Science, Technology and Development ISSN : 0950-0707

The Access and Quality of Primary Education in

Komaraswamy D H Department of studies and Research in Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari Karnataka, , 583105

Niranajan R Department of studies and Research in Economics Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari Karnataka, India, 583105

Abstract: -The quality of the ASER team surveyed the quality of primary education. The main objective of this study is to know the reading level results of primary schools in Karnataka. To examine the Arithmetic Level Results Elementary schools in Karnataka and understand the Enrolment Level Schools in Karnataka. This studythe data has used secondary data from ASER reports from 2006-2018. This study found that reading level results, arithmetic reading level results, and enrollment.

Keywords: Quality of education, mathematical test, and enrollment.

I Introduction:

Education in all forms leads to individual freedom and empowerment; it yields significant societal development gains and makes an individual self-reliant. It has been seen as the foundational for the society, enabling economic & human wealth, social prosperity, and political stability. (Chandrappa 2014). In India, the education system consists of primary, secondary, and higher education. The contribution of primary education to socio- economic development is significant, and it is the backbone of the entire education system. The quality of primary education has its value; it provides a literate workforce; on the other, it works as a feeder for the following stages of education. Therefore, the progress and development of a nation depend directly on the quality of primary education,lack of proper physical infrastructure facility,the inadequacy of teachersstrength and training,poor administration, low quality of teachers, and gross disinterest in the activities of the school are among many reasons cited in the literature for the poor quality of primary education. High pupil-teacher ratio, lack of professionally trained teachers, and poor level of student learning results in weak learning outcomes at each stage of education are significant challenges faced by the primary school education system (School 2011).Primary education is the stage where education touches at every point. At this level, curiosity, creativity, and activity should not confine to rigorousteaching and learning methods. The government of India has made education a fundamental right, and it has been a birthright for everyone living in the country. Since independence, central and state governments have been expanding primary formal and non-formal education to achieve the universalisation of elementary education. Achieving the target of free and compulsory education is a great challenge, and many efforts are to accomplish this goal. The government of India started a new educational program named District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) and SarvaShikshanAbhiyana (SSA). However, all these programs, whichformulateafter the 1990s, viewed education as an economic good. Therefore, in the plan, the main emphasis was on maximum enrolment of the children rather than improving the capabilities of children through quality education. The 86 th Amendment to the Constitution on Act 2002 inserted article 21-A in the Constitution to provide free and compulsory education for all children in the age group of six to fourteen as a fundamental Right. The right of the free and compulsory education act, 2009, which represents the legislation under Article 21-A, means that every child has a right to full-time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal

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school that satisfied certain essential norms and standards. Thus, education had become a birthright for each person in the country. In our country, the right to education Act came into effect on 1 st April 2010, providing equal opportunity for every child to get an education. The government of India has implicitly recognised the good public nature of elementary education as the benefits from elementary education are immense; they confinedto the individuals who go to school, and the rest of the society also benefit considerably (Jandhyala B.G. Tilak 1996). Effective elementary education will eradicate child labour and exploitation of children, and even phenomena like child marriage. Elementary is considered a basic need fulfilment that helps fulfil other basic needs (Panchamukhi et al. 1995). The has made significant progress in terms of reducing illiteracy, increasing student enrolment, established new primary schools, and appointed teachers (Govt of Karnataka). The government of Karnataka implemented several schemes such asfree education, a mid-day meal scheme, free textbooks at primary and secondary education level, supplying free uniforms, bicycles, shoes, providingmilk, scholarship, and a six-month seasonal bridge program (Govt of Karnataka). 1.1 Education policy in India: India implements towards universal free and compulsory education for children aged up to 14 years old, begun post-independence, as stated in the Constitution in 1950 (Article 45). This disquiet over low enrolment rates paved the way to establishing the National education policy in 1986. The National policy Education (NPE) was a significant landmark since it launched the Indian central government as the driver in developing and implementing policy measuresto achieve universal elementary education (Govinda, R., & Bandyopadhyay, M. 2010). Under the policy targets three aspects of elementary education: firstly,universal access and enrolment, secondly universal retention of children up to 14 years of age, and thirdly a substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to achieve basic levels of learning (NPE 1986). A primary reason behind low enrollment rates and dropouts in village schools has been attributing to the high opportunity cost of sending children to school when this time could contribute to farm or housework (Afridi F. 2011). This rise to policies such as the mid-day meals program that offered immediate incentives to attend school for children from lower-income families. However,for ensuring free elementary education for all children between the age of six years and 14 years, the govt of India launched the SarvaSiksha Abhiyan in 2001 and brought a constitutional amendment in 2002, making elementary education a fundamental right (Amarendra Das 2007). The main objectives of the scheme encompass universalizationof access to elementary education from 1 to 8 th standards to all ages of 14 years.Secondly, the survey invokesuniversalisation of enrolments and retention in Elementary education and completion of 8 th standard by all children. Thirdlyuniversalisation means age-specific enrolment and full retention of all enrolled children—fourthly,provision of education of satisfactory quality emphasises life skills and meaningful schooling. Fifthly complete attention to equity by sex and across social groups and parity across regions in educational development. And lastly, total involvement of communitiesup to the village level and especially local government institutions in the management of schools and movement towards 'Self Managing schools' (SSA, Govt. of Karnataka 2020). The SSA programme has retained its purpose as the primary policy initiative for achieving the objectives of the RTE Act 2009 (Ishita Chattergee 2018). Since implementing the SSA educational reforms and policies, some improvements have been made, such as reducing dropout rates in primary and elementary education, particularly for girls (Amarendra Das 2007). Moreover, the lack of student-teacher ratio, quality of teaching, and equitable learning attainment between various classes has been noted(Govinda, R, & Bandyopadhyay, M. 2010). further preserved the aim of the SSA programme in legislation, namely, the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009 (RTE). The main objective of the RTE Act was to provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of 6-14 years. Since implementing the SSA programme, several measuresroll across India's elementary education system, such as Kasturaba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) scheme for setting up residential upper primary schools for girls SC, ST, OBC, and Muslim communities. KGBV provides a minimum reservation of 75 % for girls belonging to SC/ST/OBC and minority communities and 25 % for girls from families livingbelow the poverty line (GoI. 2010). Additional funding was also made available for teacher training and schools for children with special needs. The ASER 2005 report by Pratham shows that infrastructure in schools improved over the decade, with around 66% of the schools having access to drinking water and 42% with functioning toilets (Kingdon. 2007). In this background, the current study examines the quality of primary education in Karnataka;it emphasizesKalyana Karnataka (KK) region. The study signifiesthe relative backwardness in theKalyana Karnataka and other areas in the state. The study embarks to assess the quality of primary education in terms of physical infrastructure availability, quality of teachers, student learning, and several other outcome variables which are vital to understanding the quality of primary education in the region.

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IIEmpirical literature:

Ishita Chatterjee et al.(2018),in their study,investigated the progress of Indian primary schoolsfor the period 2005-2011 by using two waves of the Indian Human Development Survey.They examinedprimary schools progress in infrastructureup-gradation, teachers quality, the cost of education, enrolment, and learning outcomes. They foundimprovementin infrastructure provision and enrollment, but there is no progress over time relating to other aspects. Similarly,about numerical and reading skills of children from the age group of 8-11 years, they have worsened over time. They also find that better-performing states are generally in the South and the extreme North. In a similar study, Farzana Afridi (2011) found that the attendance rate of children in schools has been significant since the Government of India implemented the mid-day meal program. The average monthly attendance rate of girls in grade one was more than 12% points higher, while there was a positive but insignificant effect on grade one boy attendance rate.The impact on enrolment levels was negligible. GovindaRangachar, MadhumitaBandyopadyay (2010) analyses the complexities involved among children excluded from elementary schools. The article focuses on educational policies and actions essential to make educational expansion more equitable. The study mainly focusing on exclusion identifies four clusters as factors influencing exclusion.The first cluster relates to gender. The second cluster concerns the outcomes from policy, legal, strategy, and operational measures to address the dimensions of exclusion. The third cluster of forces that keeps children out of school, particularly girls, revolves around the location. In addition to rural-urban disparities, living in remotely located homes dampens childrens' ability to go to school. Lastly, the study identifies poverty as the fourth factor that keeps children out of school. Abhiroop Mukhopadhyay and Soham Sahoo (2016), in their paper, investigate if better access to secondary school education increases enrolment in primary schools among children in the age group of 6-10 years. The study usesa household-level longitudinal survey in Uttar Pradesh and explores whether access to secondary school affects primary schooling. They found that the distance to the nearest secondary school is a significant determinant of primary school enrollment and attendance. Their paper also found that the impact of secondary schools is driven by the possibility of continuation and not merely because secondary schools may provide better quality education at the primary level. KatsukiSakaue (2018),in his study, found that there is a robust negative effect of high fees on public school attendance of children from poor households.[2]. This study used panel data based on the UNHS 2005/2006 and the Uganda national panel survey (UNPS) and collected by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS). This study used a non-parametric model, specifically a logit model. In addition, this study found no significant increase in the likelihood of attending private school among poor children. The study identifies that average, high informal fee charges inpublic schoolscommunities consisting of relatively wealthy households with no voluntary contribution to education from the families. In their study, Benjamin Alcott, Pauline Rose (2017)investigate how disparities in learning change over the primary school cycle; even controlling for other factors, household wealth and parental schooling drive sizable gaps in learning, increasing in magnitude over the school grades. They analyse data from the Annual status of education reports (ASER) in rural India. Their paper shows that learning gaps associated with these factors widen over the primary school cycle. These disparities remain significant and change little in magnitude even when controlling for differences in private school attendance and tuition received.[3]. In his study, Farzana Afridi (2010) found that the daily nutrient intake of program participants increased substantially by 49% to 100% of the transfers.[4]. They used individual consumption data on a mandated school feeding program from a rural area of India. The results of this paper have two implications. Firstly, they inform them of the debate regarding the relative cost and benefits of take-home and on-site school feeding programmes. The scheme can improve nutritional intakes at school at meagreexpenses per child per day: 1. 44 cents of serving porridge to 3.04 cents for providing bread with vegetables. Benoit Dostie and Rajshri Jayaraman (2006), in their study, shows that a children probability of enrollment is increasing in parental education, with a mothers education being a relatively important promoter and livestock a deterrent to school enrollment among girls. Their data from1997-98 up survey of living conditions, and LSMS (Living Standards Measurement Survey Data). They found that village road access seems important in encouraging boys' school enrollment. Increased investment in road infrastructureis likely to be greeted with broad support across the socio-economic spectrum. Nishith Prakash (2012), in his study, assesses the status of education, both quantity and quality, in Bihar in both absolute terms and relative to another position in India. It then performs a regression exercise used panel data of Indian status to identify the correlates of educational outcomes. It also surveys the broader literature on education policies which provides a perspective on the current policies in the field of . Finally, it makes a case for several policy initiatives that should be accorded priority by the policymakers in Bihar [5].

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In their study, this paper, Renu Singh, Sudipa Sarkar (2015) investigates how teaching quality impacts students, outcomes in public and low fee-charging private schools in India. Data on the young lives' students, households, and communities attempt to collectin three rounds of the survey conducted in 2002, 2006, and 2009. The paper examines the students in private schools get higher mathematics scores than public schools across public schools. Consequently, this illustrates the private school teachers characteristics of experience, gender content knowledge, and general education qualification influencing the students to learnthe outcome, the proximity of teachers residence to the school teachers attitude in favour of school and students. Moreover, it looks at teaching practices as regular checking of books emerges as essential determinants of students outcomes[6]. Kejian Li et al. (2016), in their study, shows that high rates of Chinese kindergarteners (3-6 years old) enrollment in early care and education (ECE) the quality unable to consider in the findings . Used stratified random sampling methodand they symbolizemoderately low rate for the sample. Also, lower quality observes in rural than urban areas, in private than public programs and programs with overall low parent education than with high parent education. And also found that children had higher levels of language, cognitive and social skills when they attended higher quality ECE programmes in which teachers engaged in more frequent and positive interactions with children and provided responsive teaching for them. The results of this study did not provide robust and consistent evidence that ECE quality had a differential effect on less-advantaged children based on lower parent education levels and rural community locations. Gautam Hazarika, Vejoya Viren (2013), in their study, examines the effect of prior Participation in early childhood development programs on 7-10-, 11-14-, and 15–18-yearold-school enrollment in rural Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, among the lowest-ranked of Indians stats in Human development. Analyse data from the World Bank 1997-98 survey of Living conditions in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It representsthe favourable effectamong children from households below the poverty line. William C Smith Devika K. Joshi (2016),In their Study, investigated whether focusing on primary on public schooling can lead to more rapid achievement of universal primary education (UBE) than relying on a mixture of public and private schools. Through a structured, focused comparison. They found that Chinese greater emphasis on public schools contributes to higher enrollment, attendance, graduation rates, gender parity, and proportion of students entering higher education than India. The country with the world largest private sector in primary and secondary education.This comparison suggests that greater emphasis on public schooling in developing countries may lead to more rapid UBE attainment than encouraging privatisation[7]. In her study, Jayanthi Kumari (2016)investigates the global experience with partnership contracts in education and discusses the status of Indian school education. Also, she tries to see its feasibility in the Indian education sector with the help of recently proposed ( Design-build finance and operate DBFO). Hereafter, she discovers that the assessment of Indian school education raises several critical issues like increasing thetuition fee,the vulnerability of teachersto short-lived jobs with lower salaries, inadequate infrastructure facilities, underutilisation of public resources. Ultimately, she scrutinizes the need for parental and community involvement in school. Partnership contracts are an innovative idea to tap private resources, increase competition and efficiency[8]. Renu Singh and Sudipa Sarkar (2012) investigatethat teachers with professional qualifications indicate higher outcomes than children taught by teachers with only senior secondary education. Thedata analyses from the young lives longitudinal study in the state of Andra Pradesh in India. Students of teachers with Bachelors or Masters degrees in education do not have significantly better outcomes than those taught by teachers with general degrees after controlling for other factors. The articledevelops implications for policy formulation, regular teacher recruitment and pre-service teacher training, and the development of regulatory frameworks for public and private education sectors in light of the Right to Education Act 2009[9]. In his Study, N V Varghese (1996) shows that the DPEP initiatives have succeeded in overcoming existing constraints on decentralisation by developing planning machinery and competency and ensuring resource availability at the district level. The DPEP experience also shows that centralised decision-making in certain areas in the initial stages may become necessary to promote decentralisation efforts in the long -run. However, to sustain the decentralisation process, it is essential to reduce centralised decision-making domains progressively. In their study, Sandeep Kumar Tiwari, Kirtti Ranjan Paltasingh, Pabitra Kumar Jena (2020) examines the impact of the cast-class association on enrollment in elementary education in Uttar Pradesh (UP). They are using data from the 71 st round of NSSO with the help of a probit model. Found that the determinants of enrolment with special attention on/ interaction for children aged between 5 and 14 years. Their analysis shows that variation in enrolment of elementary education in UP determines the various socio-economic and cultural factors along with caste, class, and their association.[10]. 2.1Research gap:

After studying the above literature reviews, there is free and compulsory education for children in the age group of 6-14. Even the School attendance in India was low at the initial stage, and the children attendance increased significantly afterimplemented the midday meal plan in 1995. The government has implemented several

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schemes to address.[11] such problems as inequality, illiteracy, superstition, Illustrative, and poverty for the oppressed children in society. Many researchers have done district-level research, but they have not done regional ones for 2000-2020. Henceforth,it is very relevant to my research. 2.2Objectives:

1. To know the reading level results primary schools in Karnataka. 2. To examine the Arithmetic Level Results Elementary schools in Karnataka. 3. To understand the Enrolment Level Schools in Karnataka.

2.3Empirical Data and Methodology

The study has used ASER report yearly data Karnataka reading level result, arithmetic level result and enrollment in schools ASER team assessedqualityprimary education in Karnataka from 2006 to 2018.

Table -1 Reading Level Results for Enrolled Children - 2006-2018 – Karnataka.

Years Nothing Letter Word Para Story Total 2006 7.84% 16.90% 19.09% 26.64% 29.53% 100% 2007 6.23% 16.93% 20.44% 20.16% 36.24% 100% 2008 5.92% 15.08% 19.47% 20.49% 39.04% 100% 2009 4.73% 15.11% 18.16% 23.31% 38.69% 100% 2010 5.21% 15.53% 21.09% 21.42% 36.74% 100% 2011 5.37% 17.30% 19.42% 20.34% 37.58% 100% 2012 6.60% 17.20% 18.60% 17.20% 40.30% 100% 2013 6.10% 18% 20.40% 20.20% 35.30% 100% 2014 13.40% 15.60% 16.40% 18.90% 35.70% 100% 2016 13.30% 14.80% 20.80% 16.70% 34.40% 100% 2018 10.80% 16.70% 18.90% 17.60% 36% 100% (ASER Report 2006-2018) Above the table ASER team,while surveying in 2006, tested reading level results in Karnataka 7.84% were unable to read and letter 16.90%, word 19.09%, para 26.64 and story 29.53% students had been reading. In 2018 compare it has increased to 10.80%, students were unable to read. It shows the quality of teaching was decline and letter word, and para reading level result also declines, and only story reading level 36% increased.

Reading Level Results For Enrolled Children --- 20062006----20182018 ---Karnataka. Indicators Indicators

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2016 2018

Years

Para Nothing Letter Word Story

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Table -2 Arithmetic Level Results for Enrolled Children - 2007-2018, Karnataka

Nothing NumRec1-9 NumRec11- Subtraction Division Total Years 2007 6.42% 14.13% 33.43% 26.70% 19.31% 100% 2008 5.66% 15.79% 35.14% 26.80% 16.61% 100% 2009 5.62% 15.41% 30.74% 28.76% 19.47% 100% 2010 5.14% 14.33% 34.52% 27.51% 18.50% 100% 2011 5.03% 15.73% 31.33% 29.14% 18.77% 100% 2012 6.50% 14% 31.30% 28.90% 19.40% 100% 2013 4.90% 16.40% 33% 28% 17.70% 100% 2014 9.30% 12.70% 38.90% 23.80% 15.20% 100% 2016 9.20% 12.10% 36% 25.70% 17% 100% 2018 7% 12.20% 41.40% 22.70% 16.70% 100%

(ASER Report 2007-2018) Above the table arithmetic level result, 6.42% they were not able to make mathematics test and 14.13 % students 1-9 number recognised and11-99 number recognised33.43%, subtraction 26.70%, and division 19.31% in 2006. And in the year of 2018 decline, arithmetic level result 7% students were not able to make arithmetic level test and 1-9 number recognise 12.20% and 11-99 number recognise 41.40 in this level increased, and 22.70% subtraction and division 16.70 has declined because the quality of teaching was low in Karnataka .

Arithmetic Level Results for Enrolled Children - 2007- 2018. Indicators Indicators

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2016 2018

Years

NumRec11 - Division Nothing NumRec1 -9 Subtracti

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Table-3 Enrolment Levels in School - 2006-2018, Karnataka.

Years Govt Pvt Other Total 2006 83.64% 15.94% 0.43% 100% 2007 88.04% 11.58% 0.37% 100% 2008 81.31% 18.34% 0.35% 100% 2009 82.37% 16.89% 0.75% 100% 2010 80.11% 19.43% 0.45% 100% 2011 79.31% 19.96% 0.73% 100% 2012 77.90% 21.80% 0.30% 100% 2013 77.10% 22.50% 0.40% 100% 2014 74.60% 25% 0.40% 100% 2016 72.90% 26.90% 0.20% 100% 2018 70.40% 29.30% 0.30% 100% (ASER Report 2006-2018) Above the table shows in the initial stage ASER survey, 83.64% of students enrolled in government schools increased, and 15.94% of students enrolled in private schools and other schools enrolled 0.43% in 2006. And in the year 2018, government schools' 70.40% student enrollment declined because, in government schools, quality of teaching starts to decrease,and 29.30% of private school enrollment increased because infrastructure facility increased, pupil-teacher ratio (low in private schools) and 0. 30% of student's enrollment declined in Karnataka.

Enrolment Levels in School - 2006-2018 Karnataka.

Other Govt Pvt

100.00% 0.80% 90.00% 0.70% 80.00% 0.60% 70.00% 60.00% 0.50% 50.00% 0.40% 40.00% 0.30% 30.00% INDICATORS INDICATORS 0.20% 20.00% 10.00% 0.10% 0.00% 0.00% 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2016 2018 YEARS

IIIConclusion: -

The ASERreport assessed children 3-16 age group students 2006 to 2018 overall story reading level result increased, in arithmetic level result overall number recognise result also increased. In the initial stage, government school enrollment designates the rapid growthlater decreased because of the quality of teaching low. Finally, the private schoolsexpanded infrastructure facility increases the enrollment ratio also increased.

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IVReference:

1. Singh, N. (2019). Evaluation of mid-day meal programme on grass root level in India. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry , 8(3), 1039-1046. 2. Sakaue, K. (2018). Informal fee charge and school choice under a free primary education policy: Panel data evidence from rural Uganda. International Journal of EducationalDevelopment , 62 , 112- 127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2018.02.008 3. Alcott, B. and Rose, P. (2017) Learning in India's Primary Schools: How do disparities widen across the grades? International Journal of Educational Development (56), pp. 42-51. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/286048742.pdf 4. Afridi, F. (2010). Child welfare programs and child nutrition: Evidence from a mandated school meal program in India. Journal of Development Economics , 92 (2), 152-165. 5. Ranjan, P., & Prakash, N. (2012). Education policies and practices: What have we learnt and the road ahead for Bihar (No. 6614). IZA Discussion Papers. 6. Singh, R., & Sarkar, S. (2015). Does Teaching Quality Matter? Students'Learning outcome Related to Teaching Quality in Public and Private Primary Schools in India. International Journal of Educational Development , 41 , 153-163. 7. Smith, W. C., & Joshi, D. K. (2016). Public vs. private schooling as a route to universal basic education: A comparision of China and India. International journal of educational development, 46, 153-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2015.11.016 8. Kumari, J. (2016). Public-private partnerships in education: An analysis with special reference to Indian school education system. International Journal of Educational Development , 47 , 47-53. 9. Singh, R., & Sarkar, S. (2012). Teaching quality counts: How student outcomes relate to quality of teaching in private and public schools in India . Young Lives.https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08a9a40f0b6497400069a/yl- wp91_singh_sarkar.pdf 10. Tiwari, S. K., Paltasingh, K. R., & Jena, P. K. (2020). Caste-class association and school participation in Uttar Pradesh, India: Evidence from NSSO data. International Journal of Educational Development , 79 , 102292. 11. https://www.prsindia.org/media/articles-by-prs-team/making-smart-cities 12. Svce, C. K. I. Right To Education Act (Rte)-Elementary Education: Backbone of The Education System. International Journal of Advancement in Education and social , Vol (2) 1 pp 16-20. 13. Tilak, J. B. (1996). How free is' free'primary education in India?. Economic and Political weekly , 355- 366. 14. Chatterjee, I., Li, I., & Robitaille, M. C. (2018). An overview of India's primary school education policies and outcomes 2005–2011. World Development , 106 , 99-110. 15. Afridi, F. (2011). The impact of school meals on school participation: Evidence from rural India. Journal of Development Studies , 47 (11), 1636-1656. 16. Govinda, R., & Bandyopadhyay, M. (2010). Social exclusion and school participation in India: Expanding access with equity. Prospects , 40 (3), 337-354. 17. Govinda, R., & Bandyopadhyay, M. Achieving Universal Elementary Education in India Expanding Access with Equity. NUEPA, New , 1-37. 18. Varghese, N. V. (1996). Decentralisation of educational planning in India: The case of the district primary education programme. International journal of educational development , 16 (4), 355-365. 19. Das, A. (2007). How far have we come in SarvaSikshaAbhiyan?. Economic and Political Weekly , 21- 23. 20. (SSA), Department of public instruction, Govt. of Karnataka, http://ssakarnataka.gov.in/html/about_objectives.html 21. Mukhopadhyay, A., & Sahoo, S. (2016). Does access to secondary education affect primary schooling? Evidence from India. Economics of Education Review , 54 , 124-142. 22. Afridi, F. (2010). Child welfare programs and child nutrition: Evidence from a mandated school meal program in India. Journal of Development Economics , 92 (2), 152-165. 23. Dostie, B., & Jayaraman, R. (2006). Determinants of school enrollment in Indian villages. Economic development and cultural change , 54 (2), 405-421. 24. GoI. (2010). Annual Report 2009-10, : Department of School Education & , Department of Higher Education. Ministry of Human Resource Development Government of India. 25. Ranjan, P., & Prakash, N. (2012). Education policies and practices: What have we learnt and the road ahead for Bihar (No. 6614). IZA Discussion Papers. 26. Kingdon, G. G. (2007). The progress of school education in India. Oxford Review of Economic Policy , 23 (2), 168-195.

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27. NCERT (2005). Seventh all- India school education survey (AIES) Provisional statistics as of 30th September. 2002. New Delhi: NCERT.

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