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Characterisation of Mediterranean Wetlands’ Water Requirements with an Emphasis on Current Environmental Issues

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Characterisation of Mediterranean Wetlands’ Water Requirements with an Emphasis on Current Environmental Issues Voie d’Approfondissement et Mastère « Gestion de l’Eau » - 2007-2008 CIRED - UMR CNRS/EHESS/ENGREF TECHNICAL SYNTHESIS CHARACTERISATION OF MEDITERRANEAN WETLANDS’ WATER REQUIREMENTS WITH AN EMPHASIS ON CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SPYRATOS VASSILIS E-mail: [email protected] January 2008 ENGREF Centre de Montpellier B.P.44494 – 34093 MONTPELLIER CEDEX 5 Tél. (33) 4 67 04 71 00 Fax (33) 4 67 04 71 01 0 ABSTRACT Wetlands are rich and diverse ecosystems. They provide numerous ecosystem services and important, noteworthy hydrological and ecological, functions. International conventions and national legislations provide a comprehensive set of official commitments to their preservation. Wetlands’ preservation is also highly recommended by scientific communities and international organisations. Most Mediterranean wetlands have been historically drained for water-borne disease and agricultural uses. Remaining wetlands are currently heavily threatened by physical alteration and by drastic hydrological changes. An important challenge for the long term preservation of water resources in the Mediterranean lays in finding ways of securing appropriate allocation of water to wetlands. Key Words: wetlands, ecosystems water requirements, Mediterranean, water allocation and management, strategic environmental analysis 1 PLAN INTRODUCTION I. CHARACTERISATION OF MEDITERRANEAN WETLANDS 0 Wetlands definitions 0 The Mediterranean region 0 Mediterranean wetlands: various, useful and fragile ecosystems II. ECOLOGICAL STATUS AND MAIN DEGRADATION CAUSES 0 Historical and current degradation of Mediterranean wetlands 0 Main causes of degradation III. CHARACTERISATION OF MEDITERRANEAN WETLANDS’ WATER REQUIREMENTS 0 Important ecological principles for ensuring wetlands’ water requirements 0 Identification of the main environmental issues concerning Mediterranean wetlands’ water requirements IV. WATER ALLOCATION TO WETLANDS: THE CONTRIBUTION OF A STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACH 0 Environmental flows: concepts and methods 0 How ambitious should be environmental objectives concerning water allocation to wetlands? 0 Interests and contribution of a strategic approach to action and analysis of the environment and resources management situations 0 Decision making process for environmental flows determination CONCLUSION 2 INTRODUCTION Wetlands are rich and diverse ecosystems. They provide numerous services, including functions that are essential for the natural functioning of hydrosystems and the long term preservation of landscape and biological diversity (Ramsar, 2007; CIEPP, 1994; Zalidis et al, 2002 ; Fustec et al, 2000 ; Acreman, 1999 ; WCD, 2000). In recent history, and especially in the first part of the twentieth century, more than half of Mediterranean wetlands have been totally drained – to prevent water-borne diseases, to expand agriculture and to make room for infrastructures, housing, industrial and tourist facilities (Zalidis et al. 2002). Most of the remaining wetlands are threatened by heavy physical alteration (noteworthy coastal urbanisation and agricultural land reclamation) and by drastic hydrological regimes modifications 1 (sharp decrease of annual inflows to riverine and coastal wetlands due to irrigation and drainage networks, regimes transformation due to hydropower dams, …) (Zalidis et al, 2002 ; CIEPP, 1994, CdB-RMC, 2001). Most Mediterranean countries have ratified the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-Herzegovia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Syrian Arab Republic, The FYR of Macedonia, Tunisia, and Turkey. International conventions and national legislations provide a comprehensive set of official commitments to the preservation of wetlands and of hydrosystems natural functionalities (Leroy, 2006). The preservation of remaining wetlands is also highly recommended by scientific communities and international organisations (OCDE, 1991; CE, 1995; Ramsar, 2007; CdB-RMC, 2001; Zalidis et al, 2002; CIEPP, 1994). However, despite these official commitments and scientific recognition of the societal interest of wetlands preservation, the collective efforts that have been undertaken up to now appear to be insufficient to face efficiently the processes conducting to wetlands degradation. Most of these processes are still in the running or growing (Mermet et al, 2005a). To build an environmental management systems’ analysis that enlighten for environmental action and efficiency, Mermet et al (2005a) recommend to clearly hold together in the analysis: (1) a clearly defined ecological system; (2) the causes of its ecological degradation – degradation that generates the environmental problem that is considered; (3) the technical conditions for the stopping of this degradation, for its prevention, or an eventual restoration; (4) the concrete, socio-political and strategic, situations in which committed people initiate change actions to try to improve the situation. In this perspective, the present technical synthesis, which is based on the analysis of technical and scientific documents, will focus on the following points: (1) characterisation of Mediterranean wetlands; (2) evolution of their ecological status, and the main current threats to their conservation; (3) technical water requirements for the preservation of wetlands functionality and the main management changes needed to cope with this goal; (4) the concept of environmental flows as well as strategic issues and decision processes determining water allocation to ecosystems. 1 Pollution is also a serious threat to Mediterranean wetlands (Zalidis et al, 2002 ; CdB-RMC, 2001). However, considering current threats in terms of surface loss and quantitative water flows, we will focus on these issues in the frame of this synthesis. Let us simply mention that this pollution issue can be addressed by reducing pollution outputs, but also by increasing the surface of functional wetlands – playing their buffer zone water epuration role – and the amount of fresh water running into wet and aquatic ecosystems – by dilution effect (Cattan, 1996 ; CIEPP, 1994). 3 I. CHARACTERISATION OF MEDITERRANEAN WETLANDS 0 WETLAND DEFINITIONS Located at interfaces and being highly variable in both time and space, wetlands are difficult to define and demarcate, scientifically and juridically (Cizel, 2006). Despite a lack of agreement on a single and precise definition (Cizel, 2006), there is a large consensus on three criteria for wetland definition: hydrology, pedology and botany (Mitsch et al, 2000). The international definition of wetlands is the one of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971): “ areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres “. This definition creates obligations towards States but not private individuals (Cizel, 2006). 0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION The Mediterranean hydro-ecological specificities combine various factors: climate, topography and geology, biogeography, and the proximity of a very salted and almost untidal sea (Arnaud et al, 2007). Mediterranean climate is characterised by mild and wet winters, long, hot and dry summers, and important hydrological intra annual and inter annual variability (Arnaud et al, 2007). Indeed, rain and temperature, evaporation, water flows, sediment transport, underground water recharge and water availability varies greatly amongst seasons and years (Acreman, 1999). Floods and droughts are often severe (Arnaud et al, 2007). The Mediterranean region is also characterised by an important biodiversity, many endemic species, an important role for migratory species (Pearce et al, 1994; Papayannis et al, 1999). Considering water and land development and management issues, the Mediterranean is globally characterised by important pressures on soil and water resources, mainly due to the urbanisation of coastal zones, agricultural reclamation, important and increasing water use for irrigation, and many hydraulic works such as dams, dikes, river channelling, drainage and irrigation networks… (Benoit et al, 2005; CIEPP, 1994; Acreman, 1999; CdB-RMC, 2001). These general characters shall not hide the immense diversity of regional and local, natural and anthropic, situations. 0 MEDITERRANEAN WETLANDS: VARIOUS, USEFUL AND FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS Mediterranean wetlands include numerous and various ecosystems : large coastal lagoons, fresh, brackish or salt marshes, riverine forests and reed beds, flood plains and wet meadows, mountainous lakes and surrounding wetlands, salted lakes, oasis, temporary marshes and streams… Wetlands provide important values and functions, including : hydrological (groundwater protection, flood alleviation), biochemical (maintenance of water quality and abatement of pollution), ecological (important primary production and support of food webs, provision of numerous key functions in biological cycles of numerous vegetal and animal species: habitat, reproduction, alimentation, migratory steps, hiding and resting zones, …), physical (sediment and erosion control), economic (private: support for fisheries, grazing and agriculture; and public: providing the other functions free of charges), social (cultural values, part of local and regional landscape, support of cultural values, recreation and education) (Papayannis, 1999; Zalidis et
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