This is a repository copy of Environmental Impact of Taxis: Is there a Business Case for Hybrids?. White Rose Research Online URL for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/93927/ Version: Published Version Conference or Workshop Item: Tate, JE, Riley, R, Wyatt, D et al. (1 more author) Environmental Impact of Taxis: Is there a Business Case for Hybrids? In: Investigation of Air Pollution Standing Conference, 01 Dec 2015, Birmingham, UK. (Unpublished) Reuse Unless indicated otherwise, fulltext items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. The copyright exception in section 29 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 allows the making of a single copy solely for the purpose of non-commercial research or private study within the limits of fair dealing. The publisher or other rights-holder may allow further reproduction and re-use of this version - refer to the White Rose Research Online record for this item. Where records identify the publisher as the copyright holder, users can verify any specific terms of use on the publisher’s website. Takedown If you consider content in White Rose Research Online to be in breach of UK law, please notify us by emailing [email protected] including the URL of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. [email protected] https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ Environmental Impact of Taxis Is there a Business Case for Hybrids Dr James Tate, Institute for Transport Studies CONTENTS TAXI operations NETWORK impacts 2 Background THE LEEDS TAXI FLEET (Feb 2015) Vehicles registered in Leeds 337,779 UK passenger car average mileage ~ 8,000 miles p.a. Hackney carriages 536 Average mileage ~ 30,000 miles p.a. Private HireVehicles (PHV) 3851 Average mileage ~ 60,000 miles p.a. License Restrictions Proportion of Hackney carriage licenses wheel chair accessible Vehicles up to five years old can be first registered as a taxi Maximum age of a taxi 10 years Mostly bought second-hand (lower purchase cost) 3 Background AGE OF THE LEEDS TAXI FLEET (Feb 2015) 4 Background THE LEEDS TAXI FLEET (Feb 2015) HACKNEY CARRIAGE PHV 5 TAXI operations AN INSTRUMENTED TOYOTA PRIUS Portable Activity Monitoring CAR Systems (PAMS) Toyota Prius 1.8VVT-I T GPS (Vbox Lite II) Petrol 1798 cc Road gradient from Digital Surface Model Kerb weight 1370 kg IMU (X,Y,Z acceleration etc) OBD logger (HEM mini logger) CO2 emission rating 92 g/km Vehicle operation ICE, Electric Motor,Battery (SOC) 6 TAXI operations SURVEYS Routes selected after interviewing taxi drivers Trip distance frequencies Start or End point railway station Mix of Peak and Off-peak periods (28th April & 21st May 2015) Different Driving styles Parameter Calm Normal Aggressive Number of Runs 24 24 24 Total Time (hours) 17.3 16.3 15.9 Total Distance (km) 260 260 260 7 TAXI operations SURVEYS 8 TAXI operations DRIVING STYLE 9 TAXI operations DIESEL COMPARISON Simulated using Instantaneous Emission Model (IEM) PHEM* INPUT Observed (hybrid-petrol) speed profile Road gradient from GPS + Digital Surface Model (cleaned) Comparator vehicle: Toyota Avensis saloon 2.0D-4D 10 * Zallinger, M.,Tate, J., and Hausberger, S. 2008.An instantaneous emission model for the passenger car fleet.Transport and Air Pollution conference, Graz 2008 PHEM validation e.g. MPV EU5 diesel – TfL* London Drive Cycle -1 -1 -1 Time series – Speed (km.h ), CO2 and NOX (grams.sec ) Scatter Plot – CO2 (grams.sec ) ) 1 Counts 8 241 171 121 2 86 6 61 43 Speed (km.h 31 0 20 40 60 80 4 22 16 0 100 200 300 400 500 11 8 Observed_CO 2 6 4 3 2 0 ) 1 1 1 0 2 4 6 8 Modelled_CO2 (g.sec 2 -1 Scatter Plot – NOX (grams.sec ) CO 01234567 0 100 200 300 400 500 Counts 535 0.03 361 244 x 165 111 ) 1 75 0.02 51 34 23 (g.sec 16 X 0.01 11 Observed_NO 7 NO 5 3 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 2 0.00 1 0 100 200 300 400 500 1 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 Time (seconds) Modelled_NOx 11 * Transport for London. 2015. In-service emissions performance of Euro 6/VI vehicles. https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/In- service%20emissions%20performance%20of%20Euro%206VI%20vehicles%20WEBSITE%20COPY.pdf TAXI operations CO2 300 250 ) -1 200 150 (grams.km 2 100 CO 50 Hybrid Diesel 0 Calm Normal Aggressive DRIVING STYLE 12 TAXI operations FUEL CONSUMPTION 70 60 50 40 30 20 Fuel consumption (mpg) 10 Hybrid Diesel 0 Calm Normal Aggressive DRIVING STYLE 13 TAXI operations BUSINESS CASE PURCHASE COST Conventional passenger car £5,000 (5 years old Diesel car) Toyota Prius £10,700 (5 years old) INSURANCE No difference MAINTENANCE No difference? Prius acknowledged as being more reliable (less down time) Less brake-wear FUEL Assumed mileage 48,280 km p.a. Fuel price (AA, May 2015) 109.0 p/L petrol | 110.6 p/L diesel 14 TAXI operations BUSINESS CASE SWITCH HYBRID Driving Annual Fuel Payback Time style Saving (£) (Years, Months) Calm 2,086 2, 9 Normal 1,926 2, 11 Aggressive 1,698 3, 4 ASSUMPTIONS: Diesel (ICE) saloon car Annual mileage 48,280 km p.a. Fuel price 109.0 p/L petrol | 110.6 p/L diesel 15 TAXI operations PAYBACK TIME Investing in a Hybrid 16 TAXI operations NOx emissions Euro 5 passenger cars 17 Network Impacts METHOD Traffic Simulation (www.aimsun.com) Vehicle emission simulation (PHEM) 18 Network Impacts METHOD Simulate the operational fleet (composition) 24-hour ANPR survey (9th February 2015) Cross reference number plates (VRMs) with UK detailedVehicle registration database (www.carweb.co.uk) 19 Network Impacts MODELLING FRAMEWORK 20 TRAFFIC MICROSIMULATION: Headingley 2015 AM Peak www.aimsun.com 21 Network Impacts MODELLED EMISSION FACTORS Euro 0 Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5 Euro 6 DIESEL PETROL 0.8 ) 0.6 1 (g.km X 0.4 NO 0.2 0.0 Euro 0 Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5 Euro 6 Euro standard 22 MODELLED EMISSION CONTRIBUTIONS (24-hours) Network Impacts 23 NOX (%) 10 20 30 40 0 CAR-petrol CAR-diesel Taxi LGV HGV BUS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TAXIS Summary & Conclusions Hybrid-PETROL technology is Low Emission (CO2 and NOX) Mature, good value CleanVehicleTech (growing second-hand market) Hybrid-PETROL urban Taxis: A rare “win-win” Greater profitability drivers/ operators Communicate to the Taxi community Cleaner air ( 7% NOX emissions on Leeds A660 arterial) Incentives needed for Hybrid-PETROL (HEV) and Plugins (PHEV) ULEV Taxi scheme London ULEZ “Zero emission capable” Declare PRIORITYTaxi ranks “Green vehicle only” by 2020? 2025? MPV and LGV Hybrid-PETROL vehicles needed (close to market) 24 Environmental Impact of Taxis Is there a Business Case for Hybrids Dr James Tate, Institute for Transport Studies.