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Surface Distribution and X-Ray Emission from Scotch Tape

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Surface Distribution and X-Ray Emission from Scotch Tape Surface Distribution and X-Ray Emission From Scotch Tape by Kelly McGuire A senior thesis submitted to the Department of Physics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science Department of Physics Brigham Young University – Idaho July – 2012 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY – IDAHO DEPARTMENT APPROVAL of a senior thesis submitted by Kelly McGuire This thesis has been reviewed by the research committee and senior thesis coordinator/advisor and has been found to be satisfactory. Date David Oliphant, Senior Thesis Coordinator/Advisor Date Kevin Kelley, Committee Member Date Ryan Nielson, Committee Member Date Stephen Turcotte, Department Chair 1 ABSTRACT SURFACE DISTRIBUTION AND X-RAY EMISSION FROM SCOTCH TAPE Kelly McGuire Department of Physics Bachelor of Physics Triboluminescence is an optical phenomenon in which light is generated when certain materials are pulled apart, ripped or rubbed, and through the breaking of chemical bonds. This observable effect is not fully understood; however, a few strongly supported hypotheses are being developed to model the triboluminescent event. It is believed that the separation and ionization of electrical charges is the foundation for the creation of the observed light and x-rays (figure1). FIG. 1 Triboluminescent Light Time dependence of x-ray production and physical surface distribution was the primary focus of my research. This research will help in the development and support of current hypotheses, and may become the foundation for other theories in the future. Other research teams such as Putterman’s UCLA group believe that finding a definite mechanism for the x-ray emission of this type will allow them to harness the energy more efficiently, which in turn will be used in applications such as medical devices 2 to destroy tumors with bursts of x-rays. The Putterman's UCLA group believes there may be a potential application to detect x-ray emissions from triboluminescent materials as they start to fatigue. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the Brigham Young University- Idaho Department of Physics for the opportunity to perform research that has helped me to develop my scientific skills as well as prepare me for future endeavors. I would also like to thank David Oliphant, Kevin Kelley, and Ryan Nielson for the guidance and advice that was given to help in the completion of this thesis. As well, I would like to acknowledge Karl Decker for his collaboration and insights on this project, and Jon Wilson for his help in designing the new chamber. 3 Table of Contents Chapter 1 History…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4 1.1 Discovery of Triboluminescence with Adhesives…………………………………4 1.2 Previous/Current Experiments……………………………………………………………5 1.3 Bremsstrahlung Radiation………………………………………………………………….7 1.4 Overview of My Research………………………………………………………………….8 Chapter 2 Methods and Equipment………………………………………………9 2.1 Previous Chamber………………………………………………………………………………9 2.2 Design of New Chamber……………………………………………………………………10 2.3 Experimental Setup……………………………………………………………………………12 2.4 Physical Structure of Tape Surface before Experiment………………………13 2.5 Time Dependent Parameters…………………………………………………………….18 2.6 Velocity Dependent Methods…………………………………………………………….19 Chapter 3 Results…………………………………………………………………………………..20 3.1 Physical Structure of Tape Surface After Experiment………………………..20 3.2 Time Dependence of X-Ray Count……………………………………………………..25 3.3 Velocity Dependence…………………………………………………………………………27 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………30 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………..32 Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………………………33 4 Chapter 1 History 1.1 Discovery of Triboluminescence with Adhesives The first hint of x-rays in triboluminescence appeared in a paper by J.W. Obreimoff on, “The splitting strength of mica.” In addition to studying the ability of polished glass plates to re-adhere to one another after splitting, Obreimoff describes some electrical phenomena which appear when the mica is split in a high vacuum. In anticipation of the results relating to Scotch tape, Obreimoff notes, “If split in darkness, mica becomes slightly luminescent (triboluminescence). This is due to electric discharges between the mica surfaces through the air. If we split them under an air pressure of 1.0-0.1 mm. mercury the glow spreads to all the air in the vessel and is similar to the glow of a Geissler tube. In a high vacuum ( mm. mercury) the glass of the vessel fluoresces like an X-ray bulb. The light is feeble and can be observed only after the eye has rested about 3 minutes in darkness.” 1 This fluorescing of the glass of the vessel suggested the presence of x-rays, and it only appears when a vacuum is present, just like the tape experiments to be described. I did not include mica in my experiments, but I believe there might be value in studying triboluminescence further by future researchers. 5 1.2 Previous and Current Experiments Triboluminescence without x-rays in the peeling of tape has been studied by many researchers. Seminal work by Dickenson2 included bursts of light having nanosecond duration in 1988 and measurement of current flow from tape peeled from metal surfaces in 1995. Also Miura in 1997 correlated the electrical discharge with the fracture of adhesive filaments in tape.3 In these seminal works any x-rays that accompanied the observed triboluminescence from peeling tape were not reported. In this regard, it is worthwhile to note that x-rays were discovered by Röntgen in 1895 while experimenting with the cathode ray tube (CRT). CRTs are devices which the positive anode attracts electrons from the negative cathode in a vacuum. The electrons upon collision with the anode emit x-rays by bremsstrahlung (further description can be found in section 1.3). Recently, x-rays were reported by Camara4 at UCLA by peeling 3M brand Scotch tape at steady 3 cm/s in a vacuum. The tape did not emit x-rays continuously, but in short nanosecond bursts – accumulating enough energy to produce an x-ray image of a finger in a second (see Figure 2). Most brands of clear adhesive tape also give off x-rays, FIG. 2 X-ray image of finger 6 albeit with a different spectrum of energies, although why duct tape does not emit X- rays is not explained. Researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign also began conducting experiments that exploited the effect to shed light -- literally -- on how materials fracture. They published their findings in the 2007 edition of the Journal of the American Chemical Society.5 The Illinois researchers had to figure out some way to amplify the triboluminescent effect in order to glean useful information from the fracture point. Suslick and his collaborators filled a test tube with a semiliquid mixture of small sugar crystals and liquid paraffin and then immersed a vibrating titanium rod into it. This generated ultrasound waves, creating acoustic cavitation (lots of tiny bubbles constantly growing and collapsing in the paraffin). The shock waves caused the sugar crystals to collide, nitrogen and oxygen bubbled through the semiliquid mixture, and the result was bursts of light 100 to 1000 times brighter than the usual triboluminescence. So far they've found the presence of carbon monoxide, CO2 ions, and other products of combustion, and are now working on determining the chemical reactions taking place during triboluminescence Concerning the research that has been done at Brigham Young University – Idaho, Jarom Decker has provided me with a good foundation to continue his research. The design of his chamber (described in section 2.1) is the foundation for the design of the current chamber design (described in section 2.2). Jarom’s experiment was aimed to understand the fundamental processes that produce the x-rays, to determine angular dependence between the tape and the spool, and to observe the time dependence of total x-ray count. 7 Just to be brief, the results for the time dependence experiment showed a decrease in x-ray count and a conglomeration of glue after 30 minutes. For the angular distribution experiment, results did not show a definitive conclusion for angular dependence. Jarom accredited the inability of showing an angular distribution of x-rays to certain flaws in the apparatus he was using at the time. 1.3 Bremsstrahlung Radiation Electromagnetic radiation is produced by the deceleration of a charged particle when deflected by another charged particle, typically an electron by an atomic nucleus. The moving particle loses kinetic energy, which is converted into a photon because energy is conserved. The term is also used to refer to the process of producing the radiation. "Bremsstrahlung" means "braking radiation" and is retained from the original German to describe the radiation which is emitted when electrons are decelerated or "braked" when they are fired at a metal target. Accelerated charges give off electromagnetic radiation, and when the energy of the bombarding electrons is high enough, that radiation is in the x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is characterized by a continuous distribution of radiation which becomes more intense and shifts toward higher frequencies FIG. 3 Bremsstrahlung Curves 8 when the energy of the bombarding electrons is increased. Figure 3 shows Bremsstrahlung radiation curves that were produced when electrons of four different energies bombarded tungsten targets. The Bremsstrahlung radiation curves are easily reproducible when working with radiation in the x-ray region, and are very distinct and recognizable from other types of curves that are produced by radiation. 1.4 Overview of My Research Time dependence of x-ray production and physical surface distribution was the primary focus of this research. The goal was to determine if the change in surface characteristics has any direct influence of charge build-up and discharge, and if so to what extent. Most of the research discussed in this paper will concentrate on the dynamics of the tape’s surface and charge distribution, and the effects on x-ray emission by changing the parameters of the experiment such as the surface area of the tape.
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