Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant Goods Kant’s ethics Hypothetical and categorical imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Thursday, April 23, 2009 Quick reminder

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant

Goods

Hypothetical and Papers are due tomorrow! categorical imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant K¨onigsburg,Prussia Goods

Hypothetical (now Kaliningrad, Russia) and categorical Enlightenment philosophy imperatives

Using the CI Grundlagen der

Objections Metaphysik der Sitten Groundwork for the metaphysics of morals Talents and temperament Ex: Intelligence, courage Subjective states and feelings Ex: Happiness, pleasure Choice and reasons for action Ex: hPay your taxes before they’re due to avoid going to jail.i Also called rules, principles, intentions, maxims, and imperatives

Three kinds of goods

Kant’s ethics

Goods Quick reminder Things with at least some (positive) moral significance or value About Kant

Goods Analysis of goods Anti- consequentialism Hypothetical and categorical imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Subjective states and feelings Ex: Happiness, pleasure Choice and reasons for action Ex: hPay your taxes before they’re due to avoid going to jail.i Also called rules, principles, intentions, maxims, and imperatives

Three kinds of goods

Kant’s ethics

Goods Quick reminder Things with at least some (positive) moral significance or value About Kant

Goods Analysis of goods Anti- Talents and temperament Ex: Intelligence, courage consequentialism Hypothetical and categorical imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Choice and reasons for action Ex: hPay your taxes before they’re due to avoid going to jail.i Also called rules, principles, intentions, maxims, and imperatives

Three kinds of goods

Kant’s ethics

Goods Quick reminder Things with at least some (positive) moral significance or value About Kant

Goods Analysis of goods Anti- Talents and temperament Ex: Intelligence, courage consequentialism Hypothetical Subjective states and feelings Ex: Happiness, pleasure and categorical imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Three kinds of goods

Kant’s ethics

Goods Quick reminder Things with at least some (positive) moral significance or value About Kant

Goods Analysis of goods Anti- Talents and temperament Ex: Intelligence, courage consequentialism Hypothetical Subjective states and feelings Ex: Happiness, pleasure and categorical Choice and reasons for action imperatives

Using the CI Ex: hPay your taxes before they’re due to avoid

Objections going to jail.i Also called rules, principles, intentions, maxims, and imperatives Kant’s question Of the three kinds of goods, which can be unconditionally good?

Conditional and unconditional goods

Kant’s ethics

Quick Conditional goods Goods whose value depends on something reminder else About Kant

Goods (Kind of like: contingently good) Analysis of goods Unconditional goods Goods whose value doesn’t depend on Anti- consequentialism anything else Hypothetical and (Kind of like: necessarily good) categorical imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Conditional and unconditional goods

Kant’s ethics

Quick Conditional goods Goods whose value depends on something reminder else About Kant

Goods (Kind of like: contingently good) Analysis of goods Unconditional goods Goods whose value doesn’t depend on Anti- consequentialism anything else Hypothetical and (Kind of like: necessarily good) categorical imperatives

Using the CI Kant’s question Objections Of the three kinds of goods, which can be unconditionally good? Which goods are unconditionally good?

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant

Goods Analysis of Talents? goods Anti- consequentialism Subjective states? Hypothetical and Reasons for action? categorical imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Which goods are unconditionally good?

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant Goods Talents? No; talents can be put to bad purposes. Analysis of goods Anti- Ex: an evil genius. consequentialism Hypothetical Subjective states? and categorical Reasons for action? imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Which goods are unconditionally good?

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant

Goods Talents? No; talents can be put to bad purposes. Analysis of goods Ex: an evil genius. Anti- consequentialism Subjective states? No; pleasure can come from bad actions. Hypothetical and Ex: stealing candy from babies. categorical imperatives Reasons for action? Using the CI

Objections Which goods are unconditionally good?

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder Talents? No; talents can be put to bad purposes. About Kant Ex: an evil genius. Goods Analysis of goods Subjective states? No; pleasure can come from bad actions. Anti- consequentialism Ex: stealing candy from babies. Hypothetical and Reasons for action? This is the only option left, so at least categorical imperatives some reasons for action must be

Using the CI unconditionally good. Objections Important: Kant makes several assumptions here! Kant’s anti-consequentialism

Kant’s ethics

Consequentialist: The only good things are the consequences Quick reminder of our actions, such as pleasureable feelings. About Kant Kant: The consequences are only conditionally Goods Analysis of good. The only unconditionally good things goods Anti- are our reasons for action. consequentialism Hypothetical and categorical imperatives Reason Action+3 +3Consequences

Using the CI

Objections Categorical hIn circumstances C, always do action A.i

Two kinds of reasons for action

Kant’s ethics

Hypothetical hIn circumstances C, do action A for the sake of Quick reminder goal G.i

About Kant

Goods

Hypothetical and categorical hPay your taxes before they’re due to avoid imperatives Analysis of getting audited.i reasons The categorical Action Pay your taxes imperative Using the CI Circumstances Before they’re due Objections Goal Avoid getting audited

Important: Only applies if you accept the goal! Two kinds of reasons for action

Kant’s ethics

Hypothetical hIn circumstances C, do action A for the sake of Quick reminder goal G.i

About Kant hPay your taxes before they’re due to avoid

Goods getting audited.i Hypothetical Categorical hIn circumstances C, always do action A.i and categorical imperatives Analysis of reasons The categorical hPay your taxes before they’re due.i imperative Using the CI Action Pay your taxes

Objections Circumstances Before they’re due

Important: Doesn’t depend on whether you accept a goal! Two kinds of reasons for action

Kant’s ethics

Hypothetical hIn circumstances C, do action A for the sake of Quick reminder goal G.i

About Kant hPay your taxes before they’re due to avoid

Goods getting audited.i

Hypothetical and Categorical hIn circumstances C, always do action A.i categorical hPay your taxes before they’re due.i imperatives Analysis of reasons The categorical imperative Significance of categorical imperatives Using the CI Only categorical imperatives are not done for the sake of some Objections other goal G. Hence, only categorical imperatives can be unconditionally good reasons for action. Kant’s search for unconditional goods

Kant’s ethics

Quick Reasons +3 Action +3 Consequences reminder Ð ÐÐ About Kant ÐÐ ÐÐ  Goods ÐÐ  Subjective ÐÐ Talents Hypothetical ÐÐ states and ÐÐ categorical ÐÐ imperatives ÐÐ Analysis of Ð  reasons Hypothetical Categorical   The categorical × × imperative imperatives imperatives Using the CI

Objections

 Unconditional × goods! Are there any real categorical imperatives?

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant

Goods

Hypothetical The categorical imperative and categorical Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same imperatives Analysis of time will that it should become a universal law. reasons The categorical imperative Using the CI

Objections Are there any real categorical imperatives?

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant The categorical imperative Goods Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same Hypothetical time will that it should become a universal law. and categorical imperatives Analysis of The categorical imperative (One interpretation) reasons The categorical imperative Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would Using the CI freely accept. Objections Not clearly related to the categorical imperative as Kant stated it Misses some aspects that were important to Kant

Are there any real categorical imperatives?

Kant’s ethics The categorical imperative Quick Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same reminder

About Kant time will that it should become a universal law.

Goods

Hypothetical The categorical imperative (One interpretation) and categorical Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would imperatives Analysis of freely accept. reasons The categorical imperative Using the CI Relatively easy to state, Objections understand, and remember Captures some of the most relevant aspects of Kant’s ethics for us today Are there any real categorical imperatives?

Kant’s ethics The categorical imperative Quick Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same reminder

About Kant time will that it should become a universal law.

Goods

Hypothetical The categorical imperative (One interpretation) and categorical Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would imperatives Analysis of freely accept. reasons The categorical imperative Using the CI Relatively easy to state, Not clearly related to the Objections understand, and remember categorical imperative as Captures some of the Kant stated it most relevant aspects of Misses some aspects that Kant’s ethics for us today were important to Kant Why is this unconditional?

Kant’s ethics ‘TCI’ Quick Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would reminder freely accept. About Kant Goods (1) ‘TCI’ does not depend on any individual rational Hypothetical and being’s wants, desires, wishes, religious beliefs, categorical imperatives &c. Analysis of reasons (2) Hence, ‘TCI’ does not depend on any other The categorical imperative goods. (2) Using the CI (3) Hence, ‘TCI’ is an unconditional good. (3, def’n Objections unconditional goods) (4) Only categorical imperatives are unconditional goods. (shown earlier) (5) Hence, ‘TCI’ is a categorical imperative. (3,4) So what are we supposed to do?

Kant’s ethics Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would freely accept. Quick reminder About Kant The categorical imperative doesn’t tell us directly how to Goods act. Hypothetical and Instead, it gives us a test for our reasons and actions. categorical imperatives If a reason doesn’t pass the test, then we can’t morally act Using the CI Applying the CI that way. (At least, for that reason.) That reason is Universalizability Test of humanity morally impermissible, or wrong. But if a reason does Objections pass, the action is morally permissible, or right. Alternative formulations of the categorical imperative serve as equivalent ways to run the test. Different formulations are easier to apply in different situations. So what are we supposed to do?

Kant’s ethics Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would freely accept. Quick reminder About Kant The categorical imperative doesn’t tell us directly how to Goods act. Hypothetical and Instead, it gives us a test for our reasons and actions. categorical imperatives If a reason doesn’t pass the test, then we can’t morally act Using the CI Applying the CI that way. (At least, for that reason.) That reason is Universalizability Test of humanity morally impermissible, or wrong. But if a reason does Objections pass, the action is morally permissible, or right. Alternative formulations of the categorical imperative serve as equivalent ways to run the test. Different formulations are easier to apply in different situations. So what are we supposed to do?

Kant’s ethics Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would freely accept. Quick reminder About Kant The categorical imperative doesn’t tell us directly how to Goods act. Hypothetical and Instead, it gives us a test for our reasons and actions. categorical imperatives If a reason doesn’t pass the test, then we can’t morally act Using the CI Applying the CI that way. (At least, for that reason.) That reason is Universalizability Test of humanity morally impermissible, or wrong. But if a reason does Objections pass, the action is morally permissible, or right. Alternative formulations of the categorical imperative serve as equivalent ways to run the test. Different formulations are easier to apply in different situations. So what are we supposed to do?

Kant’s ethics Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would freely accept. Quick reminder About Kant The categorical imperative doesn’t tell us directly how to Goods act. Hypothetical and Instead, it gives us a test for our reasons and actions. categorical imperatives If a reason doesn’t pass the test, then we can’t morally act Using the CI Applying the CI that way. (At least, for that reason.) That reason is Universalizability Test of humanity morally impermissible, or wrong. But if a reason does Objections pass, the action is morally permissible, or right. Alternative formulations of the categorical imperative serve as equivalent ways to run the test. Different formulations are easier to apply in different situations. So what are we supposed to do?

Kant’s ethics Act only according to reasons that all rational beings would freely accept. Quick reminder About Kant The categorical imperative doesn’t tell us directly how to Goods act. Hypothetical and Instead, it gives us a test for our reasons and actions. categorical imperatives If a reason doesn’t pass the test, then we can’t morally act Using the CI Applying the CI that way. (At least, for that reason.) That reason is Universalizability Test of humanity morally impermissible, or wrong. But if a reason does Objections pass, the action is morally permissible, or right. Alternative formulations of the categorical imperative serve as equivalent ways to run the test. Different formulations are easier to apply in different situations. Applying the categorical imperative

Kant’s ethics

Hypothetical imperative Quick ‘proposed reason’ reminder R=hA,C,Gi About Kant

Goods

Hypothetical  and Categorical imperative categorical k TTT imperatives kkk TT kkk TTT kkk TTT Using the CI kkk TTTT Applying the CI uk T) Universalizability R passes R fails Test of humanity Objections A permissible A impermissible in C in C (for R) Univeral law of nature formulation

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder Act on that maxim which can at the same time have

About Kant for its object itself as a universal law of nature.

Goods Hypothetical Test of universalizability and categorical imperatives Suppose everyone always acted according to the reason you’re

Using the CI considering, as though we were caused to act that way by a law Applying the CI of nature. Would society be stable, or would it inevitably fall Universalizability Test of humanity apart? If it would cause society to inevitably fall apart, then it’s Objections not an acceptable reason. Example: Suicide

Kant’s ethics

Quick A man feels sick of life as a result of a series of reminder misfortunes that has mounted to the point of despair, About Kant but he is still so far in possession of his reason as to Goods ask himself whether taking his own life may not be Hypothetical and contrary to his duty to himself. categorical imperatives Using the CI What’s the reason? Applying the CI Universalizability Test of humanity If everyone did that? Objections Would society inevitably fall apart? Morally permissible? Example: Suicide

Kant’s ethics A man feels sick of life as a result of a series of Quick misfortunes that has mounted to the point of despair, reminder but he is still so far in possession of his reason as to About Kant ask himself whether taking his own life may not be Goods

Hypothetical contrary to his duty to himself. and categorical imperatives What’s the reason? hIn order to avoid pain, kill yourself Using the CI whenever you believe there will be more pain than Applying the CI Universalizability pleasure in your future.i Test of humanity Objections If everyone did that? Would society inevitably fall apart? Morally permissible? Example: Suicide

Kant’s ethics A man feels sick of life as a result of a series of misfortunes that has mounted to the point of despair, Quick reminder but he is still so far in possession of his reason as to About Kant ask himself whether taking his own life may not be Goods contrary to his duty to himself. Hypothetical and categorical imperatives What’s the reason? hIn order to avoid pain, kill yourself

Using the CI whenever you believe there will be more pain than Applying the CI Universalizability pleasure in your future.i Test of humanity If everyone did that? We’d all kill ourselves as soon as we got Objections a little too pessimistic. Would society inevitably fall apart? Morally permissible? Example: Suicide

Kant’s ethics A man feels sick of life as a result of a series of misfortunes that has mounted to the point of despair, Quick reminder but he is still so far in possession of his reason as to About Kant ask himself whether taking his own life may not be Goods contrary to his duty to himself. Hypothetical and categorical imperatives What’s the reason? hIn order to avoid pain, kill yourself

Using the CI whenever you believe there will be more pain than Applying the CI Universalizability pleasure in your future.i Test of humanity If everyone did that? We’d all kill ourselves as soon as we got Objections a little too pessimistic. Would society inevitably fall apart? Yes. Morally permissible? Example: Suicide

Kant’s ethics A man feels sick of life as a result of a series of misfortunes that has mounted to the point of despair, Quick reminder but he is still so far in possession of his reason as to

About Kant ask himself whether taking his own life may not be

Goods contrary to his duty to himself.

Hypothetical and categorical What’s the reason? hIn order to avoid pain, kill yourself imperatives whenever you believe there will be more pain than Using the CI Applying the CI pleasure in your future.i Universalizability Test of humanity If everyone did that? We’d all kill ourselves as soon as we got Objections a little too pessimistic. Would society inevitably fall apart? Yes. Morally permissible? No; the reason doesn’t pass the test of universalizability. Formula of humanity

Kant’s ethics

Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, Quick reminder whether in your own person or in the person of any

About Kant other, never simply as a means, but always at the

Goods same time as an end.

Hypothetical and categorical Test of humanity imperatives Consider everyone who would be affected by your action. Using the CI Applying the CI Would they all freely accept your reason for taking that action? Universalizability Test of humanity If no, then you would simply be using them for your own goals, Objections not treating them as valuable in themselves, and the reason is unacceptable. If yes, then you are respecting them as valuable in themselves, and the reason is acceptable. Example: False promises

Kant’s ethics

Quick Another finds himself driven to borrowing money reminder because of need. He well knows that he will not be About Kant able to pay it back; but sees too that he will get no Goods loan unless he gives a firm promise to pay it back Hypothetical and within a fixed time. categorical imperatives Using the CI Who’s affected? Applying the CI Universalizability What’s the reason? Test of humanity Objections Acceptable to everyone? Morally permissible? Example: False promises

Kant’s ethics

Quick Another finds himself driven to borrowing money reminder because of need. He well knows that he will not be About Kant able to pay it back; but sees too that he will get no Goods loan unless he gives a firm promise to pay it back Hypothetical and within a fixed time. categorical imperatives Using the CI Who’s affected? The man, his family, the lender, &c. Applying the CI Universalizability What’s the reason? Test of humanity Objections Acceptable to everyone? Morally permissible? Example: False promises

Kant’s ethics Another finds himself driven to borrowing money Quick because of need. He well knows that he will not be reminder able to pay it back; but sees too that he will get no About Kant

Goods loan unless he gives a firm promise to pay it back

Hypothetical within a fixed time. and categorical imperatives Who’s affected? The man, his family, the lender, &c. Using the CI Applying the CI What’s the reason? hWhenever I believe myself short of money, Universalizability Test of humanity I will borrow money and promise to pay it back, Objections though I know that this will never be done.i Acceptable to everyone? Morally permissible? Example: False promises

Kant’s ethics

Who’s affected? The man, his family, the lender, &c. Quick reminder What’s the reason? hWhenever I believe myself short of money, About Kant I will borrow money and promise to pay it back, Goods though I know that this will never be done.i Hypothetical and categorical Acceptable to everyone? No; the lender would not freely imperatives accept it. Using the CI Applying the CI For the man whom I seek to use for my own Universalizability Test of humanity purposes by such a promise cannot possibly agree Objections with my way of behaving to him, and so cannot himself share the end of the action. Morally permissible? Example: False promises

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder Who’s affected? The man, his family, the lender, &c. About Kant

Goods What’s the reason? hWhenever I believe myself short of money,

Hypothetical I will borrow money and promise to pay it back, and categorical though I know that this will never be done.i imperatives Acceptable to everyone? No; the lender would not freely Using the CI Applying the CI accept it. Universalizability Test of humanity Morally permissible? No; the reason doesn’t pass the test of Objections humanity. Bernard Williams (1929-2003)

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder If your wife (husband, boyfriend, About Kant &c.) is drowning, you should try Goods to save her because she’s your Hypothetical and wife, and not because everyone categorical imperatives would accept the maxim to save

Using the CI your wife. Objections Kant forbids us from acting on Williams Kittay and Singer close emotional ties, and requires Hegel us to act only on impersonal, rational rules. Starting to reply to Williams: Marcia Baron

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder About Kant Suppose your husband (wife, &c.) Goods was scared and shocked, but there Hypothetical and was someone else who was in categorical imperatives much more danger, and you knew Using the CI this. Objections Williams In this case, you should tend to Kittay and Singer the stranger first. Hegel Starting to reply to Williams: Marcia Baron

Kant’s ethics

Quick Most of the time, saving your reminder husband automatically seems like About Kant the right thing to do. But Goods sometimes it won’t be, and you Hypothetical and need a way to decide which to do categorical imperatives on which occasions. Using the CI The categorical imperative gives Objections Williams you a way to do this. Kittay and Singer Important question: Do you have Hegel to actually use the categorical imperative every time you act? Eva Feder Kittay and Peter Singer

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder About Kant Non-human animals and Goods humans with certain kinds of Hypothetical and disabilities cannot accept categorical imperatives reasons, either for their actions Using the CI or ours. Does this mean we’re Objections not required to treat them with Williams Kittay and Singer respect? Hegel Georg Hegel (1770-1831)

Kant’s ethics

Quick reminder

About Kant

Goods

Hypothetical and categorical imperatives

Using the CI

Objections Williams Kittay and Singer Hegel The categorical imperative is empty

Kant’s ethics (1) Standards for acceptable reasons vary widely from culture to culture. Quick (2) Hence, there will be very few reasons that all reminder rational beings can all accept. (1) About Kant (3) Hence, very few reasons will pass the test of the Goods

Hypothetical categorical imperative. (2, def’n CI) and categorical (4) These very few reasons will be not enough to imperatives guide our actions on many occasions. Using the CI (5) Hence, on many occasions, the categorical Objections Williams imperative cannot guide our actions. (3,4) Kittay and Singer (6) A proposed system of ethics is sufficient only Hegel if it can guide our actions on at least many occasions. (7) Hence, the categorical imperative cannot be a sufficient system of ethics. (5,6)