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Running Head: the WIZARD of OZ EFFECT Running head: THE WIZARD OF OZ EFFECT THE WIZARD OF OZ EFFECT: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE HISTORICAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RACE, EDUCATION, AND WEALTH IN AMERICA BY TAMIKA M. COVINGTON A dissertation submitted to The Graduate School of Education Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Education Graduate Program in Design of Learning Environments Approved by _______________________________ Professor Angela M. O’Donnell, Chair _______________________________ Professor Melanye T. Price, Committee _______________________________ Professor Ruth J. Palmer, Committee New Brunswick, New Jersey May 2018 THE WIZARD OF OZ EFFECT Abstract The Wizard of Oz Effect: A Critical Analysis of Race, Education, and Wealth in America TAMIKA M. COVINGTON Dissertation Director: Angela M. O’Donnell In a nation founded upon race, freedom, and justice for all, African Americans still find themselves collectively marginalized by a complex web of systems functioning in a synchronized manner to thwart their attainment of wealth. The concepts of racism and racial discrimination have been persistently interwoven within the fabric of this society, pervading public and social institutions such as healthcare, education, economics, entertainment, labor, law, and politics (Fuller, 1964). The Wizard of Oz Effect unpacks the pretention that equality insofar as education and wealth attainment does or can exist in an inherently racist society. Political policies such as redlining and restrictive covenants have undergirded unfair housing and anti- voting tactics, which in turn reinforce unequal schooling (Orfield, 2013). President Nixon’s Drug War in the 1970’s had an enormous and deleterious effect on the Black community, the likes from which it has still not recovered. Political decisions by lawmakers and socially constructed attitudes about White racial superiority drive the continued dilemma of inequity pervasive in schools and workplaces. Guided by the central question, “What is the intersection between race, institutional racism, and education in America?” this study is intended to be a critical analysis of political ideologies and how they filter down into society to produce educational and opportunity gaps which invariably translate into significant wealth gaps between European and African ii THE WIZARD OF OZ EFFECT Americans. These relationships are examined through the sociopolitical record, highlighting federal laws and critical events using primary and secondary source documents including legislative texts, court decisions, news accounts, documentaries, periodicals, and previous investigations. Philosophical models such as Critical Race Theory and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy are operationalized as tools to analyze attitudes, behaviors, and decisions made in the society pertaining race and education. The cost of racialized inequality is also explored in a discussion about extreme imbalances of poverty and social dysfunction which are two resulting forces of a society so entrenched in the problem of race. iii THE WIZARD OF OZ EFFECT Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my dissertation committee for all their input advice and their sacrifice. I am grateful to my chairperson Dr. Angela O’Donnell for being my professor, my advisor, and my greatest support at Rutgers University. Dr. O’Donnell worked tirelessly with me to labor over this work and I will be eternally grateful for her patience and diligence to her students even while on sabbatical. I would like to thank Dr. Ruth Palmer for all of the advice she shared, her words of encouragement, and most of all, her words of wisdom. Dr. Palmer also supported me in helping to synthesize ideas and she was instrumental in holding me to a higher standard of academic excellence. I would so humbly like to thank Dr. Melanye Price for being the angel that she is. Any words that I say here will never suffice for the gratitude I feel for her courage and sacrifice in joining my committee, rolling up her sleeves in the fourth quarter, and helping me to work through thoughts and ideas. Dr. Price was a great source of inspiration for me and her selflessness will never be forgotten. I would like to thank James Scott for being one of my biggest supporters as he never stopped encouraging me, never stopped challenging me, and he was always there helping me to keep going on those rough days. When my laptop died, he bought me a new one the same day and said, “finish your dissertation.” I would like to thank my circle of friends…Damitria Duke, Sharon Scott, Sharon Stephens, Daveeta Smith, Nikeema Missouri, Raynitra Anderson, and Sherri Phelps to name a few… all who supported me and encouraged me along the way. Thank you sistas. I would like to thank my son Brandon Hendryx, who is my SUN. He gives me warmth and radiates my soul. I am grateful to him for his willingness to share me with the doctoral program, never complaining, only encouraging me. Turning out the light when I fell asleep at the computer, making me breakfast in bed, and sacrificing time as a youth to help me realize this dream. Thank you, son. It is my extreme pleasure and honor to thank my Mother Susan Covington for her tireless sacrifice and dedication to her only child. My mother has poured so much love, caring, and expectation into me, spending all of her time and money to propel me into the world. Mommy words cannot describe the love I feel for you and my determination to be perfect in your eyesight. I love you! Lastly, thank you to Amma, the Most High. You have caused the planets to align and the supernatural to become possible. There are no coincidences. Thank you. iv THE WIZARD OF OZ EFFECT Dedication For Susan and Brandon v THE WIZARD OF OZ EFFECT Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ix CHAPTER I Poison Poppies: The American Dilemma of Race .................................................... 1 CHAPTER II The History of Race and Schooling in American Society: An Overview ............. 13 Critical Race Theory ................................................................................................................. 15 Antebellum South and the Prohibition of Learning 1776-1865................................................ 18 The Impending Civil War ......................................................................................................... 20 Reconstruction Era Growth 1869-1879 .................................................................................... 24 CHAPTER III Jim Crow Losses: Legal Challenges to Segregation ............................................. 31 Brown I ..................................................................................................................................... 34 Brown II .................................................................................................................................... 40 CHAPTER IV Dismantling Revolutionaries ................................................................................ 46 John F. Kennedy Jr. .................................................................................................................. 46 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. ........................................................................................................ 55 CHAPTER V Redlining and the Discrimination in Housing ....................................................... 65 Social Welfare for White Citizens ............................................................................................ 67 vi THE WIZARD OF OZ EFFECT Restrictive Covenants ............................................................................................................... 69 Impacts on Schooling ................................................................................................................ 76 CHAPTER VI Social Politics of the Mid-20th Century: How Racial Ideology Shaped American Policy ............................................................................................................................................ 82 Richard Nixon’s Racist War on Drugs ..................................................................................... 83 Incarceration Statistics .............................................................................................................. 86 CHAPTER VII Gaps in Achievement, Opportunity and Wealth ............................................... 103 Implications of self- esteem ................................................................................................ 111 Cultural frames of reference ..................................................................................................
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