Eating History Chinese American Gastronomy in Hawai‘i Judith M. Kirkendall Judith M. Kirkendall, “Eating History: Chinese American Gas- fied hundreds of food items within a system that includes the tronomy in Hawai‘i,” Chinese America: History & Perspec- five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, water), the five organs tives – The Journal of the Chinese Historical Society of Amer- (gallbladder, small intestines, stomach, large intestines, blad- ica (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America with der), the five viscera (liver, heart, spleen, lungs, kidneys), the UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 2010), pages 123–132. five emotions (anger, happiness, contemplation, worry, fear), the five seasons (spring, summer, long summer, autumn, raditional gastronomic behavior within a particular winter), and the five flavors (sour, bitter, sweet, spicy hot, culture is subject to changes that can be internally or salty).1 Concepts of traditional Chinese medicine still per- Texternally generated. Some cultural groups lose major meate the food behavior of modern Chinese, whether with portions of their food customs through such changes, while regard to seeking medical treatment or to composing an other cultures exhibit behaviors that resist change. Chinese appropriate menu for a feast. ethnogastronomy seems to prevail as a tradition wherever In addition to balancing foods with complementary and Chinese people live. Such has been the case in Hawai‘i. contrasting tastes, textures, and health-giving (or maintain- Evidence of archeological finds from recently excavated ing) properties, concern is shown for including seasonal or Han tombs reveals valuable details of ancient Chinese food regional specialties, exotic or expensive ingredients, and an customs. Murals of kitchen activities depict workers—men appropriate number of courses. in the majority—preparing meats, pounding and mashing, Perhaps no other cuisine in world history has encom- drawing water. Paintings of banquets provide clues as to early passed the variety of ingredients; attained the degree of etiquette and information about food preparation, order of inventiveness; exhibited the breadth of interrelationship with service, table arrangement, and the service of wine and tea, other cultural practices, such as social organization, medical among many other behaviors associated with the prepara- theory, and religious observance; or been as integrally a part tion and consumption of foods. This visual information com- of the ethos of the culture as has the Chinese. Preoccupation bined with early Chinese literary references lends emphasis with food and eating is central to Chinese culture. to the persistence of Chinese gastronomic traditions. In a country as large as China, the staple foods of the Preeminent among such traditions is the Chinese atti- numerous subcultures vary, yet the preferred food combina- tude toward food as the basis of promoting bodily health. tion, as evidenced by remains of foodstuffs in sites identified Harmony in the physical body relates to harmony in society as dating from the fourth or fifth millennium BCE, as well and the universe and is based upon goals of stability and bal- as by contemporary food behavior, is a combination of car- ance. Just as principles of yin and yang must be balanced in bohydrate plus a relish dish of meat and/or vegetables. This every other aspect of human life, so must they be balanced in typical fan/ts’ai combination is consistently evident in the the food one consumes. In folklore and in classical Chinese broad range of regional Chinese food, with distinctiveness medicine, “hot” (yang) and “cold” (yin) foods are important expressed through an emphasis on a particular ingredient or in the maintenance of good health as well as in the treatment the use of special flavoring agents. of ill health. Intersecting the hot/cold dichotomy is “dry” and Due to differing geographic and climatic conditions and “wet.” In the humoral concept of medicine, hot/wet diseases to the particular crops that will thrive in a given location, would be treated with the appropriate “balancing” foods. Chinese cuisine is generally divided into two broad areas, According to Lin Yutang, “The whole culinary art of China northern and southern. The northern dishes are heavier and depends upon the art of mixture.” oilier and are based upon wheat or other grains, while the Chia Ming, a fourteenth-century scholar, provided a liter- southern rice-based meals include a large variety of meat, ary explanation of the interrelationships of the elements con- fish, and vegetable dishes available due to the gentle climate. sidered vital for the maintenance of good health. With the A recent publication listing the famous culinary creations Chinese cultural predilection for the number five, he classi- (ts’ai) of modern China includes 614 entries, with the great 123 124 Judith M. Kirkendall majority of these from southern China and only 15 percent tioned ingredients being matched to the size and shape of identified with the north.2 the serving container and to the use of chopsticks. Squid, Clearly, much of the variety evident in every aspect of the for example, is not merely cut into pieces for cooking but is Chinese food tradition is linked with the adaptability inherent decoratively scored so that the process of blanching produces in the culture itself. Viewed from a historical perspective, Chi- a “flowering” into delicate designs that please the eye. nese culture embodies traditions of many subgroups within a Color and texture are created by the cook, while flavor large population dispersed over a broad geographic area. enhancement may frequently be left to the diner. Generally, The ability to adjust and adapt to the exigencies of cli- composed dishes are preseasoned; however, for certain foods, mate, population size, social upheaval, invasion, and poverty such as snacks or dry-cooked meats or seafoods, the diner as the circumstances of history have demanded has left its will mix an individual seasoning dip to his or her own taste. indelible mark on Chinese cuisine. That food adaptability Food color, texture, and temperature are important. Hot still plays a very special role in contemporary Chinese life foods are expected to be served very hot. Frequently they are is illustrated in a 1981 epidemiological study conducted still steaming or sizzling when served, characteristics thought in Nanjing. Among all mental health problems observed in to add to their gustatory appeal. children, the “partiality for a particular food” was the most In Chinese culture, there is much dining outside the commonly noted. Clearly, adaptability and acceptance with home. Even the humblest person, not able to pay for a res- regard to food are considered to be healthy attributes in a taurant meal, can buy inexpensive snacks, dumplings, modern Chinese child’s mental attitude.3 noodles, and soups from street vendors, who supply bowl, In modern times there has been a general tendency to chopsticks, even a portable table and bench for the customer. classify the regional foods of China into distinctive “cui- Wherever Chinese have immigrated, the street hawker, often sines.” While these groupings are distinguishable by reliance with a characteristic call, bell, or wooden block advertising on certain staples or by the use of particular flavoring agents, his specialty, has become a familiar sight. the characteristic local dishes are more alike than different, Chinese restaurant dining is modeled on the customs of combining the bland fan with mixed-ingredient ts’ai. the imperial court, with the multicourse dinner the ultimate Szechwan-Hunan food utilizes the pungent flavors of expression of festivity and hospitality. The drinking of spir- peppers, chilies, and garlic, while Cantonese food, which its has always been a part of celebratory feasting, although until recently was the product of most American Chinese res- drinking to the point of drunkenness, except on clearly taurants, is characterized by sweet/sour flavor combinations, defined occasions, is not socially acceptable in Chinese cul- fermented and salted black bean sauces, red-roasted pork, ture. Tea is commonly drunk while contracting business, varieties of snack foods, and dishes utilizing seafood, fresh, socializing, or settling disputes, and tea is automatically salted, or dried. The Fukien regional style features a large served in Chinese restaurants. Customary etiquette dictates number of soups, congees, and stews, with a Fukienese spe- the placement and usage of tableware, with chopsticks and cialty being the use of coagulated blood from pigs and chick- the flat-bowled spoon accommodating all varieties of precut ens stir-fried with onions and other ingredients. Mandarin, foods and soups. Shantung, and Yunnan are among a host of other local cui- Young children are taught proper behavior at the dining sines of China, each with distinguishing culinary treatments. table and learn to discriminate among different flavors and Cooking methods, like flavor preferences, may vary in foods. It is unusual in a restaurant to see a small infant seated different geographical areas. For example, grilling over open on a parent’s lap being tempted with small bites from every flames is common in western China. However, a number dish. As a result of early and continuing inculcation in appro- of traditional cooking techniques are generally employed priate gastronomic behavior and appreciation, the Chinese among all Chinese groups. Cooking with water and cooking adult is generally highly perceptive with regard to food qual- with oil are basic treatments, with quick simmering, poach- ity. Both men and women pride themselves on their knowl- ing, and stir-frying, all conserving of limited fuel, common edge about food and foodlore. throughout Chinese subcultures. The steaming of meats, Among the Chinese, eating is a social occasion. The shar- breads, and vegetables over a rapidly boiling soup is a single ing of rice, even though it may be eaten at different times operation that can produce two or more dishes. Chinese culi- by family members with varying schedules, is a communal nary technique is further characterized by the use of serial act.