Quality Control - International 12 – 14 February 2001 PROCEEDINGS OF THE 23rd GEISENHEIM MEETING

12. – 14. February 2001

International training course for quality inspectors for fruit, vegetables and ware potatoes

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Organizers: Regierungspräsidium Gießen Dezernat 29/114, Wetzlar Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung, Referat 323 - Qualitätskontrolle, Qualitätsnormen, Frankfurt am Main TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page 1 Standard Interpretation and Quality Control - Answers to questions asked by control services

20 Opening address

23 Regulation No. 2251/92: Goals and aims of the current reform

27 Quality Assurance System - The new controlling system of KCB

31 New Methods to Determine Fruit Quality

33 The Prospective Accession of Hungary to the EU seen by a Hungarian Producer Organisation

37 EC Quality EC-Marketing Standard for Onions

39 Results of Sample Assessment for Onions

40 Isotope Analysis as a means of tracing the origin of Onions and Potatoes

45 EC-Marketing Standard for Melons

50 Results of Sample Assessment for Melons

51 Melon Types of Importance in Spain

56 Melon Types of Importance in France

59 Melon Varieties in Israel

61 Melons from Turkey: Main Types and their Characteristics

69 List of Participants

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Editors: Erik Schneider, BLE, Frankfurt am Main LD Gert Pingel, RP Gießen, Wetzlar Translation: Jutta Himmelreich, BLE, Frankfurt am Main Erik Schneider, BLE, Frankfurt am Main 1

Standard Interpretation and Quality Control - Answers to Questions asked by Control Services

Bärbel Jacobs, David Holliday, Wilfried Staub

1. Tomatoes What is the minimum acceptable coloration for tomatoes? Both the EU quality standard and the OECD standard state that the development and condition of tomatoes must be such as to enable them: - to withstand transport and handling, and - to arrive in satisfactory condition at the place of destination. However, no reference is made to any colour requirements. We would like to know how our colleagues from other member states are tackling this problem and if they have set any colour standard? Plantenziektenkundige Dienst, Wageningen The EU quality standard does not make mention of coloration. In principle tomatoes can show any kind of colour except a dark green colour (these tomatoes do not ripen after harvest). However, they should at least meet colour 2 of the OECD colour gauge. The UK allows colour 1 of the same gauge in Class I if the pulp shows a light pink colour. Based on the OECD colour gauge, at dispatch level tomatoes from NL must meet colour 4 and colour 3 during summer time. Colour 9 is not allowed at dispatch level (internal KCB regulation). According to the provisions concerning presentation, uniform colouring is only required for Extra class and class I. Fruits in the same package should be either of the same colour (red, ripening, turning or green) or should belong to three consecutive shades of colouring according to the OECD colour gauge. The tolerances for fruits differing from the dominant colour or the three consecutive shades must not exceed 5 % in “Extra” class and 10 % in class I provided they belong to the neighbouring colour group(s). Trusses of tomatoes are not excluded from the requirements for uniform colouring. Class II has no special requirements for colour uniformity.

2. Trusses of tomatoes in packages Packages contain individual fruits which are not ”separated from the vine“ but were added to the package to balance its weight. How to proceed? What is allowed? Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland-Pfalz For of trusses of tomatoes the EU-marketing standard allows 5 % in class I and 10 % in class II by number or weight of tomatoes detached from the stalk. To adjust the net weight indicated, individual fruit are allowed in pre- packages of trusses of tomatoes provided the tolerances specified above are met in the average of the lot. 2

3. Assessment of viral diseases Why are viral diseases considered “not sound“, while “ghost spots“ (arrested Botrytis) of the tomato are rated as a colour defect? Modifications caused by a virus could also be considered a defect in colour (or shape). Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland-Pfalz Ghost spots on tomatoes are allowed as blemishes or colour defect. They appear in case of halted botrytis infection. In most cases the skin will be only slightly and the pulp not visibly affected. Tomatoes affected by the mosaic virus originate from diseased plants. With visibly affected fruits pulp and taste will be considerably affected. Even though fruits do not present a direct health risk they are not acceptable for human consumption and therefore considered to be “not sound” (minimum requirement, no tolerance). 4. Anti-sludge tomato Are any genetic modifications known for fruit and vegetable produce, e.g. the anti-sludge tomato? Rewe Zentral AG, Köln In the USA marketing of genetically modified fruits and vegetables is allowed. However, the modified produce must be clearly and legibly marked in order to inform the consumer. In the EU, marketing of genetically modified fruits and vegetables is not allowed yet. 5. Cucumbers Which standard text is used to reject cucumbers that have ”turned yellow“? BLE, Frankfurt am Main Cucumbers which have turned yellow and do not belong to a yellow type are not admitted because they are not “fresh in appearance” even if no signs of wilting are visible. The yellow colour appears during long storage or is the result of damage through ethylene impact. Keeping quality and taste of the cucumbers are considerably affected. 6. Cucumbers How to measure the length of ”crooked cucumbers“? Is the drawing in booklet No. 61 correct? BLE, Frankfurt am Main Four methods of possible measurements were discussed: - the length is measured by taking the shortest distance between the flower scar and the implant of the stalk (traditional method), - over the outer crook of the cucumber from the flower scar to the implant of the stalk (OECD method), - over the curvature of the middle axis, - over the inner crook of the cucumber from the flower scar to the implant of the stalk. 90 % of the participants favoured the traditional method which will be the recommended method in the next OECD-Explanatory Brochure. 3

7. Sweet peppers : colouring Is it absolutely necessary for all fruits of class I sweet peppers to be of the same colour? Do all fruits have to be either green, yellow or red, or are colour changes allowed, i.e. from green to red, if all fruits of a package show the same degree of colouring? BLE, Frankfurt am Main Depending on the variety, sweet peppers can change colour during ripening (from green to turning to the colour typical for the variety). In class I turning sweet peppers are allowed as long as uniformity within the package (not the lot!) is ensured. 8. Sweet peppers : colouring In class I, packages may only contain sweet peppers of appreciably the same degree of ripeness and colouring. Could the still tolerable limit be illustrated with photos? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart There are no special requirements for uniformity of colour and degree of ripeness in class II. However, if one specific colour group is indicated on the package the entire content must belong to this colour group. 9. Sweet peppers : sizing We keep arguing with our customers about correct marking for sweet peppers and would now like to ask explicitly: Is a size indication for ready-made packages of sweet peppers allowed or required? The inspection service in the Lower Saxony area states that a size indication in mm is not allowed. Schneider GmbH & Co. Fruchtimport KG, Bad Marienberg According to Chapter V. A. third indent: “For packages of sweet peppers with a max. weight of 1 kg, uniformity of colour, size and commercial type is not required.” This provision was included into the standard because of the size variations of different commercial types. According to Chapter VI. D. second indent: “size indication is only required if sized”. Hence, for consumer packages with a max. weight of 1 kg, indication of weight is not required. If the size is indicated, produce must be of that size. Therefore it is suggested not to indicate size on packages with a max. weight of 1 kg.

10. Tinkerbell Baby Sweet Peppers (red/green/yellow) Are there quality classes for baby sweet peppers? Deutscher Fruchthandelsverband e.V., Hamburg Mini or baby sweet peppers will be included into the new EU marketing standard for sweet peppers which will enter into force on 1 March 2001. 4

11. Carrots Class ”Extra“, inspection result: 8 % not intact (broken carrots) May the 5 % tolerance by weight of carrots not satisfying the requirements of the class, yet satisfying those of class I – including, in exceptional cases, class I tolerances - be applied? BLE, Frankfurt am Main Class ‘Extra’ carrots must be of superior quality (and washed). Broken carrots and/or carrots without tips are allowed in the tolerance of class I and are therefore not admitted in class Extra. The above-mentioned lot is only class I. The passage “but meeting those of the next following class, or exceptionally coming within the tolerance of that class” contained in many standards has not yet been explained by any control service. Control services of EU member states do not apply this tolerance. It is suggested to delete this passage in the UN/ECE standard layout and in all other standards. 12. Melons Marking includes the information: Minimum sugar content Brix value 10 %. Controls reveal that the indicated value is not attained. How to proceed? BLE, Frankfurt am Main An indication of the minimum sugar content (Brix value) is optional according to chapter VI “Provisions concerning marking”. In most cases the packer and/or sender indicates the Brix value in order to inform about the good internal quality of the produce. All fruits must at least reach the value indicated. In chapter IV “Provisions concerning tolerances” no tolerance is provided. Packers today dispose of proper means to measure each fruit individually. Inspection services must verify the relevant indications. As no special sampling method is specified, Article 3 (10) of Regulation (EEC) No 2251/92 applies. A lot must be rejected if the indicated value is not reached. If it is impossible to separate insufficiently ripe fruit – which is likely to be the rule – the relevant indication on the packages must be rendered illegible. 13. Sugar snap peas May seeds of class II sugar snap peas be a bit harder than usual? BLE, Frankfurt am Main Editors’ note : The EU marketing standard has been recently revised and will be in force as of 1 June 2001. The specific provision concerning seeds in class II reads: “for mange-tout peas and sugar snap peas: - the seeds, if present, can be slightly more developed than in class I.” 5

14. Brussels sprouts What does the term ”trimmed Brussels sprouts“ mean? Do they need to be ”ready for cooking“? BLE, Frankfurt am Main With “trimmed Brussels sprouts” the outer leaves were removed (trimmed) at the bottom of the sprout. Trimmed Brussels sprouts are covered by the EU marketing standard. They do not belong to products “ready for cooking”. 15. Witloof chicory How is a lack of ”green coloration“ with Witloof chicory to be assessed according to the code of defects? The defect concerns the minimum requirement ”pale, i. e., white to yellowish white in colour“. Class II allows a “slight greenish shade at the tip“. Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart According to the code of defects a green coloration of witloof chicory is considered a physiological defect and thus falls under the EU code of defects 03. 16. Assessment of damage caused by pests Damage caused by pests is not always rated as a minimum requirement (thrips damage with leeks, leaf miner with headed lettuce). When is damage caused by pests seen as such and when can it be considered a slight defect or defect tolerable within each class? Are there any general criteria for assessment? Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland-Pfalz If the indent “practically free of damage caused by pests” is not among the minimum requirements of the EU standard (and not all standards have been revised yet) the above-mentioned defects must be rejected as “not sound”. Class I and II produce must be “practically free of damage caused by pests”. Exceptions are only admitted if the classification criteria explicitly state so. Example: Standard text for onions class II: - slight marking caused by parasites or disease. Concerning the EU marketing standard for leeks it was suggested to define a clear differentiation between class I and class II for the defect “practically free of damage caused by pests” while taking care of consumer wishes. 17. Headed cabbage, Brussels sprouts Concerning white and red cabbage or Brussels sprouts : How to evaluate damage caused by thrips and the subsequent reactions of plant tissue in the area around the points of impact? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart Brussels sprouts (trimmed or untrimmed) and headed cabbages showing signs of damage caused by pests are not admitted. 6

18. Kiwifruit Kiwis are often attacked by scale. The minimum requirement provided by the standard is “practically free from pests“. To which degree is damage caused bay scale still tolerable? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart Kiwifruit affected by scale are not admitted (minimum requirement: ”practically free from pests”). Mildly affected fruit may be marketed in class II as long as they are fit for consumption and the general appearance is not seriously affected. Fruits considerably affected are admitted within the tolerance of class II. Very strongly affected fruits, however, are not allowed. 19. Leeks When are leeks running to seed to be rejected? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart

The minimum requirement “running to seed” is not met if the flowering stem is visible and/or hard. In case of doubt a reduced sample should be cut open (longitudinal). 20. Chinese cabbage How, exactly, do we determine floral stem length of Chinese cabbage? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart The length of the floral stem is measured from the cutting point to the tip of the inflorescence. 21. Broken asparagus May produce such as broken asparagus be marketed if it was classified as being of reduced value according to German food law, although requirements of the marketing standard (for asparagus in this case) are not met? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart Fruits and vegetables subject to EU marketing standards can only be marketed if they are in accordance with the standards. As broken asparagus does not meet neither the minimum requirements nor the provisions concerning quality, its marketing at weekly markets is not admitted. The producer may, however, sell the produce directly to the consumer. Asparagus not covered by the marketing standard (definition of produce) may be marketed without classification as long as it is below minimum size (thinner) and packed uniformly in bundles or packages. 22. Asparagus What is Triguero asparagus? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart The explanatory text of the EU marketing standard for asparagus states the following: “These amendments will enable thin green asparagus and triguero asparagus to be marketed under the same conditions as all other asparagus”. 7

In accordance with Reg. (EC) No 547/00 and Reg. (EC) No 2081/92, asparagus denominated “Espárrago de Huétor-Tájar” falls under the “protection of geographical indications of origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs.” Originally it was collected in the forests around Granada. While this vegetable was cultivated by the Romans already, regular production, fresh or processed, began in 1930. Shoots grow 4 to 12 mm thick, colour varies from bronze dark violet to green, the length of the shoots must not exceed 27 cm. 23. Apples : mixture of varieties How to proceed in case of a variety mix? Example: 1. Apples marked as follows: Origin Italy - Variety Jonagold - Size 70-80 mm 1 kg packages 3 % Idared were discovered Lot size: 8400 kg  ca. 250 kg Idared

2. Apples marked as follows: Origin Italy - Variety Jonagold - Size 80-85 mm 3 kg boxes 4 % Idared were discovered Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart The lot is not in conformity with the EU marketing standard. Under V. Provisions concerning Presentation, A. Uniformity: “The contents of each package must be uniform and contain only apples or pears of the same origin, variety, quality and size (if sized) and the same degree of ripeness”. Exception: Uniformity of variety is not required for “Extra” class and class I apples in prepacked units of a net weight not exceeding 2 kg. Nevertheless, the origin of every variety must be indicated. 24. Apples : flyspeck or sooty blotch How are apples with flyspeck and/or sooty blotch to be rated? Should affected apples be considered not sound or are they to be rated according to respective class requirements? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart In many regions with moderate climatic conditions, sooty blotch of apple is one of the major fungal diseases. In recent years the disease has presented a considerable problem especially in ecological production. The risk of an attack increases with reduced application of fungicides and an increased use of scab resistant varieties. The defect caused by sooty blotch is to be considered “not sound“. Symptoms are dark granular smudges of various sizes which can hardly be removed by scraping or rubbing. As the disease spreads over the fruit surface by rain drops, spots develop into narrow lines which may cover the entire fruit. Sooty blotch is often associated with flyspeck. 8

Minor attacks are only admitted within the tolerance of class II as long as the fruits are fit for consumption. Fruits seriously attacked are to be excluded as – for the time being – it is not possible to exclude that the fruit flesh might be affected by mycotoxines. 25. Apples : mutants Jonagold de Costa and Jonagold Novajo – how do they differ from Jonagored? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart See answer 26

26. Apples : mutants II In our inspection area we keep coming across incorrect variety denominations such as Jonagored or Jonica, especially with mutants of the Jonagold variety. According to the list of varieties published by the Bundessortenamt, they are considered independent varieties. Please elaborate on and discuss the matter and especially: a) whether there are any methods to determine apple varieties? b) whether apples bearing the wrong indication of the variety are rejected? Bezirksregierung Lüneburg There are different methods to determine apple varieties, the DNA fingerprint being one of the quickest. However, most methods are not suitable for the identification of mutants. Consignments which are incorrectly marked or labelled, e.g. false varieties, are not in accordance with the marketing standard and therefore not admitted (see answer 23). Regarding variety indication for the Jonagold group, we reprint the letter to the Länder control services by BMVEL (former BML) dated 16.09.1999: “Conformity checks of fruits and vegetables: differentiation of apple varieties Jonagold and Jonagored/Jonica Regarding the question of whether in controls for conformity with EC standards the apple varieties “Jonagored” and/or ”Jonica” are to be considered as distinct from the variety “Jonagold”, my opinion is as follows: Annex III of table I of Reg. (EC) No. 920/89, as amended by Commission Reg. (EC) No. 888/97 of 16.5.1997, lists the criteria for apple colouring. The variety “Jonagored” is listed in group A, while “Jonagold” is listed in group C and “Jonica” is not listed at all. In table 3 (list of large fruit varieties) the varieties “Jonagold” and “Jonagored” where first listed under separate indents and later included under one indent, “’Jonagold’, ‘Jonagored’ and other mutants” in Reg. (EEC) No. 2611/93 of 23 September 1993. For conformity checks then, “Jonagold” and all its mutants, including “Jonica,” are to be considered large fruit varieties while provisions concerning coloration only differentiate between “Jonagored” (group A) and ”Jonagold” (group C), i.e. the standard does not define provisions concerning the coloration of “Jonica”. 9

Although this state of facts is not satisfactory, controls will have to take the legal situation into account until the EC standard is amended. UN/ECE has started discussing a revision of the apple standard and a possible simplification of the present system of tables for easier application. In my opinion an amendment of the list of varieties should include, for all varieties with a number of mutants, the formulation: “variety XY and mutants”. In addition, mutants which differ significantly from the original in terms of coloration should be listed separately and with the colour group. With regard to the indication of the variety name, I agree with the opinion of the Bundessortenamt. As “Jonagold”, “Jonagored” and “Jonica” are independent varieties protected under Variety Protection Law, the indication of each variety name can be required for marking purposes. In practice, however, it may be difficult to prove each origin as the fruits may vary accordingly. This represents a big challenge to controllers and their knowledge about varieties. Wherever new mutants appear on the market for which variety protection was neither claimed nor awarded, my suggestion is to mark the name of the original variety and include an additional term where applicable. By order Dr. Möning.” 27. Apples : foodtainer 4 table apples - class I, size 80/90 - are placed in the foodtainer. However, each time a smaller apple, calibre 75, is placed together with the three larger ones. Reason : each foodtainer is supposed to weigh 1 kg, a smaller apple reduces excess weight and thus the loss for the packer as only 1 kg is paid for. Can this procedure be tolerated? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart Apples and other similar produce packed in foodtainers are treated like produce “packed in bulk”. The difference between the smallest and the biggest fruit in class I may thus be 10 mm. Size tolerances: 10 % by number or weight of fruit (of one lot) corresponding to the size immediately above or below the size indicated. If the tolerance is exceeded the lot is not in accordance with the EU marketing standard and must be rejected. 28. Apples : bruises What are the latest findings regarding bruises of table apples? (see Minutes of the 22nd Geisenheim Meeting) Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart The revision of the EU-marketing standard for apples and pears will allow the following bruises in accordance with the new UN/ECE-standard: Class I: slight bruising not exceeding 1 cm2 in area and not discoloured, Class II: 2,5 cm2 total surface area for other defects, including slightly discoloured bruising, with the exception of scab (ventura inaequalis) which do not extend over more than 1 cm2 in area. 10

A special provision concerning the depth of bruises is not foreseen. Depth is already covered by the description “discoloured bruising”. 29. Apples : brand protection In a presentation on variety and brand protection of fruit trees it was stated that brand and variety protection are not identical. Brand protection only regulates the use of a brand in trade by means of licences. Thus it is possible that several varieties hide behind „Rubinette“ or „Pink Lady“ How can that be reconciled, and subsequently controlled, with EU provisions concerning marking? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart The question concerning usage of trademarks instead of variety name is presently discussed by various standardisation committees. Even the UN legal services are dealing with the matter. Complications occur as it is possible to market different varieties under the same trademark and through the question whether lists of varieties of official standards may include tradenames and if so whether with or without the international sign for tradenames (,  ). In future the indication of the variety is likely to be required while the trademark indication shall be optional. Trademark indication only will not be accepted. However, as long as the issue has not been settled, trademark indication only (e.g. “pink lady”) should be tolerated. 30. Apples etc. : waxing Is there any sensory or analytical method to prove waxing of citrus fruit or apples, for example? Rewe Zentral AG, Köln A sensory test is not possible yet. Many apple varieties develop a natural layer of wax during ripening. It can be scraped off with a sharp knife. A visual distinction between naturally developed and artificial wax (E 901 to E 904) is impossible. Headed by the CLUA in Offenbach, the chemical laboratories of the Länder developed a method for the identification of artificially coated produce. However, the method only yields cost-effective results if generally known and admitted coating agents were applied. 31. Pears As we pack a percentage of our pears ourselves, we run into the following problem: the merchandise we order is graded according to weight by the producer, as, due to the various shapes of the fruit, grading by size/diameter is too inaccurate. We, however, need to pack and mark according to mm, which may create difficulties with respect to weight. Isn’t it possible to expand pear classification to 15 or 20 mm? Schneider GmbH & Co. Fruchtimport KG, Bad Marienberg The question shows that some inspection services within the EU tolerate grading by weight even if the lot (e.g. pears of the variety Abate Fetel) is not uniform in terms of maximum diameter/size. The lot could be marked as class II and bear the size indication “minimum diameter and more” e.g. “70+”. 11

However, retailers order class I produce exclusively to which the lot corresponds in terms of quality. Even if inspection services agree to follow the pragmatic standard interpretation of packing stations, retail may still reject the lot on the grounds of the EU-marketing standard. Requests for an amendment of current standard provisions are to be addressed, through the respective associations, to the Ministry for Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture (BMVEL). Concerning “Abate Fetel” and “Conference”, neither the Netherlands nor Italy are presently considering an amendment (extension) of the current grading practise. 32. Table grapes : freshness An increasing quantity of table grapes with stems completely dried appear in the food retail trade. Although in most cases the grapes themselves do not show any defects (rot etc.), general appearance of the merchandise leaves to be desired. Is it to be rejected? Sächsische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Dresden The EU marketing standard provides that only the berries must be assessed. Article 1 of the EU marketing standard for table grapes states: “However, at stages following dispatch, the products may show in relation to the requirements of the standard:  a slight lack of freshness and turgidity,  slight deterioration due to their development and their tendency to perish.” This implies that dried stems have to be tolerated to a certain degree even if the general appearance is affected. In class II the berries must be sufficiently firm and sufficiently attached to the stem. Where berries detach from the stem during normal handling, fulfilment of the tolerance must be checked. 33. Table grapes : cut produce Are pre-packed table grapes admissible in class II only (or to be rejected in consignments of higher classes) if the package contains grapes of the necessary minimum weight, yet no longer of the ”shape typical of the variety considering the growing area“, because the small package contains cut produce only? BLE, Frankfurt am Main Regarding the presentation of class I table grapes in consumer packages weighing up to 1 kg, the requirement “in shape the bunches must be typical of the variety allowing for the district in which they are grown” is to be interpreted less strictly. Nevertheless, bunches must meet the required minimum size. However, one bunch below the required minimum weight is allowed to adjust the weight indicated. Also refer to the new revised text of the EU marketing standard. 12

34. Beans : mechanical harvest To what extent are beans tolerated that are not intact - in case of machine-harvested beans (dwarf beans); - in case of hand-picked beans (bush and climbing beans)? Is it allowed to differentiate between the two at all? Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland-Pfalz The EU marketing standard does not differentiate between handpicked beans and beans harvested by machine. However, special tolerances were included in the new revised standard: Class I: In addition not more than a maximum of 15 % by number or weight of beans (excluding needle beans) may have the stalk and a small section of the narrow part of the neck missing, provided these pods remain closed, dry and not discoloured.

Class II: In addition not more than a maximum of 30 % by number or weight of beans (excluding needle beans) may have the stalk and a small section of the narrow part of the neck missing, provided these pods remain closed, dry and not discoloured.

35. Green beans : torn stems How to evaluate green beans with stem ends torn off during harvesting? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart Refer to answer 34. 36. Roman lettuce, variety Amadeus 1. How is this lettuce to be classified botanically? 2. Do EU quality standards apply? Deutscher Fruchthandelsverband e.V., Hamburg Amadeus was bred by Rijk Zwaan, Kleve, Germany. Botanically speaking, this variety belongs to Lactuca sativa L. var. longifolium. It is covered by the EU-marketing standard for lettuce and must meet the minimum weight requirement for Roman lettuce. According to the new revised lettuce standard it must have the minimum weight of “Little Gem” types. 37. EU Standard Layout In the near future, does the EU intend to introduce a Standard Layout for products which are only subject to German commercial classes or which are not subject to any standard? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart No. 13

38. Indication of origin Marking with a national, regional or local indication of origin is optional in most standards. Do these indications need to be true? May a packer from southern Germany bring produce into circulation in transport packaging of a northern German company or does this already constitute deception according to German food law? Example : A Producer from Lake Konstanz (south of Germany) packs apples in Lower Elbe boxes (north of Germany). Which marking is correct in this case? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart Marking of produce originating in Germany must contain the indication “Country of origin: Germany”. An optional indication of the growing district or a national, regional or local place name may be added. The indication “German strawberries” is fully sufficient. False indications (including regional terms) constitute a breach of administrative rule and can be fined according to article 7 of the German national Regulation concerning EU-marketing standards for fresh fruit and vegetables. If packaging material of a trademark (e.g. “Bodenseeobst”) is used to pack produce of a different origin/country (e.g. Slovenia) the clearly legible indication: “country of origin Slovenia” must be attached. Yet, if fruits from the Bodensee region are packed in packaging marked “Obst von der Niederelbe” (fruits from the lower Elbe), this indication must either be removed or made illegible. See question 41. 39. Marking of reusable transport packaging Recently, during controls of a chain with many retail outlets it became obvious that Ifco pallets do not bear labels. So the inspector has to trust that the indications on the shelves are correct. Accidentally one may find small stickers on the fruits which indicate a different origin. „Fraud with respect to origin“ is made easier by repackaging on Ifco pallets. How should the inspector proceed and what are other colleagues‘ experiences? Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart In case of false marking, fruits marked with stickers are clear indicators of “fraud with respect to origin”. The owner of the produce must yield all information requested by the inspector. Based on article 5 of the German HKLG (Law on Commercial Classes) and on the national Regulation for EU-marketing standards for fresh fruit and vegetables, inspectors are entitled to see all relevant documents (entry books, shipping papers, etc.). 40. Indication of classification in delivery documents/orders What effects does the deletion of article 3 of the Reg. on EC standards for fruit and vegetables (class indication in delivery documents/orders) have? Bezirksregierung Braunschweig 14

Article 3 of the Regulation on EU marketing standards was deleted because it was not in line with current EU legislation. The new revision of regulation (EEC) No 2251/92 will take account of this matter and will provide that country of origin and variety must be indicated in delivery documents/orders. 41. Indications of origin and advertising We repeatedly find bunched carrots in wooden boxes bearing correct marking and labels on the sides: Pfalzmarkt, Kl. I, Deutschland as well as all other indications required. However, a wide, printed foil ribbon across the boxes contains the following information: Freshly harvested in the Palatinate AZ Fruit and Vegetables AZ from the Lower Rhine We find this kind of marking misleading. Does the product originate in the Palatinate or in the lower Rhine area? Is this kind of marking to be rejected? Sächsische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Dresden Based on the fact that the EU marketing standards allow the indication of both packer and sender, it is possible for cauliflower from the Palatinate (in the south of Germany, packer) to be packed in crates of a producer organisation in Straelen/Lower Rhine (in the west of Germany, sender). Labels attached by the packer must contain all relevant information including the correct regional indication of origin, where necessary. Thus it would even be possible to market, in Germany and in packaging provided by the German sender, produce which was packed and correctly labelled in another member state. 42. Bagged radish : indication of origin Is a separate, clear indication of origin absolutely necessary? Deutscher Fruchthandelsverband e.V., Hamburg Marking of radish without foliage packed in pre-packages must bear all the indications required by the Regulation on Food Pre-packaging (FPV), Regulation on Food Marking (LMKV) and Regulation on marking lots (LKV). Particularly : - name of produce according to article 4 LMKV, - net weight according to article 6 (1) FPV, - name and/or address of producer, packer or buyer - lot number. The indication of the country of origin, class and variety, if applicable, according to article 6 (2) of Reg. (EEC) No 2200/96 must only be for produce for which EU-marketing standards are in force. Consequently an indication of the “country of origin“ is not required for radish. See also answer 43. 15

43. Coded identification of packer Under certain conditions quality standards allow packer identification codes. In Holland for example, such code numbers are distributed by the KCB. Which official authority distributes them in Germany (the Länder, BLE)? During controls by food inspection authorities in Saxony, for example, onions from the Netherlands, in nets of 1 kg bearing the allowed code „Packer: KCB ...“, were rejected and fined in accordance with German food law for lacking or bearing an incomplete packer identification. Allowed in one place – not allowed in another ... Are there experiences from other federal states (Länder)? Sächsische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Dresden Code numbers are not distributed in Germany at present. The matter falls under Länder responsibility. According to the LMKV (Regulation on Food Marking), coded identification of packer or sender, admitted according to EU-marketing standards, is not allowed for pre-packages. 44. Code list packer/dispatcher Is there an official list compiled by KCB concerning enterprises operating in the Netherlands or in other countries, such as Belgium, Italy, Spain? Rewe Zentral AG, Köln According to Regulation (EEC) No 2251/92, KCB as well as all other inspection services in the EU member states and the Länder control services must keep lists or databases on traders involved in marketing fresh fruit and vegetables. Data protection prohibits making those lists available to third parties. 45. Indication of packer : exemption code May several companies, e. g. Agroiris, Fresh-Iris, Berja, Iris-Gold, market produce under the same exemption code? Company addresses are identical. Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart Exemption codes are issued according to the rules and regulations in force in the concerned member state. Lists of the exempted traders are published in official journals or in special national publications. It is indeed possible for one company to trade under different names, brands or branches under a single exemption code. Similarly, several exemption numbers can be issued for one particular brand only if the brand operates packing stations at several locations or if independent packing stations pack on behalf of one organisation (brand). 46. Mixed packages Are sealed packages containing a mixture of cabbage varieties (e.g. Eco- cauliflower-broccoli) allowed? Bezirksregierung Braunschweig 16

According to the EU marketing standards for cauliflower and Brussels sprouts, mixtures of both are only admitted if they are prepared as “ready for cooking” The EU Commission presently verifies whether it is possible to include mixed packages in the EU marketing standards (see also answer 47). Produce for which marketing standards exist cannot be traded in mixed packages. 47. Mixed packages Does Brussels make any attempt to permit mixed packages determined by class? Rewe Zentral AG, Köln For the past two years the German government has been making requests to that effect. However, care should be taken to allow only mixtures of produces which exclude incompatibility and mutual contamination. 48. Ready packs Are the ”Flow Pack“ for sweet peppers (ca. 3 pieces/package) and headed lettuce completely sealed in foil (individual piece) considered as pre-packs in the sense of Directive 79/112/EEC (Ready packs)? Sächsische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Dresden Flow packs with more than one fruit/vegetable and fruit and vegetable plates containing a top or sealed with foil are considered pre-packages. They must be marked according to directive 2000/13/EEC (former 79/112/EEC) and must bear a lot number. Single fruit/vegetables which are sealed or packed for protection or quality maintenance are not considered pre-packed foodstuff. In its explanatory note “VI.E.1 HAU/STAND/EXPL/001-Brussels, the Commission stated: “On 19.02.1993, the Working Group “Labelling” discussed the question of whether fruit and vegetables packed individually in a plastic film are to be considered as pre-packaged foodstuff in the sense of Directive 79/112/EEC. The majority of the Member States did not consider the plastic film as a pre-packaging which would have to be labelled according to the Directive and Regulation (EEC) No 1035/72, but instead saw it as a means to protect fragile products. The Commission services agreed to this interpretation.” 49. Ready packs A bowl of strawberries is offered in a package with a lid. The lid can be opened and produce can be withdrawn without destroying the package. The lid is attached to protect the merchandise, similar to iceberg salad, for instance, which is protected by foil or by wrapping in a flow pack. Is the bowl required to bear a lot number or label? Rewe Zentral AG, Köln Refer to answer no 48. 17

50. Marking the transport packaging Could exceptions to indications concerning marking according to articles 5 and 6 of Reg 2200/96 be imagined, e. g. for transport packaging? Which kind of packaging is actually meant here? Deutscher Fruchthandelsverband e.V., Hamburg The provisions concerning marking according to chapter VI of the EU marketing standards apply mostly to transport packages, e.g. wooden or plastic crates (IFCO) or cartons in which the produce is either packed in bulk or in pre-packages (consumer packages), or arranged in layers or in regular layers. The Commission currently considers whether it is possible to exempt transport packages from marking if they contain pre-packages (consumer packages) which are already correctly labelled according to the EU marking provisions. 51. Packages of Bluccoli 1. How do you approach “limits“ for fantasy denominations? 2. Under which conditions, generally speaking, is such a mixed package possible? a) if the package does not contain mini cauliflower or mini broccoli but small heads of the respective vegetable? b) in case of mini varieties? Deutscher Fruchthandelsverband e.V., Hamburg 1. There are no limits for fantasy denominations. However, it is most important not to deceive the consumer and to obey article 4 of the LMKV (Food Marking Regulation). Fantasy denominations cannot replace the indication concerning the “nature of produce”. 2. Refer to answer 46. Editor’s note: The mixture of mini-aubergines, mini-cauliflower, mini-sweet peppers, mini-cabbages and mini-courgettes in mixed packages with other miniature products of different types and origin is allowed according to the revised EU marketing standards. Special marking provisions have been laid down. 52. Member states’ national standards : compilation Is there a compilation of (optional) commercial classes in effect nationally in each member state? Deutscher Fruchthandelsverband e.V., Hamburg Such a compilation has not been edited yet. It would only make sense if official translations were available and if legal requirements were in force to reject non-conformity produce. 18

53. Member states’ national standards : additional marking Following the rule that a product is generally not to be rejected if it was correctly brought into free circulation in another member state, indications of nutritional value in case of radishes, or „gr“ indicated in case of baby sweet peppers must be accepted? Deutscher Fruchthandelsverband e.V., Hamburg In principle, this statement is correct. Nevertheless, marking must be easily legible and understandable for the consumer. The language used for marking is determined by the country where the produce is brought into free circulation. The indication of “gr” instead of “g” is not accepted by most Länder inspection services. Nutritional value indications must be correct and according to the Regulation for nutritional indication (NKV). In Germany, a regulation concerning the indication of nutritional value of packed fruit and vegetables does not exist. Therefore, packages prepared in other countries and bearing nutritional indications may not be rejected provided the indications are correct. 54. Class declaration I May merchandise falling under a UN/ECE standard be labelled with a class? Rewe Zentral AG, Köln Produce for which no EU marketing standards but UN/ECE standards are laid down and which is packed in another country and traded in Germany in the original package labelled with a class must be tolerated. Produce which will be re-packed in Germany the marking of a class is not allowed neither on the package nor in the shelf or in advertisements. 55. Class declaration II An Spanish national regulation in force says that merchandise not subject to any class regulation may, nevertheless, be prepared and labelled in accordance with classes ‘Extra‘, class I and class II. Does a comparable regulation exist for other countries? Why is this aspect not dealt with uniformly within the EC? Rewe Zentral AG, Köln In principle, the EU Council wants to establish marketing standards only for produce which is of economic importance in the EU. For all other products every member state may establish additional national standards. The standard in question was laid down by the Spanish government before Spain joined the EU. This regulation has not been suspended yet. 56. Export to Estonia On a very regular basis we have had problems in Holland with exports to Estonia of fruit and vegetables not subject to any defined EU standards. Estonia requires a “declaration of conformity“ for all products destined for human consumption. This means that all products must comply with the Estonian Food Act: safe for human consumption, no residue or other 19

contamination etc. Although the EU Quality Certificate is not intended for this kind of declaration, nor for use outside the Union, Estonia rejects consignments if all the products are not mentioned on the certificate. Have other member states experienced these problems with third countries and how could we solve them? Plantenziektenkundige Dienst, Wageningen As far as we know, Estonian national regulations provide that all produce listed in the statistical list of products of chapters 7 and 8 need to be accompanied by a valid control certificate according to OECD or UNE/ECE samples at import level. Non-member countries of the WTO can provide such import regulations. In such cases, BLE controls and lists in the control certificate all produce subject to EC marketing standards. Upon request, the exporter receives an officially stamped and signed copy of the control certificate which he presents to the customs authorities of the country of destination and which contains the indication “additionally shipped”. Subsequently, produce not subject to the standards is listed (without indicating the class, if necessary). Hungary, for example, has been requiring the presentation of a control certificate since November 01 for all kinds of produce subject to EC marketing standards including bananas. Consignments without such a certificate are subject to import controls and may be considerably delayed in customs. All other imports to Hungary are controlled by way of sampling. Consequently, Austria and the BLE issue a control certificate for shipments of green unripe bananas to Hungary upon request, if controls reveal that the produce meets the EC marketing standard for bananas at the time of control. 57. Notification of non-conformity It is necessary to examine a possible way of drawing up ex post reports on the basis of non-conformity notifications which arrive from other inspection services. ICE, Rome For lack of time this question could not be dealt with. 58. Shipping notification On national markets, the shipping notification will have to be periodical whereas it will have to be established daily in shipments within Europe. Moreover, it is necessary to agree on the possibility of clarifying that shipping implies either a notification or an inspection certificate. ICE, Rome For lack of time this question could not be dealt with. 59. EU member countries shipping towards other non-producing countries It is necessary to define and stress with the interested inspection services the duty to respect and enforce the regulations of producing countries. For instance, with regard to kiwis and oranges, it is necessary to comply with both the ripening indexes and the harvest time which the 20

producing countries establish. The 2000/2001 kiwi trading campaign was characterised by the presence of relevant lots of Italian kiwis in the Canadian market with a Brix level below 5 degrees. Although legally forbidden in Italy, it was impossible to identify the concrete shipping channels. ICE, Rome For lack of time this question could not be dealt with. 60. Imports from countries outside the EU Specific controls are necessary in order to identify the most relevant characteristics (such as ripening, of phytosanitary products, supply chain) and to overcome unfair competition which harms national producers who need to make economic sacrifices and major expenses will have to be made to increase quality and value of national production. ICE, Rome For lack of time this question could not be dealt with. 61. Treatment What is known concerning radio-active treatment of fruit and vegetable produce? Rewe Zentral AG, Köln For lack of time this question could not be dealt with.

Opening Speech

Dr. Günter Drexelius

Ladies and Gentlemen, many of you have already started this year’s Meeting by participating in working groups yesterday. It is my pleasure to officially welcome you today, on behalf of both organisers, to the Geisenheim Meeting today here at Germaniahalle. I am at once satisfied and glad to find the hall capacity-filled again, as this is the 23rd year of the Meeting, and to see numerous personalities from politics and trade as well as from fellow control services, of course. My special welcome goes out to the representatives of the press.

Yesterday, Mr. Pingel told you a few facts concerning the history of the Geisenheim Meeting, and today, I am convinced, our knowledgeable lecturers will inform you further on technical aspects. Some facts with respect to organisational details for today will be given prior to the first coffee break.

Presently, public opinion regarding the food sector in Germany is being affected in an unprecedented manner by what the press has named the BSE crisis. Apart from the fact that this is not the subject of our meeting, I neither can nor want to make any direct statement in this context, even less so as causes and consequences of these events represent an enormous challenge for both scientists and the Federal Office for Food and Agriculture (BLE) alike. 21

Consumer insecurity has led to a complete collapse of the beef market. Disturbances in meat product sales indirectly influence the control of fresh fruit. The task at hand now is for us to take measures, as fast as possible, which re- establish consumer trust in safe and sound food. However, we should not delude ourselves into believing that other sectors are immune against similarly dramatic developments. The fruit and vegetable sector is equally concerned.

In Germany, several federal or Länder ministers had to draw the political conclusions entailed by defaults of their departments or of the competent inspection authorities. The Ministry of Agriculture in Berlin has been renamed and is now the Ministry for Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture. Consumer protection will thus be of utmost priority in the future.

In a federally organised government, monitoring systems are decentralised and differ regionally. This results, and trade representatives present here can tell you a tale about that, in the fact that the intensity of inspections the and interpretation of regulations are handled differently and vary from place to place. However, to rule out any misunderstanding, the task and necessity of inspection itself is never questioned. What is missing in Germany and strongly requested by the implementing authorities is a centralised list of all inspection measures carried out and of infringements registered on the one hand and efficient crisis management on the other.

In the framework of risk analyses, a timely data exchange would constitute a considerable help for the directors of inspection bodies. The present occurrences, however burdening or even existentially threatening they may be for all those concerned, could also make us review competences of the inspection services and lead to a network of all inspection authorities in Germany.

The Market Organisation for Fruit and Vegetables, regulation 2200/96, as well as its precursor, regulation 1035/72 which is even more explicit in that respect, repeatedly state justified consumer interests and consumer protection. Contrary to the practice for meat, meat products or canned and frozen food, EC standards for fresh fruit and vegetables have made the indication of the country of origin compulsory ever since. Control of these indications is simple and they are easily retraceable because relevant data are not only required on the package but on invoices and shipping documents as well. In case of premedidated attempts of fraud, inspection services and scientists have developed means to track such machinations quickly. In the late afternoon of today we will hear about new methods available to that effect from Dr. Förstel.

Generally, fruit and vegetables are maintained in their natural state. Where preservatives are inevitable or beneficial for quality conservation, as with citrus fruit for example, their application is visibly indicated. If genetically modified food reaches the market, marking and labelling need to be easily recogniseable by the consumer.

Thanks to these and other restrictive rules and regulations and thanks to tight residue controls on a voluntary basis by import and wholesale on the one and official controls on the other hand, fruit and vegetables are not only of high nutritional value but should also be safe food according to human discretion. 22

Ten years ago the Netherlands experienced a scandal. The headline of the most widely read yellow paper, BILD, read: “Canary bird dropped dead after consuming Dutch lettuce.“ The Dutch authorities reacted quickly and took a number of measures which make the Dutch origin one of the safest today. But nothing is so perfect as to defy further improvement. During all of this morning’s sessions you will find out more about that.

Your programme folder carries the Meeting’s subtitle „Quality control – internationally“. And while the German and in fact European elite of inspectors is gathered in this room we know that the severest laws and regulations are of little use if they are not backed by a vigorous, independent and neutral inspection service as an implementing body. This was proved, not least, by the BSE crisis which revealed considerable deficits regarding foodstuffs control. Trust is a good thing, control is even better. Controls are necessary as we have seen but they require special competence and well-trained staff. A substantial reduction of inspection staff during recent years - quality control in Germany was not spared either - was a step in the wrong direction.

And so my first appeal is to politicians: create more jobs for quality inspectors again, provide them with an adequate salary and with state-of-the-art communication equipment. Adequate pay – as a spectacular scandal in the USA illustrated last year – is a basic prerequisite for inspectors‘ immunity against giving so-called accommodation opinions and a prerequisite for attracting qualified young people who will remain committed to a job they find interesting.

My second appeal is to quality inspectors‘ superior authorities – and I explicitly include my own – to offer inspectors every opportunity for further training and to facilitate a maximum of exchange of experiences and ideas. Quality inspection is hard work to be carried out on site. Consequently, the superior is not only called upon to support inspectors and to ensure a comfortable work atmosphere but also to encourage and motivate talented young people, and I am glad to see a considerable number of them gathered here.

I once asked an old pro in my authority about a quality inspector‘s most important tool and he answered: His ears! Yes, it has indeed been proved that inspection efficiency can be increased manifold if one takes into consideration one’s knowledge about connections in general and one’s capacity for analysing even the seemingly most unimportant rumours. A successful quality inspector is not of the accommodated kind and must have room to move according to his own discretion in order to be taken seriously by trade and economy. A quality inspector – at least according to the philosophy adopted by my house – is not a policeman but should first and foremost assume the function of an advisor. Should his advice not bear fruit, or should he come across intentional infringements, he shall take measures towards adequate punishment by all available means. Each case requires weighing and thus experience and expertise – qualifications which are to be considered during hiring or administrative supervision.

Finally, I appeal to all control services present to intensify cooperation and data exchange on all relevant cases of rejection. I see a certain need for action with respect to the implementation of a number of control procedures. As the cross- 23 border exchange of goods in food retail trade increases steadily, an adequate reaction of inspection services is required not only on EU level but also as inspection services of countries exporting to EU countries are concerned.

If you take this to heart and if, instead of reacting, you act in time and target- oriented, the trade gathered here will be spared the kind of scandals mentioned above, I am sure.

In Germany and Europe, and to some extent in other parts of the world today, we depend on what gets adopted by the EU Commission. In the following first and first-hand presentation of today we will hear about the reasons for the reform of the control regulation for fruit and vegetables, and about related measures, by Mr. Santini. Within the EC Commission‘s division of agriculture, Mr. Santini is responsible for the transformation of UN/ECE standards into EC legislation and for the elaboration of the relevant implementation regulations.

But before you get to know how important quality control of fruit and vegetables will be in the future, which role consumer protection will play in the revised EC marketing standards and which simplifications are planned for third countries wanting access to the EU, I would like to take this opportunity to wish you all a very interesting and informative meeting and, after a hard day’s work, time to relax as well, during tonight’s get-together.

Thank you very much.

Et c’est ainsi que je donne la parole à Monsieur Santini, s’il vous plaît.

Regulation No. 2251/92: Aims of the Current Reform

Fabien Santini, Ioannis Tsialtas

(Editors’ note: The following text is a summarised version of the Power Point presentation)

The European Commission decided to amend Commission Regulation (EEC) No. 2251/92 of 29 July 1992 with respect to quality inspection of fresh fruit and vegetables. The decision was made in order to take into account recent developments and improved professionalism in the trade in fresh fruit and vegetables. Further reasons for the amendment were:

- Numerous requests and intensive discussions with Member States (MS) since 1999,

- Few changes only in Regulation (EEC) No 2251/92 since 1993,

- New Common Market Organisation (CMO) in force since 1997,

- Simplification and subsidiarity,

- Evolution of the sector itself,

- Observations made by the special corps of inspectors in 1999. 24

In 1999, a special corps of inspectors (Commission officials and MS experts) inspected the 15 MS, concentrating on conformity checks for fruit and vegetables. The objective of the inspection was to verify the quality of controls undertaken in accordance with the application of Regulation (EEC) No 2251/92.

Aims of the audit:

- to gain an overview of inspection systems applied in each MS,

- to assess the conformity checking system in view of identifying its weaknesses and making recommendations for improvements,

- to examine the way in which the register of traders is maintained and the conditions under which traders gain an exemption,

- to assess the system for issuing processing certificates,

- to assess the system for notifying cases of non-conformity.

Observations of the special corps of inspectors can be summarised as follows:

- Competent authority: every MS has one or more agencies responsible for checking conformity. Their responsibilities differ widely from one MS to the next, very heterogeneous.

- Inspection methods, programmes, priorities: only a few MS use a risk analysis procedure to establish their inspection programmes. Many MS ignore the retail stage.

- Quality inspections: satisfactory in general, but some omissions in every MS.

- Inspection fees: heterogeneous situation.

- Penalties: almost all MS have introduced penalty systems which are rarely applied.

- Exemptions: there are no exempt traders in some MS while there are only a few in others. The frequency of inspection visits is generally low. Very often an operator’s status of exemption is renewed automatically.

- Inspections on the internal market: are either non-existent in most MS or totally inadequate. Notifications are rarely applied.

- Inspections of imports/exports: in general, all MS apply the regulations. Some shortcomings were noted, however:

- checks at export level are rare or are carried out on part of the lots only,

- checks do not cover enough of the imported lots,

- as plant health checks on imports have priority, conformity checks suffer.

- Products intended for processing: in the majority of MS the system is rarely used.

- Statement of non-compliance: works between MS but is nearly non-existent between MS and Commission.

- Register of traders: incomplete in most MS or no register at all. 25

Recommendations: The following recommendations, concerning one or more MS, were made by the special corps of inspectors:

- Shortage of manpower must be tackled, training of inspectors must be improved,

- Relevant authorities should be encouraged to co-operate better,

- Tasks should not be distributed among a lot of authorities, nor should they be too diverse,

- The number of conformity checks on the internal market should be increased,

- Checks made should be properly documented and recorded in a database to ensure that each inspected trader can be monitored.

The most important conclusions of the European Commission are:

- Steps must be taken to apply Regulation (EEC) No 2251/92 uniformly in all regions and at all marketing stages.

- A database or register should be installed to increase inspection efficiency.

- Conformity checks at the retail stage should be increased.

- Techniques for risk analysis should be developed to organise inspections effectively.

- Provisions governing the prior notification of a consignment on the MS domestic markets are difficult to apply.

- Traders must see some concrete benefit in having the exempt status as it does not make sense otherwise.

Draft Regulation of the Commission: - Competent authority

In almost all MS different administrative organisations are responsible for quality control. So there is a need for co-ordination and transparency: A single authority should be created in each MS for co-ordination and contacts in order to communicate descriptions of the different inspection bodies’ spheres of activity.

- Internal Market Provisions of the current Regulation (ECC) No 2251/92:

- Prior to dispatch, traders make available all necessary information including identification of produce, place and time of dispatch, destination (notification).

- Conformity checks at packing/loading stations, etc. based on the information from notifications;

- Exempted traders at dispatch, but regularly checked. 26

Difficulties raised by Regulation (ECC) No 2251/92:

- Notification unrealistic; implementation non-existent, incomplete or interpreted,

- Inspection bodies do not have sufficient resources,

- Heterogeneity of implementation of exempted trader status,

- Checks at stages other than dispatch are rare.

Hence the following proposals by the Commission:

- Checks should focus on stages where there are risks of non conformity.

- Checks at all marketing stages but preferably prior to dispatch (Art.7 of Regulation (ECC) No 2200/96).

- Reference to risk analysis.

- For each category of traders a frequency of checks should be defined, based on the respective risks.

- Criteria to be used: trader size, trader type (dispatcher, wholesaler, etc.), findings during previous checks.

- Frequency should be sufficient to ensure compliance with EC-standards.

- Frequency to be increased where significant irregularities are revealed.

- A database should be established as an essential tool for inspection bodies:

- taking into account characteristics of each MS,

- national systems of checks,

- could be continued on a national basis with successful Regulation (EEC) No. 2251/92 provisions,

- for transparency and to encourage exchange of experiences: communication of national systems’ provisions to the Commission.

- Import/Export Export stage:

- Inclusion of a separate article for better understanding;

- Standards enforced at the export stage:

- inspection bodies ensure that there is compliance,

- inspection bodies certify each lot being in conformity.

- Customs accept export declaration after issuance of the certificate by the inspection body at the export stage.

Import stage:

- General rule: standards enforced at the import stage

- inspection bodies ensure that there is compliance by physical checks,

- inspection bodies certify each lot being in conformity. 27

- Customs accept customs clearance after issuance of the certificate by the inspection body at import stage.

- Possibility for inspection bodies of not checking small lots under 500 kg.

- Approval of third countries’ inspection bodies:

- Principle has been maintained although not implemented since 1993,

- Simplified implementation: Commission approves on request of a third country,

- Limited to produce originating from concerned third countries.

- Rules for the follow-up of an approval:

- regular checks at import stage by MS inspection bodies (5% of lots and quantities),

- MS reports to the Commission (quarterly),

- approval can be suspended if non-conformity in a significant number of cases.

- Other measures:

- Simplification of the regime for industrial use:

- certificates of industrial use are no longer needed in the internal market.

- import/export stages: customs need a certificate for documentary checks.

- Checking methods unchanged: UN/ECE – OECD methods, except for retail level.

- Clarifications on the status of non conform goods,

- Non-conformity cases to be notified as in the past,

- Consistency between legislation and resources.

------[Editors’ note: The above mentioned proposals should be adopted in Mai 2001 following discussion at the Management Committee and possible amendments. Implementation is planned for January 2002.]

Quality assurance system - The new controlling system of KCB

Peter Damen

Firstly, I would like to thank the organiser for giving me the opportunity to inform you about the KCB, its organisation, its accreditation in 1997, and the way it is managed. I will also talk about the present control system and the newly developed system to efficiently manage our inspectors which will be implemented this year.

Secondly, I would like to introduce myself: My name is Peter Damen and I am the head of the inspection department and especially involved with internal 28 audits. Further I am responsible for editing vegetable standard interpretations in Holland. Although the KCB is a rather old organisation, it is in very good shape despite its 75 years of age. It has good eyes, good ears and is flexible and well- equipped with a special intention to improve the quality of Dutch fruit and vegetables. The KCB is a foundation appointed by the government to carry out quality inspections of fruit and vegetables. However, it is not a governmental but a private organisation led by a director who works in close cooperation with the KCB board. Members of the board are representatives of auctions, traders and growers. The president of the board is a representative of the ministry. Packing stations and auctions are KCB members by law, others are voluntary members and their number keeps increasing. The KCB is divided into a number of departments such as Automation, Product and Control Matters, District (5) Matters, Finance and Staff Management as well as the Inspection Department which is a staff department. Employees of the latter are especially involved with internal audits on all procedures including inspection, the application of standard interpretations and auditing inspectors under the supervision of the quality manager. Two inspectors who visit foreign markets are members of this department too. A few years ago, following a large number of requests for private controls, KCB founded a daughter company called Agro Quality Support. Agro Quality Support employs more than 10 staff members on a full-time basis. The main services of AQS are: - quality inspections on a private basis - inspections for growers or growers’ associations - certification audits for HACCP and Eurep Gap - inspections for total chain projects: e.g. inspections for growers, auctions, packers, discounters, and supermarkets KCB is paid for the public task by special orders. For the public task the Product Board established a levy for the whole sector. We do inspections at growers and retail markets, to monitor companies and to issue export certificates. If there is disagreement about product quality we conduct re-examinations (822 in the year 2000). A fee is also charged for public tasks by special order and there are three projects on request: - intervention - preserved mushrooms - phytosanitary inspections. KCB has been certified according to EN 45004 standards. This implies a well- qualified organisation and a very high level of independence. KCB has an internal quality assurance system for the described procedures, all inspections and all standards interpretations are subject to continuous auditing. We do also offer annual in-house training courses for our inspectors.

New developments In the past, only a few inspection locations were in operation. Produce was traded through the same channel, namely auctions, and was also physically delivered to these auctions. Today, produce is traded through various channels 29 and without always being physically present. Product can flow directly from grower to auction, from grower to packing house or from grower to trader. Thus considerable extra time is required for the same number of inspections mainly because travel time has increased. In recent years the number of inspections at auctions has strongly decreased. Growers increasingly deliver their products directly to packing stations and/or traders. So our general practice is: If it is possible to inspect the product at a collection point, we do not visit individual growers anymore. The same applies if a trader or packer has growers under contract. In such a case we will visit only the trader or packer for product inspection but not the grower. If a grower also trades the produce we will inspect his company, of course. Therefore, every inspector has to be alert and conscious about product flows and relevant developments in his area. The inspection system of the past was a target system where priority was given to auctions and packing stations in order to get a representative image of the company. Companies with a high percentage of rejections were inspected more frequently and paid a higher levy. 40% of the inspections were carried out on greenhouse vegetables, 25% on open field vegetables and 14% on hard fruit. The present control system was adopted especially to manage inspectors efficiently rather than to arrive at company classification. The extra levy for companies being classified lowest was removed. The new control system is based on a risk profile of each company and on the answers to the following questions: - What are the company’s activities? - Is it a small or a large company? - What are the inspection results of the preceding term? - Which products are traded or packed by the company? For an inspector to visit a company, the following questions are of relevance: Are products graded or packed and if so, what are the volumes? - Are products collected directly from growers (first stage)? - Do they need export control certificates? If a company answers one of these questions with "yes", it will become a “focal company” and be of major interest to us; the majority of our inspections will be directed towards them. Focal companies are: - auctions - packing stations - exporters to third countries - collecting traders. A company is considered a large focal company if: they pack more than 1 mil. kg of open field or more than ½ mil. kg of greenhouse products, or if they collect more than 5 mil. kg of open field or more than 2 ½ mil. kg of greenhouse products, or if they use more than 50 export certificates per year. 30

The number of inspections increases with the frequency and quantity of activities. You will understand that the frequency of inspections is determined quite subjectively, based on experiences! Focal companies are subject to a monitoring system. For internal use only, company status is classified as A, B or C, based on their rejection rate. A company of status A has less than 5% of its produce rejected, B has between 5 and 15% and C more than 15% of rejections. Depending on status and size, we visit companies with a certain frequency, every visit consists of one or more inspections. Thus a large focal company of status A is visited twice per week, thrice with a B status and four times per week in case of status C. Small focal companies are visited half as much. Every 4 weeks companies are re-classified and the number of visits is adjusted to the new status of the company. Controls done during weeks 1, 2, 3 and 4 determine the status of a company in weeks 6, 7, 8 and 9 while controlsduring weeks 5, 6, 7 and 8 determine the status in weeks 10, 11, 12 and 13. Planning is based on a minimum of 8 inspections per company in 4 weeks. If less inspections were carried out, planning will be based on the last 12 weeks. Inspection priority is based on partly subjective rules. Generally speaking: - more inspections with cucumbers than with tomatoes on the vine, - more inspections with apples of over 100 mm than with apples of 65+, - relatively more inspections in class I than in class II. Under our new system we want to issue export certificates on the basis of the monitoring system. For at least 5% of the certificates we do actual inspections. Based on the results of the monitoring system this amount can rise up to 100%. A monitoring inspection is an inspection carried out on all aspects of the standard. Every sample has to be thoroughly inspected; products must be taken out of the box and checked individually. Sometimes we take a reduced sample (3 kg per 15 kg for Brussels sprouts, for example). Surveillance inspections are used for a quick scan only. They are intended for prevention and for the immediate rejecting of non-conformity lots. Growers are differentiated into those who deliver their products to a collection point and those who do not. The former we intend to visit twice a year, if possible, rather to get information than to actually carry out inspections. Companies trading directly to shops or otherwise will be visited between once a week and once every 4 weeks for actual inspections. We have just concluded a pilot project at two locations operating under the new control system. Some of the results : - inspectors were very happy with the new planning method, - if produce of a company is rejected frequently within in a short period of time, inspectors can prove that they visited this company more often than before, - inspection takes longer because all standard aspects need to be checked, - many rejections were due to errors in content weight. All inspections are registered in a database called AMOS. 31

Time needed for different activities such as monitoring inspection, surveillance inspection, administrative matters, meetings etc. is registered in a database called PTS. We intend to integrate PTS into AMOS to improve our tools for cost management.

New Methods to Determine Fruit Quality

Dr. Manuela Zude-Sasse, Dr. Martin Geyer

Nowadays fruits, vegetables and potatoes become increasingly important for a healthy diet. Nutrition scientists recognise the potential these products contain. Consequently, high expectations require these sensitive products to be grown, harvested and prepared with utmost care and quality and freshness to be guaranteed all the way to the consumer. Also, given the fact that globalisation increases competition for European growers, it is necessary to develop methods for improved quality assurance. Traditionally, fruit maturity was determined by comparing fruit colour with colour gauges. Thanks to modern technology the idea this system was based on has now been refined. Today, spectral analysis allows objective statements regarding the development of fruit maturity.

Determination of Fruit Quality and State In order to determine optimal harvesting time and for quality controls in general, knowledge about the degree of fruit maturity is needed. An apple can only develop its typical taste and reach peak quality if it was able to develop sufficiently before being picked. Consequently the producer must get constant information about the various stages of fruit development and ripeness. As fruits of one stock do not develop uniformly, optimal harvest management includes selective picking in several runs. It is here that the objective determination of the degree of fruit maturity is most difficult. Fruit development on the tree is an important criterion for the determination of picking time which, up to now, was often determined visually, i.e. subjectively. Instead of quantitative data for the determination of maturity, the EC marketing standards list characteristics concerning quality (increased breathing activity, ethylene development). The following items are listed for the assessment of fruit development: basic colour, Brix value, acid content and sugar-acid ratio. However, both producers and trade consider the methods for the determination of these characteristics too costly.

[Editor’s note: Quantitative data for the determination of maturity are presently contained in the standards for kiwis (Brix value), melons (Brix value) and citrus fruit (juice content, coloration). The characteristic data for the assessment of fruit development listed by the author are recommended for quality checks but, with the exception of minimum sizes, are not quantified in the standards.]

In practice, then, an affordable technical solution would be welcome to measure the degree of fruit development and maturity quickly, as accurately as possible and without destroying the fruit. 32

A legally recognised device would thus have to meet the following requirements: - reproducibility - clarity - mobility - simplicity - stability - acceptance - non-destructive measuring The matter could be tackled thanks to the rapid progress made in the development of optical parts, combined with data processing. In terms of fruit physiology, the method was based on the fact that during the ripening process the percentage of green coloration reduces. This becomes visible as the green primary colour, determined by chlorophyl content, lightens and is a relative measure for fruit ripeness. Traditionally fruit ripeness has been non- destructively determined by a visual comparison of skin and pulp colour with pragmatical values or colour gauges. This method was refined using modern video technology to be applied for colour sorting. Yet, colour analyses are too inaccurate to determine the degree of ripeness both on the tree and in trade. For some time, an improved method using colour systems adapted to the human eye was propagated and attempts were made to use the a* value (L*a*b* colour scale) as a non-destructive measure for the primary green colour of the fruit. However, as the a* value can be influenced by pigments of the red covering colour, its application is problematic. The colour change caused by chlorophyll is not recognised clearly enough as other skin pigments change simultaneously. In contrast, spectral analysis makes it possible to capture the various groups of colorants accurately.

Spectroscopic optical determination of maturity/ripeness Spectroscopic optical measurements determine especially the green basic fruit colour exactly and without destroying the fruit. Using a miniature spectrometer with a fiber glass sonde, the change of basic colour during the harvesting period can be shown quite sensitively as the chlorophyl absorbs light in a wave length ranging from 600 to 750 mm. Using pragmatical values for skin reflection as well as transmission through the skin and the adjacent pulp tissue, degree of ripeness/maturity and constituent content can be described. Relevant equipment is being tested and partly available on the market already. For the eastern Asian market, aside from the determination of the degree of ripeness/maturity, a differentiation according to sugar content might also be useful. Grading stations working on the basis of spectral analyses are available on the market. They work without destroying the fruit and show satisfactory grading performance. In cooperation with small and medium size companies, ATB developed a spectral analytical device to determine the stages of ripeness of bananas. Care is to be taken however, not to use spectral analysis as the sole factor in assessing fruit quality. The method does help to tell ripe from unripe fruits. However, after storage, one cannot tell fruits harvested unripe, lacking aroma and taste, from fruits harvested when fully mature. This is a disadvantage the 33 method has in common with others and recent efforts strive to develop a simple device which combines several measuring methods. The application of combined sensors is presently tested with apples and peaches in particular. The ATB, in collaboration with European partners, is working on a mobile measuring system – a sensor glove – which will make it possible to determine the maturity of apples or peaches at one touch. The glove shall recognise several fruit characteristics simultaneously. By combining them, an accurate determination of ripeness/maturity before, during and after harvest should be possible.

The prospective accession of Hungary to the EU seen by a Hungarian producer organisation

Lázló Kovács

Ladies and Gentlemen, first I would like to thank the Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (BLE) for giving me the opportunity to talk about “The prospective accession of Hungary to the EU seen by a Hungarian producer organisation“. Please allow me to begin my talk with an agreeable personal memory. I came to know Dr. Drexelius, president of the BLE, towards the end of the eighties when he informed us about quality requirements throughout the EC and in the Federal Republic of Germany and promised to be always available to us and to help solve eventual difficulties in connection with relevant formalities. A few years later this was indeed the case : we wanted to import produce for the IGA Expo in Stuttgart which German customs intended to reject due to non- conformity of packaging and marking. Much to his surprise I told the customs officer: “Please call Dr. Drexelius in Frankfurt am Main.“ A few minutes of discussion on the phone followed, then we received a fax stating: “Please clear Mr. Kovács‘ merchandise.“ So we – Árpád Cooperative Szentes - were able to exhibit our goods and, on the second day of the exhibition, were awarded 2 gold medals for our produce. Even today, these medals still decorate our export cartons. So thank you once again, Dr. Drexelius!

[Editor’s note: Samples used at trade fairs and exhibitions a simplified customs procedure according to par. 32 of the foreign trade regulation applies and no quality inspection is necessary.]

Having said that, I would like to continue by introducing Árpád AG Szentes. Our company was founded in 1960 as a cooperative for vegetable production. Even after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1992 and the introduction of a new law on cooperatives, we continued to work as a cooperative which, in September 1999 and mainly for political but also for economic reasons, we turned into a public limited company. Since this restructuration with a nominal capital of 3 34 billion HUF (ca. 22.5 mill. DM) and about 1500 shareholders (mostly former members) we have eliminated the risk of loosing assets to new laws. I have brought along some documents and brochures with relevant data and facts for you to see. Due to the favourable ecological conditions (high yielding soil, sufficient water supply, high amount of sunshine of more than 2050 hrs/year) vegetable production in Szentes and vicinity can look back on a tradition of several centuries. As geothermal resources were tapped in the 60s and 70s, cultivation of the now famed early vegetables developed in Szentes in the Southeast of Hungary. And despite rising energy costs and taxes it is thanks to thermal energy that large-scale greenhouse production of vegetables still yields surplus. Árpád AG Szentes has 14 thermal wells at its disposal, 2000 m deep, between 78-96°C hot and delivering 60-70 m3 per hour. The available water heats about 14 ha of growing area for greenhouse and foil tunnel production and the installation is the largest of its kind not just nation-wide but in the world. On a total area of 136 ha (23 ha under glass, 23 ha heated foil tunnels, 40 ha unheated foil tunnels, 50 ha open field) 550 families – instructed by our horticulturists – grow over 10.000 tonnes of vegetables. As our symbol already shows, our main product is the white yellow sweet pepper. Also known as elongated (pointed) yellow sweet pepper, it is grown in heated greenhouses and foil tunnels. Being a typical main crop, it is also grown in unheated foil tunnels. Chinese cabbage, white cabbage, kohlrabi, cauliflower and headed lettuce are grown as first crop under both heated and unheated foil tunnels. The tomato ranges second in our vegetable cultivation, grown both under heated and unheated foil tunnels. We use various Dutch hybrid varieties. On a smaller acreage in greenhouses we produce hot green peppers (known to you as pepperoni) as well as cucumbers. In open fields we grow various types of cabbage, onions, pickled pepper etc. Árpád Szentes has a network of well-trained advisers for plant protection and horticulture which helps individual growers integrate into our production system. In addition we manage cultivation and product marketing of 1.000 growers within our early vegetables branch which we established 25 years ago. Our annual turnover is at over 1.5 billion HUF (ca. 11.5 mio DM), 3-4 million of which are exports. Vegetables are stored in our own cold stores under optimal temperatures (one complex of cold stores was modernised in March 2000). Keeping quality is thus extended. Customs at Szentes are located in close proximity to these modernised cold stores where other companies also clear their produce in addition to our own. Vegetable varieties marketed by our company, by private growers and in the category of “early vegetables“ are appreciated in Germany, Scandinavia, Slovenia and Slovakia as well as in the Czech Republic. The most important export product, as I have already pointed out, is the elongated (pointed) yellow sweet pepper. It was the only fresh product to be trademarked “regularly controlled Hungarian product“. In addition, it was awarded the trademark “Excellent Hungarian Food“. In December 1998, “Det Norske Veritas“ confirmed Árpád Szentes vegetable growing and marketing to meet ISO Standard 9002. 35

“The Customer is King“ – a marketing concept first coined in the USA coupled with our imminent accession to the EU, also motivates us, both as growers and as exporters, to supply consumers with products of uniform quality and which were grown with the smallest possible amount of chemicals applied. Biological methods such as bumble-bees for pollination and useful animals in pest protection play an important part in our production. In cooperation with the Hungarian Institute of Technical Development and the University of Horticulture in Budapest we continue to test and further elaborate this method of integrated production. In this context I would like to point out that we have effected a number of changes in our production. One of them is the fact that we switched from greenhouse to rock wool production. We increased production area from 3.600 m2 for tomatoes in 1998 to 3 ha today (2 ha for peppers, 1 ha for tomatoes). Thanks to financial support from the Dutch government we were able to expand the acreage to 7 ha (6 ha pepper, 1 ha tomatoes). We marketed our first pepper harvest in 2000. As rock wool production obliged us to filter our water used for spray irrigation which has a high carbonate and sodium content we bought modern Reverse Osmosis filtering equipment for 20 ha from Sweden. Product quality has improved remarkably since then. Last year already we produced on rock wool without using pesticides and we are planning to expand the acreage further this year in order to market our integrated production method and to offer our partners products which the final consumer expects to be - fresh, - sound (free of chemical substances)decorative andreasonably priced. Until this day we have always tried to meet these expectations. Even before the fall of the wall Árpád (via Hungarofruct) was one of the biggest suppliers of early vegetables. After that event our company obtained its own export licence. Now what do our commercial partners in Germany and elsewhere expect from us and all our products? - Use of adequate packaging (cartons, IFCO, small packages in trays, etc.) marked and/or labelled (brand, class, size, logo, origin, etc.) according to EC regulations; - constant supply; - storage, transport and delivery of products which maintain their quality; - concrete and correct agreements. It is quite necessary to find reliable and solvent partners abroad and we are convinced that in the past Albert Pilz has optimally fulfilled our expectations. Being our most important EU partner, the company acquires from us an annual supply of 1.500 to 2.000 t of elongated (pointed) yellow sweet pepper, our typical Hungarian product. As you know, sweet peppers are very high in vitamin C. The Hungarian professor Albert Szent-Györgyi received the Nobel prize for his research work on the extraction of vitamin C from sweet peppers. So we can safely recommend the product to all our EC partners. Now I would like to say a few words regarding quality, quality production and quality control. I already mentioned the ISO standard. Meeting such 36 requirements means both increased amounts of paper work and more physical work actually but most of all it leads to increased food security. Our quality handbook regulates the following aspects and activities among others: - seed material - breeding of young plants - horticulture – activities and measures - possible chemical and/or biological treatments - technological rules and regulations - harvesting – grading, packaging and marking - storage, distribution at home and abroad and in each phase, of course - CONTROL. Permanent controls are essential, of course, and must be carried out by both producers and quality control authorities. And our national quality control measures have in fact been in accordance with EU rules and regulations since 1993 well before our Minister for Agriculture and Land Development adopted final regulations on September 15, 2000. Consistent and comprehensive controls as laid down in Regulation (EC) No. 2251/92 are necessary and thanks to our own strict controls none of our produce has been rejected yet, neither by Hungarian nor by EC control services. Finally, please allow me to make a few remarks concerning the implementation of Regulation (EC) No. 2200/96. On March 5, 1999 our Minister of Agriculture and Land Development adopted a regulation on fruit and vegetable cultivation and its market organisation, stating that as of this year, regulations in force in Hungary must correspond to rules laid down in Regulation (EC) No. 2200/96. Since 1999 only the small number of three producer organisations were registered in Hungary. I think that up to Hungary’s accession to the EU, the state should provide subsidies and thus support investment measures for such organisations in the near future. Other member states‘ experiences could be considered here and would provide one of numerous fields of activity for the Hungarian Fruit and Vegetable Council. Up until Hungary’s EU accession producers and traders should have the opportunity to obtain relevant information, get to know exact rules and regulations in order to take the adequate measures. And as I conclude my presentation, I would like to express my thanks once again to the BLE. I am glad to have been given the opportunity to explain Árpád AG’s view of issues in relation with the imminent EU expansion. Also, I would like to thank the group of controllers who came to see us in Szentes. I hope to meet some of them here. Ladies and Gentlemen, we are partners, in fact. Let us think about the future of Europe‘s agriculture. If we work together to further our common interest, EU expansion will be successful. Thank you for your attention. 37

EC-Marketing Standard for Onions

Lutz Böhme

(Editors note: The following text is a summarised version of the Power Point presentation.)

The current Reg. (EEC) No 2213/83 was recently revised. Two amendments were included into chapter II. PROVISIONS CONCERNING QUALITY, A. Minimum requirements. The proposed amendments are: - to increase stem length from 4 cm to 6 cm and to add a new indent - “without hollow or tough stems”.

The revised marketing standard for onions will be in force by 1st of January 2002. Certain quality criteria where presented by slides.

DEFINITION OF PRODUCE The standard applies to onions of varieties (cultivar) grown from Allium cepa L. of different colour, shape and size.

PROVISIONS CONCERNING QUALITY A. Minimum requirements Intact: In general, damaged onions are not in accordance with the minimum requirement. Damaged bulbs infected by mould must be considered „not sound“. Sound: The fungus Botrytis alli which causes neck rot is only visible from outside after removal of the outer dry skins. With the further development of the fungus it causes softnecks [Infected tissue is soft and discoloured with a clearly defined margin.]. Decay of the inner fleshy scales are to be rejected with reference to “spores between the outer skins” and must be described by “internal decay not regradable”. Absolutely not admitted are spores in between the inner fleshy scales of the bulb. The bacterial soft rot (Erwinia caratovora) must be considered “not sound”. Even the beginning, which is associated with a glassy appearance and often with a decay of the fleshy scales, is not admitted. In further development stages of the bacterial soft rot a secondary infection by fungus diseases is likely. Hollow or tough stems: Onions with a hollow or tough stem are not suitable for human consumption and therefore are not in accordance with the minimum requirement. Clean:Visible soil residues attached to the bulb must be considered “not clean”. Free from damage caused by frost: Frost bitten onions are not fit for consumption and hence are excluded from marketing. Onions are considered to be damaged by frost when the outer layers of the flesh are loosening from the bulb and the flesh showing a distinctive discoloration (frost bitten onions must not always be damaged depending on handling). 38

Stem: Stems must be twisted or clean cut and must not exceed 4 cm in length. The proposal to increase the length of the stem from 4 cm to 6 cm was accepted by most participants with the argument that the quality will be improved.

B. Classification Class I: Root tufts: The bulbs must be practically free of root tufts. However, some root tufts are allowed. Light staining and superficial cracks: Light staining which does not affect the last dried skin protecting the flesh, provided it does not cover more than one-fifth of the bulb’s surface are allowed as well as superficial cracks in the outer skins and absence of part of the outer skins, provided the flesh is protected.

Class II: Root tufts: Some more root tufts compared to class I are allowed. Light staining and superficial cracks: Stains which do not affect the last dried skin protecting the flesh, provided they do not cover more than half the bulbs are allowed, as well as cracks in the outer skin and the absence of part of the outer skins from not more than one third of bulbs’ surface, provided the flesh is not damaged. Shape not typical of the variety: Double onions are considered to be not typical of the variety, but are allowed as long as they are entirely covered by a single outer skin. Early signs of shoot growth visible from outside is allowed up to 1 cm in length and if not more than 10 % by number or weight per unit (lot) occur. Further shoot development is associated with softening of the bulb and therefore is not admitted. Following defects have been classified as slight signs for pest and disease attack: - Slight spores of mould between the outer dry skins, but neck area only, - Slight marking caused by thrips without affecting the flesh of the bulb, - Slight glassiness not exceeding two outer layers of the flesh and flesh not discoloured. Glassiness to a wider extent is not admitted and being a physiological defect must be considered according to the minimum requirement as “not sound”. 39

Results of Sample Assessment for Onions

Gerard Wenner, Wolfgang Jahner, Heinrich Stevens E I II 0 Remarks 1X without defects 2Xroot tufts 3Xnot sound; water core over more than two outer fleshy scales 4Xnot sound; severe bruising 5Xshape not typical of variety 6Xcut shoots and fresh root development 7Xshoot growth, too much for class II 8Xnot intact; fruit flesh damaged 9X Light staining which does not affect the last dried skin protecting the flesh is allowed, provided it does not cover more than one-fifth of the bulb’s surface. 10 X Stains which do not affect the last dried skin protecting the flesh, but cover more than half the bulb. 11 X Stains which do not affect the last dried skin protecting the flesh, provided they do not cover more than half the bulbs are allowed. 12 X Absence of part of the outer skins, more than one third of bulb’s surface affected. 13 X Cracks in the outer skin and the absence of part of the outer skins from no more than one third of the bulb’s surface are allowed, provided the felsh is not damaged. 14 X not intact; damaged onions due to handling; fruit flesh is seriously damaged 15 X stem; stem length more than 4 cm 16 shalots* 17 X not sound; damage caused by pests 18 X Shoot growth, exceeds limit allowed in class II 19 X not sound; virus attack 20 X without defects 21 X not sound; spores of mould on the fruit flesh 22 X not sound; Erwinia attack 23 X not sound; mould between the inner fleshy scales 24 X not sound; severe glassiness 25 X Slight glassiness allowed in class II (no more than two outer layers of the flesh).

* No classification, as not subject to standard. 40

Isotope Analysis as a Means of Tracing the Origin of Onions and Potatoes

Dr. Hilmar Förstel

(Note: Please refer to the end of this paper for details on the service offered by our Institute.)

1. Introduction Today, agricultural production north as well as south of the equator allows a year-round supply of the European market, assuming that costs of transport are no limiting factor. The quality of produce offered is standardised. If one wants to identify the origin of a product, labels and documents are only of limited use. In addition to these instruments, which may be powerful tools for professionals, other objective criteria should be available. Such criteria should not depend on chemical data but should be based on physical qualities determined by the natural conditions of the product itself. One should rely on the unchangeable properties of a food which it possesses due to its origin. In order to trace a material, two questions must be answered. The first one is simply asked to confirm the origin of a sample onion or potato indicated on the delivery note. By comparing the measurements taken of the sample to results of authentic samples from the same area (listed in our database), one arrives at a simple decision between yes (confirmed) and no (not confirmed). The matter becomes more complicated if a sample has to be assigned to an unknown origin. Therefore, additional information on other isotopic pairs and/or the production areas must be available in order to reduce the number of possible origins.

2. Isotopes and fractionations Chemistry can detect impurities and dangerous substances. A normal product of correct quality, however, shows only a very narrow range in its chemical composition world-wide. Chemical composition is thus not the most successful indicator of geographical origin. Chemical elements consist of atoms which in turn are considered to be set up as in a solar system. Similarly to the sun, the centre is formed by a heavy nucleus surrounded by the very light electrons which are responsible for the chemical properties of a product. As the nucleus can be modified by nuclear physical processes, its properties do not become evident, neither in the chemical and biochemical transformations which constantly occur around us or within ourselves nor in everyday life. Elements within the periodic table constantly occupy the same position even though they often have nuclei of varying mass called isotopes (Greek iso = same; topos = location). Biologically important elements consist of at least two stable isotopes as shown in figure 1. In nature, the isotopic composition of an element varies because substances on the earth surface are in constant processes of exchange and undergo isotopic fractionation in their course. A simple model may help us visualise the phenomenon: Imagine isotopes of varying mass to be billiard balls of varying mass moving, frictionless, across a 41 billiard table. This is the simple model of an ideal gas. However, within the gas, much more balls are in the game, in constant motion and continuously hitting each other. This constant impact leads to an even distribution of energy between all balls (rule of even energy distribution). Smaller balls have to move faster. (Experience shows that a big, slow ball accelerates a small one according to the mass difference following the hit.) If we now look at a billiard table containing two types of balls of varying mass, we imagine the mechanism to be set off by the initial impact of a billiard cue (i.e. temperature rising from absolute zero). Subsequently, the impulse will remain constant within the system (law of impulse conservation). As a result, the smaller balls move faster. Now, in order to withdraw balls from the system, pockets are opened in its corners. Smaller balls will find their way into them faster (higher probability) while bigger ones will remain on the table, thus symbolising isotopic fractionation. Given sufficient time, all balls will eventually have fallen into the pockets and no more mass differences can be observed. This leads us to the following conclusions: - During incomplete turnovers, small balls, i.e. light isotopes, are preferred (as during evaporation or rainfall) whereas the majority of heavier elements remains in the original phase (e.g. water). - In order to count all balls on the billiard table (i.e. to measure the isotopic composition of a sample) the relevant material must be sampled totally. - Following a complete turnover, differences in mass become irrelevant (law of mass conservation). These findings have a long tradition which dates back to the production of nuclear weapons. Subsequently they are applied to the study of geochemical processes (masses of water, ice ages, bio-/geochemical cycles). Hesitatingly at first, the knowledge about isotopic variation was applied to foodstuffs about twenty years ago taking into account the fact that all foodstuffs contain at least traces of water which is fractionated in a global cycle yielding a constant and typical fractionation pattern. In food control, stable isotopes can help detect variations of isotopic compositions.

3. Water is not the same everywhere In terms of isotopic composition, water varies all over the world. Its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, consist of stable isotopes. Hydrogen naturally consists of masses 1 and 2. The more rare isotope 3 is radioactive and thus irrelevant in our consideration. Mass 2 hydrogen is called deuterium and makes up 0.015 % of the element. Oxygen consists of three isotopes of masses 16, 17 and 18. As isotope 17 makes up only 0.04 % while isotope 18 makes up 0.2 % of oxygen, the former can be neglected and only the latter, i.e. the ratio of isotope 18 to the more abundant isotope 16, is measured and recorded. Most of the world’s water (98%) is contained in its well-mixed oceans. The remaining 2 % are deposited in the polar ice caps. Everywhere on earth water falls as rain and evaporates back into the air. This process requires one third of the sun’s radiation. Two thirds of the water going into the atmosphere evaporate in the area close to the equator, and the vapour is moved to the earth’s coldest regions around both poles by the global air masses. Since the fifties, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has been observing this water 42 cycle. Having standardised the measurement of the isotopic composition of water, the IAEA distributes standards and supervises comparative measuring programmes. The water cycle of evaporation and precipitation determines geographical isotopic patterns of air masses driven over a land mass by the main wind direction in a particular region. In Europe, the main direction of rain supply is from west to east but on the northern hemisphere the general movement from north to south also has to be taken into account. Knowing this, it can be observed that each location on earth has its own clear isotopic composition of water.

4. Data registration Isotopic variations are minimal, yet stable. A special notation was established to 0 register and report data as per mill ( /00) related to an international standard. At a first glance this may appear unusual but temperatures are indicated on a similar scale. The freezing point is set at zero, the boiling point at 100°C. Neither value is absolute but related to defined standards. For the oxygen isotopes 18/16 a real marine water sample SMOW, Standard 0 Mean Ocean Water, was defined as the zero point at 0.0 /00 while the SLAP (Standard Low Antarctic Precipitation) is located at the opposite end of the 0 18 16 scale and defined as –55.5 /00 for O/ O. Values are negative because evaporation favours the lighter isotope which later condenses. Similarly, most of the 18O/16O values are negative, a fact not easily understood by the layman, yet quite plausible to the expert. As the registered δ values are translated into atomic concentrations, the method’s high sensitivity, i.e. reproducibility, becomes evident: the heavy O-18 isotope constitutes about 0.2 % of the total oxygen atom. A deviation of 1 % leads to a 0.0002 % modification of the isotopic composition. Routinely, reproducibility of the measuring method is at 0.0002 atom % or better. Critics claim that these minimal deviations can be neglected but the isotopic composition of water can only be changed by phase transitions, either through nuclear processes or through evaporation. This unchangeable property of water which stores the memory of its place of origin in its isotopic composition is called a “fingerprint”. The required measuring accuracy is achieved by direct comparison of a standard gas to the sample. Application is made easier because the aqueous share of the food can be used directly and does not require prior cleaning. Water itself is not measured. In order to determine the composition of the relevant isotopic pair, the aqueous material is covered with a measuring gas, i.e. carbon dioxide, for oxygen, or with hydrogen. In the process, carbon dioxide dissolves in water only and is not influenced by the other components. Finally water, due to its abundance, imprints its isotopic composition of O-18/O-16 on the covering layer of carbon dioxide. The same applies to hydrogen in principle. The only difference lies in the fact that the exchange takes place in the gas phase and on a platinum catalyst. The result in both cases is a measuring gas which reflects the isotopic composition of water which is present in abundance. Other isotopic pairs can be measured after reduction or oxidation by an elemental analyser and subsequent analysis by IRMS (isotopic ratio mass 43 spectrometer). 13C/12C , 15N/14N and 34S/32S ratios are thus determined in a single run of ten minutes and by introducing only milligrams of sample material.

5. Application to potatoes Due to their compact structure and their high water content which is not easily exchanged or mixed, potatoes are well-suited for the stable isotope method. The water contained in potatoes reflects particularly well the isotopic composition of the water present at their place of production. At the beginning of the season potatoes from Egypt are particularly expensive. Their positive values (high O-18 enrichment) reflect the Nile water used for their irrigation and which arrives from the interiors of the African continent. Produce from neighbouring Israel shows a reduced O-18 content which might be explained by the precipitation on the Golan Heights which flows into the Jordan. Within more closely delimited areas such as central Europe, values vary less strongly, i.e. 18O/16O ratios are smaller because physical conditions in the production areas are ecologically comparable. This experience has also been supported by our long-time observations of must and wine samples. In terms of geographical determination, more exact data are needed in some countries, such as Spain or Italy because regional conditions vary strongly and both the water content of each type of soil and irrigation are of relevance. Yet the potato does not directly reflect the isotopic composition of local rain or ground water. As it is grown in accumulations of soil around the plant and is the product of specific stem prolongations (and not of the root system as was originally assumed), the soil is not in close contact with the local water level. Thus, increased evaporation leads to an isotopic enrichment of the 18O/16O ratio compared to the local precipitation level resulting in a +3 0/00 enrichment compared to the soil water. To those who claim that individual varieties could principally vary in their isotopic composition of water, we might reply that this is physically unimaginable. Such effects might occur only if varieties vary in terms of structure and root depth. In breeding, however, emphasis is put on the potato tuber instead. In the region of Jülich-Zülpicher Börde we did not detect any differences in the composition of water of various varieties such as Cilena, Climax or Solara.

6. Observations concerning onions Botanically speaking, the potato differs remarkably from the onion. While the former is part of a modified shoot, the latter is a complete shoot, compressed and with leaves resting. Consequently one could assume that onions show a physical behaviour distinctly different from that of potatoes. Yet our present experience does not confirm this assumption. On the contrary and in terms of physical behaviour, both vegetables are in a similar situation. Both are compact vegetables rooting close to the surface. So neither takes on the isotopic composition of local rainfall or ground water but shows an enrichment corresponding to the 18O/16O enrichment of the water contained in the top layers of soil instead. Onions from New Zealand differ particularly from European produce. This distinction can be proved for mixtures, too. Various enrichment levels compared to those of potatoes can be explained by the fact that onions have a different 44 root system and are grown differently. Even if transport and storage are taken into account, we shall stress once again that, in order to significantly alter the original isotopic composition of onions, a considerable exchange of water would be necessary.

7. Summary The determination of unknown origins of samples can only be as accurate as the control samples provided alongside them. Practically all potato or onion samples sent to us contain the indication of the country of origin only and no details as to the production region, for example. So we can only assign these samples to particular countries of origin, although we know that further differentiation is needed in countries where the isotopic composition of water varies greatly, as in Spain or Italy, for instance. We might have to consider whether a differentiation according to countries of origin should remain the decisive quality parameter or whether a further differentiation according to production regions is more suited (and safer) to characterise products submitted to us. The chemical composition of the soil cannot alter the isotopic composition of the water contained in potatoes, onions (or any other fruit or vegetable for that matter). Besides D/H, future analyses will include additional isotopic pairs such as 13C/12C, 15N/14N and 34S/32S. Contrary to D/H which is coupled to 18O/16O, however, those pairs show a less distinct geographic pattern than water. As the D/H ratio is less dependent on the influence of evaporation it may serve as a tool to reconstruct the initial isotopic content of water. Water remains in fact the most interesting parameter because of its global pattern and its ubiquitous presence in foodstuff and fruits. This test will enable us to confirm the origin of a sample irrespective of accompanying documents and/or further conditions of storage, handling or other treatment.

8. Technical notes on samples and quantities Material to be tested should be mailed the fastest way because storage in plastic or in narrow vessels may favour infections. Mailing samples in original packages is best. Their arrival and opening will be confirmed by the laboratory. Each measurement (duplicate) requires at least 4 ml of water and only a small amount of testing material. But since we need to obtain a representative sample, more than one potato or onion is needed. Up to now, we have been obtaining the liquid by copying simple household procedures (peeling, cutting, etc.) to separate it from the remaining solid parts. The liquid is cleaned by vacuum distillation to lower the risk of polluting the capillaries and valves of the exchange apparatus. Regular cleaning takes longer than vacuum distillation. We try to complete measurements within two working days of sample delivery, especially when dealing with produce which moves in trade at the time. We prefer and are especially grateful for authentic on-site material which even becomes mandatory in some cases. Related measurements will be entered in our database free of charge. 45

Figure 1: Isotopes and their frequency in biologically relevant and frequently analysed elements.

Element Symbol Isotope Atom%

Hydrogen H 1 99,985 2 0,015

Carbon C 12 98,892 13 1,108

Nitrogen N 14 99,632 15 0,368

Oxygen O 16 99,757 17 0,038 18 0,205

Sulfur S 32 95,035 33 0,75 34 4,215

The EC Marketing Standard for Melons

Dr. Ulrike Bickelmann

The current EC-marketing standard for melons (Reg. (EC) No 1093/97) came into force on 1 July 1997. The standard was revised once and a second revision is presently prepared.

(Editor’s note: Regulation (EC) No 1615/01 of 7 August 2001 laying down the marketing standard for melons and amending Reg. (EC) No 1093/97 was published in the Official Journal L 214 on 8 August 2001 and will be in force from 1 January 2002.)

I. DEFINITION OF PRODUCE The standard applies to melons of varieties (cultivars) grown from Cucumis melo L. This species can be divided into three random groups or types: - Cantaloupe melons - Muskmelons - Winter melons. 46

The German terms “sugar” and “honey” melons are colloquial denominations for certain types as well as synonyms for the entire group of melons.

Cantaloupe melons

− Charentais type: round, clearly ribbed; 0.5 to 1.5 kg; smooth, sometimes warty; skin is light green, changing to yellow at maturity; more or less dark green furrows; flesh is orange, sweet, juicy and very aromatic; at maturity fruits detach from peduncle; very sensitive and low keeping quality (max. 3 to 5 days).

− Netted Charentais: a mixed type from Cantaloupe and netted melon which emerged during attempts to cross Charentais with netted melons in order to increase keeping quality and suitability for transport; round, average size ~ 1 kg; skin netted with smooth furrows; harvested with peduncle; thick skin, suitable for transport; flesh is orange, sweet, less aromatic.

− Ogen type: round and ribbed; medium sized (~ 1 kg); smooth skin; yellow and green spotted surface; flesh is sweet and slightly aromatic.

Muskmelons

− American muskmelon, “Western shipping varieties”: round; size 1 to 3 kg; skin is thick and densely netted; flesh is orange in colour, firm and sweet with little aroma; very good keeping quality; suitable for transport over more than 3000 km.

− American muskmelon, “Eastern shipping varieties”: round to oval, usually ribbed; average size 1 to 3 kg; surface covered by fine, dense net, furrows may or may not be netted; flesh is orange, sweet, less firm; good keeping quality; origin US east coast, mainly for domestic consumption.

− Italian muskmelon: round; clearly ribbed; other characteristics similar to the above mentioned types; at times a distinction is made between “Italian netted melons”, type “Supermarket” (oval fruit) mainly produced in Latium and the “Sicilian netted melon”, type “Euromarket” (very large fruit).

− Galia: round; medium sized (1 kg +); slightly netted; orange yellow skin at maturity; flesh is green, sweet, slightly aromatic, similar to Ogen type.

Winter melons Compared to the Cantaloupe group, winter melons are bigger, they mature later and have a higher keeping quality; skin surface is smooth or wrinkled but not netted; flesh is white or green, odourless even when fully ripe, fruits do not detach from the peduncle.

− yellow Canary melon: mainly grown in Spain; long fruit average size 2 to 3 kg; shiny yellow skin; smooth or wrinkled skin; greenish white flesh, very sweet; good keeping quality (several weeks);

− olive coloured melon: oblong (rugby ball shape); average size 1.5 to 3.5 kg; green, smooth or wrinkled skin; green flesh; very good keeping quality (several months). The following varieties are most common: Tendral, Pinonet (dark green-spotted), Piel de Sapo (dark green-spotted), Rochet (yellow-spotted), Nectar (yellow-spotted); 47

− Honey Dew: round, average size ~ 2 kg; skin is greyish-white and smooth; greenish flesh; very suitable for transport. Orange fleshed varieties have lower keeping quality ( ~ 10 days) but are more aromatic and have a slight fragrance; fruits detach from peduncle at maturity. Varieties of these three groups can be crossbred. Hence, especially between Cantaloupe and netted melons, the entire range of skin structures (from smooth to netted) is possible. The American term Cantaloupe includes both European Cantaloupe and Muskmelons. Winter melons include the Altinbasz variety which is grown in and exported from Turkey. Small quantities of underdeveloped fruit are presented in uniform packages and exported to Germany. They are destined for a small market consumed and prepared like cucumbers and are thus considered not subject to the standard.

Minimum requirements

Intact: Damaged and split melons are to be considered “not intact” and may only be allowed within the tolerance of class II. Quality orientated companies offer only melons with a guaranteed minimum Brix value (determined by refractometer). It is measured automatically for each fruit and before distribution. When the standard for melons came into force, measuring was only possible by destroying the fruit. The refractometric index is automatically determined by measuring the quantity of soluble dry matter contained in the juice obtained from a sample (1.8 mm diameter) taken from each melon. Therefore, a small healed scar caused by the automatic measurement, and sealed with wax, is not regarded as a defect.

Sound: Deterioration in melons may have various causes. During quality controls the following defects are found among others: Rot occurs mostly as a result of damaged fruits. Alternaria rot produces circular to oval lesions (bleached at first and brown in later stages) which may sink into the skin; under humid conditions dark mould and numerous olive- coloured spores develop. Anthracnose produces numerous dark circular spots which often sink into the skin, may crack under conditions of high humidity and develop clusters of salmon coloured spores. Bacterial rots (Bacillus polymyxa) cause large brown spots, either hard or soft. Attacks of Erwinia carotovora ssp. carotovora occur in damaged fruits, releasing infective juice and foul odour. Erwinia ananas causes smooth, firm, brownish spots which may remain superficial skin blemishes but may also occur in the pulp and lead to misshapen fruits or to invasive soft rot. Also to be mentioned are chilling injury with reddish brown patches on the skin, cavity formation due to maturation or a Calcium deficiency as well as sunburn, causing dark yellow to brown discoloration of the exposed skin which affects fitness for consumption; fruits are to be rejected if the pulp is discoloured and the skin hardened or thin to the point of being torn, severe bruising with skin surface clearly flattened or sunken in and pulp underneath discoloured and cracked and, finally, overripe fruits. Defects of this kind must be considered “not sound” and are not admitted. 48

Clean: Fruits with any kind of foreign matter attached are not admitted. Fruits containing visible residue of chemical treatment are excluded from the tolerance of class II and hence from marketing. However, soiled fruits can be marketed within the tolerance of class II. Fresh in appearance: For as long as the standard has been in force, this requirement was never the cause of a rejection. Most fruits showing signs of being “not fresh in appearance” are so overripe and/or were stored so excessively that they must be considered “not sound”. Wilted fruits are excluded from marketing. Practically free from pests: Fruits with pests attached to the rind or existing within the fruit were not found yet during quality controls. Should they occur, however, they must be excluded from marketing. Practically free from damage caused by pests: This requirement covers damage caused by slugs and/or rodents. Tolerances only apply for fruits still fit for consumption. Skin damage caused by slugs cannot be considered a skin defect as those are only allowed in classes I and II if caused by handling and/or rubbing. Firm: Fruits which give way to a slight touch at their equatorial section must be considered “not firm”. Those fruits are mostly overripe or have other physiological defects making them unfit for consumption. Tolerances cannot be applied and fruits are excluded from marketing. Development and maturity: Melons must be sufficiently developed and display satisfactory ripeness. Fruits which are insufficiently developed or ripe, hence unfit for consumption, are not admitted within the tolerance of class II either. Although melons ripen after harvest, the increase of sugar and juice content depends on harvesting time, storage temperature and duration just as much as on the variety. However, in most cases an insufficient ripening after harvest has not be stated. Overripe fruits are not admitted. Melons are sufficiently ripe if the refractometric index, measured at the equatorial section, at the centre of the fruit, exceeds or equals 8° Brix. Presently a standard revision is prepared, providing that the Brix value has to be a minimum of 10 ° for Charentais melons.

Characteristics for development and maturity of Cantaloupe melons: While the skin surface of unripe melons is greyish green and shows dark green furrows, ripe melons are light green with a yellow touch. Yellow fruits are either fully ripe or overripe already. Ripe fruits tend to become soft at the flower end and give way to a slight touch. Fine superficial and radial cracks (sugar cracks) develop at the stem end. Due to the inner pressure of fully mature fruits especially, cracks can reach the pulp. Such fruits must be excluded from marketing. Sometimes sugar drops appear around the peduncle area. With Cantaloupe melons peduncles detach completely (“full slip”) at maturity. The development of a fine crack around the peduncle (“half slip”) indicates the earliest harvesting stage. To be fit for transportation, Cantaloupe melons must be harvested before the peduncle detaches completely. Melons with an aromatic fragrance are fully mature.

Characteristics for development and maturity of Muskmelons: Young musk melons have a smooth skin surface. As the fruits develop further, cork cells form under the epicarp and grow rapidly. As the fruit reaches maturity they 49 break through the skin surface and cover the entire fruit with a net. Netting appears flat and edgy at first and is greenish or slightly blue in colour. During later stages it becomes more rounded. With some varieties netting is rather dense. With unripe fruits, the visible skin surface is either grey, or ranges from light to dark green. Depending on the variety, mature fruits are either uniformly dark or light green or range from yellow to orange yellow. Mature fruits tend to become soft at the flower end and sometimes fine radial cracks occur. Peduncles completely detach (“full slip”) at maturity. The development of a fine crack around the peduncle (“half slip”) indicates a nearly ripe fruit ready for picking but, depending on the variety, is not always a safe indication for maturity. A mature fruit is characterised by an aromatic fragrance.

Characteristics for development and maturity of winter melons: Mature fruits tend to become soft at the flower end and skin colour changes from dark or light green to either off-white, cream or yellow. The rind of a ripe fruit is smoother and appears more waxy than that of an unripe one; the peduncle does not detach (exception: orange flesh Honey Dew). Fruits are odourless. Fruits are ready for picking when the point of impact changes colour.

Class I: Melons of this class must be of good quality. However, slight defects in shape, colour and skin are allowed. Neither the pale colouring of the rind at the point of impact nor the partial netting of usually smooth skin varieties is considered a defect, as the latter developed through crossbreeding with netted varieties. The participants of the Geisenheim Meeting agreed to allow slight skin defects as long as they do not cover more than 1/16 of the fruit surface (including the area around the point of impact). Slight healed cracks of a length of less than 2 cm around the peduncle are allowed if they do not reach the pulp. However, these maturity cracks should not be too distinctive as they could otherwise affect quality and keeping quality considerably. Fruits harvested with the peduncle attached should present a peduncle of a length of less than 2 cm. The option of accepting a stem length of 5 cm for varieties other than Charentais, Ogen and Galia was dropped during the adaptation of the EC standard to the UN/ECE standard.

Class II: This class allows melons with defects in shape, colour and skin. A pale colouring of the rind at the point of impact is not considered a defect. The participants of the Geisenheim Meeting agreed to allow slight skin defects as long as they do not cover more than 1/8 of the fruit surface (including the point of impact). Further, slight cracks or deep scratches which are dry and do not affect the pulp are allowed; so is bruising. Slight bruising occurs through rubbing within the packages, fruit pulp may not be affected.

Sizing: Size is determined either by the weight of one unit or by the diameter of the equatorial section. Different minimum sizes and size ranges are laid down for the groups of Charentais, Ogen, Galia and for the other muskmelons and melons. 50

Tolerances: The usual tolerances with respect to quality and size apply.

Presentation: As to melon uniformity and packaging, the usual regulations apply. Special provisions concerning presentation are not in force. However, melons should always be packed in such a way as to protect the produce properly and may not be packed or offered in bulk in the means of transport. Specific exceptions are only allowed for the domestic market in Spain and Portugal.

Marking: The name of the variety or commercial type must be indicated. It is possible to indicate either “netted melon” or “Galia” or the name of the variety (e.g. Regal). Size, expressed in minimum and maximum weight (if sized by weight) or minimum and maximum diameter (if sized by diameter), must be indicated. Size codes only are not sufficient. Indication of the number of units is optional and cannot replace size indication. Further information, e.g. minimum sugar content in Brix, is optional. The Brix value indicates the sugar (or soluble dry matter) content of a given lot. This indication helps to assess the ripeness and taste of a fruit. Producers and trade should use this information to highlight the quality of their produce. Quality controls will check the value indication by way of a reduced sample. In case of non conformity the tolerance of 10 % may be applied. If the value indicated is not reached, the trader may remove the information in order to present the relevant lot in accordance with the standard.

Results of Sample Assessment for Melons

Heinrich Stevens

Following the procedure with onions, participants also assessed different melon samples. Various varieties of winter, netted and Cantaloupe melons where displayed for that purpose. During the final presentation of results, Prof. Kazim Abak (Turkey), Igal Schulman (Israel), José Antonino Arias (Spain) and Heinrich Stevens (Germany) reached unanimous conclusions over the assessment of most of the defects shown.

However, a need became obvious for inspectors at the dispatch level (exporting countries) and inspectors at the receiving level (importing countries) to harmonise their assessment of certain defects. 51

Melon Types of Importance in Spain

José Antonio Arias

Melon production in Spain has a long tradition. Since the nineteen eighties, this typical fruit has been grown during the warm summer months, not only in the Mediterranean region but also in regions with moderate temperatures (e.g. cold winters and very hot summers) throughout Spain.

In the early eighties the following three melon varieties were mainly grown:

- Amarillo Liso: this yellow variety is harvested between June and July and mainly grown in the area around Murcia. - Tendral: matures late, has good keeping quality and can be stored until Christmas without cooling systems. - Verde Liso (synonym “Piel de Sapo” – toad skin): preferred consumer variety; traded on local markets only. In those days seeds from the fruits themselves were used and exchanged between growing areas in order to increase production. This system has led to self-sufficiency and a high diversification of types within the same variety. The domestic market developed a demand for green large-sized fruits (3 – 4 kg) which were consumed during one or several meals. Yellow melons from the Mediterranean region were mainly produced for export. “Tendral” and other green winter melons were primarily exported to Great Britain.

At the same time two important phenomena developed in the southwestern part of the Spanish Mediterranean region: - development of “protected production” and - use of selected seeds and hybrids.

“Protected production” led to a longer growing period, e.g. from spring until the beginning of winter. The use of selected seeds and hybrids led to a higher homogeneity of fruits and to an increase in production. Seed selection focused on improved disease resistance (e.g. soil-borne fungus diseases) as well as on commercial aspects.

Currently Spain produces an annual 950.000 t on 45.000 ha; 350.000 t are designated for export. These figures emphasise the importance of melon production for the Spanish agricultural sector. In comparison with other produce such as tomatoes, lettuce and sweet pepper, melon production is to be seen at the same level. In terms of labour etc. melons are no competition for these horticultural crops since they are grown off season.

1. Criteria for the classification of melon types Spanish melons are classified according to commercial specifications, botanical nominations and hybrids are not taken into account. Thus, a melon type belongs to a group of melons which can be identified by several characteristics 52 and which distinguish them from other groups. Characteristics can be related to shape, skin, flesh colour etc.

The following characteristics are used for classification:

- Fruit shape: - plump (round) - plump (round) slightly flat - elongated - elliptical.

- Skin colour: - more or less dark green - light green or light grey - yellow - brown. - Skin structure: - netted skin – the net covers the entire skin surface - ribbed (wrinkled, furrowed) – longitudinal depressions across the skin surface.

- Seed area (cavity): - covers the seed and its texture can be dry, soft (like gelatine) or watery.

- Pulp colour: - creme - greenish white - orange - white.

2. Types: 2.1. Yellow melons: Until the seventies the well-known “Spanish yellow” was the main export variety. Main characteristics are the yellow skin colour and the creme pulp colour. We distinguish two subtypes: - Amarillo Rugoso (yellow and wrinkled): large fruits with an oval or elliptical shape. The rind is hard and more or less wrinkled. - Amarillo Redondo (yellow, round and smooth): modern variety, round fruits, smooth rind, less weight (1 kg) than Amarillo Rugoso but higher sugar content (Brix value).

2.2. Galia Melons: are currently the most exported variety of Spain. Under various protection systems these melons are grown in the area of Almeria and Murcia (Mediterranean region) from March to August and in the area around La Mancha from August to October. Due to different growing conditions and cultivation methods there are several subtypes. Even experts find it difficult 53 to distinguish Galia melons traded under various names such as Revigal, Melina, Regal and Gustal.

Ascertainable common characteristics are:  round and flattened in shape  rind colour green, yellow at maturity  netted (fine)  white greenish pulp, white with some varieties  soft creamy texture  normal weight between 0.7 and 1.3 kg.

2.3. Green Spanish melons:

 main characteristic: more or less dark green skin colour, sometimes spotted  elongated shape  large fruits (1.5 to 3 kg).

We distinguish three subtypes:  Rochet:  elongated, oval  yellow, spotted  greenish pulp  “creamy” or “sandy” texture  the earliest of the three subtypes.

 Piel de Sapo:  elongated  dark green, spotted, sometimes wrinkled rind and slightly chapped  green pulp, firm texture  currently small fruit varieties of round flattened shape are grown.

 Tendral:  elongated, oval  dark green, spotted  very firm, wrinkled rind  light green pulp  very good keeping quality.

2.4. Cantaloupe:

 American origin  round shape  grey skin, netted across the entire fruit  orange coloured aromatic pulp.

2.5. Charentais: This French type with its two subtypes is grown in Spain.  smooth or netted skin (rind). 54

3. Maturity: The degree of ripeness is essential for the quality of melons. Two criteria are important for its determination: 3.1. External maturity:

With normally developed and healthy fruits, skin (rind) coloration will indicate the stage of external maturity.  “Yellow” and Galia melons change colour completely from green to yellow. The change towards yellow starts from the flower stem and gradually spreads over the whole fruit. Simultaneously Galia melons develop their netted structure more clearly. With yellow melons the elongated grooves become more visible towards maturity.  With other varieties such as “Cantaloupe” and “Spanish green” the colour change is not as obvious. The grey area around the peduncle of cantaloupe varieties will become darker. Coloration of the “Spanish green” tends to turn darker as well. Some varieties, such as “Rochet” and “Piel de Sapo”, get more spotted and streaky. The streaks become more pronounced and open up as a sign of ripeness.

3.2. Internal maturity:

At the same time changes occur within the fruit. They will affect the cavity and seeds as well as the pulp. In general the “heart” of mature fruits will open up slightly when they are cut open. Seeds and cavity colour will change to a more or less golden yellow and the cavity texture might become sticky. Within the pulp starch will change to sugar and taste will develop. With some types (cantaloupe) colour will change to a carrot-like red. With other types only the intensity of the colour changes. The pulp softens and, depending on variety, cultivation methods, harvest, etc., the content of soluble solids increases. With these maturity criteria some special conditions regarding optimal production and harvest can be described for Spanish melons:  “Yellow” melons of high quality and full maturity must have a crunchy pulp and must reach a Brix value between 12° and 14°.  Galia melons, fully developed and netted, must also reach a Brix value of 12° to 14°.  “Piel de Sapo” melons require dark colour, ovoid shape, clear skin design. The pulp must be firm and sweet and must have a Brix value of at least 12°.  “Cantaloupe” melons require a well developed shape, crunchy orange- coloured pulp and a Brix value of at least 10°. In Spain tests were carried out in order to determine a correlation between pulp firmness and degree of ripeness. But due to the different growing areas and variations of types and subtypes, no correlation was found. 55

4. Main defects Most defects occur in connection with maturity: 4.1. Immaturity: Generally, immaturity will be proved by using a refractometer according to Reg. (ECC) No 1093/97.

4.2. Excessive maturity: Overripe fruits are soft and watery, show signs of internal pulp breakdown and are therefore easily identified. Other defects can be classified as follows:

4.3. Physiological and mechanical damages:  hail and mechanical damage leading to defects of varied extent,  misshapen fruits due to stones, branches etc.,  cracked fruits due to incorrect irrigation and salty soils,  early detachment from the peduncle of sensitive varieties due to wrong fertilisation (nitrogen),  sunburn due to lack of foliage,  skin discoloration (i.e. irregular distribution of pigments) due to drought and high temperatures,  badly developed fruit setting, fruits will be battered,  “hollow hearts” will occur due to an excess of nitrogen and a badly developed fruit setting; such fruits have a wider “heart zone”. This last defect has the most damaging and lasting effect on pulp quality. It will dry out and be tasteless.

4.4. Damage caused by pests and diseases:  by birds, rabbits etc.  by insects, thrips etc.  by fungal diseases:  Colletotrichum lagenarium: brown rot, sunken lesions, circular spot, pulp is affected, fruit will dry out.  Cladosporium cucmerinum: leads to small sunken spots covered by a silvery grey mould.  Fusarium cucurbitacea: and others: leads to pulp deterioration after damage due to handling etc..  Botrytis cinerea: grey mouldy rot, rotting increases under warm temperatures.  by bacteria (Pseudomonas spp., Erwinia cartovora): leading to rot.  by viruses: 56

 mosaic virus: leads to irregular discoloration of the skin,  pustular spot disease: leads to small brown spots, does not spread.

5. New Varieties:

Breeding aims for new varieties are:  better fruit setting,  better attachment of the peduncle during maturity (a fundamental requirement for “suspended” production),  increasing resistance against diseases, especially against strains of Fusarium,  high yield.

Breeding aims for trade are:  typical in shape; high demand for round fruits,  finely netted fruits; trade associates netting with good maturity,  suitable fruit size,  sugar content,  keeping quality; fruits should not turn soft,  attachment of the peduncle.

In general it can be stated that new varieties will be offered and marketed by international organisations. Each country favours those varieties which are assumed to best fulfill national conditions and which promise satisfactory domestic consumption. In Spain new varieties of the “yellow”, “Galia”, “Green” and “Cantaloupe” groups are tested continuously. Currently the hybrids K2-18, Eagle and Zilba are of particular interest due to their new organoleptic characteristics.

Instead of stressing scientific aspects, this presentation aimed at highlighting technical and practical aspects relevant to experts of quality control of fruits and horticultural produce.

Melon Types of Importance in France

Vincent Judais, Christian Yard

(Editor’s note: The following text is a summary of the Power Point presentation.)

The melon, Cucumis melo L., is an horticultural product of high genetic diversity. The following types can be distinguished: Ogen, Galia, Eastern Shipper, Canary, Honey Dew, Cantaloupe Charentais etc. 57

Melon types differ according to fruit shape, skin (rind) and/or pulp colour and external appearance. In general, types are defined according to their first population variety, registered under the type. Numerous new varieties are registered for each type annually. In Europe, nearly every country has its own melon types which are mainly consumed in the production area. Galia, however, is an exception, as it is produced in Spain for export to northern Europe. At times, Cantaloupe charentais is also produced decentrally, exclusively in southern Europe however. The Cantaloupe type can be described as a spherical fruit with clear furrows, yellow at maturity. Its peduncle detaches easily, its pulp is orange and the fruit ripens quickly after harvest. For marketing purposes trade highlights the fruit’s particularly intense aroma. As new varieties of the Cantaloupe charentais type have been bred in the past 15 years, the following characteristics were further developed: - introduction of resistances and - improvement of fruit firmness. Significant improvements were also made with respect to the texture of mature fruits and to post-harvest shelf life (keeping quality). Both criteria were laid down by the French associations in 1997 for clear identification of the “Cantaloupe charentais” type. As this step was not taken on a European level, some varieties are now registered under “Cantaloupe charentais” which do no longer meet the original product criteria (e.g. quick increase of climacterium at maturity). To avoid confusion, a classification taking into account recent developments and based on external aspects and analytical results (taste etc.) alike should be considered to allow a segmentation acceptable by all levels of trade.

Cantaloupe Charentais - History In the beginning: Properties: - strongly ribbed (furrowed), - slightly netted, - short shelf life (keeping quality), - strong climacterium, - skin (rind) turns yellow.

1980: The first revolution Variety ALPHA, first monoecious hybrid variety with the following properties: - smooth skin, - homogeneous fruit, - regular size. 58

1985 Development of netted and ribbed varieties like SPRINT with the following properties: - cross breeding between Europe and the USA (“Western Shipper” type), - long growing period, - resistant.

1990: The second revolution brought the following achievements: - long shelf life (keeping quality), - very firm pulp, - high sugar content, - low flavour (taste), - green at maturity. Smooth long-life varieties: Clipper, Sirio, grown mainly in Spain. Netted long-life varieties: Dalton, grown in Morocco, Spain and France.

1993: An evolution from long to medium shelf life; the following improvements were achieved in turn: - more taste and flavour, - good firmness, - yellow at maturity, - stage of ripeness is easily determined (LUNA variety).

The sugar content of long-life varieties is genetically determined, e.g. a high sugar content does not represent maturity. Usually with all other melon types the sugar content increases up to the stage of ripeness. Only with long-life types this development happens on a higher level. The fruits’ taste and flavour potential depends on the amount of ethylene produced.

France in the year 2000 Only orange flesh “Cantaloupe charentais” is grown. - Production area: 17.500 ha, - Production volume 327.000 t, - Production doubled since 1980.

Growing area, % of total Shelf life growing area short medium long - Smooth and slightly 40 50 - netted types

- Netted types 1-5-8 59

Shelf life Fruit properties short medium long smooth / Smooth / smooth/ netted Type smooth netted / smooth netted netted Sugar content ++ ++ (+) +++ Brix value

Shelf life 3 - 6 days 6 - 9 days > 12 days

Skin colour at yellow yellow green maturity

Ethylene production ++ + 0 (+)

Taste +++ ++ +

The French melon industry launches studies concerning the requirements of the different market segments. The first step is a definition of different varieties with orange pulp.

Melon Varieties in Israel

Igal Schulman

(Editor’s note: The following text is a summary of the Power Point presentation.)

1. General notes Total melon production in Israel reaches about 80,000 tons, mainly destined for the domestic market while about 20,000 tons are exported, mostly to the EU. Autumn and spring are the two major export seasons. Main export varieties belong to Galia type melons. The fruit is shipped by several exporters; Agrexco exporting about 80% of the total being the largest by far. Proper agrotechnical practices during the growing season, correct harvest maturity and suitable post-harvest handling and cooling are the key factors for good eating quality and adequate shelf life. For most melon varieties, harvest indices for maturity are: yellowish skin, slight signs of abscission zone, minimum TSS 9% and a slight to noticeable aroma. The fruit must be picked carefully early in the morning or late in the evening and must be hauled to packing houses for sorting and selection immediately in order to eliminate fruits below standard and to achieve the desired quality class. A hot water treatment in the packing station proved to be very efficient in order to maintain high quality and extended shelf life of the fruit. Melons marked with the term “Eden” on the package went through this process. The treatment consists 60 in guiding the fruit through cold water first to be washed, then through a hot (58 °C) drizzle for 15 seconds before it is dried and waxed. This treatment helps eliminate microorganisms and thus improves shelf life and resistance to post- harvest diseases.

2. Melon varieties exported in the past

- Ogen Round-shaped, smooth. Good eating quality but limited shelf life. Must be handled with care as it is very sensitive to mechanical damage. Parent of Galia melons.

- Yellow Honeydew Oval-shaped, smooth. Good eating quality and shelf life when kept in optimal conditions.

3. Melon varieties currently exported 3.1. Galia type varieties They are the main group of varieties (all are hybrids) exported from Israel, developed by Dr. Zvi Karchi between 1970 and 1973 and named after his daughter Galia. Galia type melons are grown in semi-arid and arid regions of Israel during the autumn (harvest from September to December) and spring (March to May). Galia type varieties are characterised by a round-shaped, netted fruit. Netting is not too dense but covers the entire surface. The skin is yellowish, pulp is green. The fruit has a slight aroma and the average TSS content is 10-13%. The seed cavity is relatively small with no hollowness. Shelf life is up to 4 weeks given good growing, handling, transportation and cooling conditions. Sea shipment is possible.

Problems concerning quality - Green skin: Although the fruit is considered physiologically mature, TSS content is above 9% but the skin remains green and does not get the typical yellowish colour because carotenoids are not apparent. This phenomenon is related to low temperatures during picking time and normally occurs in late autumn (December). - Internal breakdown: A physiological problem where the flesh around the seed cavity loses its texture and becomes glassy. Sometimes fermentation odour is noticeable. Consequently, taste and aroma are not characteristic of the variety. Usually, the problem relates to inappropriate irrigation and fertilization management during the growing period. - Brown spots: An external discoloration which looks like scattered brown spots all over the skin surface. Although the defect does not penetrate into the flesh, it does severely affect the appearance of the fruit. It is one of the major post- harvest problems of the Galia type melon. Some cultivars are excluded from export due to sensitivity to this phenomenon. - Decay during storage: Usually caused by Alternaria or Fusarium. 61

Storage experiments show that storing the fruit in 8º C enhances decay but decreases brown spots whereas storage in 4º C decreases decay while increasing brown spots. Recommended storage of Galia type varieties is at 5º C after reducing the temperature by forced air cooling.

3.2 D’or melon (Ein-Dor) Local pineapple type summer melon, grown without or restricted artificial irrigation only. The fruit is oval with netted skin and noticeable aroma. Pulp colour is yellowish white (off-white). Good eating quality, average TSS content 14-16%. Only a small quantity of this variety is exported in June-July.

3.3 Charantais type melons - Luna and Cezanne: Orange flesh varieties are round-shaped with smooth to slightly netted surface. Medium range shelf life dictates shipping by air. Small quantities are exported during the autumn season. - Sirio: same characteristics as above with better shelf life. This variety is still under a trial period. - Dalton: resembles Cantaloupe type melon. Round-shaped, netted melon. Good eating quality, reasonable shelf life, still under examination.

4. Summary Israel exports about 20,000 tons of melons and mainly to the EU. Galia type varieties exceed other varieties destined for export by far. Autumn and spring are the two main seasons for Galia and Charantais types while a small quantity of D’or melons is exported during the summer. The list of varieties exported from Israel is not exhaustive. New varieties are tested regularly while others are withdrawn. The endless search is designed to derive maximum benefit from Israel‘s climatic advantage especially during the cold season in order to achieve good eating and keeping quality as well as fitness for sea rather than air shipments. This will enable us to supply the market with good quality melons for the benefit of consumers and growers alike.

Melons from Turkey - Main Types and their Characteristics

Prof. Kazim Abak

1. INTRODUCTION The melon is a plant species which has been cultivated for more than 4000 years. It originated in Africa and its wild types are commonly found in the Sudano-Sahelian area. The fruit’s place of domestication and first cultivation is in dispute. Some scientists suggest that India is the centre of domestication because it has been cultivated there for centuries. Others believe that the melon was first domesticated in Iran or Egypt (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997). Historical records and archaeological remains show that the fruit (Cucumis melo) was probably domesticated around 3 000 BC and has been cultivated since 2 000 BC (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997; Pitrat et. al., 1999). 62

Although its origin lies in Africa, Asia, reaching from the Mediterranean Sea to Japan, is its second centre of diversification. There is a great genetic diversity of melons in Anatolia, Iran, Armenia and Afghanistan. In the fifteenth century the fruit was brought from Eastern Anatolia to the papal estate of Cantaluppe near Rome and was spread to other European countries from there (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997). The word “cantaloupe” is derived from this source. Finally, this crop was introduced to America in the seventeenth century by Columbus. Anatolia is cited by various scientist as being one of the richest countries (Zhukovsky, 1933; Günay, 1975; Robinson and Decker-Walters, 1997) where genetic diversity of the melon is concerned. Zhukovsky (1933) who went on an expedition in Turkey between 1925 and 1927, considered the melon among the richest species. He mentioned that Eastern Anatolia (Van), Cukurova (Adana, Kahramanmaras) and the Aegean region (Izmir, Manisa and Balikesir) enjoy a wide range of melon species and he emphasised that the Cantaloupe type originated in Van. Melon cultivars are now grown in various temperate and subtropical areas around the world. According to FAO statistics, total world production and total cultivated area are estimated to be at 19 million metric tons on 1.1 million ha. The biggest producing countries are China, Turkey, the United States, Iran, Spain, Romania, Morocco and India. Table 1 shows that 64 % of world melon production come from Asia, 15 % from Europe, 15 % from America and 6 % from North Africa.

Table 1. Main melon producing countries and quantities in 2000 (10³ tons)

China 6 400 (33.7 %) Egypt 500 (2.6 %) Turkey 1 800 (9.5 %) Mexico 500 2.6 %) USA 1 320 (6.9 %) Pakistan 400 (2.1 %) Iran 1 100 (5.8 %) Italy 380 (2.0 %) Spain 1 100 (5.8 %) Japan 320 (1.7 %) Romania 900 (4.7 %) France 315 (1.7 %) Morocco 655 (3.5 %) Others 1 570 (8.3 %) India 640 (3.4 %) TOTAL 19 000 (100 %) Melon types produced in different regions of the world differ remarkably. Based on their properties, Naudin first classified them into 10 groups in 1859 (Nuez et. al. 1996). Even today this classification is valuable, although they are combined in seven groups. According to Robinson and Decker-Walters (1997) these seven cultivar groups and their fruit characteristics are:

 Group Cantalupensis (Cantaloup or Musk melon) Shape : round, medium size, Colour : light green; yellow at maturity, Rind : smooth; also slightly netted or warty, Weight : 0,6 - 1,5 kg, Flesh : orange, green at times; sweet, juicy, strong aroma, Other : detached fruit develops a peduncle at maturity. 63

There are three types : netted (round fruit, medium size, thick and firm rind), Charentais (round, small, smooth, thin rind, marked slices, orange colour flesh), Galia (round, medium size, rind slightly netted, greenish flesh).

 Group Inodorus (Winter melon or Casaba). Shape : relatively large, round or oval, Colour : green, yellow, gray or white, Rind : smooth or ribbed, Weight : 2,0 – 4,0 kg, Flesh : white, greenish-white or white-orange; very sweet, firm, Other : ripens late compared to cantalupensis; best properties for transport and storage.

 Group Reticulatus (Ananas) Shape : oblong, oval, Colour : yellow or orange, Rind : slightly netted, netting not very dense at maturity, Weight : 2,0 – 3,0 kg, Flesh : white, creme colour, yellow, salmon-coloured at times near seed cavity; sweet, very juicy, aroma of medium intensity.

 Group Flexuosus (Snake melon) Shape : very long (60-80 cm), cylindrical, crooked in general, Colour : young fruit is light green, Rind : strongly netted, Other : consumed like cucumber in salads; also pickled.

 Group Conomon (Pickling melon) Shape : small, longish, Colour : light or dark green, Rind : smooth, very thin, Flesh : white, sour, very limited sweetness, Other : mostly pickled in vinegar or consumed like cucumber in salads; rarely cooked like Zucchini. Very popular in Japan; widely consumed.

 Group Dudaim (Mango or Manzana melon). small, very hairy plant Shape : very small, round or oblong fruits (diameter of 2.5-5.0 cm), Colour : yellow with dark red or brown spots, Rind : hairy, Other : intense fragrance. 64

 Group Momordica. Shape : egg-shaped or cylindrical fruits (diameter of 7-15 cm, 30-60 cm in length), Flesh : white or light orange in colour, Other : not sweet, sour at times.

2. MELON GROWING IN TURKEY In Turkish vegetable production the melon ranks third after the tomato and the watermelon. Its cultivation area comprises 110 000 ha and production is at 1 800 000 tons. It is cultivated in all regions, but Central Anatolia is the main production area. Other regions are: Central Anatolia 41 %, Aegean 27 %, South-Eastern Anatolia 15 %, Mediterranean 7 %, Marmara 5 %, Eastern Anatolia 4 % and Black Sea 1 %. While Ankara is the most important melon growing province in Central Anatolia, Konya, Kirikkale, Aksaray and Çankiri also have large growing areas. Almost all melons in this region are grown without irrigation (dry farming) and in open fields. Cultivars belong to the inodorus group. Most popular cultivars are Yuva, Kirkağac and Kislik Sari Kuscular. Due to climatic conditions harvesting is done quite late in the year, from August to September. In the Aegean region main production centres are Manisa, Denizli, Izmir and Aydin. Cultivation is generally non irrigated but in some areas like the Gediz and Menderes plains irrigation is used. The most popular cultivars of the region are Kirkağac and Hasanbey (inodorus). In recent years, growing of some cultivars (cantaloupensis, Israeli type) began especially in the southern part of the region in Izmir and Aydin. A small percentage of cantaloupensis cultivars are grown under plastic tunnels. Inodorus type cultivars are grown in open fields. Harvesting begins in June. The biggest melon producing provinces of South Eastern Anatolia are Diyarbakir, Mardin, Sanliurfa and Adiyaman. All melon cultivation in this region is carried out without irrigation and in open fields. Harvesting is done in July and August. Cultivars grown are mostly local types of the inodorus group but recently some cultivars of the Kirkağac type have also been cultivated. Melon producing provinces in the Mediterranean region are Hatay, Antalya, Adana and Mugla with Hatay and Adana realising an important share. In recent years, greenhouse production was also started in Antalya. Cantaloupensis type cultivars (Galia, Makdimon) are commonly grown under plastic tunnels. In greenhouses, netted fruit cultivars are also grown beside this type. For open field production, the Ananas type (reticulatus) is usually especially suitable. However, cultivars such as Kiragac and Hasanbey (inodorus) have also been cultivated besides the Ananas type, at a very low percentage however. Fruits are cultivated in irrigated growth. In the Marmara region, which ranks fifth in melon production, important melon cultivation centres are Baklikesir and Bursa (Anatolia) as well as Kiriklareli and Edirne (Thrace region). Kirkagac is the most widespread cultivar but different forms can be found. Hasanbey, Kislik Sari and Hirsizcalmaz cultivars follow Kirkagac. Reticulatus and cantalupensis cultivars are rarely found in this region. 65

Production is carried out without irrigation and in open fields. Harvesting starts in July and continues until September. Concerning the region around Lake Van, melons are cultivated only in Eastern Anatolia where the cantaloupensis group originated. At first only landraces from the reticulatus and cantaloupensis groups were grown, but recently inodorus cultivars such as the Kirkagac, Kislik Sari, Hasan Bey, Yuva groups are being cultivated. Harvesting is done from August to September. In other provinces production remains at a very low level. As the Black Sea region does not have enough land and due to its very moist climate it is not suitable for melon cultivation. Only a small production can be found in the province of Samsun. In general, melons are cultivated on small parts of land of less than 5 ha in size. Growers sell their products either directly on their fields or on local markets.

3. MAIN VARIETY TYPES CULTIVATED IN TURKEY Eighty-five percent of the melons produced in Turkey belong to the inodorus group. Its cultivars are resistant to the hot and arid climate. Fruits are also hard and have a thick rind which resists physical damage. These properties make them suitable for transport and storing. The remaining 15 % of production are equally shared by the cantaloupensis and reticulatus groups. In addition, flexuosus cultivars are grown in small quantities in south-east Anatolia, the eastern Mediterranean and the central Aegean region. Immature fruits of the flexuosus group are consumed like cucumber and are not included in melon statistics. Dudaim type melons are also produced at a very low percentage without being marketed, however.

3.1. Cultivar types of the Inodorus group In Turkey, this is the group with the largest number of cultivars in terms of diversity and fruit characteristics. The number of hybrids or cultivars bred by open pollination is quite low. Kirkagac: The term refers to a group rather than a cultivar and includes many landraces with different characteristics in each producing region. Rind colour is the most typical characteristic: generally light green with dark green spots at first, yellow at maturity. Fruit size and shape vary according to region and cultivating conditions. Shape ranges from round to oval, elliptical and oblong. Altinbas, cultivated in the Aegean and Marmara regions and Cumra, grown in the Karaman, are round while Tatar, Kirkagaci, Hidir, Süleymanli Kirkagaci, grown in the Marmara region, are oval. Dark secondary colour, smaller size and few spots characterise some types such as Süleymanli Kirkagaci. Secondary colour is more intense with some types and appears in stripes with others (Hidir, Cumra). Rind is thick and hard, the surface smooth, generally slightly, at times strongly wrinkled. In general, ribbing or netting do not occur. Average fruit size is between 2.5 and 3.5 kg, but for some types, especially those grown in irrigation, fruit weight can increase to 5 to 6 kg. The juicy but odourless pulp is white to greenish close to the rind and yellow to slightly orange at times near the seed cavity. Sugar content reaches 9 – 10 % under irrigation and 11 – 12 % under dry growing conditions. The peduncle 66 does not detach from the fruit which can be stored for 1 to 2 months even in regular storage conditions. Hasanbey is a melon cultivar especially grown in the Aegean and Marmara regions. Fruits are round and dark green. There are also oblong types. Mean fruit weight is at 2.5 to 3.5 kg but it can increase to 5.0 to 6.0 kg under irrigation. The thick rind (1.0 – 1.5 cm) is quite hard. These characteristics make the fruits very suitable for transportation and storage and also guarantee long shelf life. The rind is strongly wrinkled but neither netted nor ribbed. Fruit flesh is quite hard, yet sweet, juicy and odourless. It is white, slightly pink towards the centre and slightly green near the rind. Dry matter content is at 9 to 10 % under irrigation and 11 to 12 % in dry conditions. The cultivar ripens very late. Harvesting is done from August to September. Yuva is a central Anatolian cultivar especially grown in Ankara. Its general characteristics are similar to Hasanbey but its dark greenish-grey colour is less intense and its wrinkles are less evident. The fruit is round in general, but oval fruits can also be found. Rind is thick and hard, without netting or ribbing. Fruit flesh is odourless, quite sweet and juicy and creme in colour. Sugar content ranges from 9 % to 12 % depending on growing conditions. Harvesting is done from August to September. The fruit is quite suitable for transportation and storage and has long shelf life. The winter melon (Kuscular) is a cultivar grown in all melon growing regions of Turkey. A focus lies in central Anatolia and the Marmara regions. Compared to Kirkagac, Hasanbey and Yuva, production level is lower. Fruits are round and bright yellow (canary yellow). The average fruit weight is at 2.0 to 2.5 kg. The rind is usually smooth or slightly wrinkled, flesh is odourless and creme in colour. Sugar content is low. The cultivar ripens very late and can be stored until mid-winter. Hence its name. Hirsiz Calmaz is a cultivar grown in central Anatolia, the Marmara and Aegean regions. Mean fruit weight is at 2 to 3 kg. Fruits are oval, rind colour is green as the fruit approaches maturity and creme to yellow when fully mature. The fruit surface is smooth, rind thickness is at 0.8 to 1.0 cm. Fruit flesh is white or creme, has little to no odour but is quite tasty. Sugar content is at 10 to 12 %. The fruit is quite resistant to dry climate and high temperatures.

3.2 Cultivar types of the reticulatus group Ananas is a round fruit with an average weight between 1.8 and 2.5 kg. Orange yellow; slightly netted rind; white or yellowish white flesh. Fruits are moderately sweet (9 – 10 %), quite juicy and with little odour. Quite resistant to dry climate and high temperatures, thus grown in the southern coastal region. Mostly grown in open fields, some cultivation under plastic tunnels. Topatan is an old cultivar but cultivation decreases gradually. Fruits are oblong, average weight is at 1.5 to 3.0 kg; moderate fragrance, rind is smooth, slightly netted and with yellow spots. Flesh is yellowish white. Due to its thin rind the fruit is not suitable for transport and storage. Barada is an early cultivar. Fruits are oval, average size at 2.0 to 2.5 kg. Rind is netted and yellow to orange in colour; harder and thicker than with Ananas. Flesh is yellow orange. 67

Hybrid cultivars such as Eden, Hicross etc. have also been produced.

3.3 Cultivar types of the cantaloupensis group Cultivars of this group can be listed under two subgroups. The first being F1 hybrid cultivars originating in Israel and mostly grown in covered cultivation. Only a small part are grown in open fields in the Mediterranean region. In Turkey, cultivation of this type was recently begun in the Aegean region. The second group consists of local populations; their fruits are consumed on the local market only and marketed on a very low scale. In the first group, the two most frequently grown cultivars are Galia and Macdimon. They are similar to each other, as Macdimon is a Fusarium-resistant version of Galia. Fruits of both Galia and Macdimon cultivars are small and round. Average fruit weight is at 0.8 to 1.5 kg. The rind is slightly netted, green before maturity and yellow to orange when fully mature. Fruit flesh is light green, quite sweet and aromatic. In addition to Galia and Macdimon cultivars such as Polidor, Falez have also been cultivated.

4. QUALITY IN MELON Harrana, a Spanish writer, characterised melons in 1513, saying that the melon is the best of fruits if it is good, yet the worst of things if bad (quoted in Shoemaker, 1949). Melon quality depends on various components: external and internal appearance, taste and aroma, flesh texture, nutritive value and chemical residue. External appearance is determined by characteristics such as fruit size and uniformity, presence or absence and design of secondary colour, rind texture, netting, ribbing, blossom scar, cracking, peduncle detachment scar. There is no standard concerning fruit size, a genotypical characteristic strongly determined by environmental conditions. One criterion for fruit size - the number of fruits fitting in a standard package - is used in trade for cantalupensis and in part for reticulatus cultivars only. Inodorus types are marketed without packages. Fruit shape - elliptical, oval and oblong - is a good criterion for cultivar diagnosis but is irrelevant for maturity which is best determined by rind colour, secondary colour and its design, rind texture, netting, ribbing, size of blossom scar and, especially, peduncle detachment (for cantalupensis only). Blossom scar size and cracking are also genotypical characteristics affected by environmental conditions. Internal characteristics are determined by flesh colour, texture and thickness, by cavity size, or the presence of aroma. Taste depends on sugar content which should be at least 10 %. If fruits are harvested before maturity, aroma increases after harvest while the sugar content dose not increase much. Factors affecting quality are quite numerous. Cultivar characteristics are of primary importance, of course. In addition, growing conditions (irrigation, temperature, soil structure, fertilisation, humidity, plant vigour etc.), maturity, harvesting period, post-harvest conditions such as conditioning (plastic film or wax), packing, storing and transportation affect fruit quality considerably. 68

5. CONCLUSION Thanks to climatic conditions very suitable for melon cultivation Turkey became the second biggest melon producer. The second largest centre for genetic diversity of melon cultivars is located in Anatolia and the large range of varieties presents great opportunities for geneticists and breeders. On the other hand, this diversity creates heterogeneity in production and makes it difficult to provide the market with a sufficient number of standard products. Especially in the inodorus group, production material and populations are quite frequent and less heterogeneous. The number of cultivars from open pollination or hybrid breeding is very limited. Private companies have facilitated melon breeding studies and the problem is expected to be partially solved in the years to come. For reticutatus and the Israeli cantaloupensis type, cultivars are uniform and the majority of them hybrids. As an important quantity of meIons in Turkey is produced in dry farming, quality characteristics such as aroma and taste are quite good. Epidemics caused by pathogens and pests are at a low level due to low air and soil humidity. Hence, growers use less, sometimes no chemicals at all. In contrast, post harvest treatment such as conditioning, classification, packaging, transportation, storage conditions is not satisfactory yet. The melon price in Turkey and Europe requires picking in May. With greenhouse cultivation, melons can be produced in May, although greenhouse production has not reached a satisfactory level yet. As soon as commercial connections are established and marketing is guaranteed, the production of Turkish melons in May can be increased.

6. REFERENCES Nuez, F.; Prohens, J.; Iglesias, A.; Fernandez de Cordova, P., 1996. Catalogo de semillas de melon. Ist. Nac. Invs. Tech. Agr. Alim. Min. Agr., Madrid Odet, J. 1991. Le melon, CTIFL Publ., Paris Pitrat, M.; Chauvet, M.; Foury, C. 1999. Diversity, history and production of cultivated cucurbits. Proc. 1st Symp. on Cucurbis. Edit. K. Abak and S. Buyukalaca, Acta Hort. 492, 21-28 Robinson, R.W.; Decker-Walters, D. S. 1997. Cucurbits. CAB Int., New York Shoemaker, J.S. 1949. Vegetable growing. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York Zhukovsky, P. 1933. Agricultural structure of Turkey. Turk. Sek. Fab. A.S. Pub., Ankara