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Marine Biodiversity: Responding to the Challenges Posed by Climate Change, Fisheries, and Aquaculture

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Marine Biodiversity: Responding to the Challenges Posed by Climate Change, Fisheries, and Aquaculture e Royal Society of Canada Expert Panel Sustaining Canada’s Marine Biodiversity: Responding to the Challenges Posed by Climate Change, Fisheries, and Aquaculture REPORT February 2012 Prof. Isabelle M. Côté Prof. Julian J. Dodson Prof. Ian A. Fleming Prof. Je rey A. Hutchings (Chair) Prof. Simon Jennings Prof. Nathan J. Mantua Prof. Randall M. Peterman Dr. Brian E. Riddell Prof. Andrew J. Weaver, FRSC Prof. David L. VanderZwaag SUSTAINING CANADIAN MARINE BIODIVERSITY An Expert Panel Report on Sustaining Canada's Marine Biodiversity: Responding to the Challenges Posed by Climate Change, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Prepared by: The Royal Society of Canada: The Academies of Arts, Humanities and Sciences of Canada February 2012 282 Somerset Street West, Ottawa ON, K2P 0J6 • Tel: 613-991-6990 • www.rsc-src.ca | 1 Members of the Expert Panel on Sustaining Canadian Marine Biodiversity Isabelle M. Côté, Professor, Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University Julian J. Dodson, Professeur titulaire, Département de biologie, Université Laval Ian A. Fleming, Professor, Ocean Sciences Centre, Memorial University of Newfoundland Jeffrey A. Hutchings, Killam Professor and Canada Research Chair in Marine Conservation and Biodiversity, Department of Biology, Dalhousie University Panel Chair Simon Jennings, Principal Scientist, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Lowestoft, UK, and Honorary Professor of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia, UK Nathan J. Mantua, Associate Research Professor, Aquatic and Fisheries Sciences, University of Washington, USA Randall M. Peterman, Professor and Canada Research Chair in Fisheries Risk Assessment and Management, School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University Brian E. Riddell, PhD, CEO, Pacific Salmon Foundation, Vancouver, British Columbia Andrew J. Weaver, FRSC, Professor and Canada Research Chair in Climate Modelling and Analysis, School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria David L. VanderZwaag, Professor and Canada Research Chair in Ocean Law and Governance, Marine & Environmental Law Institute, Schulich School of Law, Dalhousie University The Report should be cited as follows: Hutchings, J.A., Côté, I.M., Dodson, J.J., Fleming, I.A., Jennings, S., Mantua, N.J., Peterman, R.M., Riddell, B.E., Weaver, A.J., and D.L. VanderZwaag. 2012. Sustaining Canadian marine biodiversity: responding to the challenges posed by climate change, fisheries, and aquaculture. Expert panel report prepared for the Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa. The opinions expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Royal Society of Canada. 282 Somerset Street West, Ottawa ON, K2P 0J6 • Tel: 613-991-6990 • www.rsc-src.ca | 2 Table of Contents Members of the Expert Panel 2 Chapter One: Executive Summary 9 1. The Case for Sustaining Biodiversity 9 2. The Report 10 3. Topics and Key Findings 11 4. Recommendations 13 Chapter Two: Introduction 14 1. The Expert Panel 14 2. Mandate and Terms of Reference for the Panel 14 a. Mandate 14 b. Terms of Reference 14 3. Questions for the Panel 15 4. What is Biodiversity? 15 5. Why is Biodiversity Important to Sustain? 16 6. Canada’s Stewardship Responsibilities to Marine Biodiversity 17 7. Scientific and Extra-Scientific Issues 19 a. Drivers of Change in Marine Biodiversity 19 b. Clarification of Issues Addressed and Not Addressed by the Panel 19 c. Recovery of Marine Biodiversity: Societal Influences 20 8. Panel Procedures 23 9. Acknowledgements 24 Chapter Three: Canada’s Oceans 28 1. Introduction 28 2. The Northwest Atlantic Ocean 29 a. Geography 29 b. Circulation and Water Masses 30 3. The Arctic Ocean 32 a. Geography 32 b. Circulation and Water Masses 33 4. The Northeast Pacific Ocean 34 a. Geography 34 b. Circulation and Water Masses 35 5. Biological Oceanography: The Basics 36 6. Canadian Marine Ecoregions 38 7. Species Richness of Canada’s Oceans 40 8. How Many Species are in Canada’s Oceans? 40 9. Patterns of Species Diversity 42 10. Canadian Species Diversity in a Terrestrial Context 42 11. How Many More Species? 44 12. Main Findings 45 282 Somerset Street West, Ottawa ON, K2P 0J6 • Tel: 613-991-6990 • www.rsc-src.ca | 3 Chapter Four: Physical and Chemical Indicators of Climate Change in Canada’s Oceans 46 1. Introduction 46 2. Surface Properties 46 a. Observed 20th Century Changes 46 b. Projected Changes During the 21st Century 52 3. Observed and Projected Trends in Regional Wind Systems 56 a. Aleutian Low 56 b. Arctic Oscillation and Arctic Dipole 57 c. Coastal Upwelling and Downwelling Winds on Canada’s West Coast 58 4. Observed and Projected Trends in ENSO, PDO, and NPGO 59 a. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 59 b. Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) 59 c. North Pacific Gyre Oscillation (NPGO) 60 5. Coastal Sea Level 61 a. Present Rate of Change and Coastal Erosion 61 b. Projected Changes During the 21st Century 63 6. Water Chemistry and Stratification 64 a. Observed Trends in Carbonate Chemistry and pH 64 b. Dissolved Oxygen 67 c. Nutrient Pools 68 d. Stratification 69 7. Main Findings 70 Chapter Five: Trends in Canadian Marine Biodiversity 72 1. Introduction 72 2. Marine Species at Risk 72 3. Metrics of Population Status 76 4. Abundance Trends 77 a. Plankton 77 i. Pacific 77 ii. Atlantic 79 b. Marine Fishes 81 c. Diadromous Fishes 84 i. Pacific 84 ii. Atlantic 89 d. Marine Mammals 92 e. Seabirds 93 5. Main Findings 94 Chapter Six: Trends in Canadian Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture 96 1. Introduction 96 2. Capture Fisheries 97 a. Landed Catches in Canada 97 b. Value of Landed Catches in Canada 100 3. Aquaculture 100 282 Somerset Street West, Ottawa ON, K2P 0J6 • Tel: 613-991-6990 • www.rsc-src.ca | 4 a. Marine Aquaculture Production in Canada 100 b. Value of Aquaculture Production in Canada 104 4. Fisheries Enhancement Activities 105 5. Main Findings 106 Chapter Seven: Climate Change: Oberved and Projected Consequences for Canadian Marine Biodiversity 108 1. Introduction 108 2. Net Primary Production and Carbon Export 108 3. Biogeographical Shifts 111 4. Phenology and Environmental Mismatch 115 5. System Regime Shifts 119 6. Hypoxia 121 7. Ocean Acidification 121 8. Interactions Between Climate Change and Fisheries 122 9. Main Findings 123 Chapter Eight: Fisheries: Observed and Projected Consequences for Canadian Marine Biodiversity 124 1. Introduction 124 2. Reductions in Abundance 124 3. Effects on Benthic Communities and Habitats 126 4. Effects on Marine Fish Communities 128 5. Effects on Species Community Structure and Food Webs 131 6. Recovery From Overfishing 132 7. Main Findings 134 Chapter Nine: Aquaculture: Observed and Projected Consequences for Canadian Marine Biodiversity 135 1. Introduction 135 2. Finfish Aquaculture 137 a. Pacific 137 b. Atlantic 140 3. Shellfish Aquaculture 143 a. Pacific 143 b. Atlantic 145 4. Seaweed Aquaculture 146 5. Main Findings 146 Chapter Ten: Canada’s International Commitments to Sustain Marine Biodiversity 148 1. Introduction 148 2. Mainstreams (Three Central Conventions) 149 a. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 149 b. UN Agreement on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks 149 c. Convention on Biological Diversity 150 i. Commitments 150 282 Somerset Street West, Ottawa ON, K2P 0J6 • Tel: 613-991-6990 • www.rsc-src.ca | 5 ii. Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 151 iii. Programme of Work on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity 152 iv. Issuance of CBD Guidelines 152 3. Sidestreams 153 a. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance 153 b. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 155 c. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 155 4. Soft Cross-Currents 156 a. UN Conference Documents 156 i. Agenda 21 156 ii. Rio Declaration of Environment and Development 157 iii. WSSD Plan of Implementation 158 b. FAO Documents 158 i. FAO Code of Conduct 158 ii. International Plans of Action 159 iii. FAO Technical Guidelines 159 c. UN General Assembly Resolutions 160 5. Regional Eddies 162 6. Main Findings 164 Chapter Eleven: Canada’s National Commitments to Sustain Marine Biodiversity 171 1. Introduction 171 2. Statutory Commitments 171 a. Oceans Act Pledges 171 b. Marine Conservation Area Promises 172 c. Fisheries Management Provisions 172 d. Species at Risk Protections 172 e. Other Sectoral Legislative Trickles 173 3. Canadian Governmental Documents 173 a. Canadian Biodiversity Strategy 173 b. Policy and Planning Initiative Pursuant to the Oceans Act 174 c. Documentary Support for Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture 176 i. Sustainable Fisheries 176 ii. Sustainable Aquaculture 178 d. Cooperative MPA Encouragements 179 4. Main Findings 179 Chapter Twelve: Is Canada Fulfilling Its Commitments to Sustain Marine Biodiversity? Charting Future Law and Policy Coordinates 184 1. Introduction 184 2. Charting National Law and Policy Coordinates 185 a. Fully Implementing Existing Law and Policy Coordinates 185 i. Living Up to Oceans Act Commitments 185 1. Advancing Integrated Management Planning 185 2. Completing a Network of Marine Protected Areas 187 282 Somerset Street West, Ottawa ON, K2P 0J6 • Tel: 613-991-6990 • www.rsc-src.ca | 6 ii. Putting Principled Governance into Fisheries Management Practice 189 1. Policy Context 189 2. Precautionary Single-Species Management – A Contribution to EBFM 190 3. Precautionary Approach: Biological Reference Points 191 4. Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management 197 a. Evaluations of Effects on Biodiversity – Habitat Impacts 199 b. Biodiversity Reference Points 199 5. Eco-certification 200 6. Public Participation 200 7. Management and Biodiversity: Conclusions 201 iii. Overcoming Slow SARA Implementation 201 b. Considering Legislative and Regulatory Strengthenings 204 i. Re-Thinking the Oceans Act 204 ii. Modernizing the Fisheries Act 205 iii. Casting a Federal Legal Net for Sustainable Aquaculture 206 iv. Considering SARA Legislative Amendments 207 v. Pondering Comprehensive Biodiversity Legislative Provisions 209 vi. Enhancing Shark Conservation Measures 209 c. Enhancing Transboundary and International Governance Arrangements 210 3.
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