This is a repository copy of Environmental Impact of Taxis: Is there a Business Case for Hybrids?.
White Rose Research Online URL for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/93927/
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Conference or Workshop Item: Tate, JE, Riley, R, Wyatt, D et al. (1 more author) Environmental Impact of Taxis: Is there a Business Case for Hybrids? In: Investigation of Air Pollution Standing Conference, 01 Dec 2015, Birmingham, UK. (Unpublished)
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Dr James Tate, Institute for Transport Studies CONTENTS
TAXI operations NETWORK impacts
2 Background THE LEEDS TAXI FLEET (Feb 2015) Vehicles registered in Leeds 337,779 UK passenger car average mileage ~ 8,000 miles p.a.
Hackney carriages 536 Average mileage ~ 30,000 miles p.a. Private HireVehicles (PHV) 3851 Average mileage ~ 60,000 miles p.a.
License Restrictions Proportion of Hackney carriage licenses wheel chair accessible Vehicles up to five years old can be first registered as a taxi Maximum age of a taxi 10 years Mostly bought second-hand (lower purchase cost)
3 Background AGE OF THE LEEDS TAXI FLEET (Feb 2015)
4 Background THE LEEDS TAXI FLEET (Feb 2015)
HACKNEY CARRIAGE PHV
5 TAXI operations AN INSTRUMENTED TOYOTA PRIUS
Portable Activity Monitoring CAR Systems (PAMS) Toyota Prius 1.8VVT-I T GPS (Vbox Lite II) Petrol 1798 cc Road gradient from Digital Surface Model Kerb weight 1370 kg IMU (X,Y,Z acceleration etc) OBD logger (HEM mini logger) CO2 emission rating 92 g/km Vehicle operation ICE, Electric Motor,Battery (SOC)
6 TAXI operations SURVEYS
Routes selected after interviewing taxi drivers Trip distance frequencies Start or End point railway station Mix of Peak and Off-peak periods (28th April & 21st May 2015) Different Driving styles
Parameter Calm Normal Aggressive Number of Runs 24 24 24 Total Time (hours) 17.3 16.3 15.9 Total Distance (km) 260 260 260
7 TAXI operations SURVEYS
8 TAXI operations DRIVING STYLE
9 TAXI operations DIESEL COMPARISON
Simulated using Instantaneous Emission Model (IEM) PHEM*
INPUT Observed (hybrid-petrol) speed profile Road gradient from GPS + Digital Surface Model (cleaned) Comparator vehicle: Toyota Avensis saloon 2.0D-4D
10 * Zallinger, M.,Tate, J., and Hausberger, S. 2008.An instantaneous emission model for the passenger car fleet.Transport and Air Pollution conference, Graz 2008 PHEM validation e.g. MPV EU5 diesel – TfL* London Drive Cycle
-1 -1 -1 Time series – Speed (km.h ), CO2 and NOX (grams.sec ) Scatter Plot – CO2 (grams.sec ) ) 1 Counts 8 241 171 121
2 86 6 61 43
Speed (km.h 31
0 20 40 60 80 4 22 16 0 100 200 300 400 500 11 8 Observed_CO 2 6 4 3 2 0 ) 1 1
1 0 2 4 6 8
Modelled_CO2 (g.sec 2 -1 Scatter Plot – NOX (grams.sec ) CO 01234567
0 100 200 300 400 500 Counts 535 0.03 361 244
x 165 111 )
1 75
0.02 51 34 23
(g.sec 16
X 0.01 11 Observed_NO 7
NO 5 3
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 2 0.00 1 0 100 200 300 400 500 1 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 Time (seconds) Modelled_NOx
11 * Transport for London. 2015. In-service emissions performance of Euro 6/VI vehicles. https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/In- service%20emissions%20performance%20of%20Euro%206VI%20vehicles%20WEBSITE%20COPY.pdf TAXI operations
CO2 300
250 ) -1 200
150 (grams.km 2 100 CO
50 Hybrid Diesel 0 Calm Normal Aggressive DRIVING STYLE
12 TAXI operations FUEL CONSUMPTION 70
60
50
40
30
20 Fuel consumption (mpg) 10 Hybrid Diesel 0 Calm Normal Aggressive DRIVING STYLE
13 TAXI operations BUSINESS CASE
PURCHASE COST Conventional passenger car £5,000 (5 years old Diesel car) Toyota Prius £10,700 (5 years old)
INSURANCE No difference
MAINTENANCE No difference? Prius acknowledged as being more reliable (less down time) Less brake-wear
FUEL Assumed mileage 48,280 km p.a. Fuel price (AA, May 2015) 109.0 p/L petrol | 110.6 p/L diesel
14 TAXI operations BUSINESS CASE SWITCH HYBRID
Driving Annual Fuel Payback Time style Saving (£) (Years, Months) Calm 2,086 2, 9 Normal 1,926 2, 11 Aggressive 1,698 3, 4
ASSUMPTIONS: Diesel (ICE) saloon car Annual mileage 48,280 km p.a. Fuel price 109.0 p/L petrol | 110.6 p/L diesel
15 TAXI operations PAYBACK TIME Investing in a Hybrid
16 TAXI operations NOx emissions Euro 5 passenger cars
17 Network Impacts METHOD
Traffic Simulation (www.aimsun.com) Vehicle emission simulation (PHEM)
18 Network Impacts METHOD
Simulate the operational fleet (composition) 24-hour ANPR survey (9th February 2015) Cross reference number plates (VRMs) with UK detailedVehicle registration database (www.carweb.co.uk)
19 Network Impacts MODELLING FRAMEWORK
20 TRAFFIC MICROSIMULATION: Headingley 2015 AM Peak www.aimsun.com
21 Network Impacts MODELLED EMISSION FACTORS
Euro 0 Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5 Euro 6 DIESEL PETROL
0.8
) 0.6 1 (g.km
X 0.4 NO
0.2
0.0
Euro 0 Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5 Euro 6 Euro standard
22 Network Impacts MODELLED EMISSION CONTRIBUTIONS (24-hours)
40
30 (%)
X 20 NO
10
0 Taxi LGV BUS HGV CAR-petrol CAR-diesel
23 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TAXIS Summary & Conclusions
Hybrid-PETROL technology is Low Emission (CO2 and NOX) Mature, good value CleanVehicleTech (growing second-hand market) Hybrid-PETROL urban Taxis: A rare “win-win” Greater profitability drivers/ operators Communicate to the Taxi community
Cleaner air ( 7% NOX emissions on Leeds A660 arterial) Incentives needed for Hybrid-PETROL (HEV) and Plugins (PHEV) ULEV Taxi scheme London ULEZ “Zero emission capable” Declare PRIORITYTaxi ranks “Green vehicle only” by 2020? 2025? MPV and LGV Hybrid-PETROL vehicles needed (close to market)
24 Environmental Impact of Taxis Is there a Business Case for Hybrids
Dr James Tate, Institute for Transport Studies