Frederick Copleston HISTORIA DE LA FILOSOFÍA Tomo II De San Agustín

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Frederick Copleston HISTORIA DE LA FILOSOFÍA Tomo II De San Agustín Frederick Copleston HISTORIA DE LA FILOSOFÍA Tomo II De San Agustín a Escoto LIBER - HNDA Frederick Copleston Historia de la Filosofía II CAPÍTULO PRIMERO INTRODUCCIÓN 1. En este segundo volumen de mi Historia de la Filosofía había sido mi primera intención presentar el desarrollo de la filosofía a través de todo el período medieval, entendiendo por filosofía medieval el pensamiento y los sistemas filosóficos que fueron elaborados entre el Renacimiento carolingio a finales del siglo 8 d. J. C. (Juan Escoto Eriúgena, el primer filósofo medieval destacado, nació hacia el año 810), y el final del siglo 14. Pero reflexiones posteriores me convencieron de la conveniencia de dedicar dos volúmenes a la filosofía medieval. Ya que el volumen primero de mi Historia1 terminaba con una presentación del neoplatonismo, y no contenía tratamiento alguno de las ideas filosóficas que pueden encontrarse en los primeros escritores cristianos, consideré que era oportuno decir algo de esas ideas en este volumen. Es verdad que hombres como san Gregorio Niseno y san Agustín pertenecen al período del Imperio romano, y que la filosofía a la que se afiliaron fue la platónica, entendiendo este término en su sentido más amplio, y que no puede llamárseles medievales; pero subsiste el hecho de que fueron pensadores cristianos, y que ejercieron una gran influencia sobre la Edad Media. Apenas es posible entender a san Anselmo o a san Buenaventura sin saber algo de san Agustín, ni sería posible entender el pensamiento de Juan Escoto Eriúgena sin conocer algo del pensamiento de san Gregorio de Nisa y, del Pseudo-Dionisio Areopagita. Así pues, casi huelga defender la decisión de iniciar una historia de la filosofía medieval con la consideración de unos pensadores que pertenecen, por lo que respecta a la cronología, al período del Imperio romano. Comienza, pues, el presente volumen con la época más antigua de la literatura cristiana, y prosigue la historia de la filosofía medieval hasta llegar al final del siglo 13, incluido Duns Escoto (1265-1308 aproximadamente). En mi tercer volumen me propongo tratar de la filosofía del siglo 14, con una especial atención al ockhamismo. En dicho volumen incluiré también el tratamiento de las filosofías del Renacimiento, de los siglos 15 y 16, y de la «Edad de Plata» del pensamiento escolástico, aun cuando Francisco Suárez no murió hasta el año 1617, veintiún años después del nacimiento de Descartes. Esa composición puede parecer arbitraria, y, en cierta medida, lo es. Pero es extremadamente dudoso que pueda trazarse una exacta y tajante línea divisoria entre la filosofía medieval y la moderna, y no sería indefendible que se incluyese a Descartes en el período de los últimos escolásticos, por contrario que eso pueda ser a las tradiciones historiográficas. No me propongo, empero, llegar a tanto, y si incluyo en el próximo volumen (el tercero) a algunos filósofos que puede parecer que pertenecen propiamente a la Edad Moderna, la razón por la que lo hago así es en gran parte una razón de conveniencia, la de dejar más desembarazada la continuación y poder, en el cuarto volumen, desarrollar de una manera sistemática la interconexión entre los más destacados sistemas filosóficos, a partir de Francis Bacon en Inglaterra 1 Historia de la Filosofía, vol. I, Grecia y Roma. 3 LIBER - HNDA Frederick Copleston Historia de la Filosofía II y de Descartes en Francia, hasta Kant incluido. No obstante, cualquiera que sea el tipo de división adoptado, no ha de olvidarse que los compartimientos en que uno divida la historia del pensamiento filosófico no son compartimientos estancos, que las transiciones son graduales, no abruptas, que hay superposiciones e interconexiones, y que los sistemas que se van sucediendo no están cortados unos de otros con un hacha. 2. Hubo un tiempo en que la filosofía medieval se consideró indigna de un estudio serio, cuando se daba por supuesto que la filosofía de la Edad Media era de tal modo esclava de la teología que era prácticamente indistinguible de ésta, y que, en la pequeña medida en que podía ser distinguida, no consistía apenas sino en infecundas minucias lógicas y juegos de palabras. Dicho de otro modo, se daba por supuesto que la filosofía europea constaba de dos períodos principales, el de la Antigüedad, que venía a reducirse a Platón y Aristóteles, y el moderno, cuando la razón especulativa comenzó de nuevo a gozar de libertad, después de la oscura noche de la Edad Media, durante la cual la autoridad eclesiástica había reinado absolutamente y la razón humana, atada por sólidas correas, se había visto obligada a reducirse al estudio inútil y fantástico de la teología, hasta que un pensador como Descartes rompió al fin las cadenas y dio libertad a la razón. En la Antigüedad y en la Edad Moderna la filosofía podía considerarse como un hombre libre, mientras que en el período medieval había sido un esclavo. Aparte del hecho de que la filosofía medieval compartió de la manera más natural la desestimación con que solía verse, en general, a la Edad Media, un factor al que debe atribuirse en parte la actitud adoptada ante los pensadores medievales fue sin duda el lenguaje utilizado, a propósito del escolasticismo, por hombres como Francis Bacon y René Descartes. Del mismo modo que los aristotélicos tendían naturalmente a valorar el platonismo en términos de la crítica que del mismo hiciera Aristóteles, así los admiradores del movimiento que parecía iniciado por Bacon y Descartes se sentían inclinados a mirar a la filosofía medieval a través de los ojos de éstos, sin advertir que mucho de lo que Francis Bacon, por ejemplo, tenía que decir contra los escolásticos, no podía ser aplicado legítimamente a las grandes figuras del pensamiento medieval, por aplicable que pudiera ser a los escolásticos posteriores y «decadentes», que rendían culto a la letra de aquéllos, en detrimento del espíritu. Si desde el principio los historiadores dirigían su mirada a la filosofía medieval a esa luz, difícilmente podía esperarse que buscasen un conocimiento de aquélla más exacto y más de primera mano: la condenaban sin verla ni oírla, sin conocimiento de la rica variedad del pensamiento medieval ni de su profundidad; para esos historiadores, toda la filosofía medieval constituía un solo bloque, un árido juego de palabras y una servil dependencia de la teología. Además, insuficientemente críticos, no supieron reconocer el hecho de que, si los filósofos medievales se dejaron influir por un factor externo, la teología, los filósofos modernos han sido también influidos por factores externos, aunque éstos no fueran teólogos. Para la mayoría de dichos historiadores habría sido una proposición desprovista de sentido laque sugiriera que Duns Escoto, por ejemplo, podría pretender ser considerado como un filósofo británico tan grande, por lo menos tan grande, como John Locke, mientras que en su elevada estimación de la agudeza de David Hume, no tuvieron en cuenta que ciertos pensadores de los últimos tiempos de la Edad Media habían ya anticipado gran parte de la crítica que acostumbraba considerarse como la peculiar contribución del eminente escocés a la filosofía. Citaré un ejemplo, el modo de tratar a los filósofos y la filosofía medieval un hombre 4 LIBER - HNDA Frederick Copleston Historia de la Filosofía II que fue, a su vez, un gran filósofo, Jorge Guillermo Federico Hegel. Es un interesante ejemplo, puesto que la idea dialéctica que Hegel tenía de la historia de la filosofía exigía evidentemente que la filosofía medieval fuese registrada como habiendo hecho una contribución esencial al desarrollo del pensamiento filosófico, y, por lo demás, Hegel, personalmente, no era un simple antagonista vulgar de la filosofía medieval. Ahora bien, Hegel admite ciertamente que la filosofía medieval realizó una función útil, la de expresar en términos filosóficos «el contenido absoluto» del cristianismo, pero insiste en que no es sino una repetición formalista del contenido de la fe, en la que Dios se representa como algo «externo», y si se recuerda que para Hegel la fe es el modo de la conciencia religiosa, definidamente inferior al punto de vista filosófico o especulativo, el punto de vista de la pura razón, está claro que, a sus ojos, la filosofía medieval solamente puede ser filosofía en el nombre. En consecuencia, Hegel declara que la filosofía escolástica es realmente teología. Lo que Hegel quiere decir con eso no es que Dios no sea objeto de la filosofía, lo mismo que de la teología; lo que quiere decir es que aunque la filosofía medieval considerara el mismo objeto que considera la filosofía propiamente dicha, lo hacía según las categorías de la teología, en vez de sustituir las conexiones externas de la teología (por ejemplo, la relación del mundo a Dios como la del efecto externo a su libre causa creadora) por las categorías y conexiones sistemáticas, científicas, racionales y necesarias de la filosofía. La filosofía medieval fue, según eso, filosofía por lo que respecta a su contenido, pero, por lo que respecta a la forma, fue teología; y, a los ojos de Hegel, la historia de la filosofía medieval es una historia monótona, en la que los hombres trataron en vano de discernir algún estadio claro y distinto de verdadero progreso y desarrollo del pensamiento. En la medida en que la opinión de Hegel sobre la filosofía medieval depende de su propio sistema particular, de su modo de ver la relación entre la religión y la filosofía, la fe y la razón, lo inmediato y lo mediato, no puedo discutirla en este volumen; pero deseo indicar cómo el tratamiento hegeliano de la filosofía medieval va acompañado por una muy real ignorancia del curso de su historia. Es posible, indudablemente, que un hegeliano tenga un verdadero conocimiento del desarrollo de la filosofía medieval y adopte sin embargo, precisamente por ser hegeliano, el punto de vista general de Hegel respecto de la misma; pero no puede haber ni una sombra de duda, incluso si se tiene en cuenta el hecho de que el filósofo no editó y publicó por sí mismo sus lecciones sobre historia de la filosofía, que Hegel no poseyó de hecho aquel conocimiento.
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