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The Effect of Harvest Timing and Irrigation on the Quality of Olive Oil

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The Effect of Harvest Timing and Irrigation on the Quality of Olive Oil The effect of harvest timing and irrigation on the quality of olive oil by Jamie Graham Ayton A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Hons.) University of Western Sydney 2006 Statement of Authentication The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. …… …….. (Signature) Acknowledements The majority of the work reported in this thesis was carried out at the NSW Department of Primary Industries, Wagga Wagga Agricultural Research Institute, under the supervision of the Principal Research Scientist (Oil Research), Dr Rod Mailer. I thank him for his guidance and support throughout this work. Thank you also to Damian Conlan for his hard work, dedication and friendship. I would like to thank Dr Tony Haigh and Dr Deidre Tronson from the University of Western Sydney for their supervision, advice and support during the development of this thesis. My thanks to my colleagues in the Oils Research Laboratories for their assistance in analysing the olive oil for this project. I would like to thank the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation and Nugan Quality Foods for providing financial support for this project. Many thanks to my family, especially my mother Kathleen, for their love and support. Finally, thank you to my wife Gayle for her love, support, kindness and patience. Abstract Olive oil production in Australia has increased significantly in the past decade. and will soon reach about forty thousand tonnes per annum. While some Mediterranean countries have well established, modern olive oil industries, the Australian industry is still in its infancy. In order to compete in the world market, the Australian olive oil industry requires information on the response of olive cultivars in Australian conditions, especially when to harvest and irrigate to produce high quality olive oil This study investigated the effect of harvest timing and irrigation on the quality of olive oil. It was conducted on a commercial olive grove in southern New South Wales over a three year period. It involved harvesting, extraction and analysis of the oil at 6 harvest times from early February to late July. Three commercial olive cultivars – Mission, Paragon and Corregiolla were studied. The oil was analysed for free fatty acids, peroxide value, total polyphenol content, induction time, fatty acid profile, chlorophyll content and tocopherols. Results indicate that harvest timing has a significant effect on some of these components of the olive oil. Free fatty acids tended to increase as the season progressed, whereas polyphenols and hence induction time, or stability decreased significantly. A number of irrigation regimes were imposed in this study, although management was difficult due to drought conditions and lack of available water. Very few significant differences were found with irrigation effects. This study provides very useful information and guidelines not only for the Australian olive industry, but also for the international olive oil producing community. Glossary AOCS – American Oil Chemists’ Society. Crop evapotranspiration (ETC) – refers to crop water use. It is the combination of the water evaporated from the soil surface around the tree and that transpired from the trees foliage. Crop coefficients (KC) – is an experimentally determined value for the measurement of the water use for a particular crop. It takes into account factors such as crop development, crop growth stages and canopy size. EM31 electromagnetic survey probe – a device used to measure conductivity or resistivity of different parts of the soil profile. Etp – potential crop evapotranspiration. EU – European Union. EVOO – extra virgin olive oil. FFA – Free fatty acids. FID – Flame ionization detector. A type of detector used in gas chromatography. GC – gas chromatography. HPLC – high performance liquid chromatography. IOOC – International Olive Oil Council. IUPAC - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Malaxer – machinery used to mix the ground olives in order to separate the oil from the solids. This is done at varying temperatures (20-35°C) and time periods (20 minutes to 1 hour) depending on the type processor and the cultivar being processed. This process is known as malaxation. mEq – milliequivalents. NATA – National Association of Testing Authorities. Organoleptic – sensory characteristics of given products. Pomace - the solids which remain after the oil has been extracted from the ground olives. Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) – RDI strategies allow a certain degree of water stress in periods when the tree is less sensitive to water deficit such as periods of lower temperatures and minimum plant growth. By applying these irrigation strategies, maximum yield can still be reached, while the amount of water applied is reduced. TAG – triacylglycerol. A glycerol molecule to which are attached three fatty acids. VSM – Volumetric soil moisture. Table of Contents 1 CHAPTER 1 OLIVES AND OLIVE OIL................................................................................ 4 1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 4 1.1.1 Family, species and tree type ......................................................................................... 4 1.1.2 Fruit characteristics....................................................................................................... 5 1.1.3 Cultivars......................................................................................................................... 5 1.1.4 World olive oil production and consumption ................................................................. 5 1.1.5 Olive oil production and consumption in Australia ....................................................... 7 1.1.6 Olive harvesting ........................................................................................................... 10 1.1.7 Postharvest storage ...................................................................................................... 11 1.1.8 Olive processing........................................................................................................... 12 1.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF OLIVE OIL.............................................................................. 15 1.2.1 Fatty acids.................................................................................................................... 15 1.2.2 Triacylglycerols............................................................................................................ 17 1.2.3 Polyphenols .................................................................................................................. 17 1.2.4 Chlorophyll................................................................................................................... 20 1.3 QUALITY PARAMETERS OF OLIVE OIL................................................................................. 21 1.3.1 Free fatty acids............................................................................................................. 21 1.3.2 Peroxide value.............................................................................................................. 22 1.3.3 Accelerated oxidation tests........................................................................................... 25 1.4 THE EFFECT OF HARVEST TIMING AND MATURITY ON OLIVE OIL QUALITY ......................... 26 1.4.1 Fatty acid profile.......................................................................................................... 28 1.4.2 Polyphenols .................................................................................................................. 29 1.4.3 Chlorophyll................................................................................................................... 30 1.4.4 Free fatty acids............................................................................................................. 31 1.4.5 Peroxide value.............................................................................................................. 31 1.4.6 Accelerated oxidation tests........................................................................................... 32 1.4.7 α-Tocopherols.............................................................................................................. 32 1 1.5 THE EFFECTS OF DEFICIT IRRIGATION ON OLIVE OIL QUALITY ............................................ 33 1.5.1 Olive fruit development and irrigation......................................................................... 33 1.6 SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................... 37 1.7 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES....................................................................................................... 37 1.7.1 Aims.............................................................................................................................. 37 1.7.2 Objectives..................................................................................................................... 37 2 CHAPTER 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................... 38 2.1 WAGGA WAGGA OIL RESEARCH LABORATORY.................................................................
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