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Masculinity Matters: Perceptions of One's Own Gender Status and The Marquette University e-Publications@Marquette Dissertations, Theses, and Professional Dissertations (1934 -) Projects Masculinity Matters: Perceptions of One’s Own Gender Status and the Effects on Psychosocial Well Being Among Gay Men Dane Robert Whicker Marquette University Follow this and additional works at: https://epublications.marquette.edu/dissertations_mu Part of the Clinical Psychology Commons, and the Gender and Sexuality Commons Recommended Citation Whicker, Dane Robert, "Masculinity Matters: Perceptions of One’s Own Gender Status and the Effects on Psychosocial Well Being Among Gay Men" (2016). Dissertations (1934 -). 657. https://epublications.marquette.edu/dissertations_mu/657 MASCULINITY MATTERS: PERCEPTIONS OF ONE’S OWN GENDER STATUS AND THE EFFECTS ON PSYCHOSOCIAL WELL BEING AMONG GAY MEN by Dane R. Whicker, B.A., M.S. A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School, Marquette University, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Milwaukee, Wisconsin August 2016 ABSTRACT MASCULINITY MATTERS: PERCEPTIONS OF ONE’S OWN GENDER STATUS AND THE EFFECTS ON PSYCHOSOCIAL WELL BEING AMONG GAY MEN Dane R. Whicker, B.A., M.S. Marquette University, 2016 Gay men have a unique relationship with masculinity. The manner in which gay men view their gender in a heterosexist context (i.e., Perceptions of One’s Own Gender Status, “POOGS”) may explain individual differences found in psychological health among both feminine and masculine gay men. In this study, four factors that make up POOGS are 1) connection to the gay community, 2) perceived negative attitudes toward effeminacy, 3) exposure to heterosexist discrimination, and 4) one’s own masculinity. The purpose of this study is to investigate the hypotheses that 1) POOGS will predict symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, and satisfaction with life, and 2) that these relationships will be moderated by internalized heterosexism. Participants were non-heterosexual men (N=179), who were recruited from national LGBTQ organizations, a local festival, and using snowball sampling, followed a link to an anonymous online survey. Four hierarchical linear regressions were conducted to test hypotheses. Exposure to heterosexist microaggressions was associated with elevated stress and anxiety. For masculine gay men, involvement with the gay community was related to increased stress and anxiety, while for less masculine gay men, involvement with the gay community decreased stress and anxiety. Internalized heterosexism was related to decreased satisfaction with life, and increased depression, anxiety, and stress. Though many gay men are able to successfully manage the stigma that accompanies their sexual and gender role orientations, others are occluded by harmful beliefs and messages, which are often imparted by individuals who are respected and loved. These individuals need help in deciphering ways to neutralize these powerful messages. i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dane R. Whicker, B.A., M.S. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my mentor and dissertation chair, Dr. Ed de St. Aubin, for his care and guidance throughout this dissertation process and my graduate career at Marquette University. His energetic spirit, patience, and interminable knowledge have infinitely enriched my learning and work. I would also like to thank my dissertation committee members, Drs. Stephen Franzoi, Debra Oswald, and Kimberly Skerven for generously sharing their time, expertise, and for asking provocative questions that cultivated, challenged, and refined this study. The diversity in their knowledge created an incredibly rich and complicated discourse. I feel truly honored that each of them agreed to be part of this project. The assistance of the de St. Aubin lab was essential to the completion of this project. I am particularly grateful for the friendship, selfless support, and encouragement of my fellow graduate students, Mara Bach and Lauren Yadlosky, and the capable and willing hands of the undergraduate students, Samantha Kemp, Rachael Wandrey, Erin Plunkett, Kevin Coffman, Raziel Fuertez, Katherine Creevy, Alex Czajkowski, and Elisabeth Forte. My Marquette University Department of Psychology cohort, Kelsey Weinberger, Jessica Houston, Katie Hazlett, and Indrani Thiruselvam, provided me with much needed laughter, support, and camaraderie, which sustained me through to the completion of this project. I will forever be grateful for their love and friendship. ii I would also like to recognize my undergraduate professor and mentor, Dr. Leslie Templeton of Hendrix College, whose contagious zeal for psychology and the study of gender inspired me to pursue a future career as a psychologist. I will never forget Dr. Templeton's (unheeded) urgings for concision, her sharp wit, or the unwavering faith she had in me. I am so grateful that she led me down this fulfilling path. This dissertation would not have been possible without the monumental support provided by my family, particularly my mother and father, Debbier and Gary Whicker. My wholehearted gratitude for my parents’ generosity, understanding, and love is beyond measure. They provided me with a strong foundation of love and care, which grounded me in difficult times and ultimately empowered me to follow my dream of becoming a clinical psychologist. Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my partner in life, Jeff Francki for his unflagging hopefulness, solidarity, and love over the years of this project. He encouraged me when I felt discouraged, was patient with me as I worked through weekends, and made countless meals and iced lattes in order to help me finish my dissertation. I feel truly blessed to have him as my lifelong companion. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................... i LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. vi LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... vii INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 Perception of One’s Own Gender Status ................................................................ 4 Foundations of Stigma ................................................................................ 6 Minority Stress Theory ............................................................................ 11 Microaggressions ...................................................................................... 12 Sexual Stigma .......................................................................................... 12 Sexual Orientation and Masculinity .......................................................... 16 Gaydar ....................................................................................................... 17 Hegemonic Masculinity ............................................................................ 19 Biological Determinants .......................................................................... 22 Gender Role Orientation and Gender Role Conflict ................................ 23 Perceived Bias in the Heterosexual Community ................................................. 26 Cross-orientation Friendships ................................................................... 28 Sexual Prejudice ....................................................................................... 32 Unwanted Sexual Interest ........................................................................ 35 Social Contagion ....................................................................................... 35 Gender Bias in Gay Community ........................................................................... 38 Collective Self-esteem ............................................................................. 39 Ingroup vs. Outgroup Prejudice ................................................................ 41 The Masculine Gay Man ........................................................................... 43 Sexual Relationships ................................................................................. 44 Mate Selection ......................................................................................... 46 Anti-Effeminacy ...................................................................................... 49 Connection to Community ................................................................................... 50 iv Positive Impact of Gay Community ......................................................... 52 Negative Impact of Gay Community ....................................................... 54 Personal Communities ............................................................................. 55 One’s Own Masculinity ....................................................................................... 56 Internalized Heterosexism ................................................................................... 57 Gender and Positive and Negative Health Outcomes Among Gay Men .............. 59 Structural Stigma and Gay Men’s Health ................................................ 60 Gender Role Orientation and Mental Health ........................................... 62 Gender Roles and Hate Crimes ................................................................ 66 Positive Findings .....................................................................................
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