MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROJECT: DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A RAM PUMP

LUKANGA GERALD 15/U/556 215000534

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE BACHELOR’S DEGREE OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

ABSTRACT Water collection from sources especially in Uganda due to its hilly topography generally, is quite hard and a complex activity to undertake, because of the expensive existing alternatives used such as fuel pumps, solar pumps and in addition to that, fuel pumps have an adverse effect to the environment in terms of air pollution and noise which they do emit during their operation. Therefore, this project study was aimed at finding an alternative solution to water pumping or collection method especially from flowing streams or rivers using an energy free hydraulic ram pump, a pump which uses the hydraulic pressure of water to pump part of the water from the low lying areas to highly elevated altitudes thus eliminating the use of external conventional energy sources to pump water and above all it requires minimal maintenance after installation because of the simplicity of the materials used in its construction. To ensure the proper establishment of a successful and operational design project, different research methods, designs and experiments were carried out. The design was done with solid works software and the experiments were carried out after the prototype was constructed. The experiments were carried out by varying the source head of the pump while monitoring the delivery flow rate, the waste flow rate and the delivery pressures. The delivery head was measured using GPS Receiver COMNAV T300 in Real Time Kinematic (RTK). Results obtained from the experiments were analysed and it was observed that the delivery flow rate of the pump increases with an increase in the supply head, no delivery pressures were recorded as the pressure gauge showed no deflections, this was to the limited supply of water as the experiments were being carried out. Considering the experiments carried out, the recommendations would be on further study on other design concepts, especially on the part of the waste valve, ways of limiting the wastage that goes through it, a thorough study on the effect of the air column on the operation of the pump and the experiments to be carried out from a place where there is a continuous supply of water into the pump to have proper and accurate analysis of the system. The study carried out was limited because of the inadequacy in terms of funds. As suggested in the proposal, there The maximum head pump head attained was 6.3 m with a maximum delivery flow rate of 7.1 litres per minute at a supply head of 2 m but, different delivery heads can be attained with changes in the supply head of water into the pump

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DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This final year project report is a special dedication to my parents Mrs. Aidah and Mr. Jjuuko Deogratius for their unending support and guidance they have endeavoured to constantly provide me, and constantly being there for me in times of need. I would like also to take this opportunity to thank my elder brother frank Wampamba and my auntie Juliana Kajumba who have financed me through out, to the completion of this project. I would like also to share my sincere gratitude to my project supervisor Dr. Olupot. W. Peter for the guidance he has rendered to me throughout this project, because of him this project has been a success. My appreciation also goes to my co-supervisor Mr. Mujjuni Francis for his guidance and support to make this work through May the almighty GOD bless you all, all whatever you did, may He reward you back in plenty.

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TABLE OF CONTENT ABSTRACT ...... i DECLARATION...... Error! Bookmark not defined. DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii TABLE OF CONTENT ...... iv LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF ACRYONMS ...... viii CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 1.0. Background ...... 1 1.1. Problem statement ...... 2 1.2. Objectives...... 3 1.3. Scope ...... 3 1.4. Justification ...... 3 1.6. Research questions ...... 3 CHAPTER TWO ...... 4 2.0. Literature Review ...... 4 2.1. Introduction ...... 4 2.2. The Hydraulic Ram-pump ...... 4 2.3. Working principle ...... 5 2.4. Starting operation ...... 7 2.4.1. Priming of the ram pump ...... 8 2.5. Components of the ram pump and their functions ...... 8 2.5.1. Air vessel (Air Chamber or Accumulator) ...... 8 2.5.2. Valves ...... 15 2.5.3. Drive pipe ...... 20 2.5.4. Losses ...... 21 2.6. Water hammer ...... 22 2.6.1. Time for wave travel in the pump body ...... 23 2.7. Design and construction of a ram pump ...... 23 2.9. Efficiency ...... 25 2.10. The common problems associated with ram pumps ...... 25 2.11. Maintenance of the ram pump ...... 26 2.12. Design factors ...... 26 2.13. Other water pumping methods ...... 27 2.13.1. Dynamic pumps ...... 28

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2.13.2. Positive displacement pumps ...... 28 CHAPTER THREE ...... 29 3.0. METHODOLOGY ...... 29 3.1. DATA COLLECTION...... 29 3.2. Conceptual frame work ...... 30 3.3. Planning ...... 30 3.3.1. Concept generation ...... 31 3.3.2. Concept selection ...... 31 3.3.4. Material Selection ...... 32 3.3.4. Parametric Designing ...... 33 3.4. Implementation ...... 34 3.4.1. Design and construction ...... 34 3.4.2. Construction ...... 34 3.4.3. Determining the Delivery Height ...... 37 3.4.4. Measuring the source head ...... 38 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 40 4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 40 4.1. Results ...... 40 4.2. Quantification of the financial and operational gains of the ram pump ...... 44 4.3. Discussion...... 46 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 47 5.0. Conclusion and Recommendations...... 47 5.1. Conclusion ...... 47 5.2. Recommendations ...... 47 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 48 APPENDIX A ...... 51

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. A ram Pump ...... 4 Figure 2. Sequence of operation 1 ...... 5 Figure 3. Sequence of operation 2 ...... 5 Figure 4. Sequence of operation 3 ...... 6 Figure 5. The sequence of operation 4 ...... 7 Figure 6. The different components of a ram pump...... 8 Figure 7. The pressure distribution with in the air vessel ...... 10 Figure 8. The pipeline profile with definitions of pressure heads ...... 11 Figure 9. The stress variations with in the cylinder ...... 12 Figure 10. The stress variations in longitudinal sections of a cylinder ...... 12 Figure 11. A free contact loaded accumulator ...... 13 Figure 12. Piston loaded accumulator ...... 13 Figure 13. Bladder type accumulator ...... 14 Figure 14. A diaphragm type gas loaded accumulator ...... 14 Figure 15 The dead loaded accumulator ...... 15 Figure 16. Spring loaded accumulator ...... 15 Figure 17. The standard k values for different pipe orientations ...... 17 Figure 18. The coefficient of drag for different Reynold’s numbers ...... 18 Figure 19. The different forces acting on a waste valve ...... 18 Figure 20. The different components of a solar pump ...... 27 Figure 21. Design flow procedure...... 29 Figure 22. Research Design ...... 30 Figure 23. Proposed Ram pump design ...... 32 Figure 24 Bench mark design ...... 32 Figure 25. The CAD drawing of the ram pump ...... 34 Figure 26. Construction of the pump ...... 35 Figure 27 The finished built pump ...... 35 Figure 28. A base of COMNAV T300 ...... 37 Figure 29. Taking of height measurements ...... 37 Figure 30. Excel sheet from the data logger ...... 38 Figure 31 Shows how the variations of source head were made ...... 38 Figure 32. Measurement of the bricks used ...... 39 Figure 33. A graph of delivery flow rate against the supply head ...... 41 Figure 34. A graph of efficiency against the supply head ...... 42 Figure 35. Shows the different sized waste valves that were tested ...... 42 Figure 36. A graph of delivery flow rate against supply head of different sized valves ...... 43 Figure 37. A graph of efficiency against the supply head ...... 44

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Loss coefficient of pipes ...... 17 Table 2. Comparison of supply height and delivery height ...... 26 Table 3. Comparison of delivery flow rate and drive pipe diameter...... 27 Table 4. Parametric Values of the Pump parts ...... 33 Table 5. Bill of Materials ...... 36 Table 6. Calculation of the delivery height ...... 38 Table 7. Table of results ...... 40 Table 8. Calculation table ...... 41 Table 9. Comparison between the different sized waste valves ...... 43 Table 10. Calculation table for the different waste valves ...... 43 Table 11. Total costs incurred ...... 44 Table 12. Financial analysis ...... 45 Table 13. Shows the rates ...... 46

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LIST OF ACRYONMS BOM Bill of Materials

Cd Drag coefficient of water

C v Velocity coefficient g Acceleration due to gravity GI Galvanized Steel IRR Internal Rate on Return K Loss coefficient

K t Loss coefficient of PVC pipes MATLAB Mathematical Laboratory Software NPV Net Present Value O $ M Operation and Maintenance PPE polyphenylene Ether (plastic pipes) PVC polyvinyl chloride RTK Real Time Kinematics μ Dynamic viscosity ρ Density of water

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0. Background

10.9% of the total area of Uganda is occupied by wetlands (Ministry of Water and Environment, 2017). Due to the country’s topology, almost 85% of the population to collect water using containers which they usually carry on their heads, bicycles trekking long distances to the water sources. The major sources of water include boles holes (42%), protected springs (21%), shallow wells (25%) to supplement on rain harvested water (Ministry of Water and Environment, 2017).

Water in some places is being distributed to people through the national water grid of which the distribution stands at 39% and the functionality has reduced to 85% (Ministry of Water and Environment, 2017). Some households use electrically and fuel powered pumps to pump water from the sources to their home steads. The methods mentioned above in one way or the other have adverse effects to the environment, in the sense that, there is always need for deforestation to extend electricity to the rural areas. And the continual use of the fuel engine pumps increases the gas emissions into the atmosphere leading to global warming (Eastop & McConkey, 2009). Currently the forest cover in Uganda stands at 9% (Ministry of Water and Environment, 2017), this shows that man has done an unfortunate job leading to global warming and yet only 43% of the Ugandan population is connected to the national grid, therefore electricity is not readily available to people to use in pumping water (ERA, 2018). According to UBOS, (2018), (Daily monitor, 2018), poverty level stands at 21.4%. This means the population find it hard to access these alternative energy sources. Due to this, there is need for a more convenient water pumping system which is environmentally friendly, little capital investment and little maintenance requirement, these pumps are called hydraulic ram pumps or hydrams.

Pumps have been in use since the ancient Greece, India and Egypt. The first hydraulic ram pump was designed and constructed by Whitehurst in 1775 (Ndache, 2007), which operated manually and raised water to a height of 4.9m. The first self-acting ram pump was invented in 1796 by Montgolfier to raise water for his paper mills.(Mills, 2014). According to (Ndache, 2007), his son Pierce in 1816 improved on his father’s design. Pierce incorporated the pump with an air or sniffer valve to introduce air into the air chamber, and it’s alleged that it pumped water at a flow rate 1700 litres per minute of a height of 48m.

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Calvert in 1957 did an evaluation on the performance characteristics of the hydraulic ram, he found out that the possible independent variables of the pump installations were considered under certain assumptions such as Reynolds number, Froude number, the head ratio and the coefficient of friction (Ndache, 2007). In 1960, Inthachot established that the dimensions of the drive pipe has a limiting value which he established using dimensional analysis (Inthachot et al., 2015),. The significant parameters were, the head ratio, friction coefficient and the dimensionless numbers. According to Ndache; (2007), it is possible to estimate the behaviour of the ram pump provided the following parameters are determined separately; head loss due to impulse valve, impulse valve drag coefficient, head loss in the pipe and head loss during retardation. Since then, the designs have been going through a various changes and currently, pumps, are among the mostly used machines in industries in providing water usually used as a raw material for certain products and also for cooling different machine parts (Hussin et al., 2017). 1.1. Problem statement

Generally, Uganda stands at 11000 meters above sea level which indicates that in most parts of the county, people live way too high above water bodies yet they still need to have access to water sources so, they have resorted to using inefficient methods of collecting water which require a lot of labour and time. For example, use of heads, bicycles to carry jerry cans and buckets to collect water for domestic work and farming.

Various pumps have been invented and developed for example electrical pumps, fuel powered pumps. These pumps have been successful in solving the problem but they have problems associated with them which include; environmental pollution in terms of gas emissions, noise during their operation and they are too expensive for some people in terms of running and maintaining.

With the aforementioned problems associated with the use of the above-mentioned water pumps, ram pumps have been developed as an alternative but during their operation, a lot of water is wasted through the waste valve, undesirable knocking sound from the waste valve.

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1.2. Objectives Main objective • Design and construction of a ram pump capable of raising water to a height of 10m with a flowrate of 10 litres per minute.

Specific objectives

• To design and model ram pump components • To construct the ram pump • To evaluate the performance of the ram pump • To quantify the financial and operational gains of the ram pump 1.3. Scope The project focused on a pump that works continuously with no additional source of energy as long as there is continual flow of water, intending to supply water for domestic and agricultural use to a head of 10m and a flow rate of 10litres/minute. The projects also focused on people with low net worth living both in mountainous areas and low-lying areas. The designing was done in solid works environment, the construction was done using available local materials.

1.4. Justification The project intended to improve on the livelihood of people living in rural areas who do not have access to water and invest in a lot in terms of money and time, minimal additional costs will be incurred after the project has been set up for maintenance, the pump is reliable, simple to use and environmentally friendly

1.6. Research questions • How is easy or difficult is the ram pump to construct? • What is the best way of constructing the ram pump, from scratch or from already existing parts? • How much do you spend in maintaining and running the ram pump? • What is the maximum efficiency attained by the current ram pumps, their head and flow rate?

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0. Literature Review 2.1. Introduction A number of studies have been carried out to find out more about ram pumps and also to establish gaps in the previous studies and projects done concerning this particular pump. Studies being carried out mostly has been on the operation of the ram pump, the different materials suitable for each part of the pump, its installation, effect of the air chamber on the operation of the ram pump, performance of the pump and many others.

2.2. The Hydraulic Ram-pump A hydraulic ram pump is an automatic mechanical device that pumps water to elevated heights without the use of any external source of energy but it uses the hydraulic energy of the water it is pumping. The device uses the water hammer effect to develop pressure that allows a portion of the input water to power the pump to be lifted the other portion to a point higher than the source head. Figure 1 shows one of the designs of ram pumps that are being used to lift water to elevated heights.

Figure 1. A ram Pump

Source (Diwan et al., 2016)

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2.3. Working principle (I) Operation sequence one

Figure 2. Sequence of operation 1

Source (Satyanarayaana, 2016) Initially, the waste valve is open while the delivery valve is closed. Water flows from the source through the drive pipe (A) under the force of gravity, picks up pressure and kinetic energy. It flows into the ram pump body, fills it up and start to flow out through the waste valve (B), the delivery valve (C) remains in its closed position due to the water pressure and the its spring weight. At this point, there is no pressure in the air vessel (D) and no water is delivered through the delivery pipe (E).

(II) Operation sequence two

Figure 3. Sequence of operation 2

Source (Satyanarayaana, 2016)

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As water continues to flow into the pump body and out through the waste valve, the valve is forced to close due the increasing drag forces and the pressure difference created with the ram body and the outside pressure (Satyanarayaana, 2016). The pressure just outside the pump is reduced as water flows out from the waste valve and there is a great water pressure inside the pump body, this forces the waste valve to close (as water escapes through the opened waste valve into the surrounding area, the hydrodynamic drag and pressure on the valve increases. As the flow attains sufficient velocity, the upward force upon the valve will exceed its weight and will instantaneously close). The continual flow of water into the ram body through the drive pipe against the closed valves raises the pressure in the pump, this forces the delivery valve to open due to the pressure difference between the pump body and the pressure around the delivery valve letting the water to flow into the air chamber. As water continues to flow into the air chamber, it compresses the air inside until the air reaches it compressibility limit, it pushes the water back, the delivery valve closes and water is let out through the delivery pipe to the end destination. The air chamber converts the pressurised water into a continuous flow through the delivery valve to the end destination.(Smith et al., 2017). Theoretically, the ram pump can operate without the air chamber, but this reduces its efficiency and the pump would be subjected to internal stresses which would reduce its life, because it permits water to be stored temporarily preventing the occurrence of water hammer or shock waves in the delivery pipe (Calhoun, 2003).

(III) Operation sequence three

Figure 4. Sequence of operation 3

Source (Satyanarayaana, 2016)

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At this stage little or no water is being transferred through the waste valve, due the closure of the waste valve, pressure builds up in the ram pump body causing a pressure pulse that propagates back through the drive pipe to the source. The air in the air vessel continues to expand to occupy the entire vessel.

(IV) Operation sequence four

Figure 5. The sequence of operation 4

Source (Satyanarayaana, 2016) The pressure pulse that propagates back creates a partial vacuum in the pump, forcing the waste valve to open and the flow begins to flow through the drive pipe into the ram pump body and out through the waste valve, the delivery valve is closed and the pressure in the air vessel has stabilised, the process to begins again as explained above. The cycle of the ram pump described may repeat between 40-90 times in a minute depending on the delivery head, drive pipe length from the source of water(Smith et al., 2017).

An air or sniffer valve is also mounted on the pump to allow a small amount of air to be sucked into the air vessel to replace that has been taken up by the surge of water that is delivered to the end destination. Without a suitable placed and sized air vessel, the chamber would easily be filled with water and the pump would cease to work.

2.4. Starting operation A ram pump fully installed or one that has stopped cycling must be started as follows; in case the waste valve is in the closed position, it has to be pushed manually into the open position and released. If the flow doesn’t start or it is insufficient, the waste valve must be pushed

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manually into the open position for about three to four times until when the cycle continues on its own (Inthachot et al., 2015).

If the ram pump stops when the waste valve is in the open position, the valve is closed manually and kept in that position until the drive pipe fills with water and for any air bubbles to travel from the pipe back to the source. The valve then can be pushed manually down as described above.

2.4.1. Priming of the ram pump Initially, there is no water in the delivery pipe and the air vessel is only occupied by air only. On letting water flow through the pump, it does not only flow the waste valve but also through the delivery valve, because the delivery valve remains open for there is not enough pressure above it to close it. With this, the water hammer effect can't easily be created so, priming is needed to help the impulse valve going down. When the water level in the delivery pipe reaches the height of the source tank, then the pump can work automatically as there is then enough pressure above the delivery valve to keep it closed.

2.5. Components of the ram pump and their functions Figure 2 shows the sections describing the roles of the different components.

Figure 6. The different components of a ram pump

2.5.1. Air vessel (Air Chamber or Accumulator) The air vessel in the ram pump plays two roles and these include; (1) acts as a temporary storage of water that is to be delivered to the desired destination. (2) It turns the pressurised flow of water from the drive pipe into a continuous flow due to the continuous compression and expansion of the air in the air chamber. An air chamber is believed to be a vital component on the ram pump system because it improves the system’s efficiency (Kimaro & Salaam, 2018). However getting an appropriate air chamber volume to match the size of the ram pump is not conclusive as there are different approaches from different researchers but according to ( Handa

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et al., 2016), there are standard sizes of air vessels used on ram pumps and they include 4”*24” and 4”*36”

According to (Mashina & Dekam, 2017) Air vessels can be used to maintain a positive pressure in line at all stages in the pump system and it does this by forcing the water out of the vessel into the cavity. The compressed air in the vessel forces water from the air chamber into the delivery pipe allowing it to travel through the pipe with a constant momentum. They (Mashina & Dekam, 2017) further focused on the effects the water hammer has on the size of the air vessel, diameter and length of the pipes, the desired flow rate and the static pressure head.

According to (Kimaro & Salaam, 2018), an air vessel volume affects the ram pump’s efficiency and desired flow rate. In their study, they used differently sized vessels ranging from 0.12- 19.6 litters being tested on a 40mm sized ram pump. They found out that the air vessel affects the efficiency and delivery flow rate of the hydram. They also found out that the smaller the vessel volume, the smaller the efficiency, and as the vessel volume was increased, the efficiency of ram pump also increased. In their conclusion, the efficiency of the ram pump is greater or equal to 60% if the ratio of vessel volume to volume of water from the drive pipe ranges from 50 to 500.

In determining the volume of the air vessel, the assumptions taken include; the compression process of air in the chamber is considered to be a polytropic process therefore, ^ =

where n ranges from 1 to 1.4 (Kimaro & Salaam, 2018). This is because it is difficult𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 to have𝐧𝐧 an𝐂𝐂 ideal adiabatic compression process due to the practical difficulties in maintaining a no heat transfer process. Secondly, the pump is expected to operate at atmospheric air conditions and the air vessel is not at any moment surrounded by insulators, so such compression could be fit to be called an adiabatic compression. Therefore; = = =

𝐏𝐏𝐨𝐨𝐕𝐕𝐨𝐨𝐧𝐧 𝐏𝐏𝟐𝟐𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐𝐧𝐧 𝐏𝐏𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝐧𝐧

𝐏𝐏𝟑𝟑𝐕𝐕𝟑𝟑𝐧𝐧Where; Po is the pre - charge pressure,

P2 is an intermediate pressure when the delivery flow rate q > 0,

P2m is the maximum pressure and this occurs when q = 0.

P3 is a delivery pressure at a delivery head Hd.

Another assumption is that; after discharging of water from the air vessel, its pressure and

volume will be P3 and V3 respectively. On a stable cyclic operation of the ram pump, it is

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assumed that the volume of water into the air chamber is equal to the volume of water delivered to the end destination through the delivery pipe. Assuming the volume of the air chamber to

vary from V2 to V3 thenV d = V3 – V2, from this equation, the volume of the air chamber can be determined;

Where P2 = , ( ) 𝑃𝑃3 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑛𝑛 1− 𝑉𝑉3 1 P3 = static pressure + dynamic pressure through the Delivery pipe

=

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜌𝜌 ∗ 𝑔𝑔 ∗ ℎ^𝑑𝑑2 = 2 𝜌𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 P0 is defined as a pressure slightly above the atmospheric pressure. Figure 3 below shows the pressure distribution with in the air vessel.

Figure 7. The pressure distribution with in the air vessel

Where P2 is the intermediate pressure when the delivery flow rate is greater than zero, P2m is the maximum pressure in the air vessel and occurs when the delivery flow rate is zero and P3 is the delivery pressure at the delivery height (Kimaro & Salaam, 2018).

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According to (Mashina & Dekam, 2017), the volume of the air vessel can be calculated from

Where V o is the initial water velocity as it enters the delivery line, A is the cross section of the

delivery line, H o is the absolute operating pressure head of air in the vessel with an initial air

volume of V o, and h min is the most severe drop of pressure head in the air vessel, L is the length of the delivery pipe, f is the friction factor and D is the diameter of the delivery line. In coming up with this equation, (Mashina & Dekam, 2017) assumed the that air expansion process occurring in the air vessel may be considered to be an adiabatic process having a negligible heat exchange with the surrounding, but in slower expansion related to large air vessels, heat exchange takes place with the surroundings and the process tends to be an isothermal one. Figure 4 shows the pipeline profile with definitions of the pressure heads.

Figure 8. The pipeline profile with definitions of pressure heads

Source (Mashina & Dekam, 2017)

Thickness of the air vessel Due to the fluid inside the cylinder, the walls of the cylinder are subjected to pressure from different points, three types of stresses are developed in three perpendicular directions and these include (E.J.Hearn, 2000);

• Circumferential stress or hoop stress • Longitudinal stress • Radial stress

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It is assumed that the stresses are uniformly distributed throughout the thickness of the cylinder wall and the magnitude of the radial stresses is very small in thin cylinders, that is why it is normally neglected. Circumferential stress This stress acts along the tangent to the circumference of the cylinder, it is tensile in nature and tends to increase the diameter.

Figure 9. The stress variations with in the cylinder

Source(E.J.Hearn, 2000)

Circumferential stress is given by; = where P – total pressure in the cylinder 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝜎𝜎ℎ 2𝑡𝑡 d- diameter of the cylinder t – cylinder thickness longitudinal stress it acts along the length of the cylinder and it intends to increase its length, it is also tensile in nature.

Figure 10. The stress variations in longitudinal sections of a cylinder

Source(E.J.Hearn, 2000)

Longitudinal stress = The maximum tensile stress of a PPE pipe at yield is estimated 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 to be around 2Mpa (PE technals, n.d.) 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 4𝑡𝑡 Types of accumulators

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These include the following

• Gas loaded accumulator • Dead loaded accumulator • Spring loaded accumulator Gas loaded accumulator Consist of a chamber with two chambers that are separated by an elastic diaphragm, a bladder or a floating piston (Gangwar, 2014). And these include the following (i) Free contact gas loaded accumulator It consists of a pressure vessel with a fluid port at the bottom and a gas charging port at the top. They are almost half filled with the fluid and the other half with air with no separation barrier between as shown in the figure below. It can only be used only in vertical position and is consequently relatively simple to manufacture.

Figure 11. A free contact loaded accumulator

Source (Gangwar, 2014) (ii) Piston type gas loaded accumulator This accumulator is similar to free gas one except that the piston separates the gas and the fluid as shown in the figure below, it can either be used in vertical or inclined position. Its discharge is the same as that of a free gas accumulator except that it may cost as twice as much as an equal sized bladder type. these accumulators are usually used from very large fluid storage requirement of up to 2,500 litres at high pressure of up to 1000 bars

Figure 12. Piston loaded accumulator

Source(Gangwar, 2014)

13 advantages of this bladder over other types; include the ability to handle extremely high flow rates, tolerance of temperature extremes, high compression ratios, ability to withstand external forces, unlimited sizes/mounting, and ability to work with gas bottles. (iii) Bladder type gas loaded accumulator Is the commonly used accumulator. the bladder is filled with air and fitted into the pressure vessel. the bladder is an elastic material such as rubber. the pre-charge pressure can be adapted through the gas inlet/outlet valve on top of the bladder accumulator. when the pressure drops, the compressed gas in the bladder expands and pushes the stored fluid through the valves. this design is capable of operating at maximum pressures of up to 1,000 bar. gas volume and effective hydraulic volume is medium ranging from 0.5 to 450 litres. the bladder type of accumulator is shown in the figure below

Figure 13. Bladder type accumulator

Source (Gangwar, 2014) advantages of the bladder type over other types of bladders include the following; universal application, high tolerance for contamination, quick response, and ability to work well with water and other low lubricity fluids. (iv) Diaphragm type gas loaded accumulator They have a rubber plate or diaphragm as the separating material. the material is welded or screwed across the accumulator. the upper compartment is filled with air and the upper one is connected to the fluid valve. these accumulators are useful if the required fluid storage capacity is low such as 4 litres or low. They are limited by the smaller volumes and at times the permeation of the gas across the diaphragm. Figure 14 below illustrates the diaphragm type of gas accumulator according Gangwar (2014).

Figure 14. A diaphragm type gas loaded accumulator

source(Gangwar, 2014)

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Dead loaded accumulator It consists of a vertical heavy wall steel cylinder with a piston to prevent leakages as shown in the figure below. a dead weight is attached to the top of the piston. this type of accumulator creates a constant fluid pressure throughout the full volume output irrespective of the rate and quantity. the disadvantage is that it is extremely large in size and weighs heavily.

Figure 15 The dead loaded accumulator

source(Gangwar, 2014) Spring loaded accumulator Is similar to the gas charged accumulator except that a heavy spring is used to provide the compressive force, since the force exerted by the spring is linearly proportional to its extension. The spring then compresses, the force it exerts on the fluid is increased linearly. The figure below shows a spring-loaded accumulator (Gangwar, 2014)

Figure 16. Spring loaded accumulator

source(Gangwar, 2014) 2.5.2. Valves Basically, in the ram pump there are two main valves and that is the waste and delivery valves, they are responsible for the pressure variations within the system. These pressure variations created are responsible for the operation of the ram pump.

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According to (Suarda et al., 2018), the performances and properties of ram pumps are greatly affected by parameters of the waste valve which include; the diameter of the valve disc, orifice diameter, the stroke length, valve weight and also the discharge and supply heads. They proposed procedures of determining waste valve diameter and its stroke and a formula for determining the optimal mass of the waste valve for the best ram pump performances. The valve orifice is optimally 0.68 the pump body diameter, or about 1.35 the drive pipe diameter if and only if the pump body diameter is twice that of the drive pipe (Januddi et al., 2018). The optimal valve stroke approximated to about 0.000333 of the head-source

According to (Matthias et al., 2015), they tested different valves under varying elevations of water in the drive pipe, recording water flow in the delivery pipe, pumping pressure and the ram pump efficiency. They recommended the use of off the self-clap check valve as the most reliable with an efficiency of over 30% and overall pump efficiency being 44% with a supply head of 3.5m and delivery head of 9m.

In their study, (Nambiar et al., 2015) recommended the use of Bernoulli’s equation to calculate the velocity of water through the waste valve and the mass of the waste valve. The equation is

as follows; + + = + + + + where subscript 1 are the 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 source conditions𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 𝟐𝟐and𝟐𝟐 subscript𝐙𝐙𝟏𝟏 2𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 are the𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 valve𝟐𝟐 conditions,𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐙𝐙𝟐𝟐 d is𝐤𝐤 the𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 diameter of the drive pipe, f is the friction factor, g is the acceleration due to gravity, k is a constant for head loss in bends, p is pressure, ρ is density of water, v is velocity and z is height from the datum. From boundary

conditions (Nambiar et al., 2015), P1 = P2 = V1 = Z2 = 0. The f and k values are read off from

the tables. Then the value of V2 can be calculated. The mass of the valve is calculated as =

. where Cd is coefficient of drag, A is the cross-section area of the 𝒎𝒎disc. According𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟓 𝑪𝑪𝒅𝒅 𝝆𝝆 𝑨𝑨to𝑽𝑽 Rohan𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 (Balgude et al., 2015), the waste valve area should be equal to or exceed the cross sectional area of the drive pipe in order to avoid too much pressure surges with in the ram pump body. Figure 5 below shows the standard k values for different pipe orientations.

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Figure 17. The standard k values for different pipe orientations

Source (Massey, 2006) Table 1 below shows the loss coefficient K for pipe fittings

Table 1. Loss coefficient of pipes

Pipe fitting K value

Global valve, open wide 10

Gate valve Wide open 0.2

Three quarters open 1.15

Half open 5.6

Quarter open 24

Pump foot valve 1.5

900 elbow (threaded) 0.9

450 elbow (threaded) 0.4

Side outlet of T-junction 1.8

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Figure 18 below shows the coefficient of drag for different Reynold’s numbers

Figure 18. The coefficient of drag for different Reynold’s numbers

Source; (Massey, 2006) Alternatively at equilibrium, there are forces that act on to the valve as shown in figure 19 below according to Suarda & Ghurri, (2018)

Figure 19. The different forces acting on a waste valve

Source; (Suarda & Ghurri, 2018)

Where W is the weight force, Fa is the acceleration force, Fi is the impulse force, F d is the drag force that work on the waste valve on open conditions. Applying balance of forces on the waste valve; W = Fa + Fi + F d (Suarda & Ghurri, 2018)

W = m w v*g where m w v is the mass of the waste valve

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= = 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑭𝑭𝒂𝒂 𝒎𝒎 𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔 𝝆𝝆 𝑨𝑨 𝒅𝒅 𝑳𝑳 𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 Where; a s is acceleration of water in the drive pipe,

m s is the accelerated water mass and

L d is the drive pipe length.

= ( – )

Where𝑭𝑭𝒊𝒊 ;𝒎𝒎 ̇ 𝒘𝒘 w w𝒘𝒘 is 𝑽𝑽the𝒎𝒎 𝒎𝒎mass𝒎𝒎 𝑽𝑽flow𝟎𝟎 rate of water in the drive pipe,

Vmax is the𝑚𝑚̇ maximum velocity of water in the drive pipe,

V0 is the initial velocity of water in the drive pipe.

= 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑭𝑭 𝒅𝒅 𝑪𝑪𝒅𝒅 𝝆𝝆 𝑨𝑨 𝒗𝒗 𝒅𝒅 Where; Cd is the drag coefficient on the waste𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 valve,

A v d is the cross-section area of the valve disc.

The optimum ram pump discharge is achieved with 225g weight of the waste valve (Suarda & Ghurri, 2018)

= p b Waste valve stroke (Suarda & Ghurri, 2018) where A is the area of the 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝒙𝒙 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 ram pump body, V p𝑺𝑺 b is the𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅velocity𝒙𝒙 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 of water in the ram pump body, D w v orifice diameter of

the waste valve, Vmax is the maximum velocity of water through the waste valve. The best

efficiency of the ram pump is achieved with a diameter ratio of = 0.6774 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 (Suarda & Ghurri, 2018) 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Time for closing and opening of the waste valve

= ( ) 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒙𝒙 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝑯𝑯 − 𝒉𝒉 𝒙𝒙 𝒈𝒈

= ( ) 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒙𝒙 𝒗𝒗 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 =𝑯𝑯 −+𝒉𝒉 𝒙𝒙 𝒈𝒈

𝑻𝑻 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕

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Where; l1 is the length of the supply based on empirical head and length of supply

l2 length of the pump body

V is the velocity of water with in the drive pipe

H is supply head above the waste valve

h is pump head above the source

t1 is time taken for the waste valve to close or the delivery valve to open

t2 is the time for the delivery valve to close

T is the time for one beat (Sheikh et al., 2016)

Number of beats per minute = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒏𝒏 𝑻𝑻 Discharge through the valve

The discharge through a valve is given as stated below

= 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝑄𝑄 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥� 𝜌𝜌 Where; Cd is co-efficient of drag of the valve ρ is the density of water is the pressure difference between the two ends of the valve

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥A is the area of the valve 2.5.3. Drive pipe The drive pipe must be able to sustain the pressures caused by the waste valve at the moment it closes. According to (Balgude et al., 2015), different relationships have been developed to ascertain the different parameters of the drive pipe which are the following;

6 < < 12 Europe and North America

𝐻𝐻 𝐿𝐿 𝐻𝐻 = + 0.3( ) by Eytelwein ℎ 𝐿𝐿 ℎ 𝐻𝐻 = by Russians, where N- is the number of beats per minute 900𝐻𝐻 𝐿𝐿 𝑁𝑁2 𝑥𝑥 𝐷𝐷 = 150 < ( ) < 1000 by Calvert 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐷𝐷 20

Many researchers and educationists have resorted to using Calvert’s method (Balgude et al., 2015) because it gives better results

2.5.4. Losses i). Head loss at the outlet

= 2 2 𝑉𝑉 𝐻𝐻 ii). Head loss due to pipe fitting ∗ 𝑔𝑔

= 2 2 𝑉𝑉 𝐻𝐻 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 iii). Head loss due to sudden enlargement 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔 ( 1 2) = 2 2 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉 𝐻𝐻 iv). Head loss due to sudden contraction 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔

= 2 2 𝑉𝑉 𝐻𝐻 𝑘𝑘 v). Head loss at the inlet 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔

= 2 2 𝑉𝑉 𝐻𝐻 𝑘𝑘 vi). Friction head loss 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔

= 2 𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉 𝐻𝐻 𝑓𝑓 . Where; f is the friction constant and is determined𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥from𝑔𝑔 = , Re is Reynold’s number 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 of which it is determined from = 𝒇𝒇 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝟒𝟒 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 l is the length of the drive𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅or delivery𝜇𝜇 pipe d is the diameter of the pipe V is the velocity of water through the considered pipe K is the roughness constant of the pipes and is got from standard tables (Massey, 2006) Acceleration of water through the pipe

= 2 2 𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉 𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐻𝐻 − 𝑓𝑓 − ∑𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 Where; H is the supply head 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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is the acceleration 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Fluid accelerating𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 force

= = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 Pressure in the pump body 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =

Where = 𝑃𝑃 Hd𝜌𝜌 is𝑥𝑥 the𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 pumpℎ 𝑥𝑥 𝑄𝑄 head𝑄𝑄 and, Hs is the supply head Efficiency of the pumpℎ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 − 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

= 100

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑥𝑥 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 𝜂𝜂 ∗ = OR 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻( 𝑥𝑥 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 ) 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 𝑥𝑥 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝜂𝜂 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 (𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄+𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄) OR = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻−𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 2.6. Water hammer 𝜂𝜂 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄∗𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 A water hammer is a rapid change of pressure in a fluid caused by a rapidly shutting of a valve or sudden change in direction of fluid flow. Generally, any event that causes a sudden change in the velocity of the fluid in a pipeline will generate transient pressure waves. Pressure transients can be positive or negative, where the magnitude of these surges can attain a value of many times of the normal operating pressures. The most common sources of transient pressures are pump operation, pump power failure, control valve operation, and pipeline rupture. In case of pump power failure, the initial wave is a negative or reduced pressure wave, which travels from the pump discharge side toward the end of the pipeline. A variety of controlling methods are available to mitigate transient pressures, generally, falling into three categories; alteration of pipeline profile and diameter, valve and pump control procedures, and surge control devices. Different surge control devices are employed, such as surge tanks, surge pipes, air valves, and air vessels. Air vessels, generally alleviate negative pressures more effectively than other forms of water hammer protection units, and they can maintain a positive pressure in the line at all stages following the pump trip. This is accomplished by forcing water out of the vessel into the cavity. The vessel's compressed air forces water moving from the air vessel into the pipeline, allowing the water column traveling up the pipeline to maintain its momentum. Friction and other head losses tend to reduce the water velocity and therefore the subsequent oscillations. The pressure wave created with in conduit due to the water hammer can be calculated from = 𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 �𝝆𝝆 𝒙𝒙 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲 𝒙𝒙 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 22

Where; K b is the bulk modulus of water at room temperature

V w is the velocity of water in the conduit

On sudden closure of the valve or opening, a water hammer occurs. This comes with the loss of kinetic energy the water came with to strain energy. So, the loss in kinetic energy is equal to the strain energy attained by the conduit.

= ^ 𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝟐𝟐 ∗ 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒙𝒙 𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝒑𝒑 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙 𝒌𝒌 𝒙𝒙 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 Where; Mw is the mass of water in the conduit

V p is the velocity of water in the conduit

P is the pressure due to the wave created

K is the bulk modulus of water

Volume; of the conduit (Dixon, 1995)

2.6.1. Time for wave travel in the pump body The time of the wave propagation with in the pump body is equivalent to the time required for the waste valve to open and close to facilitate the pressure variations with in the pump body to aid the pump to pump water to the desired destination. The time is calculated as below

= 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒕𝒕 Where; l is the length of the𝒄𝒄 pump body

c is the speed of the wave within the pump body

2.7. Design and construction of a ram pump According to Ndache;(2007), when he designed and fabricated a hydraulic ram pump, it was capable of lifting water from a depth of 2m, had a flow rate of 4.5238*10-5m3/s, produced power of 1.273KW and had n efficiency of 57.3%. In his investigations, he concluded that the main parameters considered in designing a hydraulic ram include: • Source head • The delivery heads • The flow rate available from the source.

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• The drive pipe length from the source to pump • The quantity of water required. • The length of delivery pipe In his fabrication, he used galvanised metal plates as material for some parts and pipes to construct the pump. He concluded that the overall cost of fabrication of the ram pump is relatively cheaper than the existing pumps

Sheikh, Handa, & Ninawe;(2013), found out that there are several parameters relating to the operation of the ram pump and this include; Drive pipe length, diameter and thickness, cross- sectional area of the drive pipe, supply head, delivery head friction head loss in the drive pipe friction head loss through the waste valve, friction head loss at the delivery valve, the velocity in the drive pipe when the waste valve begins to close, the steady flow velocity through the waste valve when fully open, valve weight, stroke, cross sectional area and opening orifice area and finally the size of the air chamber.

According Fischer & Gluck;(2017), they did analysis on the ram pump using ANYSYS CFX software to validate the working principle of the ram pump, tested three designs and best design reached their target head of 3m, with a flow rate of 11.82 litres per minute and had an efficiency of 15%. The design of the ram pump was done using CATIA software. In their study, they concluded that the lesser the diameter of the air chamber and the higher the supply head, the higher is the pressure created. Kimaro & Salaam;(2018) In their conclusion, they did not seem to agree with who in their said that, the bigger the volume of the air vessel, the more efficient the ram pump is, and the dependant parameters were, the volume of the air chamber and the volume of water from the drive pipe.

According to (Diniz et al., 2011), there are certain assumptions one has to consider during the designing and construction of the ram pump, and these include the following (i) The frequency of the waste valve should range between 20 cycles / minute and 100 cycles per minute (ii) The supply head should range from 0.5 meters to 2 meters (iii) The delivery head should be 6 to 12 times the supply head (iv) The efficiency of the ram pump is best suited between 50% to 80% (v) The supply flow should be 2 to 6 times the delivery flow (vi) The length of the supply pipe should be 150 to 1000 times its diameter.

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2.9. Efficiency The energy efficiency of a ram pump is a round 60% and 80% but this efficiency shouldn’t be confused with the volumetric efficiency of the pump (Furze et al., 2002),. The volumetric efficiency relates the volume of water delivered to the end destination to the total water taken in by the drive pipe. The amount of water in the delivery pipe is reduced by the ratio of the delivery head to the supply head (Nwosu & Madueme, 2013). If the source is 2m above the ram pump and the water is being delivered to a height of 10m, only 20% s delivered to the end destination. The other 80% is spilled out through the waste valve.

The actual amount of water delivered to the end destination further reduced by the energy efficiency, assuming 70% energy efficiency; that means, 70% of the 20% (14%) is the amount of water that will be delivered. If the head ratio is 1:2, the amount of water delivered will 50% and that spilled through the waste valve will be 50%. So, 70% of 50% (35%) will be delivered (Mondol, 2017). Therefore, the shorter the delivery height, the more efficient the ram pump will be. Efficiency of a ram pump can be improved by using an air chamber, using multi ram set ups using small drive pipe diameters, using a small weighted waste valve and using PVC drive pipes (Diwan et al., 2016).

But according to Fischer & Gluck;(2017), the efficiency of the ram pump depends on the delivery and source head, the outflow rate and inflow rate into the ram pump, and is given by this formula as stated shown; x 100 where H is the delivery head, Q out is the outflow 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 rate, h is the source head and Qinℎ𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 is the inflow rate.

2.10. The common problems associated with ram pumps The ram pumps at a times fail to deliver sufficient amount of water to the end destination, this may basically be due to improper adjustment of the waste valve, attempting to raise water to heights greater than what the ram pump can deliver to and also having to little air in the air chamber, the air in the air chamber provides a constant flow to the water to travel against gravity to the desired destination (Suarda & Ghurri, 2018).

Loss of air in the air chamber is another problem which may affect the ram pump (Inthachot et al., 2015). This leads to the damage of the pump as there will be excess stress on the ram pump parts and the amount of water to be delivered will greatly reduce or there will be no supply at all. The occasional stopping of the waste valves during the operation of the ram pump (Mondol, 2017). The operation may stop due to insufficient water flow from the source, poor adjustment of the waste valve. Other problems may include, blockage of the pipes by debris, poor

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installation of the ram pump such as using pipes of different diameter and material, having sharp bends and rough interior of the pipes may affect the flow of water through the pipes.

2.11. Maintenance of the ram pump Ram pumps are known to have a continuous operation as long as there is continuous flow of water from the source, the maintenance costs and activities are small because of the few moving parts it has. If clean water is being pumped through the ram pump, it may take several years without doing any maintenance activity on the pump.

2.12. Design factors The factors that should be considered before designing and constructing a ram pump include the following;

• The supply-head • The delivery-head • The quantity of flow rate from the source • The quantity of flow rate required • The length of the drive pipe • The length of the delivery pipe

The tables below are relating some of the different ram pump parameters to required flow rate per 24 hours per one litre of the supply flow per minute

Table 2. Comparison of supply height and delivery height

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Table 3. Comparison of delivery flow rate and drive pipe diameter

2.13. Other water pumping methods (i) Solar water pump;

Figure 20. The different components of a solar pump

As shown in the figure 2.22 above, according to (Aliyu et al., 2018) , the system uses photovoltaic cells to generate electricity which runs the motor, which then runs the bore to pump water from the source to the end destination. It is an efficient way of pumping water because one may use storage devices like batteries to provide electricity for pumping water in case there are changes in the weather conditions (Li et al, 2017), the system is cost effective over a period of time compared of fuel powered pumps, there are minimal maintenance costs if the system is well designed and the only periodic maintenance required is cleaning of the panels, the photovoltaic panels usually have a long life span of about 20-30 years (Li et al., 2017) and finally the system is environmental friendly because it doesn’t emit hazardous gases like carbon dioxide. But there are potential limitations to the usage of solar pumping systems to pump water and these include; • The high initial costs, the rate of conversion efficiency of photovoltaic panel stands at 18% (Li et al., 2017), so to meet the high energy demands, a lot of solar panels have to be installed

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• It has low output on cloudy days and for it to function effectively, it requires high irradiance exposure on the photovoltaic panel.

(ii) Other water pumps These basically use external sources of energy to pump water from the source to the end destination. These pumps can be classified into two categories; the dynamic and positive displacement pumps. 2.13.1. Dynamic pumps; energy is continuously added to the fluid. The increase in energy brings about the gain in potential energy or pressure when the velocity is reduced prior to or as the flow exits the pump into the discharge pipe (Massey, 2006). Dynamic pumps are further categorised into centrifugal and special effect pumps.

2.13.2. Positive displacement pumps; A positive displacement pump works by trapping a fixed amount of water and forcing that trapped volume into the discharge pipe (Massey, 2006). Positive displacement pumps are further classified into; rotary type displacement, reciprocating type displacement and linear type positive displacement.

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CHAPTER THREE 3.0. METHODOLOGY This chapter covers the detailed explanation of how the complete and working prototype of a ram pump was attained with detailed results of the set specific objectives. In evaluating the project, the methodology is based on the project life cycle as shown in the figure 21 below, generally consisting of planning, implementing and analysis.

3.1. DATA COLLECTION. The following method was used to collect the necessary data about the ram pumps and their mode of operation and analysis

(i) Literature review; this involved the use of text books, internet, peer reviewed journals and study reports written by ram pump system researchers, designers and installers around the world. Information about of how ram pumps are constructed, their principle of operation, common operational problems and conditions under which they operate efficiently, tools used in fabrication and testing of the pump were gathered.

Figure 21 below shows the design flow of how an operational prototype of a ram pump was achieved.

Figure 21. Design flow procedure

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3.2. Conceptual frame work The figure 22 shows the research design process that was went through to achieve the successful and operational prototype.

Inputs Part to design Outputs

Increase or decrease Torque1. Introduction Sizing pressure regulator of pressure in the system

Water hammer in Source flow rate Sizing the drive pipe in terms length and the system diameter

Sizing the waste valve Closing and Water hammer (the kinetic energy opening of the valve and pressure)

Closing and Pressure wave Sizing the delivery valve opening of the valve

Compression and Pressure and Sizing the air expansion of air in volume chamber the air chamber

Delivery flow rate Delivery head, Sizing the delivery pressure and pipe volume

Figure 22. Research Design 3.3. Planning An extensive literature review was undertaken to identify the various existing solutions for the overall problem and sub-problems that may be solved to come up with a superior design for water pumping using a ram pump. This literature search was done using journals, e-books, reviewed papers etc. This process led to generation of various design concepts which were

30

screened and scored down to come up with an improved design of the ram pump. As shown above in figure 21, the planning process involved a lot including; the research design diagram, concept generation, concept selection, material selection, parametric design of the different parts of the pump.

3.3.1. Concept generation A concept is an approximate description of the technology, working principles, and form of the prototype, in terms of how it looks like and it gives a concise description of how it is to satisfy the intended set objectives. As per this project, different concepts were come up with which were bench marked against the existing technology. Target specifications include the following; • Delivering water to a height of 10 meters at a flow rate of 10 litres per minute • Developing a maintenance free pump • Developing a noise free ram pump • Having a pressure control system to avoid bursting of pipes • Easy to turn pressure regulator knob • Pump having a waste valve with 60 or more cycles in a second • Having a pump which does not rust • Ram body should be accessible if maintenance need be. • Having no or little water waste through the waste valve • Developing a user-friendly water pump. • Low cost water ram pump Information concerning the target specifications and how to achieve them, were basically gotten from published journals which are the basic fertile source of solutions to existing problems 3.3.2. Concept selection Concepts came up with, were selected after being ranked and screened against a selection criterion to come up with the best concept of how the prototype of the ram pump would or will look like. The selection criteria can include the following;

• Ease of manufacture • Durability • Ease of maintenance • Environmental impacts • Cost

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• Water wastage

Figure 23. Proposed Ram pump design The concept was screened and bench marked against the already existing ram pump designs of which one of the designs is shown in the figure below.

Figure 24 Bench mark design

Source (Sheikh et al., 2016) 3.3.4. Material Selection For the pump body, GI pipes was used since galvanised steel is corrosive free, durability and has a high resistance to cracking. For both the waste and delivery valves, brass was used, because brass is corrosive free and were readily available on the market. For the air vessel, PPE pipe was used because of the high capability to withstand high pressures, corrosive free, light weight and highly durable.

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3.3.4. Parametric Designing The parametric design was based on the different formulae listed above in the literature review. Table 4 below shows the parameters of the different parts used in the construction of the prototype. The calculations were done using PTC math card prime 4.0 software and are attached in the appendix A.

Table 4. Parametric Values of the Pump parts

PARAMETER CALCULATED VALUE Source head 2m Supply flow rate 0.00139 m3/s DRIVE PIPE Drive pipe length 7 m Drive pipe diameter 1.5 inch Supply velocity 1.21 m/s Losses with the pipe 0.0134 m Acceleration of water 0.00987 m2/s PUMP BODY Velocity 6.01 m/s Diameter 2 inches Pressure wave 1.88 bar length 0.437 m WASTE VALVE Flow rate 0.00122 m3/s Diameter 2 inches Stroke 42 mm Weight 166.8 g Time of closure and opening 0.77 s Beats per minute 10.44 DELIVERY VALVE Flow rate 10 litres/min Diameter 2 inches Stroke 42 mm weight 166.8 g AIR VESSEL Volume 4.94 litres Pre charging pressure 1.014 bar Maximum pressure 1.912 bar Minimum air volume 2.911 litres Delivery pressure 1.884 bar DELIVERY PIPE Delivery pressure 1.885 bar Diameter 0.5 inch Length

Efficiency 48% Head losses 0.1853 m

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3.4. Implementation 3.4.1. Design and construction After computation of the design parameters, part design and assembling were done using solid works software to the exact computed dimensions and appropriate materials were assigned to different parts respectively, figure 25 below is the final design prototype assembly. The delivery and drive pipes were not included in the design drawing, because they would make the software shrink the drawing. But the dimensions as shown in the table 4 above were considered in the construction of the pump

Figure 25. The CAD drawing of the ram pump The design of the models was based on the design parameters calculated from the parametric designing part. The component parts draft drawings are attached in the appendix.

3.4.2. Construction Most of the parts used in the construction of the ram pump prototype were standard parts purchased from the local shops basing on the calculations made in the parametric analysis. Figure 27 below shows some of the construction processes that were went through to produce the ram pump prototype and the tools and equipment used included the following;

• Pipe wrench • Thread tape • Bench vice • Lathe machine

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• Drilling machine

Figure 26. Construction of the pump With the exception, the air vessel was constructed from the available parts from different shops but the parts had to go through other processes like, facing and drilling. Parts used included the following; two head caps, 4 by 24-inch PPE pipe, plastic long screws. An air tight type of accumulator was considered over other types because of the following reasons;

• It is easier to construct and maintain • It is light weight

Figure 28 below shows the complete prototype of the ram pump, which was later tested for the results as shown in the table 7 below

Figure 27 The finished built pump

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The table 5 below shows the BOM used in the construction of the ram pump prototype

Table 5. Bill of Materials

S/N PART QUANTITY SIZE (inches) MATERIAL 1 Swing check 2 2 Brass valve 2 900 Elbow 1 2 GI 3 Tee junction 2 2 GI 4 Thread tape 4 pieces 5 Pressure gauge 2 6 Pressure gauge 2 Brass adaptor 7 Gate vale 1 3/4 Brass 8 Global valve 1 1.5 Brass 9 Nipple 5 2 GI 10 Long screw 2 2 & 1.5 Plastic 11 Long screw 1 2 GI 12 Pipe nose 1 1/2 GI 13 End cup 5 4 PPE 14 Pipe 1 4 PPE 15 PVC solvent 2 tins glue 16 Pipe 2 1.5 PVC 17 Pipe adaptor 1 1.5 PVC 18 Tee junction 1 2×1/2 GI 19 Pipe reducer 1 2×3/4 GI 20 Clamps 4 Steel 21 Bolts and Nuts 8 M14 22 Water tank 1 Plastic

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3.4.3. Determining the Delivery Height

The height difference between the pump and the delivery point was measured using GPS Receiver COMNAV T300 in Real Time Kinematic (RTK) as shown in the figure 3.31 below

Figure 28. A base of COMNAV T300 With the base receiver setup as shown in the figure above on assumed coordinates and height, the rovering equipment was used to measure the height of the Pump and delivery point above sea level as shown in the figure below.

Figure 29. Taking of height measurements 5 observations on each position were taken, the data was transferred from the data logger which is always connected onto the rover onto a laptop in form of an excel file, average values were computed using the Z-axis values which signify the height on the cartesian plane. These average values were subtracted to get the height difference. The figure 3.33 below shows the excel file as received from the data logger, where PUMP is the pump position and DW is the delivery point.

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Figure 30. Excel sheet from the data logger

Table 6. Calculation of the delivery height

Name Code X Y Height Name Code X Y Height 2 PUMP 44341.85 455785.7 1184.597 16 DW 44326.02 455773.7 1190.911 3 PUMP 44341.86 455785.7 1184.596 18 DW 44326.02 455773.7 1190.907 4 PUMP 44341.85 455785.7 1184.597 19 DW 44326.02 455773.7 1190.909 5 PUMP 44341.85 455785.7 1184.591 20 DW 44326.02 455773.7 1190.908 6 PUMP 44341.85 455785.7 1184.597 21 DW 44326.03 455773.7 1190.908 7 PUMP 44341.9 455785.7 1184.598 AVERAGE 1184.596 1190.909 HEIGHT 6.3126

As shown in the table above, the delivery height that was attained using the COMNAV T300 equipment was 6.3126 m, that is the maximum height that could attained in the testing locality. 3.4.4. Measuring the source head The source height was arranged as shown in the figure below

Figure 31 Shows how the variations of source head were made

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Bricks of height 0.16 m were used to vary the height of the source which supplied water into the pump. The figure 3.35 below shows the how the height of the bricks was measured using a steel tape measure.

Figure 32. Measurement of the bricks used

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1. Results After determining the delivery height and how the source head would be varied, the pump was run and different parameters monitored, and these included; the delivery pressure, time to fill 0.5 litres, recorded using a stop clock of a phone. These tests were run to check for the functionality of the ram pump to check whether it meets the intended goals. The table 7 below shows the attained results.

Table 7. Table of results

S/N Supply head Time Delivery (Hs) (s) pressure (bars) 1 0 0 0 2 0.16 0 0 3 0.32 31.96 0.2 4 0.48 8.29 0.35 5 0.64 8.04 0.3 6 0.80 8.05 0.6 7 0.96 7.50 0.7 8 1.12 6.84 0.85 9 1.28 6.09 1.00 10 1.44 5.82 1.2 11 1.60 5.57 1.6 12 1.76 5.45 1.4 13 1.92 4.81 1.80 14 2.08 4.24 1.80

The calculation below shows how the different parameters were calculated before being inserted into the table 8 below. The calculation below is for one height demonstrating how the rest of the parameters were calculated Considering;

Hs = 2.08 m and the collection time T = 4.24 s for 0.5 litres . × = = 7.075 liters/min . 0 5 60 𝑸𝑸𝑸𝑸 4 24 ; =

𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘= 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄73.259 𝑄𝑄liters/min𝑄𝑄 − 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 ×( ) ; = = × 0.179 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻−𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝜼𝜼 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

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The table 8 below shows the calculated values, which was attained following the above sampled calculations basing on the results from the table 7 above. Table 8. Calculation table

Q d (Delivery Q w (waste flow rate) flow rate) Η Hs (m) Time (liters/min) (liters/min) (Efficiency) 0 0 0 80.334 0 0.16 0 0 80.334 0 0.32 31.96 0.939 79.395 0.219 0.48 8.29 3.619 76.715 0.547 0.64 8.04 3.731 76.602 0.412 0.8 8.05 3.727 76.607 0.320 0.96 7.5 4.000 76.334 0.278 1.12 6.84 4.386 75.948 0.253 1.28 6.09 4.926 75.407 0.241 1.44 5.82 5.155 75.179 0.217 1.6 5.57 5.386 74.948 0.197 1.76 5.45 5.505 74.829 0.177 1.92 4.81 6.237 74.097 0.178 2.08 4.24 7.075 73.259 0.179

Different graphs below were drawn relating the different parameters of the pump in order to predict its performance characteristics following what was calculated from the table of calculations above.

A GRAPH OF DELIVERY FLOW RATE AGAINST THE SUPPLY FLOW RATE 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Delivery flow rate 1 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Supply head

Figure 33. A graph of delivery flow rate against the supply head

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A GRAPH OF EFFICIENCY AGAINST THE SUPPLY HEAD

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 η 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 supply head (m)

Figure 34. A graph of efficiency against the supply head The pump was tested with a different sized waste as shown in the figure 36 below. This was done to see what effect the valves have on the operation and performance of the pump. The pump originally had a 2-inch waste valve which was substituted with a 1.5-inch waste vale. The performance of both valves was tested using the same conditions for four different values of the supply head, monitoring the delivery pressure and the time it took to fill a 1 litre jag using a stop clock. The delivery point was at 4m high.

Figure 35. Shows the different sized waste valves that were tested

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Table 9 below shows the results that were attained for each waste valve that was tested. The pressure is in bars while time is in seconds Table 9. Comparison between the different sized waste valves

SUPPLY HEAD PARAMETERS 2-INCH VALVE 1-INCH VALVE 1.2 Delivery pressure 0.6 bars 1.2 bars Time 30.6 15.6 1.4 Delivery pressure 1.2 bars 1.6 bars Time 28.7 15.0 1.8 Delivery pressure 1.75 bars 2.0 bars Time 24.0 12.4 2 Delivery pressure 1.8 bars 2.6 bars Time 21.6 11.4

The results in table 10 below were calculated the same way as those shown table 8 above Table 10. Calculation table for the different waste valves

SUPPLY VALVES Delivery flow Waste flow rate Efficiency (η) HEAD rate (litres/min) (litres/min) 1.2 2-INCH 1.961 78.373 0.081 1.4 2.091 78.243 0.074 1.8 2.500 77.834 0.069 2 2.778 77.556 0.069 1.2 1.5-INCH 3.846 76.49 0.160 1.4 4.000 76.33 0.142 1.8 4.839 75.50 0.134 2 5.263 75.07 0.131

The graphs below 37 and 38 show the comparison of delivery head, efficiency of the two sized waste valves and what effect they have on the performance of the pump

A GRAPH OF DELIVERY FLOW RATE AGAINST SUPPLY HEAD 6.000 4.000 2.000 0.000 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Delivery flow rate Supply head

Qd (litres/min) Qd (litres/min)

Figure 36. A graph of delivery flow rate against supply head of different sized valves

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A GRAPH OF EFFICIENCY AGAINST SUPPLY HEAD 0.180 0.160 0.140 0.120 0.100 0.080

Efficiency 0.060 0.040 0.020 0.000 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Supply head

η η

Figure 37. A graph of efficiency against the supply head

KEY

4.2. Quantification of the financial and operational gains of the ram pump In this, NPV values, payback period was calculated to find out whether the project will be worthy investing in depending on the initial investments and how is the project fairing up with using water collection methods in terms of costs incurred in a period of 20 years. Microsoft excel was be used to do the calculations as shown in the tables below. Assuming we have an alternative of using petrol fuel pumps and each day they consume about 20 litres to pump water. Table 11. Total costs incurred

SYSTEM COSTING Items Quantity Unit cost (UGX) Total cost (UGX) Swing check valve 2 80,000 160000 0 90 Elbow 1 15,000 15000 Tee junction 2 20,000 40000 Thread tape 4 2,000 8000 Pressure gauge 2 90,000 180000 Pressure gauge 2 adaptor 5,000 10000 Gate vale 1 30,000 30000 Global valve 1 40,000 40000 Nipple 5 10,000 50000 Long screw 2 20,000 40000

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Long screw 1 20,000 20000 Pipe nose 1 15,000 15000 End cup 5 25,000 125000 Air Vessel Pipe 1 50,000 50000 PVC solvent glue 2 7,000 14000 Supply Pipe 2 20,000 40000 Pipe adaptor 1 20,000 20000 Tee junction 1 (reducer) 20,000 20000 Pipe reducer 1 5,000 5000 Clamps 4 5,000 20000 Bolts and Nuts 8 500 4000 Construction 1 200,000 200000 Transport 1 45,000 45000 Water tank 1 140,000 140000 Total 884,500 1,291,000

The tables 10 and 11 shows financials indicators as to be incurred during a period of 20 years of using a fuel powered pump compared to using a ram pump as means of pumping water. Table 12. Financial analysis

Annual Energy Annual Energy O $ M costs Annual total Annual cash YEAR Demand (liters) Cost (UGX) (UGX) costs (UGX) flow (UGX) NPV (UGX) 1 219000 219000.00 120,000 339000.00 339000.00 -952000.00 2 219000 229950 122400 352350.00 691350.00 -599650.00 3 219000 459900 124848 584748.00 1276098.00 -14902.00 4 219000 689850 127344.96 817194.96 2093292.96 802292.96 5 219000 919800 129891.8592 1049691.86 3142984.82 1851984.82 6 219000 1149750 132489.6964 1282239.70 4425224.52 3134224.52 7 219000 1379700 135139.4903 1514839.49 5940064.01 4649064.01 8 219000 1609650 137842.2801 1747492.28 7687556.29 6396556.29 9 219000 1839600 140599.1257 1980199.13 9667755.41 8376755.41 10 219000 2069550 143411.1082 2212961.11 11880716.52 10589716.52 11 219000 2299500 146279.3304 2445779.33 14326495.85 13035495.85 12 219000 2529450 149204.917 2678654.92 17005150.77 15714150.77 13 219000 2759400 152189.0153 2911589.02 19916739.78 18625739.78 14 219000 2989350 155232.7957 3144582.80 23061322.58 21770322.58 15 219000 3219300 158337.4516 3377637.45 26438960.03 25147960.03 16 219000 3449250 161504.2006 3610754.20 30049714.23 28758714.23 17 219000 3679200 164734.2846 3843934.28 33893648.52 32602648.52 18 219000 3909150 168028.9703 4077178.97 37970827.49 36679827.49 19 219000 4139100 171389.5497 4310489.55 42281317.04 40990317.04 20 219000 4369050 174817.3407 4543867.34 46825184.38 45534184.38 TOTAL 338,913,403.17 313,093,403.17

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Table 13. Shows the rates

Annual increase in O $ M costs 2% Annual increase in fuel costs 5% Unit cost of fuel (petrol) (UGX) 3960 Initial investment (UGX) 1,291,000 NPV (UGX) 313093403.17 Payback period 4 years

4.3. Discussion As its seen in graph 4.1, the discharge increases with an increase in the supply head, the optimum discharge being 7.075471698 liters/ min achieved with a supply head of 2.06 m. the amount of water delivered increased because the increase in supply head brings about the increase in the hydraulic pressure within the water supplied, so this pressure runs through the pump applying a great thrust on to the delivery valve to pump larger amounts of water per unit time.

In graph 4.2, it is evident that the efficiency of the pump increases drastically from zero to 54.7% efficiency with a supply head of 0.46 m, and then starts to drop, this could have been due to the limited supply of water into the pump. The tests were carried out from water deficient locality as the pump best operates in areas with a constant supply.

It is also evident that reducing the size of the waste valve, a much more flow rate delivered is achieved as shown in the graphs 37 and 38 above. This is due to the fact that, the amount of water being wasted through the waste valve reduces because of the sudden contraction from 2 to 1.5 inch. Still this brings about the much more pressure build up implying a more delivery head and flow rate.

Sources of errors when collecting data

• Limited supply of water, that is why there is was no pressures recorded. Water had to be let to flow to attain some measurable pressures with in the pump • Varying levels water levels in the supply tank • Inconsistencies in taking the time readings when the water level has reached the reading position.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5.0. Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1. Conclusion • As it is seen from the table 10 above, it can be concluded that using a ram pump type of pumping system is of much advantage than the normal fuel powered pumps, it is clearly evident that a person who invests in a ram pump will be able to realize his profits with in the first four years. Thus, the project is worth an investment • In regard to operation of the ram pump if installed, from the analysis above in table 8, it is advisable to have a larger supply head capacity of providing a continuous flow into the pump • It is also evident that the efficiency of the pump increases with an increase in the supply head provided there is optimum and continuous supply of water into the system. But because of the limited supply of water and errors made during result taking, a decline in efficiency was observed as seen in graph 3.33 above. • Due to monetary issues, the project was unable to be finished, as documented in the proposal; where there was to be a waste water collecting system incorporated onto the waste valve side of the pump. In case the pump was to be installed in a water deficient place

5.2. Recommendations • In order to ensure proper operation of the ram pump, it should be operated in an area where there is continuous supply of water • A lot of water is wasted through the waste valve, if the pump is to be used in areas where there is no constant supply of water, that would be a disadvantage because small amounts are delivered compared to that taken in by the pump, it would be better if there is mechanism of collecting that waste water to be used for other purposes or even redirected back into the source to be resupplied into the pump. • The delivery pipe must be half or smaller than the drive pipe in diameter for the pump to continue operating. With bigger delivery pipe diameters, there is a greater escape of air from the air vessel which would stop the pumping action taking place if the delivery gate valve is fully opened. • A further study should be carried out to find out the effect of using the different air accumulator types to the operation of the pump and if possible, find out the best accumulator to be used on the pump.

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APPENDIX A

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