Electrification of Personal Vehicle Travels in Cities - Quantifying the Public Charging Demand
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Downloaded from orbit.dtu.dk on: Oct 05, 2021 Electrification of personal vehicle travels in cities - Quantifying the public charging demand Thingvad, Andreas; Andersen, Peter Bach; Unterluggauer, Tim; Træholt, Chresten; Marinelli, Mattia Published in: eTransportation Link to article, DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2021.100125 Publication date: 2021 Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link back to DTU Orbit Citation (APA): Thingvad, A., Andersen, P. B., Unterluggauer, T., Træholt, C., & Marinelli, M. (2021). Electrification of personal vehicle travels in cities - Quantifying the public charging demand. eTransportation, 9, [100125]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etran.2021.100125 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. 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You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. eTransportation 9 (2021) 100125 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect eTransportation journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/etransportation Electrification of personal vehicle travels in cities - Quantifying the public charging demand * Andreas Thingvad , Peter Bach Andersen , Tim Unterluggauer , Chresten Træholt , Mattia Marinelli Center for Electric Power and Energy, Department of Electrical Engineering, DTU - Technical University of Denmark, Roskilde, Denmark article info abstract Article history: Charging electric vehicles is regarded as trivial with chargers installed on private property, which could Received 13 April 2021 accommodate the demand of 78% of the Danish cars. Hence, the owners would rarely need to charge Received in revised form outside the household. Car owners in the cities often do not have this option and must rely on the public 24 May 2021 charging infrastructure. In this work we quantify the need, in terms of energy demand, for public Accepted 20 June 2021 chargers on a national level and in the largest Danish cities as a function of car ownership, driving Available online 15 July 2021 distance and household parking condition. We assess the potential of destination charging at existing shared parking facilities next to the household and the workplace to reduce the public charging demand Keywords: Electric vehicles to be up to 87%. EVs with 300 km range are able to complete the daily driving distance without range Charging infrastructure extending charging in 98.4% of the days. The analysis relies on driving and ownership data based on the Danish national transport survey. Further, we identify suitable/optimal locations for the necessary public chargers based on the total amount of parking time spent by a car at different destinations and the duration of a stay. We generalise the relationship between publicly available information such as pop- ulation density and city size and the parameters that determine the public charging demand. The sys- tematic approach enables others to estimate the demand in time and space for other cities or countries. © 2021 Published by Elsevier B.V. 1. Introduction public charging infrastructure measured in terms of the ratio be- tween vehicles and public charging points (PCP). The European The transportation sector accounts for 24% of the global energy- average is today seven EVs/PCP and the member states highest ratio related CO2 emissions. Private passenger vehicles account for 45% of is close to ten EVs/PCP [5]. A charging point is considered publicly this [1]. Electrifying private transportation enables the use of accessible if it can be used by an unspecified group of EVs. In Ref. [7] renewable resources in the mobility area. Combining electric ve- it is recommended that the future charging infrastructure should hicles (EVs) with integration of renewable energy sources may not be based on a fixed EVs/PCP ratio as countries differ regarding reduce the cost of electricity and CO2 abatement [2,3]. Due to na- their framework conditions and availability of home charging. tional CO2 emission targets, an increasing number of governments are setting targets for reaching a certain penetration of EVs in the transport sector and/or define deadlines for closing sales of internal 1.1. Order of preferred charging options combustion engine (ICE) vehicles [4]. Studies have pointed to an effective and sufficient public charging infrastructure as being the In the following, the authors divide the PCPs into two cate- main perquisite for achieving large-scale electrification [5e8]. In gories; destination charging and charging destinations. Destination Europe, the Alternative Fuel Infrastructure (AFI) directive requires charging allows the EV owner to plug in at locations where the each national member state to define targets for “appropriate” vehicle would naturally be parked for an extended duration as part * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Thingvad), [email protected] (P.B. Andersen), [email protected] (T. Unterluggauer), [email protected] (C. Træholt), [email protected] (M. Marinelli). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etran.2021.100125 2590-1168/© 2021 Published by Elsevier B.V. A. Thingvad, P.B. Andersen, T. Unterluggauer et al. eTransportation 9 (2021) 100125 of the owner's behavioural pattern e.g. shopping, entertainment or 350 kW DC chargers are priced at V200,000 each [11]. Fast charging sport. Destination charging generally consist of slow AC chargers, stations will due to limitations in the EV battery characteristics not defined as mode 3 by the standard IEC 61851, which allows supply reach a time consumption similar to refuelling at a gas station and up to 43.5 kW. On the EV side the capacity is limited by the on- will in the foreseeable future require more than 15 minutes for a board charger to a range 3.7-22 kW [6]. Conversely, charging des- charge 10-80% SOC [12]. tinations are locations that would require a dedicated trip with the primary purpose of recharging the vehicle. Such a trip would 1.2. Utilisation of public charging points involve additional energy and time consumption. In cities charging destinations can either be curbside AC chargers or range extending Beyond charging, public curbside chargers are also used as a fast DC chargers. The latter, defined as mode 4 by IEC 61851, by- normal parking space, which results in a low utilisation of the passes the on-board charger and can therefore charge with higher charger. Here utilisation expresses the share of time that the PCP power, available today with 50-350 kW [6]. experiences an active power flow. The utilisation describes the In Fig. 1 different charging locations are categorised from left to maximum energy supplied per PCP with a certain power capacity. right according to convenience. In this context convenience is a For example, an 11 kW PCP with a utilisation of 15% can provide up function of the average time the cars spend at each location. to 39.5 kWh per day. Two studies from cities in the Netherlands Destination charging is considered most convenient since one found that when EVs were connected, only 12 - 18% of the time was would potentially avoid detours as charging time spent at this used for charging, leading to a utilisation of only 4 - 5% [13,14]. location coincide with other businesses, and thus largely eliminate Results from a similar study in the United States (US) found that for the need for charging elsewhere. For EV owners that park on their only 14% of the PCP connection time the connected EV was actually own property, charging can be conducted with the installation of a charging, which resulted in a utilisation of 7% [15]. In China the private charger. Car owners in the cities often do not have this utilisation of PCPs was estimated to be less than 15% [16]. option and must rely on the public charging infrastructure. For Economically viable operation of public charging infrastructure is people living in a housing unit that occupies only part of a building, highly dependent on the utilisation [17]. More idle time is a like a housing tenure or apartment, there is often a parking space growing trend in the Netherlands, which directly impacts on the next to the building. If the shared parking facility has good parking sizing of the infrastructure, hence its cost and availability [18]. The conditions it would be possible to charge if chargers were installed chargers in Amsterdam would need to deliver twice as much en- but it is not an individual decision as it would be installed in a semi- ergy per day to be profitable [14]. In Germany, utilisation for 11 kW public space which requires a collective agreement. If it is not charging points needed to exceed 60% for profitable operation [19]. possible to charge at the household, the most convenient location is The work in Ref. [20] revealed that the profitability of charging the workplace as the cars spend most of their time there outside infrastructure was highly uncertain but that utilisation higher than the household [9]. Available chargers at the workplace enables the 33% was needed under unfavourable conditions to meet an amor- regularly visiting EV owners to meet almost all of their driving tisation of the costs. Therefore, accurately quantifying the need for consumption. The remaining EVs can use destination charging if public charging is crucial in order to develop a charging infra- there are available chargers at the other locations they visit.