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THE EFFECTS of IMPLICIT THEORIES of EMOTION on EMOTION REGULATION and EXPERIENCE by KIMBERLY M. LIVINGSTONE a DISSERTATION Prese

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THE EFFECTS of IMPLICIT THEORIES of EMOTION on EMOTION REGULATION and EXPERIENCE by KIMBERLY M. LIVINGSTONE a DISSERTATION Prese THE EFFECTS OF IMPLICIT THEORIES OF EMOTION ON EMOTION REGULATION AND EXPERIENCE by KIMBERLY M. LIVINGSTONE A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of Psychology and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2012 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Kimberly M. Livingstone Title: The Effects of Implicit Theories of Emotion on Emotion Regulation and Experience This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Psychology by: Sanjay Srivastava Chair Robert Mauro Member Jennifer Pfeifer Member Taryn Stanko Outside Member and Kimberly Andrews Espy Vice President for Research and Innovation/Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded September 2012 ii © 2012 Kimberly M. Livingstone iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Kimberly M. Livingstone Doctor of Philosophy Department of Psychology September 2012 Title: The Effect of Implicit Theories of Emotion on Emotion Regulation and Experience This dissertation examined the effects of implicit theories of emotion—beliefs about the malleability of emotion—on emotion regulation and experience. Incremental theories involve beliefs that emotions are controllable; entity theories involve beliefs that emotions are uncontrollable. I hypothesized that an incremental theory would be associated with better well-being, more adaptive emotion regulation, and mastery- oriented patterns of response to emotion regulation difficulty, compared to an entity theory. Study 1 developed a valid and reliable questionnaire to assess trait implicit theories of emotion and examined correlations with self-reports of personality, emotional experience, emotion regulation, and well-being. A trait incremental theory was associated with greater positive emotion and less negative emotion, an effect that was mediated by the tendency of incremental theorists to use more active coping and adaptive emotion regulation strategies, compared to entity theorists. Incremental theories were also associated with greater overall well-being, lower depression, and less stress. Studies 2-5 manipulated implicit theories of emotion and examined their causal effects on emotion and emotion regulation. Although entity and incremental participants did not report differences in emotional experience when experiencing emotions naturally (Study 2), participants in the incremental group were more likely to regulate their emotions when iv explicitly asked to do so (Study 3). Specifically, only incremental participants responded to instructions to remain objective while rating emotionally evocative images. Studies 4 and 5 examined differences in reactions to emotion regulation difficulty. After completing an “emotional interference” task, all (Study 4) or a random half (Study 5) of participants were told that they had done poorly and rated attributions for their performance, affect, and motivation to remain engaged versus withdrawing. Although hypothesized patterns did not emerge as a whole, participants in the incremental condition were more likely to attribute their performance (failure or success) to strategy use. This research has implications for the study of emotion regulation, in particular, patterns of helplessness and mastery within the domain of emotions. v CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Kimberly M. Livingstone GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene University of Massachusetts, Amherst DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, 2012, Psychology, University of Oregon Master of Science, 2006, Psychology, University of Oregon Bachelor of Arts, 2004, Psychology, University of Massachusetts AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Personality Psychology Psychology of Emotion PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Graduate Teaching Fellow, University of Oregon, 2005-2012 GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Psychology Department Graduate Research Award, University of Oregon, 2009 Summa cum Laude, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2004 Commonwealth College Undergraduate Research Award, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2004 PUBLICATIONS: Livingstone, K. M., & Srivastava, S. (in press). Up-regulating positive emotions in everyday life: Strategies, individual differences, and associations with positive affect and well-being. Journal of Research in Personality. vi Srivastava, S., & Angelo, K. M. (2009) Optimism. In H. T. Reis & S. Sprecher (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Human Relationships (pp. 1-9). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Srivastava, S., Angelo, K. M., & Valleroux, S. (2008). Extraversion and positive affect: A day reconstruction study of person-environment transactions. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1613-1618. vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my committee members, Professors Robert Mauro, Jennifer Pfeifer, and Taryn Stanko, for their support and advice throughout this process, and especially my advisor, Professor Sanjay Srivastava for his excellent guidance throughout my graduate education. I am also grateful to the members of my lab (Allison Tackman, Nicole Lawless, Karyn Lewis, and Brian Clark) and to the members of my writing group (Karyn Lewis, Caitlin Mahy, Alison Shawber Sachet, Melissa Platt, and Deniz Tahiroglu) for their feedback and encouragement over the years. Special thanks go to Deniz Tahiroglu, Annmarie Hulette, Ida Moadab, and to my husband Randall, who all accompanied me on this journey and made this achievement not only possible but also fun. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 Helpless- and Mastery-Oriented Patterns of Response.......................................... 2 Implicit Theories: Entity and Incremental Beliefs ................................................ 3 Helpless- and Mastery-Oriented Emotion Regulation .......................................... 6 Goals of the Dissertation........................................................................................ 10 II. STUDY 1: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN IMPLICIT THEORIES OF EMOTION............................................................................................................... 15 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 15 Method ................................................................................................................... 26 Results.................................................................................................................... 30 Discussion.............................................................................................................. 48 III. STUDY 2: THE EFFECTS OF IMPLICIT THEORIES ON EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE ....................................................................................................... 50 Introduction............................................................................................................ 50 Pilot Study.............................................................................................................. 51 Study 2 Method...................................................................................................... 53 Results ................................................................................................................... 57 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 66 IV. STUDY 3: THE EFFECTS OF IMPLICIT THEORIES ON EMOTION REGULATION...................................................................................................... 70 Introduction............................................................................................................ 70 ix Chapter Page Method ................................................................................................................... 71 Results ................................................................................................................... 73 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 77 V. STUDY 4: THE EFFECTS OF IMPLICIT THEORIES ON RESPONSES TO EMOTION REGULATION FAILURE........................................................... 79 Introduction............................................................................................................ 79 Method ................................................................................................................... 84 Results ................................................................................................................... 88 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 94 VI. STUDY 5: THE EFFECTS OF IMPLICIT THEORIES OF EMOTION ON EMOTION REGULATION FAILURE AND SUCCESS .................................... 97 Introduction............................................................................................................ 97 Method ................................................................................................................... 99 Results ..................................................................................................................
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