, left the agency to join and came "Mary."In 1909, having become feeble and other Sioux warriors. totally blind, the old warrior died in his Pine Ridge In 1878, Red Cloud moved his people to Pine home. A marker locates his grave at the Holy Ridge Agency, along with almost all other Ogla- Rosary Mission near Pine Ridge Agency, S. Dak.

19 CUSTER'S LAST STAND This remarkable pictograph, the original painted on muslin, illustrates in true Indian fashion the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Mont.,on June 25, Indian Day of Glory 1876, in which Gen. George A. Custerwas killed and his command annihilated by combined forces of Sioux and Indians. The Siouxartist was , a survivor, who painted his BEST COPY MIME recollection of the battle at Pine Ridge, S. Dak. in 1898, 22 years after the Sioux'greatest victory.

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0 CRAZY HORSE (Oglala Sioux)

CRAZY HORSE (TASHUNKE WITKO)a military warriors were encamped along Montana's Little figure of the Oglala Sioux tribe, came to Big Horn River.Again Crazy Horse played a power while still a young man in his middle leading role.After the repulse of Maj. Marcus twenties, during Red Cloud's War along the Boze- A. Reno's battalion by Indians under Sitting Bull man Trail. and other chiefs, the braves concentrated almost Unlike Red Cloud, Crazy Horse did not settle on their entire force on Custer and his men, some Sioux lands established by the 1868 Fort Laramie 4 miles away.In little more than an hour, the Treaty, but with his followers, stayed out in the Sioux and Cheyennes had overrun Custer and his unceded buffalo country to the west. 224 men, slaughtering every one. Courageous, daring, skilled in the techniques of After their victory at the Battle of the Little Indian warfare, the bold and implacable Crazy Big Horn ("Custer's Last Stand"), the Indian Horse never yielded in his hatred of the white man, bands dispersed. One by one, as more and more and made it clear that he had no intention of soldiers poured into their country, they surren- abandoning hunting and fighting for reservation dered. existence. In January of 1877, Gen. Nelson A. Miles, sur- In December of 1875, the Indian Commissioner prising Crazy Horse's winter camp, scattered the in Washington, alarmed by reports of Sioux hostili- Indians without food or adequate clothing on the ties, directed that all Indians in the area return frozen plain.The following May, Crazy Horse to their agencies by January 31, 1876.When some and about 1,000 men, women, and children sur- Sioux bands, far afield in search of game, failed to renderedtothe Sioux Chief's old adversary, meet this impossible deadline, Gen. George Crook General Crook, at Red Cloud Agency in Nebraska. was ordered to attack their winter settlements, and But the young warrior could not stand reserva- he sent Col. J. J. Reynolds to take Crazy Horse's tion life.Rumors flew that he was plotting escape, village by surprise.Crazy Horse organized a and on , 1877, he was placed under counter-attack, recovered his warriors' scattered arrest. When he realized that he was about to ponies, and drove off Crook's cattle.Without be locked up, Crazy Horse, desperate, drew his food, the General was forced to return with his knife and tried to cut his way to freedom. He men to his post. was bayonetted in the back by a white sentry, and Realizing that Crazy Horse was a more formida- died several hours later. ble adversary than he had thought, Crook planned When the Og lalas left the Red Cloud Agency, a new strategy, and thefollowing June, with 15 Crazy Horse's remains went with them to Pine troops of cavalry and 5 of infantry, marched up the Ridge Agency. Legend hasitthat they were Bozeman Trail to the . On June subsequently moved from their original burial 17, his army ran headlong into 1,200 Oglalas and place there, and given a final resting place near Cheyennes under Crazy Horse at the Rosebud a spectacular butte close to Manderson, S.Dak., River.At the end of a day-long battle, Crook was forcedtowithdrawwith heavylosses, known as "Crazy Horse Butte." chagrined at his second defeat at the hands of the No photograph has ever certainly been identi- Sioux chief. fied as that of the great Sioux warrior, although A week later, Gen. George A. Custer attacked pictures of other Sioux who resembled him some- the fugitive village where more than 3,00() Indian what, have sometimes been claimed to be his. SITTING BULL (HunkpapaSioux)

TATANKA IYOTAKE (SITTING BULL), known the under General Crook. The Indiansdispersed, world over as Sitting Bull, the most famous and Crazy Horse and his peopleeventually made chief of the Tetonor Western Sioux, today still their way to Sitting Bull'scamp on the Rosebud ranks as the Sioux of Sioux. The acknowledged River in the Valley of the Little BigHorn. leader of history's largest assembly of Plainswar- By the spring of 1876, around 3,000 TetonSioux riors, a band chief in hisown right, a shaman and and Northern Cheyenne warriors hadassembled a visionary with extraordinary ability to plan and at Sitting Bull's camp and had chosen himas their organize, he exemplified inevery respect the supreme commander. Although few whites then highest Sioux virtues ofcourage, generosity, and realized the strength of hisarmy, the efficiency of steadfast loyalty to tribal ideals. his braves was well recognized. The Sioux,said Sitting Bull was born in what isnow South Gen. Frederick W. Benteen,an Army officer of Dakota about 1831, theson of a Hunkpapa Teton the time, were "good shots, good riders, andthe generally known as Jumping Bull. Hewas scar- best fighters the sunever shown on." cely 10 years old when hewent on his first buffalo Sitting Bull, whose insight and political judg- hunt, and at 14, witha war party against Crow ment were as remarkable as his military skill, Indians, counted his firstcoup (a war honor in- realized that the Sioux and other Plains tribeswere volving the touchingor striking of a living enemy). about to face a battle for theirvery existence.In As a result of this great feat, his boyhoodname June of 1876, he vowed to perform the Sun Dance, "Slow"was formally changedto Sitting Bull. which would give hima vision of what lay ahead Sitting Bull told much of thestory of his own life for his people.He had often performed this in a series of pictures, and this brave deed is the dance, the Plains Indians'greatest and most im- first of some 63 exploits preserved in hisauto- portant religious ceremony, and his chest and back biographical drawings. were scarred by its torture. The Sioux chief believed that he had beendi- For this great Dance, Sitting Bullgave 100 pieces vinely chosen to lead andprotect his people, and of skin from his arms and ,houlders. Then,bleed- established himself in this role while stilla young ing heavily, he danced all ofone day and night. man. A Crow bullet timed him permanently Around noon the next day, becoming almostun- when he was in his early thirty's, but didnot conscious, he had the vision for which he had succeed in limiting his activities.Sitting Bull was prayed: many white soldiers, falling upsidedown on the warpath with his followers almost con- from the sky, would makewar upon his people, tinuously in the years after 1866, and although but the Great Spirit wouldcare far his Indians. other tribes of the northern Plains increasingly Sitting Bull's visionwas quickly fulfilled. On resigned themselves to reservation life, he remained June 16, more than 1,000 warriors underCrazy with his people in the buffalocountry, aloof, Horse met Gen. George Crook and1,300 armed uncompromising, and quick to challenge white men at the Battle of the Rosebud.Although tired invaders. from the Sun Dance, Sitting Bullwas there to In December of 1875, the Commissioner of In- urge the Indians on. At the end ofan all-day dian Affairs directed all Sioux handsto come onto fight, Crook was forcedto 7-treat, with heavy reservations by the end of January,or be declared losses. hostile.Unable to meet this unrealistic deadline, Despite this victory, Sitting Bull knewthat his Crazy Horse and his camp were attacked bytroops vision had not yet been fulfilled,for it had showed

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Tatanka lyotake (Sitting Bull).The great Hunkpapa Sioux chief was about 51 yearsold at the time this picture was made at his home on StandingRock Reservation in North Dakota. Photo: Smithsonian Instittition.

34 him many white soldiers. The battle which fol- several months Iwas in daily contact with Sitting lowed on June 25 was the spectacular Indian tri- Bull and learned to admire himfor his many umph known as "Custer's Last Stand," in which fine qualities." the General and every one of his 224men were Placed on Standing Rock Reservationin 1883, annihilated. SittingBull continuedtoregardhimself as No trap had been laid for Custer and his forces, chief of his people.In doing so, he aroused and no strategy planned ahead of time.The bat- the animosity and jealousy both ofAgent James tle was a sudden defensive action. McLaughlin and of rival chiefs.For a year, the The hostile Sioux and Cheyennewere constantly venerable chief wenton tour with 's harrassed by troops under Col. Nelson A. Miles wild west show, butmost of the 1880's were spent after the Battle of the Little Big Horn, and in the feuding with McLaughlin. winter following their great victory,many of Sit- When the Ghost Dancemovement hit Dakota ting Bull's followers surrendered.Pursued by the reservations in 1890, tensions between McLaughlin Army, failing in his attempt to prevent the loss and Sitting Bullwere accented. The Sioux chief of hunting grounds in the and Powder had endorsedalthough without enthusiasmthe River country, Sitting Bull and his followerses- new Indian religious movement, and in December caped to Canada. of that year had been invitedto visit Pine Ridge Across the border, Sitting Bull pled with Ca- Agency "to greet the Messiah."McLaughlin used nadians for a reservation, but withoutsuccess. his request for apass as a pretext that Sitting Bull U.S. commissioners came to Canadato persuade planned to flee the reservation, andon December him to return.Sitting Bull resisted, but when 15 sent a detachment of Indian policeto arrest there was nothing left to cat, he led his followers him. south, and surrendered at Fort Buford, Mont.,on Some of his faithful friends triedto prevent Sit- July 19, 1881.Horses and arms were relinquished ting Bull's seizure but during the struggle hewas in. exchange for a "pardon" for Sitting Bull'spast. killed by Sergeants Red Tomahawk andBullhead. For 2 years, the Sioux chiefwas a prisoner of His 17-year-old son and six others also diedin the war at Fort Randall. He had become a legend skirmish. in his own time, andwas deluged by fan mail. Sitting Bull was buried in the Post Cemeteryat Lt. Col. G. P. Ahern, who handled Sitting Bull's Fort Yates, N. Dak.In 1953, 63 years after his letters, described himeven then as "a very re- death, his remains were exhumed andtransferred markable mansuchavividpersonality. . across the Missouri River to Mobridge, S. Dak. A squared -sh uldered, deep-chested,a fine head, and granite shaft marks the last resting placeof the the manner of a man who knew his ground.For great Sioux chief.

i5 WOVOKA (Paiute)

TN ISKM, A Vorsa; Northern Paiute Indian named quent ones from dozens of western tribes became L Wovoka, seriously ill with a fever during a eager disciples who carried the Ghost Dance far total eclipse of the sun, had a vision,Recovering, beyond Nevada, lw told of a revelation from the Great Spirit. The dance was an extremely simple one, in "When the sun died I went up to Heaven and which for 5 consecutive n:glits, participants joined saw God and all the people who had died a long hands in a circle and shuffled slowly to the left, time ago," he reported to his tribesmen."God while chanting especially composed songs of hope told me to eme back and tell my people they must and delivery.Dancers usually wore shirts (often be good and love one another, and not fight, or of Government-issue muslin) painted with mystic steal, or lie. designs which some tribes believed would be proof "He gave me this dance to give my people," against the white man's bullets. Wovokals message began a cult known as the Wovoka's message was perfectly timed for spe- Ghost Dance, which was to spread among Indian cial appeal to western Indians,Plains tribes, eon- tribes from the Missouri River to the Rocky Moun- fined to:nervations, unable to hunt their own tains and beyond. food or practice the traditional Sun Dance which A medicine man and dreamer whose father. for countless years had been their source of spirit- Tavibo, had also been a medicine man, Wovoka ual help, took up the Messiah cult and sometimes was born around 1858 in Mason Valley, Nev. danced until they collapsed. Among its most When Tavibo died, the 14-year-old Wovoka was enthusiastic followers were the Sioux, who by 1889 taken into the family of a local rancher, David were dancing near several South Dakota agencies. Wilson, as a farmhand, and given the name "Jack Troops were sent in for the protection of appre- Wilson," by which he became generally known. hensive settlers who feared the new ceremony as The spiritual leanings Wovoka inherited from his a preparation for war. father were enhanced by the Wilsons' practice of In December of 18%, about 500 men of the 7th reading the Bible aloud, and the young Indian boy Cavalry (Custer's old regiment) were sent to round was strongly impressed by accounts of Jesus ;111(1 up a party of Sioux fromCheyenne His miracles. RiverAgency. Thepartypitched camp at Wovoka did not claim divinity after his vision, Wounded Knee Creek, about 25 miles from Pine but quickly became accepted among Indians as the Messiah who would carry the Great Spirit's Ridge Agency. On December 29, having surrounded the Indi- message.His doctrine, an explicitly peaceful one, promised that Indian lands would he restored; ans, a battery of guns trained upontheir , that Indian dead would arise; and that buffalo, soldiers began to disarm Sioux warriors.Poring deer, elk, and other game would Once again roam the search for concealed weapons a gun was fired, the plains in abundance.All Indians would be probably by one of the Sioux.It may have been saved by dancing the sacred Ghost Dance. a signal, for at once otherbraves threv,. off their The first major performance t()ok place near blankets and attacked.White soldiers immedi- Wovoka's home in early 1889.Visitors to subse- ately responded with deadly gunfire. Within half

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Wovoka ( Jack Wilson).This charcoal drawing of the Paiute "Messiah" was made from a photograph by James Mooney, a great early student of Indian cultures.Photo: Smithsonian Institution. an hour almost all the Sioux warriors had been prophecies as the years went by, and repeatedly slaughtered: then guns were turned on the Indian called upon his people to follow the white man's women and cl,ildren, mowing them down in road.In 1926, Col. Tim McCoy, then a sin of flight.About 25 soldiers, and more than 2($J Indi- motion pictures and , and a friend ans lost their lives in the dreadful Massacre of of the American Indian, went to visit the old Wounded Knee, which ended, for all time. Sioux prophet."I found a man unusuAly vigorous for armed resistance to whites. nearly 70,- McCoy said. "He talked readily of the Wovoka was dismayed 1w news of Wounded ghost dance religion, and still declared he had Knee, since his message had never counseled blocxl- visited and talked to God." shed.Although his messianic doctrine persisted Woyoka died quietly in 1932, and was buried in for a decade after Wounded Knee, he altered his the Indian graveyard at Mason Valley, Nev.

37 JOSEPH ()

FOR CENTURIES, THE Nez Perce ("Pierced Nose," believing that bands which had not signed would a name given these Indians by French trappers not be bound by his signature. White authorities, because some tribal members once wore shell orna- however, held that Lawyer's action committed all ments in their noses), ranged the grassy hills and Nez Perce bands. plateaus where present boundaries of Washington, Joseph and his followers continued to occupy , and meet. They were a strong, the Wallowa Valley, and for a time they were intelligent, and populous people whose traditional left in relative peace.But old Joseph, nearing friendship to whites was established as early as death, looked into the future and warned his son. 1805 with the coming of Lewis and Clark. "When I am gone," he counseled the young The tribe gave up most of its gathering territory chief, "think of your country. You are the chief to the United States under an 1855 treaty, and of these people. They look to you to guide them. settled on designated lands in Oregon and Idaho. A few more years and the whites will be all Its most powerful band, occupying ancestral lands around you. They have their eyes on this land. in Oregon's fertile Wallowa Valley, was led by My son, never forget my dying words: never sell , a Christian convert and the lifelong the bones of your father and mother." friend of white missionaries, settlers, and explorers. No sooner had old Joseph died than the Wallowa The old chief's eldest son, born around 1840 as was opened to homesteaders, and pressure to re- Hinmaton-yalatkit (referring to "thunder coming move the Nez Perce began.With dignity and up over the land from the water"), has become courtesy, but with inflexible determination un- famous as Chief Joseph. He was made the band's changed by orders or threats, Joseph refused to he leader while stilla young man, not through moved. "I believe the (1863) treaty has never been prowess as a warrior or hunter, but because of his correctly reported," he said."If we ever owned superior intelligence and remarkable strength of the land we own it still, for we never sold it." character. The Wallowa became the subject of a series of When gold was discovered on Nez Perce Ore- conflicting and confusing decrees.In an Executive gon lands in 1863, and prospectors swarmed into Order of 1873, the northern part of their own land tribal territory, the Indians demanded that their wab returned to the Nez Perce, but 2 years later rights under the 1855 treaty be enforced.In re- the order was rescinded and the valley again de- sponse, Nez Perce: hands were called together clared open to homesteading.Joseph counseled by Indian commissioners in an attempt to per- his people to be patient, moved their camps from suade the tribe to "adjust" reservation boundaries settlers' vicinities, and again appealed to Federal to an area of less than one-fourth the original. authorities.In 1877 he was given an ultimatum: Failing to reach unanimous agreement, the tribe all Nez Perce must leave within .30 days or be split into factions and disbanded.Joseph, and forcibly removed by the Army. several other Nez Perce chiefs, would have no part Forced to abandon his father's counsel, and of the treaty, but one leader, Lawyer, tempted by opposing members of the band who advocated war its promises of cash and other benefits, accepted rather than removal, Joseph undertook the sad and signed the treaty. The Nez Perce chief had task of persuading his people to leave the Wallowa. no intention of betraying the rest of the tribe, As the allotted time drew to an end, a group of angry Nez Perce killed several whites.Troops +e- sent to the area were all but annihilated by Joseph's rg warriors in the Battle of White Bird Canyon.In 18 subsequent battles, the Indians continued to out-

maneuver white soldiers. CV As Nez Perce leader and chief spokesman in opposing the treaty, Joseph was assumed, by whites, to be the band's military genius as well.Although he sat in councils and guided his people's decisions, t Joseph was not a war chief; the hand's battle vic- tories had been under such chiefs as Five Wounds, Toohoolhoolzote, Looking Glass, and others.But the Army was unaware of this, and Joseph's fame grew to legendary proportions. In 1877, Gen. 0. 0. Howard and 600 men, sent to capture Joseph, fought a 2-day battle with Nez c Perce warriors near Kamiah, Idaho.Rather than surrender, Joseph chose a retreat that ranks among the most masterly in U.S. military history. Heading for the Canadian border, he led some 750 followers across four States, twice across the Rockies, through what is now Yellowstone Park, and across the Missouri River, a journey of more than 1,5(X) miles.Joseph himself took charge of the band's women, children, aged, and ill, while his brother 011okot and other war chiefs twice fought and defeated white soldiers along theway. On October 5, 1877, within about 30 miles of the Canadian border, the band was cut off by fresh troops, and Joseph was forced to admit defeat. Chief Joseph.This photo of the Nez Perce His surrender speech, recorded by General hero is believed to have been made shortly after his surrender and classic speech to the Howard's adjutant, has gone down in historyas U.S. Army in 1877. Photo: Smithsonian In- the symbol of Nez Perce dignity and courage: stitution. "Tell General Howard I know his heart.What he told me before I have in my heart.I am tired my children and see how many I can find.Maybe of fighting.Our chiefs are killed.Looking Glass I shall find them among the dead. is dead.Toohoolhoolzote is dead. The old men "Hear me, my chiefs.I am tired. My heart is are all dead.It is the young men who say yes and sick and sad.From where the sun now stands, I no.He who led the young men is dead.Itis will fight no more forever... cold and we have no blankets.The little children In 1885, after several years in Indian Territory are freezing to death. My people, some of them, (Oklahoma), Joseph and most of his followers have run away to the hills, and haveno blankets: were sent to Colville Reservation in Washington. no food; no one knows where they arc, perhaps where he died in 1904, still an exile from his be- freezing to death.I want to have time to look for loved valley.

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Quanah Parker.From an 1892 photo made when the leader was about 57 years ok1. Nmit/wPir,:// big/tut/on.

; QUANAH PARKER (Comanche)

FOR MANY YEARS the word "Comanche" meant when U.S. Army troops were sent into Indian terror on the Texas frontier.In early 19th country.Parker, however, continued to remain century, Comanche Indians had been generally on the Staked Plains with his band until the sum- friendly to Americans, but they became bitter mer of 1875, when he surrendered. enemies of the Texas settlers who took over their As other leaders before him, Parker had dreamed best buffalo hunting grounds. of an alliancethis time of Plains Indian tribes Wildest and fiercest of was the which would be strong enough to resist the it', Kwahadi band.In1835, Kwahadis attacked a roads of white settlement.Once having surren- small settlement in east Texas and carried away dered his dream, however, he changed his point of several captives, among them a little girl, Cynthia view completely, and resolved to adjust to the Ann Parker, then about 10 years old.Cynthia dominant civilization."I can learn the white grew up to marry Nokoni, a Comanche chief. man's ways," he said, and he did. Their oldest son, born about 1845, was Quanah Parker was still young, and his real career, which Parker, who, in Comanche tradition, was given was to be long and distinguisht.!, started at that his mothers surname. point.He influenced even the wildest of the Quanah grew up with the savage Kwahadi Comanche bandsto come onto southwestern Coma Aches, and when his father died, he became Oklahoma reservations, and peace at last came to the tribe's new chief, a tribute to the young man's the Texas plains. ability and intelligence, since chieftainships were For the next 30 years, Parker acted as the in- not ordinarily inherited among the Comanches. dustrious and able leader of a confederation of Fights with the Comanches were an almost Comanches, Apaches, and . He was their everyday occurrence to settlers on the plains of most able and influential businessman, and their west Texas, and Indian attacks on travelers were guide to white civilization.The once-savage war- a constant danger.The 1867 Medicine Lodge rior made education popular, encouraged home- Treaty had assigned Comanches, Kiowas, - building and agriculture, and initiated the leasing Apaches, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes to reserva- of surplus pasture lands for Indian income.Al- tions.But Parker and his band, who had refused ways, however, he held fast to traditionally im- to sign, continued to hunt buffalo on the Plains portant Indian beliefs and ceremonies.Quanah's and to plunder settlements along the Texas border. involvement with the Peyote Cult (peyote is a In the early 1870's, when white hunters illegally small cactus whose "buttons," when chewed, pro- invaded Indian country and slaughtered vast num- duce visions), played an important part in his bers of buffalos to collect hides, Parker's fury ability to influence his followers.Parker had f-i%e reached its peak.Having mustered about 70(3 wives (polygamy was customary among the warriors from among the Comanches, Cheyennes. Comanches), and many children, all of whom and Kiowas, in June of 1874 he attacked the post were educated. He spoke bothEnglish and at Adobe Walls, where some 30 buffalo hunters Spanishfluently,andtraveledfrequentlyto were quartered.But the fort's thick walls and Washington. superior ammunition were too much for the In- Quanah Parker, the most esteemed Indian of his dian braves, who were forced to withdraw with tribe, died in 1911, at about 76.In 1957, he was severe losses after 3 days of heavy fighting. reburied in the post cemetery at , Okla., Most Comanche aggression came to an end with military honors.

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Geronimo.The Apache war chief's legendary ferocity is clearly portrayed in this rare photo- graph b% A. Frank Randall, made in l886.Pholo: InstIftifion. GERONIMO (Apache)

WITH THE PIERCING shout of "Geronimo," U.S. sure, allowing the hostiles no security, finally paratroopers plummet from theirtroop- brought about their return to San Carlos in 1883 carrying aircraft.The cry recalls the fiery spirit and 1884. of the last and most feared of Apachewar lead- But in 1885 Geronimo fled again with a follow- ers.Geronimo fought beside Cochise, , ing of less than 50 warriors, and their families. and Mangas Coloradas, but long after these bold Again Crook put columns into Mexico.Again, in chieftains had passed from thescene his name the spring of 1886, Geronimo surrendered to spread panic in the frontier settlements of the Crook.But this time, fired with intoxicating mes- Southwest. cal obtained from a white trader, he dashed for his One after another, in the 1860's and 1870's, the mountain refuge before even crossing the border. Apache tribes capitulated to the advancing fron- Stung by criticism from his superiors, Crook tier, abandoned their raiding forays into Mexico, asked to be relieved.Gen. Nelson A. Miles took and allowed themselves to be concentratedon res- his place, and throughout the summer of 1886 his ervations. Among the last to succumbwere the troops hunted Geronimo and his people in the Apaches.These were Geronimo's Mexican wilderness.At last Lt. Charles B. Gate- people.Although not born a Chiricahua, he had wood succeeded in getting into Geronimo's camp married a Chiricahua woman and gainedstature and persuading him to give up. With hi n at the in the tribe as a warrior of note. A short, thick-set last were less than two dozen warriors a ad their man with a perpetual scowl, he bore the unlikely name of GoyathlayOne Who Yawnsbut to his families. This time the Army took no chances.A mili- white enemies he was knownas Geronimo. By 1876 he was in his middle forties. tary band played "Auld Lang Syne" on the parade In this year the Government removed the Chid- ground of as Geronimo and the last of cahuas from their mountain homeland in south- the Apache hostiles were loaded on wagons to be eastern Arizona.Geronimo rose to leadership of taken to the railroad and deported from their rebellious tribesmen who wantedno part of farm- Arizona homeland. ing on the parched bottomlands of the San Carlos Nearly all the Chiricahuasthose who had re- Reservation.For the next decade he anda small mained peacefully at San Carlos as well as the band of "renegades" alternately raided in Arizona hostiles and, cruelly, Crook's former scouts too and Mexico and grudgingly accepted reservation were imprisoned first in Florida, then in Alabama, restraints at San Carlos, and finally in Oklahoma.Resigned to the inevi- In the autumn of 1881, Geronimo and other lead- table, Geronimo allowed himself to be exhibited at ers once more bolted the reservation and took ref- expositions in St. Louis and Omaha and even rode uge in Mexico. From strongholds in the rugged in President Theodore Roosevelt's inaugural pa- Sierra Madre they ranged through the settlements rade in 1905. He embraced Christianity, affected a of Mexico and southern Arizona, plundering, stovepipe hat, and once was photographed behind burning, and killing.The U.S. Armysent Gen. the steering wheel of an automobile. Pneumonia George Crook to Arizona. An experiencedIn- finally took his life at the Fort Sill hospital in 1909. dian fighter who believed that only Apachescould Some of Geronimo's followers may still be found catch Apaches, Crook enlisted Chiricahuascout at Fort Sill, Okla., and on the Mescalero Apache units and plunged into Mexico.Persistent pres- Reservation in New Mexico.

43 FOR FURTHER READING (These books can be obtained from most large librariesorborrowed through interlibrary loan.) General Background Collier, John Foreman, Grant INDIANS OF THE AMERICAS. New York, LAST TREK OF THE INDIANS. New York, W. W. Norton & Co., 1947. Russell & Russell, 1972 reprint of 1946 ed.

Hagan, William T. Cotterhill, R.S. AMERICAN INDIANS. , University of THE SOUTHERN INDIANS: The Story of the Chicago Press, 1961. Civilized Tribes Before Removal. Norman, Uni- versity of Oklahoma Press, 1966 reprint of 1954 Hodge, Frederick W. ed. HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIANS NORTH OF MEXICO. Westport, Conn., Dale, Edward E. Greenwood Press, 1970 reprint of 1907 ed. INDIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST: A Century of Development Under the United States. Norm- Hyde, George E. an, University of Oklahoma Press, 1971 reprint INDIANS OF THE HIGH PLAINS: From the of 1949 ed. Prehistoric Period of the Coming of Europeans. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1970 Debo, Angie reprint of 1959 ed.

A HISTORY OF THE INDIANS OF THE Josephy, Alvin M., Jr. UNITED STATES. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1970. THE INDIAN HERITAGE OF AMERICA. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1968. Dunn, J. P., Jr. Josephy, Alvin M., Jr. MASSACRES OF THE MOUNTAINS: A His- THE PATRIOT CHIEFS: A Chronicle of Ameri- tory of Indian Wars of the Far West, 1815-75. can Indian Leadership. New York, Viking Press, New York, Archer House, Inc., 1958. 1961.

Foreman, Grant LaFarge, Oliver INDIAN REMOVAL: The Emigration of the A PICTORIAL HISTORY OF THE AMERI- of Indians. Norman, Uni- CAN INDIAN. New York, Crown Publishing versity of Oklahoma, 1972 reprint of 1932 ed. Co., Inc., 1956.

44 Leach, Douglas E. Swanton, John R. FLINTLOCK AND TOMAHAWK: New Eng- INDIANS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN land in King Philip's War. New York, W. W. UNITED STATES. St. Clair Shores, Mich., Norton & Co., Inc., 1966. Scholarly Press, 1968 reprint of 1946 ed.

Tebbel, John and Keith Jennison Lewis, Meriwether and THE . New York, HISTORY OF THE EXPEDITION UNDER Harper, 1960. THE COMMAND OF CAPTAINS LEWIS AND CLARK. New York, AMS Press, Inc., Underhill, Ruth M. 1973 reprint of 1922 ed. (complete reprint of REDMAN'S AMERICA: A History of the Indians Biddle ed. of 1814). in the United States, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1971 reprint of 1953 ed. McNickle. D'Arcy Van Every, Dale THEY CAME HERE FIRST: The Epic of the American Indian. New York, Octagon Books, DISINHERITED: The Lost Birthright of the 1972 reprint of 1949 ed. American Indian. New York, William Mor- row & Co., 1971 reprint of 1966 ed.

Momaday, Natachee Scott Washburn, Wilcomb E. THE WAY TO RAINEY MOUNTAIN. Albu- THE INDIAN AND THE WHITE MAN. Gar- querque, University of New Mexico Press, 1969. den City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1971 reprint of 1964 ed.

Nabokov, Peter Wissler, Clark TWO LEGGINGS: The Making r>f a Crow War- INDIANS OF THE UNITED STATES: Four rior. New York, Apollo Editions, Inc., 1970 re- Centuries of Their History and Culture. (Lucy print of 1967 ed. Wales Kluckhohn, ed.) Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1966 revision of 1946 ed.

Schmitt, Martin and Dee Brown Wright, Muriel H. FIGHTING INDIANS GF THE WEST. New A GUIDE TO THE INDIAN TRIBES OF York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969 reprint of OKLAHOMA. Norman, University of Okla- 1948 ed. ',original title: Settler's West). homa Press, 1971 reprint of 1951 ed.

45 Tribes and Individuals

Apache: Wellman, Paul I. Clum, Woodworth DEATH IN THE DESERT. New York, Mac- millan, 1935. APACHE AGENT. Boston, New York, Hough- ton-Mifflin, 1936. Wellman, Paul I. INDIAN WARS IN THE WEST. New York, Dobyns, Henry F. Curtis Books, Inc., 1971 reprint of 1954 ed. THE APACHE PEOPLE. Phoenix, Indian Tri- bal Series, 1971. Cherokee: Sleeker, Sonia Davis, Britton THE CHEROKEE INDIANS OF THE MOUN- THE TRUTH ABOUT GERONIMO. N:w TAINS. New York, William Morrow & Co., Haven, Yale University Press, 1929. 1952. (Grades 4-6).

Lockwood, Francis Corkran, D. H. THE CHEROKEE FRONTIER: Conflict and THE APACHE INDIANS. New York, Macmil- Survival, 1740-62. Norman, University of Okla- lan, 1938. homa Press, 1962.

Opler, Morris E. Foreman, Grant APACHE ODYSSEY: A Journey Between Two SEQUOYAH. Norman, University of Oklahoma Worlds. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Win- Press, 1959 reprint of 1938 ed. ston, Inc., 1969.

Mooney, James Santee, Ross MYTHS OF THE CHEROKEE. St. Clair Shores, APACHELAND. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Mich., Scholarly Press, 1970 reprint of 1900 ed. Press, 1971 reprint of 1947 ed. Malone, Henry Thompson Terrell, John Upton CHEROKEES OF THE OLD SOUTH: A People APACHE CHRONICLE. New York, World in Transition. Athens, University of Georgia Press, 1974 reprint of 1956 ed. Publishing Co., 1972.

Wardell, Morris L. Thrapp, Dan L. A POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE CHERO- THE CONQUEST OF APACHERIA. Norman, KEE. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, University of Oklahoma, 1967. 1938.

46 Woodward, Grace Steele Haines, Francis

THE CHEROKEE. Norman, University ofOkla- THE NEZ PERCES: Tribesmen of the Columbia homa Press, 1969 reprint of 1963 ed. Plateau. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1971 reprint of 1955 ed.

Comanche: Josephy, Alvin M., Jr. Tilghman, Zoe A. NEZ PERCE INDIANS AND THE OPENING QUANAH: Eagle of the Comanches. Oklahoma OF THE NORTHWEST. New Haven, Yale City, Harlow Publishing Corp., 1938. University Press, 1965.

Wallace, Ernest and E. A. Hoebel Ottawa: THE COMANCHES: Lords of the South Plains. Parkman, Francis Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1952. THE CONSPIRACY OF PONTIAC. (With an introduction by Samuel Eliot Morison). New Iroquois: York, Collier, 1962. Clark, Thomas Wood Peckham, Howard H. THE BLOODY MOHAWK. New York, Mac- millan Co., 1940. PONTIAC AND THE INDIAN UPRISING. New York, Russell & Russell, 1970 reprint of the 1961 ed. Colden, Cadwaller

HISTORY OF THE FIVE INDIAN NATIONS. Paiute: Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1958. (Grades 9-12). Bailey, Paul

WOVOKA. , Westernlore Press, 1957. Morgan, Lewis H.

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS. Secaucus, N.J., Underhill, Ruth Citadel Press, Inc., 1972 reprint of 1904 ed. THE PAIUTE INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA. Riverside, Sherman Institute, Ritchie, William Augustus Series No. 2 n.d. INDIAN HISTORY OF NEW YORK STATE. Albany, New York State Museum, 1953. Pueblo: Bandelier, Adolph and Hewett, Edgar Nez Perce: INDIANS OF THE RIO GRAND VALLEY. INDIAN WARS. New York, Cooper Square Publishers, Inc., 1973 Portland, Binfords, 1971 reprint of 1953 ed. reprint of 1937 ed.

47 Crane, Leo Seminole:

DESERT DRUMS: The Pueblo Indians of New Coe, Charles H. Mexico. Glorieta, New Mexico, Rio Grande Press, 1973 reprint of 1928 ed. RED PATRIOTS: The Story of the Seminoles. Gainesville, University Presses of Florida, 1974 reprint of 1898 ed. Forrest, Earl R.

MISSIONS AND PUEBLOS OF THE OLD Emerson, William Canfield SOUTHWEST. Cleveland, Arthur H. Clarke Co., 1929. THE SEMINOLES: Dwellers of the Everglades; The Land, History and Cultuie of the Florida Indians. New York, Exposition Press, 1954. Hackett, Charles W.

REVOLT OF THE PUEBLO INDIANS OF McReynolds, Edwin C. NEW MEXICO AND OTERMIN'S AT- TEMPTED CONQUEST, 1680-82. Albuquer- THE SEMINOLES. Norman, University of Okla- que, University of New Mexico Press, 1970 homa Press, 1972 reprint of 1957 ed. reprint of 1942 ed. Shawnee: Hewitt, Edgar L. and Bertha Dutton Drake, Benjamin THE PUEBLO INDIAN WORLD. Albuquer- que, University of New Mexico and Scholarship LIFE OF TECUMSEH AND OF HIS of American Research, 1945. BROTHER THE PROPHET: Witha His- torical Sketch of the Shawnee Indians. New York, Arno Press, 1969 reprint of 1841 ed. Schroeder, Albert and Dan Matson, eds.

A COLONY ON THE MOVE: Gaspar Castano Trowbridge, Charles C. de Sosas Journal, 1590-91. Santa Fe, School of American Research (distributed by the Univer- SHAWNEE TRADITIONS. Ann Arbor, Uni- sity of New Mexico Press at Albuquerque), 1965. versity of Michigan Press, 1939.

Sac and Fox: Tucker, Glenn

Drake, Benjamin TECUMSEH: Vision of Glory. New York, Russell & Russell, 1973 reprint of 1956 ed. THE GREAT INDIAN CHIEF OF THE WEST: or Life and Adventure of Black Hawk. Philadelphia, Rulison, 1856. Sioux: Bleeker, Sonia Hagan, William Thomas THE SIOUX INDIANS, HUNTERS AND THE SAC AND FOX INDIANS. Norman, Uni- WARRIORS OF THE PLAINS. New York, versity of Oklahoma Press, 1958. William Morrow & Co., 1962. (Grades 4-6).

48 Bradley, J. H. Jones, Robert H. MARCH OF THE MONTANA COLUMN: A CIVIL WAR IN THE NORTHWEST: Ne- Prelude to the Custer Disaster. Norman, Uni- braska, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and the versity of Oklahoma Press, 1961. Dakotas. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press. 1971 reprint of 1961 ed.

Brininstool, E. A. Lowie, Robert H.

FIGHTING RED CLOUD'S WARRIORS. Har- INDIANS OF THE PLAINS. Garden City, N.Y., risburg, P. Stack Publishing Co., 1955. Natural History Press (distributed by Double- day), 1963 reprint of 1954 ed. Bininstool, E. A. McGillycuddy, Julia E. CRAZY HORSE: The Invincible Oglala Sioux Chief. L. A. Wetzel Publishing Co., 1949. MCGILLYCUI)I)Y, AGENT: A Biography of Dr.ValentineT.McGillycuddy,Stanford, Calif., Stanford University Press, 1941. Brown, Joseph E. Marquis, Thomas B., tr. THE SACRED PIPE: 's Account of the Seven Rites of the Oglala Sioux. Norman, Uni- : A Warrior Who Fought Custer. versity of Oklahoma, 1970 reprint of 1953 ed. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1962.

Mooney, James Epple, Jess C.

CUSTER'S BATTLE OF THE WASHITA AND GHOST DANCE RELIGION AND THE SIOUX OUTBREAK OF 1890. Wallace, An- HISTORY OF THE PLAINS INDIANS. Jer- thony F., ed. Chicago, University of Chicago icho, N.Y., Exposition Press, 1970. Press, 1965 reprint of 1896 ed.

Hyde, George E. Robinson, Doane

RED CLOUD'S FOLK : A History of the Oglala A HISTORY OF THE DAKOTA OR SIOUX Sioux Indians. Norman, University of Oklahoma INDIANS. Minneapolis, Ross & Haines, 1967 Press, 1968 reprint of 1937 ed. reprint of 1904 ed.

Vestal, Stanley Hyde, George E. SITTING BULL, CHAMPION OF THE A SIOUX CHRONICLE. Norman, University of SIOUX: A Biography. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1956. Oklahoma Press, 1969 reprint of 1957 ed.

49 Publications on Indians by the Bureauof Indian Affairs For Sale by the Superintendentof Documents INDIANS, ESKIMOS AND ALEUTS OF Indian Affair s has definite responsibility. Also ALASKA; INDIANS OF ARIZONA; INDIANS listed are those tribes that have been terminated OF CALIFORNIA; INDIANS OF THE from Bureau services in recent years, those recog- DAKOTAS; INDIANS OF THE GULF nized only for the disposition of money awarded COAST; INDIANS OF MONTANA AND by the Indian Claims Commission or because they ,tv'YOMING; INDIANS OF NEW MEXICO; have claims pending, and certain other categories. t NDIANS OF NORTHCAROLINA; INDIANS This listing is keyed to INDIAN LAND AREAS, OF THE NORTHWEST; INDIANS OF OKLA- GENERAL. HOMA; INDIANS OF THE CENTRAL PLAINS; INDIANS OF THE GREAT LAKES; INDIAN AND ESKIMO CHILDREN. A collec- INDIANS OF THE LOWER PLATEAU; IN- tion of captinned photographs designed to explain DIANS OF THE EASTERN SEABOARD. This today's Indian and Eskimo children to non-Indian is a series of booklets describing the culture and youngsters; preschool and lower elementary school history of tribes whose past is linked with various level. states and regions of the country. These include facts about Indian life today and Federal pro. grams that serve reservation dwellers. AMERICAN INDIAN CALENDAR. Lists out- standing events that regularly take place on Indian reservations through the year. Listed are cere- INDIAN LAND AREAS, GENERAL. A multi- monials, celebrations, and exhibitions or Indian color map that indicates the location and size of arts and crafts, where visitors may observe artists at Federal Indian Reservations and the location of work and purchase their products. State Reservations, Indian groups without trust land, and federally terminated tribes and groups. In addition, it has on it tourist complexes both exist- THE STATES ANT) THEIR INDIAN CITI- ing and planned on Indian Reservations, Inter- ZENS by Theodore W. Taylor. The relationship state Highways, National Forests, National Parks between the Indians and the Federal Government or Monuments, and National Wildlife Refuges. is the oldest political issue in the United States, and it is examined here in terms of current issues. Dis- cussed are: Removal, forced assimilation or sup. INDIAN LAND AREAS, INDUSTRIAL. A port of Indian culture; Federal activity to terminate three-color map that indicates the location and size the special relationship with Indians; Federal obli- of Federal Indian Reservations and industrial parks gations to Indians; and relationship of Indians to and airstrips or airports upon them. In addition, the State Governments. A paperback book. Interstate Highways are on the map. The Bureau of Indian Affairs does not handle AMERICAN INDIANS AND THEIR FED- the sale of these publications. Direct inquiry to ERAL RELATIONSHIP. A listing of all Indian Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern- tribes, bands, or groups r.)r which the Bureau of ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

50 U.S. GOVERNIMIT PRINTINO OFFICS 1174 BEST COPYAVAI1ABLt

Created in 1849, the Department of the Interiora Department of Con- servatiowis concerned with the management, conservation, and development of the Nation's water, fish, wildlife, mineral, forest, and park and recreational resources.It also has major responsibilities for Indian and Territorial affairs. As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department works to assure that nonrenewable resources are developed and used wisely, that park and recreational resources are conserved for the future, and that renewable resources make their full contribution to the progress, prosperity, and security of the United States now and in the future.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS

For isle by the Supertntenornt of Documents. II.S. Government Priam °Moe Weshinyton. D.C. 20402 - Price $1.05 Moak Number 2072-00036