Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report
Project Number: 36188 November 2008
NEPAL: Preparing the Secondary Towns Integrated Urban Environmental Improvement Project (Financed by the: Japan Special Fund and the Netherlands Trust Fund for the Water Financing Partnership Facility)
Prepared by:
Padeco Co. Ltd. in association with Metcon Consultants, Nepal Tokyo, Japan
For Department of Urban Development and Building Construction
This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the Government concerned, and ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents. (For project preparatory technical assistance: All the views expressed herein may not be incorporated into the proposed project’s design.
TA 7182-NEP PREPARING THE SECONDARY TOWNS INTEGRATED URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT PROJECT
Volume 3: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
in association with
TA 7182-NEP PREPARING THE SECONDARY TOWNS INTEGRATED URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT PROJECT
FINAL REPORT Volume 3: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
June 2010
Prepared for the Asian Development Bank and the Government of Nepal
in association with
Tsunashima No. 2 Building METCON Consultants 3-20-12 Yushima P.O. Box 4412 Bunkyo-ku 43 / 15 Dandibaba Marg, Tangal, Tokyo 113-0034 Kathmadu-2, Japan Nepal Tel: +81-3-5812-1091 Tel: +977-1-441-2902 Fax: +81-3-5812-1092 Fax: +977-1- 441-8478
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank CBS Central Bureau of Statistics CCFUG Charpala Community Forest User Group CDM Clean Development Mechanism DDC District Development Committee DUDBC Department of Urban Development and Building Construction GHG Greenhouse gas GoN Government of Nepal HIV/AIDS Human Immune deficiency Virus / Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome INGO International Non-governmental Organization ISWA International Solid Waste Association MLD Ministry of Local Development MPPW Ministry of Physical Planning and Works MuAN Municipality Association of Nepal NEPAP Nepal Environmental Policy and action plan NGO Non-governmental Organization PEMON Pesticide Monitoring Nepal PPTA Project Preparatory Technical Assistance SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SEAM-N Strengthening of Environment Administration and Management at the local level SEZ Special Economic Zones STIUEIP Secondary Town Integrated Urban Environmental Improvement SWM Solid Waste Management SWMRMC Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Centre TLO tole/lane organizations TOT Training for Trainer UN United Nations VDCs Village Development Committees WEPCO Women’s Environment Preservation Committee WHO World Health Organization WRMC Waste Resource Management Committee
TA 7182-NEP - i - Final Report, Vol. 3 Contents
1 Introduction ...... 1
2 Sub-sector review ...... 3
2.1 International agreements ...... 3
2.2 Legislation and regulations ...... 4
2.3 Solid Waste Management Bill, 2008 ...... 6
2.4 National policies ...... 6
2.5 Design standards ...... 9
2.6 Best practice ...... 9
2.7 Private sector participation...... 12
2.8 Impediments to improvements ...... 12
3 Rationale for STIUEIP ...... 15
3.1 Key problems and opportunities ...... 15
3.2 Related project: SEAM-N ...... 18
3.3 Existing SWM services in the municipalities ...... 22
4 Basis of design ...... 28
4.1 Objectives of the SWM component ...... 28
4.2 Future waste quantities and characteristics ...... 28
4.3 Storage and collection of waste ...... 29
4.4 Storage of waste by households and other waste generators ...... 29
4.5 Transportation of waste to processing facility ...... 31
4.6 Health care waste ...... 33
4.7 Waste processing centers ...... 35
4.8 Awareness programs ...... 40
4.9 Staff requirements ...... 40
4.10 Public private partnerships ...... 41
4.11 Participation of the informal sector ...... 41
5 Implementation arrangements...... 45
TA 7182-NEP - ii - Final Report, Vol. 3 5.1 Implementation schedule ...... 45
5.2 Implementation responsibilities ...... 45
5.3 Site selection and land acquisition ...... 46
5.4 Contract packaging and procurement ...... 50
5.5 Hazardous waste and industrial waste ...... 50
5.6 Landfill operations and maintenance ...... 51
5.7 Marketing ...... 53
5.8 Institutional arrangements ...... 54
Appendices A Contracting solid waste collection in Biratnagar B Manufacturing establishments near project towns C Photographs D Statistical data E Biratnagar: maps F Birgunj: maps G Butwal: maps H Birgunj: volume projections and cost estimates I Butwal: volume projections and cost estimates
TA 7182-NEP - iii - Final Report, Vol. 3 1 Introduction
1 This is Volume 3 of the Final Report for a Project Preparatory Technical Assistance (PPTA) of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) for the Government of Nepal (GoN) pertaining to the Secondary Towns Integrated Urban Environmental Improvement Project (hereafter “the project” or “STIUEIP”). The PPTA commenced on 1 May 2009. The Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW) acting through the Department of Urban Development and Building Construction (DUDBC) is the executing agency for the project preparation. 2 On 17 August 2009, the Steering Committee approved the selection of Biratnagar, Birgunj, and Butwal as the project’s focus municipalities. The consultants subsequently carried out surveys, consulted stakeholders, and analyzed engineering, institutional, social, financial, economic and environmental aspects of the proposed project. 3 The Final Report comprises nineteen volumes as follows: 1. Project Rationale 2. Drainage and Sanitation 3. Solid Waste Management 4. Roads and Lanes 5. Public-Private Partnerships 6. Poverty Reduction and Social Strategy 7. Major Environmental Issues 8. Economic Analysis 9. Institutional Analysis 10. Butwal Water Supply 11. Biratnagar Survey Data 12. Birgunj Survey Data 13. Butwal Survey Data 14. Financial Assessments 15. Biratnagar Social Safeguards 16. Birgunj Social Safeguards 17. Biratnagar Initial Environmental Assessment 18. Birgunj Initial Environmental Assessment 19. Butwal Initial Environmental Assessment 4 This volume provides an overview of the Solid Waste Management component of the project, which is part of the Birgunj and Butwal sub-projects. The Biratnagar sub-project does not have a solid waste management component as another project will provide the required regional waste processing facility and improvements in solid waste management.
TA 7182-NEP - 1 - Final Report, Vol. 3 2 Sub-sector review
2.1 International agreements 5 Volume 2 reviews international agreements relating to urban environmental management. There are a few agreements that relate directly to solid waste management. In many respects, these international agreements entail more stringent and specific commitments than does national legislation, regulation and policy.
2.1.1 Kyoto Protocol 6 Nepal acceded to the Kyoto Protocol (the Framework Convention on Climate Change) on 5 December, 2005. Two provisions of particular relevance are as follows:
Article 2 requires a reduction of methane (CH4) emissions in waste management, and subsequent promotion of methane recovery or use. Article 12 defines the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which facilitates co-operation between developing and developed countries for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Implementation of CDM projects will not be straightforward. It will require the concerted efforts of both receiving and donor countries. Implementation of CDM requires institutional arrangements within the country to identify potential projects, to establish accounting mechanisms, to monitor and verify the certification of projects and to explore markets for their implementation (see Volume 7 for further discussion).
2.1.2 Basel Convention 7 Nepal is a signatory to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal. Under the terms of the convention, Nepal is obliged to take appropriate measures to: Ensure that the generation of hazardous wastes and other wastes is reduced to a minimum, taking into account social, technological and economic aspects; Ensure the availability of adequate disposal facilities, for the environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes and other wastes; Ensure that persons involved in the management of hazardous wastes or other wastes within it take such steps as are necessary to prevent pollution due to hazardous wastes and other wastes arising from such management and, if such pollution occurs, to minimize the consequences thereof for human health and the environment; Ensure that the trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and other wastes is the minimum consistent with environmentally sound management of them, and is conducted in a manner that safeguards human health and the environment from the possible adverse effects of such movement; Implement and enforce the provisions of the Convention, including measures to prevent and punish conduct in contravention of the Convention. 8 The Convention’s definition of hazardous waste includes health care wastes. In Nepal, health care waste is normally dumped into the municipal waste stream or into rivers. Municipalities generally dump the waste into rivers. The project municipalities are on rivers that cross the Indian border.
TA 7182-NEP - 3 - Final Report, Vol. 3 2.1.3 Dhaka Declaration on Solid Waste Management, 2004 9 The Ministry of Forest and Environment of Bangladesh organized a South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) level workshop on Solid Waste Management in October, 2004. There were participants from Nepal, India, Bangladesh and Bhutan. 10 On the basis of discussions at the workshop, a nine-point Declaration was introduced: Solid waste management systems will be introduced in the SAARC nations that will effectively address the needs and necessities of the poor. Such system will be affordable as well as safe. A network of SAARC nations will be formed to share information related to the management of hazardous wastes. The members of this network will be the Non- governmental Organization (NGOs), International Non-Governmental Organization (INGOs) working in this sector, researchers, universities and representatives of government agencies. Closing open-dumping sites and facilitating safer alternatives. Treating health care waste as a special case with unique management controls.
2.2 Legislation and regulations 11 There are several acts and regulations relating to solid waste management.
2.2.1 Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Act, 1987 12 The Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Act (1987, amended 1992) created the Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Centre (SWMRMC) as an autonomous body under the Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning. The prescribed Ministry for the Centre is now the Ministry of Local Development (MLD). The Act prescribed the following functions for the Centre: (i) To formulate polices in regard to the implementation of its plan for solid waste management and resource mobilization. (ii) To monitor implementation of the plan, and issue any necessary directives. (iii) To undertake basic construction, repair and maintenance work in order to control solid wastes and obtain the cooperation of municipalities as appropriate. (iv) To make available a container service for the purpose of disposing of, keeping, or dumping solid wastes or to prescribe appropriate places for the purpose. (v) To make appropriate arrangements for transporting solid wastes to transit points, disposal sites, or processing points. (vi) To make necessary arrangements for the disposal of solid wastes in a pollution free manner. (vii) To produce briquettes, compost fertilizer or bio-gas from solid waste. (viii) To take action to control haphazard waste disposal and to collect service fees. (ix) To make arrangements for the mobilization of the collected solid wastes by using it in a form suitable for reuse. (x) To provide technical advice or other necessary assistance to any individual or body in connection with the management and control of solid wastes. (xi) To classify harmful solid waste, and check their emissions, or make arrangements for doing so. (xii) To conduct or arrange for studies and research into the management, control, and resource mobilization concerning solid wastes.
TA 7182-NEP - 4 - Final Report, Vol. 3 (xiii) To extend or make arrangements for extending assistance in case anyone requests garbage containers at different places for the disposing of minor garbage and dirt. (xiv) To make arrangements for public toilets, abattoirs, baths, etc. according to need. (xv) To provide, or arrange, training in matters concerning solid waste management and environmental sanitation. (xvi) To publicize through the media matters relating to the disposal and control of solid wastes in order to ensure the participation of local communities. 13 The Act came into force immediately in the Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur municipalities; however, a GoN order is necessary to extend it to other areas. The Act also provides for the Centre to delegate its powers to municipalities.. Twelve years after the Act, the Local Self- Governance Act unequivocably provided for decentralization to autonomous municipalities yet the Centre has not formally delegated its powers to municipalities.
2.2.2 The Town Development Act, 1988 14 Section 9 of The Town Development Act empowers the Town Development Committee to regulate, control or prohibits any act or activity which has an adverse effect on public health or the aesthetics of the town, or in any way pollutes the environment. It contains penalty provisions in the form of fines for violations.
2.2.3 Municipality Act 1992 15 The Municipality Act (1992) was promulgated with the main aim of strengthening local institutions and decentralizing development activities by making municipalities responsible for local economic, social and cultural development. Section 1 of the Act makes all municipalities responsible for various local level activities, including the following: Protect water bodies such as rivers, ponds and wells. Conserve environment and cultural heritage. Public health and social development. Clean special areas as designated by the municipality. Remove hazardous substances. 16 Section 15 mentions that municipalities may implement activities related to cleaning of the municipality and the collection and disposal of solid waste. Therefore, the Act requires the municipalities to conserve the local environment but makes solid waste management an optional activity. Nonetheless, all municipalities had to manage their solid waste to some degree because it is an essential service and no other government agency was taking responsibility for it.
2.2.4 The Environment Protection Act, 1996 17 Sub-article 7.1 of The Environment Protection Act (1996) prohibits haphazard waste disposal, which will have an adverse impact on environment or civic health.
2.2.5 Environment Protection Rule, 1997 (First amendment, 1999) 18 Schedule 1 and Schedule 2 related with Rule 3 of the Environment Protection Rule, 1997 (first amendment 1999) has a mandatory requirement for the of conduct an Initial Environmental Examination or an Environment Impact Assessment of solid waste management projects depending on their nature.
2.2.6 Local Self Governance Act, 1999 19 The Local Self-Governance Act (1999) imposes a duty on municipalities to carry out and manage, or cause to be carried out and managed, the collection, transportation and disposal of solid
TA 7182-NEP - 5 - Final Report, Vol. 3 wastes. For the first time, it made solid waste management a mandatory function for municipalities and village development committees (VDCs). 20 Under the Act, a municipality may impose service charges for solid wastes management facilities. The municipality may collect service charges from persons using the facilities. If anyone dumps solid wastes at any places other than those designated, it may punish such person with a fine of up to fifteen thousand rupees, and recover from such person the expenditures to be incurred for removal of such solid wastes. The Act also makes it mandatory for municipalities to protect the air and water environment and to assist others in environmental protection.
2.3 Solid Waste Management Bill, 2008 21 The MLD proposes to introduce a new comprehensive solid waste management bill as soon as practicable. The Ministry prepared the bill in 2008 with technical assistance from UN-Habitat. Most of the bill is concerned with re-defining the role of the SWMRMC, but there are also provisions regarding private sector participation, environmental conservation, social impacts, collecting charges, and fines. 22 However, it is difficult to understand why a new act is necessary. The Government already has the power to delegate functions of the SWMRMC to municipalities without further legislation. The Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Act is comprehensive and municipalities need, but do not have, some of the powers that the SWMRMC has.
2.4 National policies 23 In most countries, the government has the ultimate jurisdiction and responsibility for policies, regulations, and management of municipal waste, even if the government itself is not performing the waste management functions.1 Waste management has to be integrated, and the government has responsibilities and obligations under international agreements.
2.4.1 The Nepal Environment Policy and Action Plan 24 The National Conservation Strategy of 1988 was the first serious attempt to formulate a national environmental policy. That document was instrumental in paving the way for a series of policy pronouncements and program interventions. In 1993, the Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan (NEPAP) substantially refined and augmented the National Conservation Strategy. NEPAP covered the major sectors, including natural resources (land, forest and range-land, water), health, education, natural and cultural heritage, urban and industrial development, and the interrelated issues of population, poverty, legislation, institutions and public resource management. 25 The NEPAP mentions solid waste only in a few paragraphs. In essence it suggests that municipal solid waste collection and disposal be organized and managed at the ward level, including the levying and collection of fees from residents. As a follow up (Phase II) Stage of NEPAP (4), the GoN produced draft ‘Sector Action Plans’. 26 The Sector Action Plan incorporates a number of specific project proposals in relation to SWM: the development of waste exchange and waste minimization program for industries (Project number and code: 0608 ITEC), the development of Waste Act (Project number and code: 1000 XLAW), the development of National Waste Management Policy (Project number and code: 099 WSOL) and Waste Management through Private Sector (Project number and code: 113 WSOL).2
1 For elaboration of this point, see UNEP. 2005. Solid Waste Management. 2 The references in this section are those of the Sector Action Plan.
TA 7182-NEP - 6 - Final Report, Vol. 3 2.4.2 National Waste Management Council, 1996 27 In 1996, GoN created the National Waste Management Council under the chairmanship of the Minister for Local Development. This Council was to work as a technical arm of the Ministry, and be responsible for national policy making. 28 The National Solid Waste Management Policy adopted in 1996 was a major step forward in this endeavor. The major objectives of this policy are : to strengthen local governmental units for more efficient and reliable solid waste management to launch awareness campaigns in order to muster public participation to involve non-governmental organizations in waste management to develop appropriate local technology for waste management to manage final disposal sites as per their amount and nature to make solid waste management an economically self-sufficient (sustainable) and self- reliant activity to promote self-help cleansing schemes to mobilize waste as recycling resources to privatize solid waste management activity at different steps to intervene in solid waste generating activities at source to reduce them; and to prioritize public cleansing activities at the local level. 29 The policy envisaged a two-tier institutional system to execute management activities. This aim to have a separate institution from central to local level and all stakeholders regarding solid waste management should be under its organization. The local solid waste management agency was to act under instructions from the central level agency. 30 The Local Self-Governance Act 1999 made the two-tier system redundant and the Council stopped functioning soon after its formation. The SWMRMC is performing many of its functions.
2.4.3 Health care waste management guidelines 31 There are two related guidelines dealing with health care waste management. The two guidelines have many similarities. Each also has its own weaknesses in relation to STIUEIP.
National121B Health Care Waste Management Guidelines 32 In 2003, the Nepal Health Research Council produced National Health Care Waste Management Guidelines in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO). The guidelines provide a minimum standard for safe and efficient waste management for health care institutions in Nepal. For example, it incorporates the WHO guidelines on emission standards for incinerators. The guidelines set out the key strategies of waste management in health care institutions, but not for other sources of medical waste. The guidelines lay the primary responsibility on health care institutions. The establishment of a waste management committee in each institution and the development of waste management plan are the means of implementing waste management. The guidelines also set out the concepts of waste segregation into several streams, labeling and containment, handling, storage and transport, treatment/disposal, occupational health and safety, training, and implementation aspects. 33 As far as STIUEIP is concerned, the weakness of the guidelines is it is not definitive as to whether health care facilities or municipalities should have ultimate responsibility for disposal, and there are no provisions for monitoring.
TA 7182-NEP - 7 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Ministry of Health guidelines 34 Soon after the publication of the National Health Care Waste Management Guidelines, the Ministry of Health completed a study on health care waste management.3 The weakness of the study is that it focuses on the public health system and ignores private health care facilities. The study comes down in favour of final disposal in municipal facilities and it considered the MLD to have a vital role in the national health care waste management strategy. Under the Local Self-Governance Act, municipalities have significant responsibilities for health care management, and are themselves generators of health care waste. The guidelines rightly point out that locating incinerators within health care facilities is impracticable and unacceptable on environmental grounds. 35 The study also highlights two requirements for regulations: Regulations on health care waste management. Environmental standards for air emissions from incinerator plants for health care risk waste. Six years after the completion of the study, there are still no regulations on health care waste management or environmental standards for air emissions from incinerators for health care waste.
2.4.4 Policy on integrated solid waste management and common landfill sites 36 A meeting was chaired by the then Minister for Local Development in November 2004 which formed a committee to carry out, study, report and advise possible ways to achieve integrated SWM in all 58 municipalities of the country.
Regulatory issues 37 The meeting confirmed the following regulatory needs: To define the responsibilities and duties of each organization, person and agency working for or in SWM. To set standards for the collection, segregation and disposal of wastes. To specify the processes of collection, storage, transport, and disposal of industrial wastes.To amend the Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Act and Local Self-Governance Act to clearly set out the coordination arrangements between the center and the municipalities. The meeting laid out the following arrangements for municipalities to share disposal sites:Byas Municipality, jamune VDC and Pokharibhangyang VDC Biratnagar, Itahari, Dharan municipalities and Khanar, Sonapur, Tankisinawari VDCs Bhaktapur and Madhyapur thimi Municipalities Kathmandu, lalitpur and Kritipur Municipalities Birendranagar municipality, latikoili and Uttarganga VDCs Bharatpur and Ratnanagar municipalities Nepalgunj and Kohalpur Dhangadi municipality and VDCs lying till Attariya Dhulikhel, Banepa and Panauti Municipalities Lahan and Siraha Municipalities Kalaiya and Birgunj municipalities Pokhara and Lekhnath municipalities
3 Ministry of Health, 2003, Healthcare Waste Management in Nepal. Assessment of Present State and Establishment of a Framework Strategy and Action Plan for Improvement.
TA 7182-NEP - 8 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Siddharthanagar and Butwal municipalities, and Parsaune VDC Tribhuvannagar and Tulsipur municipalities
2.5 Design standards 38 There are no national standards for solid waste management in Nepal. The International Solid Waste Association has issued “technical policy papers” and other documents that together provide comprehensive standards for the design of solid waste management systems. This non- government, independent and non-profit association is concerned with developing professional waste management worldwide as a contribution to sustainable development. However, Nepal is not a member. 39 The European Union has mandatory requirements and standards for the design and operation of landfill sites.4
2.6 Best practice 40 In relation to SWM in Nepal, “best practice” is not an appropriate term. No municipality operates a solid waste system that is altogether praiseworthy, and what works in one municipality may not necessarily be appropriate in another. However, some municipalities operate some aspects of SWM in ways that are innovative or superior to general practice in the country.
2.6.1 Integrated solid waste management 41 In 1998, Kathmandu municipality drafted a SWM strategy aimed at establishing cost- effective, environmentally sound and efficient integrated SWM system with active community as well as private sector participation. In order to achieve this goal, the strategy had eight objectives: (i) Public education (ii) Efficient transfer and transportation (iii) Effective collection environmentally sound, cost effective, and efficient integrated SWM systems with maximum community and private participation (iv) Effective management and monitoring (v) Appropriate policy/ law and enforcement (vi) Maximize composting and recycling (vii) Sanitary land-filling of non-recyclables (viii) Special/hazardous waste management 42 The strategy is clear and comprehensive and it provides a direction for future activities. The strategy, however, has not been fully implemented because of the absences of proper plans, adequate resources or effective monitoring.
2.6.2 Minimizing solid waste at source 43 Minimizing solid waste is a very important point in integrated SWM. The principle concept is Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, with minimum of waste going to final disposal—through waste segregation at source, during transport, or at the disposal site. The idea is to promote waste processing and composting of materials and subsequent return to the market in a format that protects public health and the environment. Incentives that integrate and foster the involvement of the informal sector—itinerant collectors, micro enterprises, NGOs—are critical to improving waste minimization.
4 Council of the European Union, 1999, Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste. Official Journal of the European Communities, 16 July 1999, L 182/1-19.
TA 7182-NEP - 9 - Final Report, Vol. 3 2.6.3 Recycling 44 Recycling of solid waste for subsequent use will reduce disposal volume and may rationalize the cost of waste management. The potential for recycling Nepal’s municipal waste is high because much of it is recyclable and the technologies are readily available. Furthermore, there is a market for most recycled materials. On average, about 61 per cent of household waste generated in Nepalese municipalities comprises organic matter, with about 31 per cent being recyclable inorganic materials such as paper, plastic and metal (Appendix D gives data for individual municipalities). Only 8 per cent comprises inert materials. As about two thirds of the waste is organic, recycling through composting, or the application of other appropriate technologies, can play an important role in waste management. 45 Some municipalities and NGOs have encouraged separation, collection and recycling of plastic waste using suiro hooks. Some municipalities encourage households to segregate waste so that itinerant traders can collect and sell the waste.
2.6.4 Composting 46 Organic waste is the largest component of the waste stream. It is responsible for problems such as odors, disease vectors, headache, and methane. Composting can significantly reduce the cost and environmental impacts of waste management. In Nepal there are examples of composting at the household, neighborhood, and municipal levels.
Household composting 47 There have been various attempts by NGOs and municipalities to encourage households to compost their organic waste.5 These attempts involved a combination of issuing composting bins at a subsidized price, promoting the concept to target households, and establishing a system for selling the compost. In particular, the five municipalities in the Kathmandu valley have promoted household composting through the supply of subsidized home compost bins. However, only 1.6 per cent of households use the bins.6 It is unlikely that waste composting by households on a large scale will ever be feasible.7 This is especially true when waste management is seen as the Government’s responsibility; managing waste through household composting thus requires behavior and attitude modification.
Neighborhood composting 48 There are examples of community programs collecting household waste and processing it by composting and recycling. In 1992, a few housewives in Lalitpur organized the Women’s Environment Preservation Committee (WEPCO) to manage their solid waste. Beginning in their neighborhood, where municipal waste collection was inadequate, they promoted environmental awareness and waste segregation among other housewives since, in Nepal, kitchens account for most organic waste. WEPCO then organized door-to-door collection of segregated household waste, which was then composted, recycled or dumped. After an initial period of free collection, WEPCO was able to charge a small monthly fee (up to NRs50/household, though low-income households were exempted). Six full-time workers use tricycle carts to collect waste every other day from more than a thousand households. WEPCO collects about 1 t of garbage per day, from which a manual pit- and-pile composting and screening operation produces 2 t of compost each month. Compost is sold through local vendors in 1 kg to 5 kg plastic-wrapped packages at NRs10/kg, mostly to local residents or offices for use with indoor plants or small-scale landscaping. Although other neighborhoods in the Kathmandu valley have replicated the WEPCO model, it is not without
5 Practical Action Nepal, 2008, Best Practices on Solid Waste Management of Nepalese Cities. Kathmandu. 6 Nippon Koei Co. Ltd. and Yachiyo Engineering Co. Ltd., 2007, The Study on the Solid Waste Management for the Kathmandu Valley (Monitoring and Follow-up Phase), Final Report, Japan International Cooperation Agency and MLD. 7 Michelle Huang. 2004. A Review of Organic Waste Recycling Practices in Kathmandu. Paper presented at the 2004 Annual Meeting of the World Student Community for Sustainable Development. Guttenberg, Sweden.
TA 7182-NEP - 10 - Final Report, Vol. 3 constraints. Usually, not all the compost can be sold, and compost production must be subsidized by waste collection fees, paper recycling, and occasional donations.
Composting in municipal plants 49 From 1984 to 1991, Kathmandu municipality operated a composting plant at Teku, using 8 outdoor windrow composting and mechanized screening with the intention of selling the compost. However, high broken glass content of the municipal waste input made the compost difficult to sell since farmers typically walk barefoot in the fields; compost was practically given away at a rate of NRs10/t despite operating costs of NRs4,000/t. Due to the lack of an established buffer zone, people moved into areas adjacent to the plant and then lodged odor complaints, forcing the plant’s closure in 1991. 50 In 2005, the municipality established a new composting plant at Teku in cooperation with Pesticide Monitoring Nepal (PEMON) and Clean Energy Nepal9 and with the support of Clean Kathmandu Valley Study (a joint initiative of GoN and Japan International Cooperation Agency).10 Waste from Kalimati market, Kathmandu’s main wholesale vegetable and fruit market, is the raw material. Therefore, the feedstock already consists more or less of pure biodegradable waste. Compost is produced in so called honeycomb boxes (3 boxes at 1 m x 1.5 m x 1 m), in a chamber house, in bins, piles and in vermi-composting tanks. Initially, it was intended to degrade the raw material aerobically using microorganisms as activator for two to four weeks before feeding the partially decomposed material to worms. However, this scheme was not satisfactory. They switched to feeding vegetable waste directly to the worms. The capacity of the plant is about 6 t/day, but output has never been more than about 2 t/day. 51 The Bhaktapur Development Project established a composting plant in 1978 with the assistance of the Urban Development through Local Efforts program. Bhaktapur municipality took over the plant in 1981. However, it did not have sufficient incentive to compost its waste and production gradually declined until ceasing in 1984. In 1988, the compost plant was rehabilitated and municipal staff trained to operate it with the assistance of the SWMRMC. Since then the municipality has continued to operate the plant with occasional technical assistance from SWMRMC. The plant is situated in a community mostly inhabited by sweepers. The site was chosen because it is bit away from the city centre, while still close enough to the source of waste. There are a few houses nearby, but the residents are mostly sweepers who are used to working with waste, and there are no complaints. 52 Tribhuvannagar municipality operates a composting facility at its landfill site. Municipal laborers separate the biodegradable waste and tip it into trenches for composting. Compost from the 3 11 landfill site is sold for NRs300 per 10 ft (280 L) load (2008 prices).F F
2.6.5 Health care waste management 53 Hetauda municipality has developed a simple and effective way to manage the health care 12 waste generated.F F All drug stores, clinics and pathology labs in the city separate their waste into three categories: ordinary, hazardous and sharps. The municipality has joined hands with a local NGO to provide a separate rickshaw for daily collection of the hazardous medical waste. It is taken to a location away from residential areas and burned, but the municipality is constructing an
8 Michelle Huang, op. cit. Windrow composting is a method of composting in which compostable material is heaped in long rows known as windrows which are turned every six to eight days to control the temperature and moisture. 9 Clean Energy Nepal is a non-profit organization focusing on research based education and advocacy campaings on issues related to sustainable energy use and environmental conservation. 10 Directorate of Agriculture Extension, 2006, Proceedings of a First National Workshop on Organic Farming, 12-14 June 2006, Kirtipur, Kathmandu . 11 Practical Action Nepal, 2008, Best Practices on Solid Waste Management of Nepalese Cities. Kathmandu. 12 Hetauda municipality is one of the UEIP municipalities, but UEIP does not include solid waste management.
TA 7182-NEP - 11 - Final Report, Vol. 3 incinerator at the premises of Hetauda Hospital to manage the waste. The service fee (NRs50 to NRs200 per month) collected from the waste generators is sufficient to cover costs. 54 However, the PADECO considers that in Nepal burial is much preferable to incineration on both environmental and cost grounds.
2.7 Private sector participation 55 The GoN’s Local Infrastructure Development Policy (2004) strongly supports private sector participation in municipal services. Some municipalities including Kathmandu, Biratnagar, Hetauda, Bharatpur and Kirtipur have introduced private sector participation in solid waste management. In most cases, the involvement of the private sector has been in the form of management contracts under which a private contractor collects waste from a certain area for a fixed fee. This is the simplest form of private sector participation whereby the responsibility for waste collection or transportation is given to a private party and it usually does not involve collection of service fee from waste generators. This arrangement may reduce the cost of waste management to a certain extent but it requires effective monitoring. In some municipalities, for example Hetauda and Kathmandu, a franchising or concessionaire system has been introduced, whereby a private company is given the responsibility to collect waste as well as service fee from waste generators in a 13 designated area such as a ward. This form of participation usually results in less cost for the municipality and the service provider becomes more accountable to the people.
2.8 Impediments to improvements
2.8.1 Municipal capacity 56 Most municipalities have no experience of controlled disposal. They may identify disposal sites but very few actively manage them. Contracting out waste services has been suggested as solution to low municipal capacity. However, municipalities lack the capability to enforce environmental standards in an equitable manner, which would be essential for landfill operations.
2.8.2 Policies and regulation 57 There are not enough Government policies on SWM and public private partnership. Whatever policies and regulation have been formulated proved difficult to implement. Coordination among stakeholder is inadequate and responsibilities of stakeholders needs to be more clearly defined.
2.8.3 Political commitment 58 SWM is much more than an environmental health issue. It has implications for local taxation, employment, agriculture, regulation, and any changes need political support to be effective. Unfortunately, it is rarely a priority for political leaders unless there is strong and active public interest. Thus there is little incentive to invest in disposal or control unofficial practices.
2.8.4 Finance and cost recovery 59 SWM represents a major investment and it may be difficult to give it priority over other components. Municipalities could be motivated by donors or loan agencies that require covenants to reach high, but achievable, standards of disposal. 60 Despite its effective system of partnership for waste management, the municipality is facing problems of increasing population, a poor response of the citizens towards waste minimization, staff shortages, financial constraints etc. Obstacles that add to these problems are: the lack of authority to
13 While the term franchise system is used, the practice in Hetauda, Kathmandu and Biratnagar is more like a concessionaire system that a franchising system. Franchising means licensing one’s business model to others; it is hard to see how municipalities could find this more advantageous than a concessionaire system. See Volume 5 for discussion of forms of public-private partnerships.
TA 7182-NEP - 12 - Final Report, Vol. 3 make financial and administrative decisions, a shortage of trained personnel, the lack of a standardized vehicle fleet and frequent breakdowns, a lack of enforcement measures, uncontrolled squatter settlements, poor cooperation between public and private sectors, and inadequate stakeholder coordination.
TA 7182-NEP - 13 - Final Report, Vol. 3 3 Rationale for STIUEIP
61 In the absence of proper management, municipal and industrial solid wastes pose serious threats to public health. Solid waste management is grossly inadequate in each of the three STIUEIP municipalities. At the same time, the large size of the municipalities and their association with major industrial corridors afford opportunities for economic solid waste management. The industrial environment provides opportunities to dispose of recycled products, while surrounding agricultural areas are a potential market for compost.
3.1 Key problems and opportunities
3.1.1 Traditional waste management 62 Until the 1950s, towns were small and solid waste collection was hardly necessary. Many people had land on which they could dig a pit (Newar term Saga, Nepali term Ruchhan) where they could dispose of the waste. Waste was mostly organic and easily biodegradable or fed to animals. 63 With the growth of towns and incomes, traditional methods no longer worked satisfactorily. Animals eating waste became a health hazard. Rising incomes meant a higher proportion of inorganic waste. Fewer and fewer households had the means of burying their waste on their own land. 64 With the introduction of municipal containers, the waste management habits of the people changed. People dumped waste next to the container rather than in it, and waste spread along the road.
3.1.2 Impacts on health and the environment Health and injuries 14 65 Some of the common environmental health and injury issues in SWM are as follows:F Leachate and contaminated surface runoff from land disposal facilities affecting downstream ground and surface water quality;15 Methane and carbon dioxide air emissions from waste adding to global warming, thereby subsequently encouraging vector-borne disease abundance and pathogen survival; Volatile organic compounds in air emissions and inconclusive evidence on altered cancer incidence, birth defects, and infant mortality, as well as psychological stress for those living near solid waste incinerators or inadequately controlled land disposal facilities; Animals feeding on solid waste providing a food chain path for transmitting animal and human diseases;
14 Sandra Cointreau, 2006, Occupational and Environmental Health Issues of Solid Waste Management. Special Emphasis on Middle- and Lower-Income Countries. World Bank. United Nations Environmental Programme, 2005, Solid Waste Management. WHO, 2007, Population health and waste management: scientific data and policy options. Report of a WHO workshop Rome, Italy, 29-30 March 2007. 15 Leachate is the liquid that drains or 'leaches' from a landfill; it varies in composition according to the age of the landfill and the type of waste. Rainfall percolating through the waste is the principal source of leachate. In a landfill that receives a mixture of municipal, commercial, and industrial waste, but excludes significant chemical wastes, leachate is likely to be a solution containing three groups of contaminants: dissolved organic matter (alcohols, acids, aldehyde, Fe, Al, Zn and NH3), heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cu, Hg), and xenobiotic organic compounds such as halogenated organics, (PCBs, dioxins, etc.). Peter Kjeldsen,I, Morton A. Barlaz, Alix P. Rooker, Anders Baun, Anna Ledin, and Thomas H. Christensen. 2002. Present and Long-Term Composition of MSW Landfill Leachate: A Review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 32(4): 297-336.
TA 7182-NEP - 15 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Uncollected wastes retaining water and clogged drains, thus leading to stagnant waters which encourage an abundance of mosquito vectors; Uncollected wastes providing food and breeding sites for insect, bird and rodent disease vectors. Municipal refuse can serve as a focal point for the spread of rat populations over an area with an eight kilometre radius. The spreading area of flies is about the same. The entire reproductive cycle of flies can and does take place in decaying organic matter. Studies have shown that a high percentage of workers who handle refuse, and of individuals who live near or on disposal sites, are infected with gastrointestinal parasites, worms, and related organisms. Volume 2 provides details of the incidence of diseases related to environmental conditions in the project districts.
16 Greenhouse1 gases 66 Solid waste disposal accounts for about one per cent of Nepal's emissions of methane 17 (CH4). There are no methane-recovering facilities at solid waste disposal sites in Nepal.
Air1 pollution 67 In Nepal, burning solid waste accounts for about 4 per cent of TSP emissions and 2.6 per cent of PM10 emissions.18 The health impacts of air pollution amount to about $19m annually.19
Risks from health care waste. 68 Health care waste poses special risks. The growing volume of health care waste and the growing incidence of HIV/AIDS call for particular attention to the disposal of needles. Health care facilities dump most of the general infectious waste untreated into the municipal waste stream. Rag pickers are therefore working in waste that includes health care waste. Crows, dogs and other animals pick at the waste. 69 Government policy lays the responsibility for safe disposal on the waste generators. However, hospitals and health care facilities have a poor record. In Birgunj, residents have taken 20 action against the national teaching hospital for dumping health care waste in the Singhiya River.F F If the major medical facility in Birgunj is doing this, it is likely that the other health care facilities in the municipality are doing likewise.
Risks from industrial waste 70 Each STIUEIP municipality is the primary urban centre in one of Nepal’s most important industrial corridors (Appendix B). Most of this industry is outside the municipal boundaries. However, some industrial waste, particularly from small scale industries, enters the municipal waste stream of each STIUEIP municipality. Of particular concern is the unsafe disposal of lead batteries. The generation of large quantities of industrial waste calls out for a regional approach in each of the three industrial corridors. The industrial skills, infrastructure and waste volumes offer opportunities for viable waste processing and recycling industries.
16 Also see Volume 7. 17 Ministry of Population and Environment, 2004, Nepal: Initial National Communication to the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 18 Central Bureau of Statistics, 2008, Environment Statistics of Nepal 2008. 19 World Bank 2008. Nepal Country Environmental Analysis. Strengthening Institutional and Management Systems for Enhanced Environmental Governance. Washington. 20 The Himalayan Times, 4 February 2009.
TA 7182-NEP - 16 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Risks from Persistent Organic Pollutants 71 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are a serious problem in Nepal. 21 The three main sources are pesticides in agriculture and public health (for vector control) and industrial processes. Since much of the trade in POPs takes place in the STIUEIP municipalities, their populations are at risk. 59B
3.1.3 Road and drain cleaning 72 People routinely put out waste materials on the sidewalks or in drains (for there are few street storage bins), hoping that the municipal workers will collect them. Once such a pile of rubble is created, passing pedestrians, or residents, begin to throw ordinary refuse on it; the refuse gets mixed together and compacted by people and animals walking by. When the municipal sweepers clear the street, they may pick up the top layer of fresh, legitimate, refuse. The original pile remains and gradually grows into an unsightly and hazardous physical feature of the streetscape, inviting littering and further dumping. The piles may also serve as informal urinals. Incidentally, the utility authorities themselves are often responsible for the creation of these trouble spots because, after digging up the road or sidewalk for some kind of repair, some material remains for which they may not arrange removal.
3.1.4 Solid waste collection 73 Solid waste collection systems are not properly planned to effectively utilize available resources. Waste is collected in messy procedures and sporadic routines. Less than half of the waste gets collected and is then dumped haphazardly in a crude manner. In many municipalities, waste generators generally dump the waste on the streets at any place at any time and sweepers collect the waste and pile it up at a certain location before it gets scooped up again and placed in a vehicle for transportation. This multiple handling of waste makes the entire system inefficient and ineffective. Although many sweepers clean the streets, the streets are generally dirty because all the waste does not get picked up and waste is dumped on the streets even after they are swept. However, several municipalities have introduced waste collection systems that are more efficient and effective. Some municipalities have introduced door-to-door or on-time collection systems, where waste is transported straight from the source to a municipal facility. Butwal municipality claims to cover all its area with solid waste collection. But both neither municipality has a proper collection system.
3.1.5 Solid waste transport 74 The equipments for street/open space cleaning service, in one in three municipalities conventional handcart or wheel barrows of small capacities are found to have been used together with brooms and occasionally picks and shovels. The wealthier municipalities have refuse collector (compaction truck), truck, tractor, rickshaw etc;
3.1.6 Recycling 75 Recycling of solid waste as a resource will reduce the amount of waste that needs to be disposed as well as the cost of waste management. The potential for recycling the waste is high because most of it waste is recyclable and technologies for recycling most of the waste are readily available. On average, about 61 per cent of the household waste generated in Nepal’s municipalities consists of organic matter, while about 31 per cent consist of recyclable inorganic materials such as paper, plastic and metal, and about 8 per cent is inert materials. As about two thirds of the waste is organic, recycling of organic waste through composting or the application of other appropriate technologies can play an important role in waste management.
21 Society for Human Rights, Environment, Law and Governance Activities (SHELGA), 2006, Nepal Country Situation Report on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), Kathmandu.
TA 7182-NEP - 17 - Final Report, Vol. 3 3.1.7 Composting 76 The proposed approach to composting is a municipal composting facility at the landfill site. The logic is as follows: A sanitary landfill is expensive; it is essential to minimize the waste going to it.22 If only a minimal amount of organic waste goes to the landfill, the municipality avoids the cost of a gas collection system. Household composting is difficult to expand because of the cost of supplying composting bins, space constraints, and lack of outlets for the compost. Neighborhood composting is not feasible on a large scale; it can at best make a marginal difference for a lot of effort, and creates risks from rats and flies. Odors are likely to lead to objections from nearby residents. The only market for compost large enough to absorb sufficient organic waste is agriculture. However, the GoN (and the Government of India) subsidizes chemical fertilizers, and farmers will not pay enough to make commercial composting viable, therefore the municipality will have to sell the compost at a nominal amount (around NRs5/kg) to get rid of it and avoid having to landfill it. Private or community composting operations will not be economically viable. Large composting plants are not acceptable within the urban area because of the potential problems with odor and disease vectors. Moreover, it is more economical to locate a municipal plant at the landfill site where land is less expensive. Farmers will not pay for compost that contains glass and plastic. Therefore, operations (whether at the landfill site or elsewhere) must include full recovery of glass and plastic. 77 While community-scale plants may treat waste at a rate of up to 3 t/d, mechanized plants become feasible at level of the larger municipalities provided there is an outlet for the compost. Although there are no large-scale compost plants in Nepal, Bhaktapur municipality has a small plant with a capacity to process about 6 t/d and several municipalities such as Kathmandu and Hetauda are promoting community and household composting. Hetauda is also in the process of setting up a 3 t/d compost plant with community and private sector participation. Although Bhaktapur municipality's compost plant is not operating at full capacity, it has been operating for more than 20 years and it is managing part of the municipal waste. The compost plant has a large platform where waste is piled to form long windrows that are about 2 m wide and 1.5 m high. In Biratnagar, a 4 t/d composting plant is operating in ward no. 1.23
3.2 Related project: SEAM-N 78 Strengthening of Environmental Administration and Management at the local level (SEAM- N) is the product of a bi-lateral agreement between the GoN and the Government of Finland in 2001.
3.2.1 Existing conditions in Biratnagar-Itahari corridor 79 Before SEAM-N began no detailed study of the solid waste situation in the corridor was undertaken or available. SEAM-N identified the following: The total quantity of waste generated in a day in the corridor by the total population of 463,901 at 0.241 kg/capita was estimated to be 111.8 t (with 274.3 m3 volume) that produced 40,807 t annually.
22 Council Directive 1999/31/EC of the European Union sets stringent targets for the reduction of biodegradable waste going to landfills. 23 Practical Action, 2008, Best Practices on Solid Waste Management Nepal of Nepalese cities. Published by Practical Action Nepal, Kathmandu.
TA 7182-NEP - 18 - Final Report, Vol. 3 The physical composition of solid waste was 65 per cent organic waste, 23 per cent recyclable/re-usable inorganic waste and 12 per cent inert and not reusable waste. The practices of composting and properly recycling waste collection were negligible. There was a lack of knowledge of composting practice at municipalities and VDCs. The waste was commonly dumped in the streets mainly in the market areas and main roads. Industries were also dumping solid waste in sewers or water courses. This practice contributes to local flooding The traditional systems of waste collection like street cleaning, pick up, container etc. were applied. The waste was generally dumped in an uncontrolled manner on the banks of rivers or on the bottoms of seasonal rivers, and open land. The public also dumped their waste into the river, street, drain, canal or other inappropriate places. Hazardous wastes from health care facilities and all other sources were treated just like municipal solid waste and disposed together without concern for the hazards. Municipalities and VDCs lacked appropriate infrastructure, tools and equipment. There was neither an environmental unit nor technical environmental officers, except in Biratnagar municipality.
3.2.2 Scope and objectives of the project 80 The aim of the project was to improve the environment situation in the Biratnagar-Dharan industrial corridor. It covered three municipalities and seven VDCs, with a total population of 464,000. 81 The objectives of the project were to: Assist the local authorities and industries of the area in improving their capacity for environmental planning and management. Establish regional and local environmental administrations in the project area. 82 The project consisted of five interlinked components: Environmental administration, planning and management of the local authorities Local Administration Environmental Investment fund Cleaner production and occupational health and safety at local industries Environmental support investment fund for the local industries Environmental monitoring and laboratory services 83 This project corridor is marked as one of the most polluted areas in Nepal. Among different other problem, SWM has been reported as one of the major challenging environmental problems of the corridor.
3.2.3 Awareness raising 84 SEAM-N began with intensive program to raise awareness through a series of training and workshops on SWM. The training was initially given to responsible office personnel of municipalities and VDCs on a training-of-trainers basis and with their support several other training programs were conducted. Hundreds of awareness raising seminars and training on SWM have been organized at the community level, where thousands of local people have participated.
3.2.4 Waste Resource Management Center 85 SEAM-N has prepared the master plan of a Waste Resource Management Center at Tankisinuwari VDC of Morang District (10.5 ha) with the aim of establishing a modern landfill site
TA 7182-NEP - 19 - Final Report, Vol. 3 to serve the region. The center comprises a modern sanitary landfill site with a capacity of 1,138,800 m3 volume for 20 years including other system like composting chambers, recycling warehouse, wastewater treatment system, incinerator for health care waste, biogas plant, environmental park, nursery etc.
3.2.5 Proposal for a new SWM project in the area 86 All SWM solutions in Nepal overall are local solutions. Usually municipalities, VDCs etc. try to solve their SWM problems separately. However, in Finland and in the most other European counties this kind of thinking has been abandoned a long time ago, because it is ineffective and very expensive. 87 Based on the experience gained during the SEAM-N project the solution of SWM problems at the Dharan-Biratnagar corridor should be based on regional cooperation. The corridor is only about 50 km from Dharan to Biratnagar, and because of that relatively short distance and small area, the SWM problems should be solved by creating good cooperation. Thus, the SEAM-N project is proposing to start a new SWM project to solve the SWM problems in the area based on: Minimizing waste formation. Effective waste segregation. Effective reuse of segregated wastes. Temporary waste loading stations. Transportation of the remaining waste to the common landfill site. One Waste Resource Management Centre including land fill site implementing international standards, and including sanitary landfill site. Intensive and agreement based cooperation between municipalities, VDCs, industries etc. The whole system should be mostly self-sustainable and based on collection of user charges. 88 Later on, other municipalities in Morang and Sunsari districts, and maybe some other neighboring DDCs, might be interested in joining this kind of cooperation. 89 The regional SWM solution could form an example to other areas in Nepal. 90 The project will form Biratnagar-Dharan corridor as a Model Regional Cooperation Area having a sustainable, integrated SWM system (Fig. 1 and 2).24 An integrated regional SWM system is the best, most appropriate and sustainable system for SWM in this corridor where SWM system need to begin from source of waste generation such as household, industry, health care institutes, other institutes etc. and then to community, from community to transfer station and finally at WRMC, which will be established at the regional level. 91 The project promotes intermediate technology of SWM system like composting, and a franchise system of recycle waste collection applying available local resources. The project will also strengthen institutional management and the development of local bodies so that they can benefit from efficient human resources, infrastructure, SWM bye-laws and guideline enforcement mechanism, SWM planning and regular monitoring and evaluation tools and could facilitate strong coordination with local NGOs and community-ased organizations with the application of a PPP approach. 92 Local bodies have greatly appreciated the SEAM-N project for its contribution to developing Integrated SWM systems for the corridor. They are seeking further technical and financial support from SEAM-N that is no longer possible because of finance and time resource constraints. Finland
24 Government of Finland, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Government of Nepal, Ministry of Local Development, Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Ministry of Industry and Commerce and Supplies. 2008. Strengthening of Environmental Administration and Management at the Local Level. Draft Project Document for the Second Phase of SEAM-N 2008-2010.
TA 7182-NEP - 20 - Final Report, Vol. 3 has be en re quested to c ontinue i ts contribution s o t hat fully Integrated S WM s ystems b ecome available in this eastern region of Nepal this promoting sustainability and expected useful life. 93 Proposed major activities are: Mobilization and capacity building environmental management entities. Creation of a regional SWM cooperation modalities and agreement in the industrial corridor. Emphasis on SWM at Source. Promotion of household and community composting practices. Recycle/reusable waste collection and its management. Establishment of transfer stations Construction and operation of Regional WRMC Construction of a modern landfill site implementing international standards.
Figure 1 A Model Sustainable Integrated SWM system in Biratnagar-Dharan Corridor
TA 7182-NEP - 21 - Final Report, Vol. 3
Figure 2 Major activities Proposed
3.3 Existing SWM services in the municipalities
3.3.1 Biratnagar 94 Biratnagar is the second largest city in Nepal and is a major industrial hub of the country. It is located near the Indian border. The municipality has 22 wards. At the time of t he 2001 census, there were 33,678 households and a population of 166,674. The inter-censal population growth rate was 3.36 per cent per year. The projected population for the year 2008 is 205,876. 95 SWM of Biratnagar, Samajik Sudhar Tatha Batabaraniya Bikas Manch (a private company), has t aken o ver t he c ontract for p roviding s ervices t hat i nclude door -to-door w aste collection, transport and dumping. The Environment Section has overall responsibility for w aste management. The main functions carried out by this section are, street sweeping, roadside drain cleaning, removal of de ad a nimals, proc urement a nd maintenance of w aste m anagement v ehicles, r ecruitment a nd training of waste management s taff, a nd publ ic e ducation, including provi ding t raining to lo cal residents. 96 The waste generation is dependent on people’s economic status and their lifestyle. The type of house and the coverage area of w aste collection method are shown in Appendix E. The area of collection corresponds closely with the area of pakki housing.25 Various organizations have been and are involved in different area in the collection of Biratnagar’s wastes i.e. shown in Appendix E. The PPTA team has carried out a community survey and found that demand for effective SWM is ranked as the 1st and 2nd priority.
25 In South Asia, it is usual to classify housing into “pukka”, “semi-pukka”, and “kachcha”. A pukka is a structure made from materials resistant to wear, such as forms of stone or brick, clay tiles, metal or other durable materials, sometimes using mortar to bind, that does not need to be constantly maintained or replaced. A kachcha is a building made of natural materials such a mud, grass, bamboo, thatch or sticks and is therefore a short-lived structure.
TA 7182-NEP - 22 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Waste generation and composition 97 The main parameters of waste generation and composition are as follows:
Table 1 Parameters for Waste Generation and Composition
Indicator Unit Value Household waste generation rate Kg/person/day 0.33 Waste generation rate Tons/day 55.00 Waste Comp % Paper 6.40 Plastic & Rubber 8.80 Organic Materials 75.60 Metal 0.20 Textiles 1.90 Leather & Other products 7.10 Hospital Beds Number 1000 Healthcare waste generation rate / patient Kg / day 1.72 Healthcare waste generated Tons/day 1.80 Source: Biratnagar Municipality
Waste collection and recycling 98 Waste is collected from designated open collection points in almost 95 per cent of the inner urban areas. The contractor is responsible for the collection, transportation and dumping of solid waste. Each morning, starting at around 7.00 am, waste is collected door-to-door using rickshaws, wheel carts that can carry 300 kg to 500 kg. In order to encourage waste minimization and waste reduction at source, the municipality is planning to launch household composting and the use of suiro hooks for recovering plastic. One model compost plant with a capacity of 4 t/d of organic waste is operating in Ward no. 1. It is estimated that 30 per cent of both domestic and commercial waste is recycled each day. The compost is sold for NRs10/ kg and plastic for NRs6/kg.
Transporting and final disposal 99 Biratnagar dumps the collected waste at three different sites. Two leased sites which are allocated by the municipality are 6 km from the main market. According to the municipality, the estimated remaining life span of these open sites is two years. The third area is on the bank of Singe Khola, at a distance of 4 km from the main market area. The contractor is filling a section of the river bank with waste; a municipality source mentioned that they had not calculated the remaining lifespan of this site. They also mentioned that they are discouraging riverside dumping after the end of 2007. During the field visit, the contractor was seen dumping filling material (ash) at the Singe Khola site in order to avoid pollution risks. 100 People outside the collection areas dump their waste in drains, watercourses or the nearest open space.
Equipment1 101 The collection contractor is utilizing the following equipment: Tippers capacity of 3 tons 2 Tractors with trailers capacity of 2 tons 6 Excavator 1 Power tiller 1 Rickshaws (300-500 kg) 25 Handcarts (capacity of 50 kg) 3
TA 7182-NEP - 23 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Organizational and financial aspects 102 One engineer, one public health inspector, four technical assistants, five supervisors, five drivers and seventy-nine workers work in solid waste management. The municipality estimates that 50 employees of the contractor, Samajik Sudhar tatha Batabaraniya BikasManch are involved in door-to-door collection. The municipality spent NRs9.56m in the 2006-2007 fiscal year on solid waste management. The contractor charges NRs30 to NRs1,500 per premises according to the service provided. 103 Approximate data shows that the contractor was collecting some NRs100,000 a month from various service beneficiaries, including both residential and commercial premises. During the municipality-Silt contract, Silt collected annual fees totaling NRs1.0m from the door-to-door collection service (SWMRMC, 2006 data). According to municipal data, the total expenditure of the municipality in the last fiscal year was NRs132m. Biratnagar’s expenditure per capita for that year was NRs641. It is calculated that Biratnagar’s expenditure on waste management was 7.3 per cent of total expenditure in the last fiscal year.
Major problems and issues 104 Despite its effective system of partnership for waste management, the municipality is facing problems arising from: The service coverage is limited, Increasing population, A poor response from the citizens regarding waste minimization, Staff shortages, financial constraints etc. 105 Obstacles that add to these problems are: Lack of authority to make financial and administrative decisions, Shortage of trained personnel, Lack of a standardized vehicle fleet and frequent breakdowns, Lack of enforcement measures, Uncontrolled squatter settlements, Poor cooperation between public and private sectors, and Inadequate stakeholder coordination. 106 There is an urgent need for a landfill site for sanitary disposal of solid waste. The present arrangements may cause serious water pollution because the contractor is dumping waste on a river bank and the other two open dumping sites are also not safe for dumping.
3.3.2 Birgunj 107 Birgunj municipality provides waste collection and sweeping services to about 20 per cent of the municipality. The containers/bins are placed at different strategic locations within the collection area which are used by households, institutions and the commercial sector in the town. There is no organized door-to-door collection system. The majority (78 per cent) of households still dispose of their waste in public places and only 10.5 per cent of households use fixed places or containers. 108 The coverage of solid waste collection by the municipality is shown in Appendix F. The waste generation depends on resident’s economic status and their lifestyle. In the collection of wastes of various organizations have been involved in different areas as shown in Appendix F. The PPTA team carried out a community survey and found that people view SWM as 1st and 2nd priority needs, as shown in Appendix F.
TA 7182-NEP - 24 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Waste generation and composition 109 Refer to Appendix D.
Waste collection and recycling 110 Waste is collected from designated open collecting points in almost eighty per cent of the urban area. Each morning, starting at around 6.00 am, waste is collected door-to-door using tricycles that can carry 300 kg to 500 kg. To encourage waste minimization and waste reduction at source, till now municipality does not have any plans for initiatives such as launching household composting and promoting the use of suiro hooks for recovering plastic. A municipality source verified that there are 155 industrial sites located within the municipality and that waste management is the responsibility of the factories themselves.
Transportation and final disposal 111 Waste is transported using tractors with open trailers and tippers. In the absence of a permanent sanitary dumping site, a daily 45 t of garbage is estimated as being dumped haphazardly along riverbanks, ponds, by-pass road and open spaces. Nearby areas of those places are prone to serious health hazard. 112 The municipality uses the following equipment: Tippers capacity of 3 tons 2 Tractors with trailers capacity of 2 tons, 15 Hand carts 40
Organizational and financial aspects 113 There are 1 engineer, 1 public health inspector, 15 supervisors and 370 sweepers working in solid waste management. The municipality spends more than NRs50m a year. 114 Birgunj municipality has not contracted out SWM service. The municipality has employed 400 persons only for SWM. They are expending about NRs50m per year, only for SWM, which is more than necessary. The Chamber of Commerce expressed the view that it was unlikely that there would be any private sector interest in collecting solid waste because of the likely labour problems.
Major problems and issues 115 The municipality is facing problems of: increasing population, poor response of the citizens towards waste minimization, financial constraints citizen unwillingness to pay for SWM user charges over staffing 116 Obstacles that add to these problems are: Lack of authority to make financial and administrative decisions, Shortage of trained personnel, Lack of a standardized vehicle fleet and frequent breakdowns, Lack of enforcement measures, Uncontrolled squatter settlements, Poor cooperation between public and private sectors, and Inadequate stakeholder coordination.
TA 7182-NEP - 25 - Final Report, Vol. 3 117 There is an urgent need of a landfill site for sanitary disposal of solid waste. The present arrangements may cause serious water pollution because the waste is being dumped on a riverbank and open space.
3.3.3 Butwal 118 Butwal municipality is located in Rupandehi district of Lumbini zone in the Western Development Region. It has 15 wards. According to the Population Census of 2001, Butwal municipality had a total population of 75,384 with an annual growth rate of 5.47%. The municipality profile prepared in 2006 shows a total population of 102,992 with a growth rate of 6.44% (calculated from the 1991 and 2001 censuses). The nearest city is Siddarthnagar, 22 km in the south. 119 The estimated daily volume of solid waste generation in Butwal municipality is 28 t to 30 t. As per one estimate, organic waste comprises about 70 per cent and the remaining 30 per cent is inorganic. About 84 municipal staff work at solid waste collection, using 2 trucks, 4 tractors and 11 rickshaws. There is one compositing plant in the municipality. Households and shops are charged NRs25 per month and NRs50 for hotels for the municipal waste collection services. Currently, solid waste is dumped in an open area near the Tinau river. The municipality still does not have a permanent landfill although it has proposed Tamnagar as an appropriate location. 120 In the community survey on SWM of Butwal municipality, it was determined that 100% of the municipal area is covered in the collection of waste from different sources. The community prioritized demand of SWM in first and second places, which is shown in the Appendix G. Types of transportation that have been used for collection and dumping of solid waste and the involvement of the municipality, private sector, community/club and others are shown in the Appendix G.
Waste generation and composition 121 Refer to Appendix D.
Waste collection and recycling 122 Waste is collected from designated open collecting points in almost 80 per cent of the inner urban area (see Appendix G). Each morning, starting at around 6.00 a.m., waste is collected door-to- door using tricycles that can carry 300 kg to 500 kg. Plans to encourage waste minimization and waste reduction at source, are currently not at hand. As per the municipality profile, there are a total of 188 industries in the municipality. Among them, 56 are located within Butwal Industrial District and the remaining 132 are located elsewhere. The main products from these industries include food stuff, furniture, plastic, metal sheet etc.
Transporting and final disposal 123 Butwal municipality is dumping its waste on the bank of Tinau Khola, and jungle area where it is possible. As a transfer station, the municipality is using part of the Bus Park where Rickshaws are unloading collected waste. 124 The municipality’s equipment comprises: Trucks 2 Tractors with trailers capacity of 2 tons, 4 Rickshaws 11
Organizational and financial aspects 125 There is 1 engineer, 1 public health inspector, and 84 sweepers working on solid waste management. The municipality spends more than NRs30m annually in SWM. The municipality has not contracted out SWM functions, because they do not see any potential benefits.
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Major problems and issues 126 The municipality is facing problems relating to: Insufficient coverage of solid waste collection, Increasing population, Poor response of the citizens towards waste minimization, Financial constraints 127 Obstacles that add to these problems are: Lack of authority to make financial and administrative decisions, Shortage of trained personnel, Lack of a standardized vehicle fleet and frequent breakdowns, Lack of enforcement measures, Uncontrolled squatter settlements, Poor cooperation between public and private sectors, and Inadequate stakeholder coordination. 128 There is an urgent need of a landfill site for sanitary disposal of solid waste. The present arrangements may cause serious water pollution because the waste is being dumped on a riverbank and in open space. 129 There is Butwal Industrial District, industries along the Bhirahawa- Butwal corridor, and the Special Economic Zone (SEZ) with 280 industries. 130 There are two municipalities in Rupandehi district: Siddharthanagar and Butwal. There is Ramgram municipality in Nawal Parasi district is relatively close to Butwal and Siddharthanagar. These three municipalities are points of entry to Lumbini, birthplace of Gautam Buddha. Peripheral VDCs and VDCs between these municipalities must participate in the Regional Waste Processing Centre that can assist in the promotion of tourism of Lumbini.
TA 7182-NEP - 27 - Final Report, Vol. 3 4 Basis of design
131 This section reviews the investment requirements to establish comprehensive SWM systems to collect and process all wastes generated by households, commerce and institutions in a municipality. The basis of design is also the basis of the cost estimates (Appendix H).
4.1 Objectives of the SWM component 132 The overall objective is to develop a strategic and operational framework that will assist the municipalities (Birgunj and Butwal) to improve solid waste management, to minimize the negative impacts on humans and the environment, and to turn solid waste into a source of economic opportunity.
133 The specific objectives are:
To assess the magnitude of the present SWM problems by identifying the sources, types, quantities, dangers and opportunities they pose; To collect and process all municipal waste in a manner that minimizes environmental and public health impacts; To assess the SWM system in relation to handling, storage and treatment; To assess the adequacy of the existing institutional arrangements, policies, laws and regulations; To identify public and private investment opportunities; and To design and implement a strategic and operational plan for SWM.
4.2 Future waste quantities and characteristics 134 The basis of design is the forecast waste generated by the catchment area (for individual or regional level landfill) and the composition of waste. 135 Quantity and characteristics of the waste are the major factors, which determine the magnitude of waste management profile. It is necessary to carry out a stock take regularly to assess the quantity of waste. Forecast quantities can be estimated with the help of projected population and annual changes of per capita waste generation. On the basis of the waste quantity, infrastructure requirement can be estimated. However, it will also necessary to carry out quality assessments frequently in order to assess the changes in waste characteristics. This data will also serve as a basis for selection of disposal/treatment option. 136 Two factors largely determine the volume of waste generation in a country: (1) the income level of the country; and (2) the extent of industrialization. Income level affects the main ingredients in solid waste, particularly the level of packaging (i.e., paper, plastic, carton, cans, and bottles). Income level also affects the level of containment that is affordable at the household level (i.e., covered bins, plastic bags, cartons, open piles), which in turn affects the amount of soil and ash within the waste and the moisture content. Table 2 provides a view of how waste composition varies by income levels and size of city.
TA 7182-NEP - 28 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Table 2 Global perspective on waste quantities
Income level of country Large city, all waste Medium city, all waste Residential waste only
(kg/p/d) (kg/p/d) (kg/p/d)
Low 0.50 to 0.75 0.35 to 0.65 0.25 to 0.45
Middle 0.55 to 1.10 0.45 to 0.75 0.35 to 0.65
High 0.75 to 2.20 0.65 to 1.50 0.55 to 1.00 Note: “all waste” includes residential, commercial, industrial and institutional waste as well as street sweepings and garden waste. Source: Sandra Cointreau. 2006. Occupational and Environmental Health Issues of Solid Waste Management: Special Emphasis on Middle- and Lower-Income Countries. World Bank.
137 Therefore, the waste quantities in Biratnagar, and Birgunj and Butwal are likely to gradually increase through an income and a ‘size-of-city’ effect.
4.3 Storage and collection of waste
4.3.1 Street sweeping 138 Street sweeping is important to collect waste that has bypassed the collection system and to reduce the quantities of waste entering drains, to remove pathogens, and to reduce the quantities of dust put into re-suspension by traffic. The coverage should match the extent of paved roads, which will progressively increase during the implementation of the project (see Volume 4). Collecting solid waste by street sweeping is far more expensive than collecting it from households and other generators, or from communal waste bins; thus improving the SWM collection system should enable the street sweeping system to expand without incremental cost.
4.3.2 Frequency of waste collection 139 Frequency of collection has a substantial bearing on both the cost of collection and the public health benefits of the system. The concentration of organic matter in municipal waste in Nepal is high. Organic materials serve as breeding media for flies and are potential sources of foul odors. The eggs of the housefly can hatch in as little as one day. However, the larvae feed for about five days before pupation, which takes an additional three days. The total period to reach maturation may be as little as seven days. A weekly collection, therefore, is sufficient to prevent the production of adult flies in the stored wastes, provided that the larvae are unable to migrate from the container. On the other hand, decomposition of the wastes becomes noticeable during the first two to three days of storage. Consequently, odors may be a more critical factor than the lifecycle of the fly. 140 Unfortunately, weekly collection is unlikely to be adequate over most of the town. It can only suffice if waste is kept covered prior to collection. Realistically, this is only likely to happen in wealthier suburban areas. Many poor households living in one-room dwellings will have no means of storing waste for more than a day. Communal storage points are therefore inescapable. Since these can themselves become breeding grounds for flies, frequent collection is essential, say three times a week.
4.4 Storage of waste by households and other waste generators 141 It is important that awareness programs focus on household storage of waste among other topics. Even if it were possible to design a storage container suitable for all households and waste generators it would not be financially feasible for municipalities to provide them. Many poor households will have no practicable means of storing waste other than for very short periods anyway. However, awareness programs should aim to ensure that all stored waste is covered in some way. This is important in retarding flies from breeding. TA 7182-NEP - 29 - Final Report, Vol. 3 4.4.1 Communal storage 142 In most parts of the project towns, the starting point for project implementation will be the indiscriminate disposal of waste by residents and businesses in the streets, rivers, canals, vacant lots, and similar locations. It is logical that the first initiative should be to impose specific locations at which householders must deposit their wastes. These storage sites will be nuisances, particularly to people who live nearby. Only the universal use of household waste storage containers and door-to- door collection can eliminate these sites, which is not yet practical in Nepal’s secondary towns. 143 Notwithstanding the problems of communal storage, 100 per cent door-to-door collection is hopelessly impracticable in the conditions prevailing in the project towns. Apart from commercial areas, door-to-door collection is normally only economically feasible where a once a week collection suffices. Municipalities can encourage the private sector and NGOs to offer door-to-door collection services in those areas where there is a demand for this service, but should focus on collection of waste from collection points. 144 Although the use of large communal sites may seem to be a fairly inexpensive and simple solution, it may transfer much of the burden of refuse collection onto the street cleaning service and actually increase total costs. It is less expensive to collect refuse directly from a residence or business than to sweep it up from the streets. 145 The use of large, widely spaced communal storage sites generally fails because the demand placed on the generators goes beyond their willingness to cooperate. Communal storage points should be at intervals convenient to the generators and the locations should have the support of tol/lane organizations (TLOs) and ward committees.
4.4.2 Collection of waste 146 Equipment is essential for collecting waste, whether door-to-door or from communal storage points. Normal practice in Nepal is to use either handcarts or tricycle carts.
Handcarts 147 In Nepal, handcarts are in common use for street sweeping because they cause minimum obstruction to traffic and their capacity is sufficient to keep a sweeper busy for up to two hours. Handcarts also are used in Nepal for daily house-to-house collection—in particular, collection along narrow lanes inaccessible to motor vehicles. Typically, the handcarts have open boxes that are attached to the frame, which means that the only way of transferring the contents to a larger vehicle is to discharge the wastes on the ground and use a shovel or a basket for reloading. This procedure is a wasteful use of labor and increases the idling (or idle) time of the vehicle. 148 Thus, one of the more important design features of a cart is to ensure that the load is carried in one or several containers that can be lifted off the cart and emptied directly into a larger vehicle. This requirement can be met by building the cart in the form of a light framework of steel with a platform on which bins can be carried. A problem with containers of this type and capacity is that two men are needed to safely empty the loaded bins into a vehicle. 149 For the daily collection of refuse door-to-door, one 6-bin handcart load would be sufficient for about 50 dwellings (8 L/dwelling/day). One collector would be able to serve between 200 and 300 dwellings/day. At a density of 500 kg/m3, the net weight per load would be about 200 kg. This is well within the capacity of the average collection worker to push, provided that the wheels and bearings are of good design. The typical radius of operation of a handcart is about 1 km and, thus, frequent transfer points must be provided.
Bicycle trailers or tricycle carts 150 Pedal tricycles equipped with a box carrier in front or behind or bicycle trailers can be adapted to carry wastes. Unfortunately, their volumetric capacity is less than that of a handcart. Also, pedal tricycles can only operate satisfactorily on paved roads; this limits their practicable use in the project towns to the inner areas. Tricycle carts are in use for solid waste management in Biratnagar.
TA 7182-NEP - 30 - Final Report, Vol. 3 4.4.3 Financial structure 151 Municipalities may decide to try to collect more charges from households benefiting from house-to-house collection facilities. However, there are arguments against this approach: The collection costs will be significant. Municipal systems for collecting solid waste charges normally do not extend much beyond the commercial areas. The objective of the SWM component is to collect all municipal solid waste, not just the waste of those households able to afford a household collection system. A clean environment is a public good. As such, it is appropriate to pay for it through the property tax system, which is an existing and well-established system. 152 Property taxes are very low in Nepal in comparison with other Asian countries, and there should be no difficulty funding a SWM system from increased property tax rates.
4.4.4 Community participation 153 Community participation is essential for smooth and efficient source segregation of waste. In Biratnagar and Butwal there are networks of TLOs covering the whole municipality, but not so in Birgunj. The TLOs are an outcome of the Rural Urban Partnership Programme (1997-2007).26 The Local Self-Governance Act gives ward committees important responsibilities in relation to SWM. They are:
To arrange for disposal of wastes, dirt, rotten materials and for keeping the streets and corners within the Ward clean, and make arrangements to encourage the inhabitants of the Ward for maintaining sanitation.
However, in the project towns the wards cover large areas and large populations. To establish communal storage points, gain community support for stopping indiscriminate disposal of waste, to encourage households to store waste in appropriate containers
4.5 Transportation of waste to processing facility 154 The cost estimates assume the use of light commercial trucks for transporting the waste to the landfill. However, the detailed design of the project will need to confirm this selection by evaluating three alternative vehicle types: Light commercial trucks Tractors with trailers Container-hoist trucks 155 In India, compactor trucks are also in widespread use in the larger cities, but are unlikely to be suitable for the project towns.
4.5.1 7Light commercial truck 156 Light commercial trucks are readily available in Nepal. They are designed for the transport of construction materials. However, some municipalities use them to collect and transport waste. The
26 The Rural-Urban Partnership Program (RUPP) was a joint initiative by UNDP and MLD, with the involvement of MPPW. Social mobilization was a major activity, with the objective of establishing an institutional framework to implement RUPP activities on a sustainable basis. The RUPP successfully formed 5,527 community groups (TLOs) covering 228,527 households. Through the social mobilization process, communities are mobilized for their socio- economic development activities and are linked to the participatory planning process. The TLOs deposited a total of NRs179m as community savings, out of which, 80 per cent has been invested among the members. TLOs also plan, construct and operate more than 2,050 community level infrastructure. With its Enterprise Development Package inclusive of skill development training, credit and transfer of technology, more than 31,000 entrepreneurs including 50 per cent female are successfully running rural urban linkage enterprises.
TA 7182-NEP - 31 - Final Report, Vol. 3 truck usually has a flat platform with sides and tail-boards about 50 cm high. The volume of the truck is usually about 5 m3 to 6 m3 and is suitable to carry high-density materials such as bricks and aggregates. One disadvantage of the vehicle in its standard form is that it cannot carry its rated payload of solid wastes. Even high-density wastes piled on the vehicle would be unlikely to exceed 4 t. The advantages of a light truck are that it is relatively inexpensive, is sturdy, is easily obtainable, has good ground clearance, and performs well on rough roads. Because of the difficulty of unloading at the landfill site, it is advisable to equip these vehicles with hydraulic tipping gear. 157 There are always likely to be inefficiencies in the collection system in terms of labor and equipment utilization and routing.27 To allow for these, the economic analysis (Volume 8) has assumed that on average each trip to the landfill utilizes 75 per cent of the maximum truck capacity of 5.83 m3.
4.5.2 Tractor and trailer 158 The agricultural tractor is in wide use by Nepal’s municipalities, especially the smaller ones, for collecting waste. It has several advantages over other types of motorized vehicle: relatively low capital cost, capacity to transport a large load relative to energy use, readily available maintenance facilities, maneuverability on a landfill due to large tires and high torque, and ability to use the power takeoff to operate hydraulic tipping gear on a trailer. Despite its low road speed, tractors offer one of the least expensive methods of transport of solid wastes, up to a trailer capacity of about 6 m. 159 The trailer is often used as a single unit for the collection of refuse from houses or communal storage points. This combination also has substantial potential as a transfer unit because of the ease with which the tractor can be separated from the trailer.
4.5.3 Container-hoist truck 160 The container-hoist truck utilizes a standard commercial chassis (in the range 5 t to 10 t) equipped with two hydraulically-operated lifting arms. The arms can lift metallic containers on or off the floor of the vehicle. The containers have a capacity of 3 m3 or more. The containers can be tipped to discharge their contents while in position on the vehicle. 161 The container-hoist is a viable alternative to tractor-trailer units; it is cheaper, faster, and less liable to be damaged by vandalism than the tractor-trailer units. On the other hand, the cost of a container-hoist vehicle is about twice that of an agricultural tractor and in many cases the container transports a smaller load than that possible using a tractor-trailer.
4.5.4 Compactors 162 Compactor vehicles are widely used in India, but are unlikely to be suitable for the project towns for the following reasons: The volume reduction from compaction of Nepal waste is likely to be much less than in developed countries. The compaction mechanism imposes a need for additional maintenance. The compaction mechanism substantially increases fuel consumption. The capital cost of a compactor vehicle is much greater than that of a conventional truck.
163 That being said, smaller compactors to reduce the size of wasteH H material would be recommended for the project (refer to Appendix H).
4.5.5 Considerations in selecting vehicles 164 Apart from the characteristics of the various vehicle types, the selection needs to consider the overall vehicle fleet, including municipal vehicles not used for SWM. Mixed vehicle fleets contribute to low vehicle serviceability. If different models of vehicles or vehicles of different
27 UNEP, 2005, Solid Waste Management.
TA 7182-NEP - 32 - Final Report, Vol. 3 manufacturers compose the collection fleet, it is difficult and costly to maintain an adequate stock of spare parts. Consequently, vehicles may be off the road for long periods of time while replacement parts are purchased and delivered. In fact, it is common in Nepal to see broken down vehicles in municipal compounds. 165 Standardizing the fleet simplifies inventory control and improves availability of spare parts. Furthermore, major spare items can be kept in stock. These spare items are used to replace defective parts in a vehicle, which can then be put back into service within a few hours. The items that have been removed can subsequently be repaired at leisure. Standardization, however, does not imply that the same type of vehicle should provide service to every area in a community. Low-income areas may require different types of vehicles. 166 The choice of vehicle (or vehicles) is also inter-related with the decisions on communal storage, other aspects of the collection system, and the distance to the landfill site. For example, the more distant the landfill site, the less attractive the agricultural tractor becomes.
4.5.6 Treatment/recycling of waste 167 Composting is the process of decomposition and stabilization of organic matter under controlled condition. Since Nepal has an agriculture-based economy, promotional activities are required to develop the market for compost based products. Waste minimization, through segregation of recyclable materials such as plastics, glass, metals, etc. is another aspect, which needs special attention. NGOs may be appropriate to promote this activity. Waste collectors/pickers may also be trained so that the segregation of recyclable items can be done in a more systematic and efficient manner.
4.6 Health care waste
4.6.1 Rationale for municipal intervention 168 Medical waste from hospitals, clinics and other sources can be very hazardous as they can be infectious or contain hazardous chemicals. Although the total amount of such waste is a small portion of the overall municipal waste stream, it should be separated at source and managed properly so that it does not pose a public health risk. 28 169 Central rather than localized facilities offer several advantages in treating healthcare waste:F They can potentially benefit from economies of scale: provision of spare capacity is more economical, future modification or expansion is less expensive, operations are more efficient. Reduction of emissions is more effective (if an incinerator is used). Monitoring and supervision are easier than for dispersed facilities. Environmental monitoring and control by the municipality is easier. Healthcare facility administrators can devote their full attention to the primary activities of the healthcare facility. On site facilities are only practicable for some of the larger health care facilities. 170 Under the Local Self-Governance Act, municipalities have a range of health care responsibilities, mainly in relation to primary health care and generally supporting health care activities. Municipalities cannot take the view that health care waste is someone else’s problem.
4.6.2 Characteristics of health care waste 171 Healthcare waste consists of solids, liquids, sharps, and laboratory wastes that are potentially infectious or dangerous. It must be properly managed to protect the general public, and more
28 See Lars M. Johannessen, Marleen Dijkman, Carl Bartone, David Hanrahan, M. Gabriela Boyer, Candace Chandra. 2000. Health Care Waste Management Guidance Note. World Bank.
TA 7182-NEP - 33 - Final Report, Vol. 3 especially healthcare and sanitation workers who are regularly exposed to healthcare waste as an occupational hazard. 172 Healthcare waste differs from other types of hazardous waste, such as industrial waste, in that it comes from biological sources or is used in the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Common producers of healthcare waste include hospitals, health clinics, nursing homes, offices of physicians, dentists, and veterinarians, home health care, and funeral homes.
4.6.3 On-site management 173 At the site where it is generated, healthcare waste should be placed in specially labeled bags and containers for removal by healthcare waste transporters. The municipalities should require each health care facility to adopt a system of plastic bags and bins that are color-coded to designate the types of waste to be disposed therein. These bins will display the appropriate symbol (if required) and the name of the institution (heat embossed), so that they may be returned after waste disposal and readily traced if stolen. The colored bins will have bags of the same color placed within and labeled with the appropriate hazard symbols (if required) and the name of the facility. After use, bins will be thoroughly cleaned with 1 per cent hypochlorite solution by the waste management staff or cleaners, prior to being returned to the institution for re-use.
4.6.4 Waste transport (off site) 174 When healthcare waste is to be transported to another facility for disposal or treatment, the waste must be properly contained in appropriately colored containers displaying the appropriate symbols, the name of the facility and tagged with the generation source. A label must also be affixed to each container providing the information. 175 The label must be completed using permanent ink that will not wash off. The use of the prescribed transport label enables health care waste to be tracked “from cradle to grave”. 176 Untreated health care waste shall be transported only in a vehicle that the municipality has authorized for that purpose. The vehicle should have a fully enclosed storage compartment for the waste, be appropriately labeled and display the bio-hazard symbol. 177 The health care waste collection services operated by NGOs must use enclosed vans. Leak proof bins are required to contain this waste properly during transport. 178 One vehicle should be sufficient in each municipality. However, the cost of the vehicle has not been included in the project cost because the municipalities would require health care waste generators to collectively provide a vehicle and manage the collection. The role of the municipality would be to provide a disposal facility and to enforce a proper system of health care waste management.
4.6.5 Waste treatment and disposal 179 All health care waste must be treated and/or disposed of within 48 hours of it being generated. The waste treatment and disposal options available for biomedical wastes include physical mutilation/shredding, chemical disinfecting, steam sterilization (autoclaving), incineration, plasma treatment, microwave treatment, gamma irradiation and supervised landfill. However, most of these have only limited application and in the context of the project the issue is between incineration and secure landfill.
Health1 care waste incineration facility 180 Incineration is a traditional and proven method for destroying pathogenic wastes and organic wastes. It achieves a high degree of surety, and reduces the volume and mass of the waste significantly. However, it can produce smoke, odors and a variety of noxious gases. It is also more expensive than controlled sanitary landfill. 181 The incineration must, as a minimum, accord with the health care waste management rules. These do not exist in Nepal. If they did, and were similar to those of say India, air pollution control
TA 7182-NEP - 34 - Final Report, Vol. 3 devices would be required to control particulates and acid gases that may arise during waste incineration. 182 Of considerable importance will be need for specific operator guidelines and good training of operators, if the requirements of the rules are to be observed. Health care waste incinerators are manufactured throughout the world, including India. 183 One of the principle objectives of the health care waste management strategy is that through proper segregation and waste classification, the amount of waste requiring specialized and costly treatment and/or disposal should be minimized. 184 It is critical that, as elsewhere and in the Nepal context, the procedures, processes and technologies employed be cost-effective, practical, locally sustainable and environmentally sound.
Material requirement for implementation 185 There are a number of material requirements for the implementation of the health waste strategy. They are: Containment materials (e.g. polyethylene bags and plastic mobile garbage bins with lids and wheels of the designated colours); Dedicated secure waste storage areas at the waste generator’s premises; Bin cleaning and disaffecting facilities; Dedicated transport vehicles which are fully enclosed, etc. Central Health Waste Treatment Facility 186 These requirements are discussed further below.
Waste1 storage facilities 187 Secure waste storage facilities are required for al waste generators to stop the potential theft of waste for illicit purpose. However based on the ‘polluter pays’ principle, the provision of these facilities is the responsibility of the health care institution.
Health1 waste treatment/disposal facility 188 The facility, itself, dependent on the technology employed will require a waste receiving area, hand washing and cleaning facilities, waste storage hoppers, plastics disinfecting and shredding facility, and a secure burial area. After treatment, dependent on the type of technology employed, residues will also need to be managed responsibly, and treated if necessary before final disposal.
4.7 Waste processing centers
4.7.1 Facilities required 189 In the waste-processing centre the following facilities are necessary: 1. Access road and internal roads 2. Weighbridge 3. Perimeter fence 4. Buildings: watchman’s quarters, office space, garage, workshop, covered storage 5. Utilities: fuel storage, water supply, power, sanitation, communications. 6. Recycling unit 7. Composting facility 8. Health care waste burial pit
TA 7182-NEP - 35 - Final Report, Vol. 3 9. Leachate treatment facilities 190 It is evident from this list that there are substantial economies of scale in the construction and operation of sanitary landfills: Some items are required whatever the size of the landfill, for example the weighbridge, the access road, vehicles to spread and compact the waste, environmental monitoring. Some items are required in quantities that increase according to the square root of the waste volume rather than proportionately, for example the peripheral landscaping and fence, the leachate retention pond. 191 Labor is almost the only item that is required in quantities more or less proportionate to the waste quantity. Even with labor, larger operations are more efficient because they offer more opportunity for division of labor into different tasks.
4.7.2 Access road and internal roads 192 An all-weather (permanent) access road from the public road system to the site entrance is essential. Adequate drainage should be provided to prevent the access road from flooding during the monsoon. Ideally, the roadway should consist of two lanes (minimum total width, 7 m) for two-way traffic. The right-of-way of the road must be sufficient to accommodate drainage and utilities. 193 Because the location of the working face is constantly changing, roads for the delivery of wastes from the permanent road system to the working face can be temporary in nature and construction. Temporary roads may be constructed by compacting the soil and by digging drainage ditches. The roads may be topped with a layer of tractive material, such as gravel, crushed stone, cinders, broken concrete, mortar, or bricks.
4.7.3 Perimeter fence 194 A perimeter fence around the entire site is essential to mark the limits of property ownership and to control access to the site by people and animals.
4.7.4 Landfill cells 195 There are several special conditions to be taken into account for the design of the landfill. The sites need to flat and adjoin rivers. During the dry season the levels of these rivers are approximately 5 m below the average landfill site elevation at approximately 300 m distance from proposed location of the landfill cells. 196 The monsoon rains can be heavy, which must be taken into account in the design. From June to September the monthly precipitation is frequently up to 500 mm, but the rainiest month can bring even over 1000 mm precipitation. Daily rainfalls of over 100 mm are recorded almost every year. 197 At the proposed site, the soil has not been investigated, but information obtained from the department of Mines and Geology indicates typical permeability k-values of 10-6 to 10-7 m/s. The prevailing soil type is sandy silt. The permeability is low, but not low enough for a landfill according to the European landfill directives without an extra mineral barrier.
Excavation works 198 The groundwater wells in the region show a continuous level of 12 m to 15 m, however shallow ground water levels can be found at considerably higher depths. Typical measurements during the monsoon are 1.5 m to 2.0 m. below the surface. Therefore the landfill has to be constructed with minimum excavation, probably not more than 1.5 m at the lowest points. To minimize the area that collects leachate and to prevent the lateral movement of the leachates, the landfill should comprise separate cells, each say 7500 m2 in area. Waters collected in the cells not in active use shall be separated and discharged in the surface water channels. The leachates will be collected and directed to a collection basin, and from there to a leachate treatment unit. Excavation shall be done to a maximum of 1.5 m depth with 1:3 slopes. The bottom shall be shaped with a 1% inclination to the lowest point where the leachate will be collected to outside collection sumps.
TA 7182-NEP - 36 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Landfill bottom construction 199 Since the permeability is low, but not low enough for a landfill, the bottom will be lined with bentonite. The landfill will comprise cells 100 m by 75 m divided with soil walls up to ground level. The entire landfill shall be surrounded by a soil wall 1:3 slopes up to 0.5 m above ground level. Subject to the detailed design, the layers will be as follows: Shaped and evened soil (bottom layer) Bentonite mat Geo-membrane 2 mm PE Protection sand 100 mm to 150 mm Gravel, preferably natural classified gravel 6 mm to 32 mm, 500 mm layer Geo-textile Waste 200 In the absence of national standards, the detailed design should consider appropriate international standards, such as those in Annex 1 of the Directive of the European Union on landfill sites.
Landfill cover 201 Temporary covers of plastic sheets or a layer of soil with low permeability shall be installed every time a new cell is brought into operation into operation in order to prevent rain water penetrating the waste body of the cell out of operation. In this way the rainwater collected from the top can be directed to the clean surface waters, which are directed to the nearest rivers. The filling of the landfill will be done in tiers. Each time waste is being tipped on top of an already filled area, the temporary cover shall be removed. 202 Final cover is installed at each cell, when the final height has been reached. The landfill piles shall be shaped and covered with soil which shall be evened and the gas collection pipes will be installed. The final cover layers from bottom up-wards: Waste Soil or sand 200 mm to 250 mm Bentonite mat Gravel, preferably natural 6 mm to 32 mm Geo-textile Top soil for grass cultivation, 0.5 m to 1.0 m
Leachate1 collection system 203 The leachate collection shall be designed to collect water from each cell individually. The water will be collected from the bottom of the cell into a collection sump, from where it will be directed to a collection basin. The shallow ground water probably will be directed to a collection basin. The shallow ground water will probably prohibit constructing the collection basin deep enough in the ground to arrange for directing waters by gravity. Therefore pumping may be necessary. 204 The amount of leachate from the landfill is a critical item due to the heavy rains during the monsoon period. The average yearly precipitation is 2200 mm; during the monsoon (mid June to mid September) the monthly precipitation varies from 300 mm to 600 mm. Even higher monthly rainfalls have been recorded. Daily precipitation also varies widely. Extreme daily precipitation can exceed 100 mm. Such extremes occur almost every year. Average daily precipitation during the monsoon is 20 mm to 30 mm.
TA 7182-NEP - 37 - Final Report, Vol. 3 205 The leachate system must be designed for the worst average situation taking into account that leachates must be collected from the full surface of one cell at a time, i.e. 7500 m2. As the waste pile is built up above the ground level, the cells can be partly covered, which will reduce the leachate volumes. The surface water from the covered areas can be directed to the surface water collection system.
Leachate1 treatment 206 The leachate treatment technology and design depend on the flow and composition and the water quality standards for discharge into the receiving water course. The relevant standard is Tolerance Limits for Industrial Effluents Discharged into Inland Surface Waters (Nepal Standard: NS 229-2047). 207 The most appropriate treatment technology is a reed bed due to its simple construction and low need for mechanical equipment. It would, however, be preferable to aerate the leachate before feeding it to the root zone treatment. The aeration can be arranged with floating surface aerators on the leachate collection basin. 208 A reed bed treatment surface area of 2000 m2 would be sufficient for municipal waste water equaling to approximately 10 days residence time. For leachate treatment 1.5 to 2.0 times longer residence time is desirable. The hydraulic capacity of the root zone treatment must take into account the addition of rainwater on top of the area during the monsoon.
Surface1 water collection system 209 Segregation of leachate and clean surface water demands appropriate planning and implementation of the landfill process. When one cell is filled it shall be provisionally covered before the next cell is taken into operation. Clean surface will have its own drainage system that will collect run-offs from the covered cells and rain water collected from the facility area. Two main channels are proposed to direct the waters to the river. The channels will be constructed with a 1 per cent inclination. The majority of channel length can be constructed as open ditches with bottom sealing.
4.7.5 Mobile equipment 210 As a minimum the landfill facility shall be equipped with the following mobile vehicles for internal use: Dozer Large wheel-loader Small wheel-loader Fork lift Light truck
4.7.6 Buildings
Garage 211 For the mobile equipment a shed for weather protection and basic maintenance and fuel filling shall be constructed.
Main15 administration and reception area 212 In the reception zone all incoming and outgoing trucks shall be registered and weighed on the weighing bridge adjacent to the administration building. The administration building shall include offices and social areas for all employees.
Watchman’s1 quarters 213 The facility will require a resident watchman.
TA 7182-NEP - 38 - Final Report, Vol. 3 4.7.7 Composting and recycling facilities 214 Windrows are the most appropriate composting method for a municipal facility in Nepal. As at Bhaktapur, composting must be done under cover so that it can continue in all seasons. Because demand from farmers is seasonal, storage facilities for compost will be necessary. Any recyclable materials that have not been separated during the collection phase need to be removed from the waste at this stage. 215 The detailed design of composting and recycling facilities should consider how the products are to be marketed and distributed. Relevant issues requiring careful consideration are standards, collection (or delivery), packaging and storage. Municipalities should develop marketing plans before construction of facilities.
4.7.8 Health care waste burial pit 216 The design of the health care waste burial pit should comply with the National Health Care Waste Management Guidelines.
4.7.9 Utilities 217 Electrical, water, and sanitation services will be necessary. Electricity is necessary for illumination and power. These two uses are almost essential if equipment maintenance and repair are to be done at the site. A portable generator is essential. Water should be available for drinking, fire fighting, dust control, and employee sanitation. Fuel storage is necessary to supply the generator, the site equipment and possibly the transport equipment (depending on where they are garaged and other considerations). 218 A groundwater well shall be drilled to provide the water needed for operation and washing. The periphery of the landfill area shall be cultivated with bamboo or other fast growing high plants to reduce the visibility of the landfill. 219 The site preparations costs include all top soil clearance and excavations for all constructions.
4.7.10 Landfill gas collection 220 Landfill gas is a product of the biological degradation of the organic fraction of the wastes in the landfill. For a brief period after dumping, there is enough air entrapped in the wastes that the biodegradation is primarily aerobic. The main constituents of the landfill gas during this stage are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour. Waste compaction, combined with the application of the landfill cover, prevents air from reaching the wastes. Consequently, within a short time, the oxygen originally trapped in the wastes is consumed and the biodegradation process becomes anaerobic. The shift to anaerobiosis is marked by the production of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), as well as a variety of trace amounts of reduced carbon and sulphur compounds. 221 Operators can either allow gases generated in the fill to disperse and migrate beyond the confines of the fill, or they can collect them. Collected gases may be put to some use, may be flared, or may simply be vented into the environment. Venting into the environment provides undesirable contributions to global warming. However, the collection and use of landfill gas entails significant capital and operating costs that must be compared to alternative sources of energy. 222 Accordingly, the proposed approach for STIUEIP landfills is to keep the amount of organic waste going to the landfills to the absolute minimum, even if this means spending money on composting and giving the compost away. PADECO considers this to be the most appropriate approach from both environmental and economic considerations.
4.7.11 Storm water drainage 223 Proper storm water and groundwater drainage of the landfill site is of the utmost importance to minimize all possible water inflows. The objective of the storm water drainage facility is to reduce the amount of leachate generated from landfill sites by: Preventing storm water entering the site.
TA 7182-NEP - 39 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Discharging storm water falling on the landfill site without any contact with solid wastes 224 The initial design and construction of the site will prevent storm water entering the site. However, drainage works will continue to be necessary during operations and maintenance of the sites to manage storm water falling within the site boundaries. In particular, drains should be constructed on the surface of landfill final soil cover to drain off the storm water from the landfill and prevent it leaching through the waste below.
4.7.12 Weighbridge 225 Incoming waste collection vehicles have to pass over the weighbridge to measure the waste that they bring in. The incoming waste-loaded vehicles are weighed twice, once as they arrive at the site and once as they leave. The difference in weight gives the weight of waste disposed at the site.
4.8 Awareness programs 226 Public awareness of SWM program is creating understandings and appreciation among the population to deal with solid waste issues and to solve problems with solid waste collection and disposal. Awareness program is used to raise peoples' environmental consciousness and to stimulate peer solidarity. Awareness program can implemented through media, television, pamphlets, meeting, seminar, workshop and training. 227 Key topics for awareness programs are as include the following: Household storage of waste. Household segregation of waste to facilitate collection by pheriwalas or community re- cycling schemes that TLOs or NGOs initiate. Health risks from indiscriminate dumping of household waste. Health risks from burning waste.
4.9 Staff requirements 228 Staff requirement is depends on its objective and detailed activities which should be overlooked from Social, Environment and Economic dimensions. An organization chart has been developed to identify the required staffs for the Regional waste processing centre.
TA 7182-NEP - 40 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Figure 3 Organization Chart: Proposed Regional Waste Processing Centre
Board of Participants VDCs/Municipalities
Waste Management Chief Environment Engineer
Technical Section Administration Section Financial Section 1 Environment Engineer 1 Administrator 1 Accountant 2 Environment Inspectors 1 Office Assistant 2 Assistants (Revenue 1 Safety Inspector 2 Peons collectors) 6 Drivers 8 sorters
100 sweepers
4.10 Public private partnerships 229 The conceptual design of the project for the purposes of assessing feasibility assumes that there is no private sector participation. This approach facilitates transparent economic and financial analysis and is consistent with the extremely cautious attitude of the Chambers of Commerce in the three project towns and the difficulties of doing business in Nepal. At the detailed design stage, the municipalities and design consultant should review whether in the circumstances then prevailing there might be advantages in the private sector participating and whether such participation is likely to be feasible. In the short term, private sector participation is neither viable nor likely to provide significant benefits. Volume 5 contains further discussion on the practicalities of public private partnerships.
4.11 Participation of the informal sector 230 The informal sector is an important participant in solid waste processing. Scavengers are active in all three project municipalities. The detailed design of the SWM component must consider the economic, social and health issues associated with scavenging.
4.11.1 Economic issues 231 From the perspective of the waste management system, the informal sector is effectively subsidizing the formal by reducing the amount of waste that the municipalities are managing. Furthermore, the activities of the informal sector help conserve natural resources by recycling. Therefore, there is an opportunity to build on the recycling networks and increase the recycling rates in a cost-effective way through co-operation between formal and informal stakeholders. If treated as a valuable business partner, waste scavengers can increase their contribution to the protection of the urban environment. From the scavengers’ perspective, waste scavenging activities provide a valuable – and often the only – source of income for them and their families. 232 Waste scavengers always work in accordance with market developments. They are vulnerable to market fluctuations. Further, if there is only one buyer at the site, waste scavengers are TA 7182-NEP - 41 - Final Report, Vol. 3 subject to exploitation. In addition, waste scavengers at dumpsites usually depend on the intermediate buyers for the transport of the materials to the end-users. 233 NGOs may be in position to help protect waste scavengers at dumpsites and other locations. NGOs can do that through e.g. negotiation with other stakeholders to secure some minimum prices for the materials recovered, or through close monitoring of the developments in relevant (e.g. environmental) legislation that could affect scavengers. In addition, NGOs can facilitate links between the informal sector and stakeholders such as universities or manufacturers who could provide insight into potential markets for recycled products. Municipalities may support these efforts of the NGOs. Regarding the scavenging at dumpsites, in some countries site operators organise the trading activities between waste scavengers and buyers in such a way that different buyers come to the site at different, pre-arranged days of the week, so as to streamline the exchange and to avoid potential conflicts. 234 Measures to secure alternative source of income in order to eliminate the need for child labor ought to be identified and applied. The Government and municipalities may consider controlling the recycling market and protecting existing stakeholders by regulating the access of new ones. 235 In the process of upgrading operations at dumpsites, site operators sometimes offer regular employment to scavengers, in order to integrate them into the formal solid waste management system. However, the experiences have not universally been positive: in a number of cases, scavengers have declined such offers, with the argument that they prefer to determine their working hours and be their own boss. Such a response has, in turn, precipitated frustration and disappointment on the side of the operators involved. This could have been avoided if an open, participatory approach had been taken - seeking common grounds for co-operation based on dialogue rather than prescribing solutions based on untested assumptions about what is best for the other.
4.11.2 Social issues 236 Waste scavengers, particularly those at dumpsites, are a vulnerable social group, often held in low esteem by others in society. This is due to an array of complex and interconnected reasons. First, they often belong to disadvantaged or marginalized social groups such as the lowest castes, ethnic minorities, and impoverished migrants. As such, they are uneducated and have largely been unaware of their rights as citizens (although some scavengers are citizens of India, not Nepal). Among disadvantaged and marginalized social groups, women and children are particularly vulnerable. Secondly, they deal with waste; handling of waste is regarded as the lowest possible activity on the social ladder—the activity with the lowest social esteem. Thirdly, due to their informal status, they are not entitled to any protection of their economic interests by law. 237 Notwithstanding the above, there have been some positive experiences regarding institutional and legal aspects in e.g. Brazil, Egypt and India in organizing waste scavengers in cooperatives and associations. These organizations represent their interests in negotiations with local authorities and the private sector. Waste scavengers increasingly receive support and guidance from NGOs, sometimes in co-operation with international aid organizations. The NGOs may be focused on various issues such as poverty alleviation, empowerment of women, empowerment of disadvantaged or marginalized social groups, elimination of child labor, environmental protection. 238 The most serious social issue is the prevalence of children among the scavengers in Biratnagar, Birgunj and Butwal. Survey findings relating to these children are as follows:29 Child scavengers work on the street and at junkyards rather than at dumpsites. The great majority (86 per cent) of child scavengers are boys.
29 Sanjukta Mukherjee, 2003, Child Ragpickers in Nepal: a Report on the 2002-2003 Baseline Survey. International Labour Organization International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour with Central Department for Development Studies, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu.
TA 7182-NEP - 42 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Nationally, about 40 per cent of scavengers can read and write, but in terai towns such as Birgunj almost none can or are attending school. About 40 per cent of child scavengers do not live with their parents, but on the street, with other child scavengers or with resellers. About 44 per cent of child scavengers have been scavenging for at least two years and for nearly 70 per cent scavenging is their first occupation. About one in six re-sellers also work as pheriwalas, going door-to-door to collect recyclable materials. 239 Unfortunately, there are no national policies with respect to scavengers or children working as scavengers. The International Labour Organization has made the following recommendations (among others) to the Government of Nepal:30 Dialogue with re-sellers. Informal and vocational teaching for children. Rehabilitation of children. Counselling and help-line services for children. 240 There is a risk that a more effective waste collection system will reduce the work opportunities for scavengers. The best way to avoid this outcome is through dialogue with the scavengers with a view to optimizing their participation in the new system.
4.11.3 Occupational health issues 241 The occupational safety of scavengers, particularly at dumpsites, is poor. Waste scavenging commences already during the unloading of trucks. The sight is not uncommon of young men climbing on the waste being unloaded from the lorry with the trailer still raised in the tipping position. Often, there are machines present at the site to spread (and compact) the waste. Scavengers search through high piles of waste in the close proximity of machines. There is a constant potential for injury from slips, trips and falls. As scavengers hardly ever use protective clothing such as boots, gloves and masks, they get cut by sharp objects like needles and broken glass, as well as bitten by dogs and rats. 242 In terms of health risk, scavengers are exposed to numerous hazards: hazardous substances (including infectious waste from health care facilities), smoke and fumes from burning waste, unhygienic conditions, as well as harsh weather conditions. In addition, they spend most of the time working in a bent position, which is bad by any ergonomic standard. The consequences of are obvious and well-documented: waste scavengers suffer from chronic backache, coughs and general weakness. Their skin and eyes are irritated and infected. They often have diarrhea, parasites and hepatitis. In addition, scavengers live under inadequate conditions and lack access to healthcare provision and social security. 243 Similarly, public or private site operators can considerably improve the situation of the waste scavengers at dumpsites in terms of their occupational health and safety. Provision of protective clothes and equipment, as well water supply, constitute obvious improvements in the working conditions. In addition to these, the cost estimates allow for a roofed facility for waste sorting, with conveyor belts or tables at waist height, where the solid waste is delivered for sorting and the residues then sent onto the compost plant. Prior to taking any concrete action, however, an open discussion with the scavengers ought to take place, in which they can communicate their needs as they perceive them. Otherwise, the newly constructed sorting hall may remain unused while waste scavenging continues as before.
30 International Labour Office, 2001, Nepal Situation of Child Ragpickers: A Rapid Assessment. Geneva.
TA 7182-NEP - 43 - Final Report, Vol. 3
TA 7182-NEP - 44 - Final Report, Vol. 3 5 Implementation arrangements
5.1 Implementation schedule 244 In Birgunj it is important to implement the SWM component as quickly as possible. The reason is that if there is no improvement in solid waste collection there will be problems with the new sewers and drains that the Drainage and Sewerage component will provide. The same imperative does not apply in Butwal. 245 Figure 4 is the implementation schedule for the SWM component.
Figure 4 Implementation schedule for Solid Waste Management component Advance actions Actions (duration to Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 b e determined)
Form Steering Committee and PCO
Acquire landfill site Complete capacity building (under proposed TA)
Establish municipal project management committees
Prepare and issue tenders for consultants
Appoint consultants
Carry out survey and design work
Obtain environmental clearance
Conduct awareness programs
Prepare tender documents
Prequalify contractors
Call for bids
Appoint civil contractor
Prepare for construction work (contractor mobilization)
Undertake works
Procure equipment
Commission works
5.2 Implementation responsibilities 246 The Project EA will be the Municipalities and VDCs. A Management and Steering committee will be formed by participants and will constitute the responsible authority for implementation.
TA 7182-NEP - 45 - Final Report, Vol. 3 5.3 Site selection and land acquisition
5.3.1 Site selection criteria 247 The GoN criteria for selecting sites for the regional waste management facilities comprise “Exclusion Criteria” and “Evaluation Criteria”.31 248 The Exclusion criteria are as follows: Existing drinking water sources and catchments areas. High flood areas. Wetlands with unstable ground conditions (e.g. swamp, moors, marshes, etc). Areas with extreme morphology (e.g. very steep slopes that are prone to landslides, avalanches, subsidence and rock falls). Areas closer than 100 m (hills) or 300 m (terai) to densely populated areas. National parks, wildlife sanctuaries and nature protection areas. Wilderness areas with rare or endangered species of animals or plants and their habitat. Unique areas of historic, religious, cultural, archaeological, scientific or geographical significance. Areas within 10 km of airports. Areas endangered by swallow holes, collapse sites, deep digging etc. Areas lying on the main Central Trust and Main Boundary Thrust. 249 The Evaluation Criteria are as follows: Unfavourable local hydrological situation, e.g. sources of drinking water such as springs or water wells very close to the project site. Karsts and areas with soil conditions (e.g. gravel/sandy soil) allowing a fast penetration/permeation of water/possible leachate to the next aquifer. Areas close (<200 m) to an active population such as farmhouses (often together with intense agricultural use) or major institutions such as large hospitals, schools, and army barracks etc. Areas of very intense agricultural uses, mainly small-scale farming. Unfavourable geological conditions e.g. too steep slopes, danger of mass movements etc. Too little available waste volume for land filling Extremely bad access, i.e. no existing access roads that may involve very long distances from main road. Access road passing through densely populated areas.
5.3.2 Rationale for regional operations 250 With respect to solid waste management, Biratnagar, Birgunj and Butwal exhibit the following relevant characteristics: The urbanized area extends well beyond the municipal boundaries, and the population growth of the urban area will increasingly take place beyond those municipal boundaries. There are no suitable sites for sanitary landfill within the municipal boundaries
31 Ministry of Local Development. 2005. National Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Guidelines for Solid Waste Management Project in the Municipalities of Nepal.
TA 7182-NEP - 46 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Solid waste volumes generated are insufficient to realize the substantial economies of scale in the operation of a sanitary landfill. Composting is not well established, and the potential market for compost is unknown (although agriculture is well-established near each town). A regional approach to marketing the compost will be necessary. Only a regional scale of operations will open up possibilities of bringing the project within the practicality of the Clean Development Mechanism.32 251 Landfill sites located so as to serve several local bodies and not just the municipality would provide huge economies of scale. Unfortunately, the municipalities are just not willing to consider a regional approach, and insist on sites for landfill within or adjoining their borders. As a consequence, their landfill operations will not be economic, and the risk is that the municipalities will not provide adequate funds to operate the landfill in a satisfactory manner.
5.3.3 Biratnagar sites 252 The disposal site for Biratnagar will be provided under a separate project.
5.3.4 Birgunj sites 253 Birgunj municipality engineers suggested various sites for a solid waste disposal facility (Appendix F).
Mangadwa1 254 The Mangadawa site is located about 7 km north-east from Birgunj and 5 km west of Kalaiya municipality. A large area of cultivated land was destroyed during the flood of Bangari River. The meander wave length is too wide. If the river is trained and striated, this land could be used for waste disposal. A large portion of this land is covered with kans (Saccharum spontaneous), a small portion is ailani but occupied by 15 to 20 families.33 The cultivated land is cheaper – NRs82/m2 to NRs90/m2. Since the river is seasonal and becomes dry for two months – Chaitra and Baisak and there is no natural forest except a few patches of domesticated trees such as bamboo and sisoo, there is no significant impact on flora and fauna. Kalaiya municipality does not have a site for solid waste disposal and is likely to utilize a site at this location. Moreover, adjoining VDCs such as Bahuwari, Prasauni, Banjhariya and Motisar in Bara district, could also use a site at this location.
255 The main design challenges at this site are as follows: Designing a safe river and flood control structure training Treatment of water so that river water does not polluted and provision for minimization the impact from rats in cultivated land Resettlement of 15 to 20 families though the area was illegally occupied Local protest during transportation of solid waste from villages such as Kothitola, Parsauni, Managadwa. 256 The Mangadwa site lies immediately adjacent to a strategic road network road, so the site offers exceptional accessibility to greater Birgunj, the municipality of Kalaiya and the VDCs along the highway to Simara.
32 The Terms of Reference for the STIUEIP PPTA require the consultant to assess the possibility of applying the Clean Development Mechanism to solid waste management sub-projects. 33 Ailani land is unregistered government land. Under the Local Self-Governance Act, municipalities are responsible for managing this land.
TA 7182-NEP - 47 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Nagwa1 257 There are various areas of sufficient size near Nagwa. These sites are located on the eastern bank of the Singaha River in Bara district. Most of this area is under paddy cultivation with small patches under trees. The roads serving the various sites are wide enough in terms of right-of-way to transport solid waste, but would require upgrading to provide flood-free and paved access. The major settlements are located about 0.5 km away. No significant adverse environmental impact is expected, although these sites are closer than desirable to the main built up area and there could be problems with vectors and odors. Issues to resolve at Nagwa are as follows: Designing of safe flood control structures. Treatment of water so that river water is not polluted and provision for minimization of the impact from rats in cultivated land. Local protest during transportation of solid waste by the people living in Nagwa village. The project site is located in Itihai VDC of Bara district; coordination for the acquisition of land is needed.
InarwaB near Food Corporation 258 This site is about 125 m north of the Food Corporation and 150 m from Bhutandevi temple. The ownership of about 8160m2 of land (pond) is with Birgunj municipality and the remaining required land will need to be acquired. The surrounding area comprises paddy field with a small plot of domesticated private trees such as sisoo. No significant environmental impact is expected since the site is located far from major settlements. 259 The major design challenges at this site could be as follows: Treatment of water so that river water is not polluted and provision for minimization the impact from rats in cultivated land Local protest during transportation of solid waste by the people living in Inarwa village. The difficulty of acquiring sufficient land at this location, which is close to the built-up area of Birgunj. The proximity of the site to residential areas would call for extremely tight control of odors and vectors.
Evaluation of sites 260 The SWM sites proposed for Birgunj are physically practicable, but apart from Mangadawa are too close to the built up areas of Birgunj, too expensive in terms of the cost of land acquisition and providing paved access, and likely to obstruct future urban expansion. So, PADECO considers Mangadawa to be the only suitable site (of those that the municipal engineers identified). It is the only site suitable for a regional facility; however, the municipality is not interested in a regional facility. 261 The municipality finally concluded that it could only consider a site adjoining the municipal boundary. The concern of the municipality was that in the event of people obstructing access to the site there would be little that it could do unless the site adjoined the municipal boundary. PADECO disagrees with this conclusion because the incremental cost of developing and operating the adjoining sites is so large by virtue of much higher land costs and the loss of opportunities for the economies of scale that section 5.3.2 identifies. There are likely to be financial problems in operating the Nagwa site satisfactorily. Finally, it would be easier to dispose of compost to farmers from the Mangadawa site, because it is on a main road. 262 Irrespective of the site, close cooperation with neighbouring local bodies and other stakeholders will be essential for the success of the SWM component on issues ranging from controlling hazardous wastes to disposing of compost. Choosing a site within or adjoining municipal boundaries does not reduce the need for this work.
TA 7182-NEP - 48 - Final Report, Vol. 3 5.3.5 Butwal sites 263 At Butwal there are two alternatives: a site within the municipal boundary at Tamnagar, and a site between Butwal, Siddarthanagar and Ramgram optimally located to serve the three municipalities, and indeed, the whole of Rupandehi district.
Tamnagar site 264 The Tamnagar site is two to three km from the East-West Highway about 9 km west of Butwal. Nearly 1557 ha of forest land is available. This area has been managed by the Charpala Community Forest User Group (CCFUG) since 1996. There are about 10,000 families with about 60,000 populations of 6 VDCs (Motipur, Simlar, Amuwa, Pharsatikar, Khadga Bangai, Manpakadi) and ward no. 14 of Butwal municipality in this forest user group. The annual income from the forest is about NRs2.5m to NRs3.0m. In addition to this local people collect fodder, fuelwood, leaf and litters for household consumption. 265 The area is composed of undulating erosion landform covered mainly with scattered pole size sal (Shorea robusta) trees and bushes. The average density of pole size tree is about 500 per ha. However, they are in clumps and open areas are found between clumps. The soil is loamy to sandy and cobbly. The elevation ranges from 132 m to 160 m. The climate is subtropical. There are settlements about 1 km to the south and southeast. The municipality resettled 57 families affected by landslide disaster in Jyotinagar here and another 20 to 25 families along the east west highway. 266 Nearly 60 per cent forest area is in the Chure hill and remaining 40 per cent in the Bhabar.34 267 In the protection of forest area the users' group has employed within the members 4 forest watchers (heralu). 268 Since the area required for landfill site is about 10 ha, which is only 0.64 percent of the total area and trees are scattered with many open areas, there would probably be no significant environmental impact in terms of loss of flora and fauna. Similarly, there is no source of drinking water in nearby areas (drinking water is supplied through deep tube well located about 2 km far from the proposed site). No protected areas and cultural heritage are located in nearby areas. 269 The municipality had earlier proposed a nearby site as a landfill location. A geological report 35 confirmed the suitability of the ground conditions. F Due to protests from local people and the forest users' group, the proposal did not go ahead. The proposed site was transferred to the Korea-Nepal Technical Institute by GoN with the agreement of CCFUG. The Institute is now under construction. 270 In a meeting with the Chair of CCFUG, it was indirectly proposed to establish SWM in the area north of the Korea-Nepal Technical Institute. At the beginning he refused the proposal. After talking about the needs and benefits of the SWM, he was convinced but noted it is necessary to convince other members before making decision to use this site for solid waste management. 271 As compared with the original site at Tamnagar, which the Korea-Nepal Technical Institute, now occupies, the site now proposed by the municipality has significant additional disadvantages: It is not adjacent to the highway, and would require the construction of an access road of 2 km to 3 km and power line of similar length. This location will also make it more difficult to sell compost to farmers and be similarly less accessible to the workforce. The additional travel distance for trucks is similarly a disadvantage. It is very close to the Main Boundary Thrust, and therefore breaches one of the Government’s criteria for landfill site selection.
34 The Bhabar belt is between the hills the terai, and consists of boulders and pebbles carried down by rivers. The porosity is very high. 35 Department of Mines and Geology, 2000, Report on Investigation of Subsurface Geologic / Soil Condition of the Proposed Sanitary Landfill Site, Tamnagar, Butwal, Rupandehi. Environmental Geology Project, Kathmandu.
TA 7182-NEP - 49 - Final Report, Vol. 3 272 PADECO consider the site to be most unsuitable for landfill development. The clearance and replacement of the trees and site preparation will be substantial costs. The loss of tree cover will be an adverse environmental impact, and households using the forest will lose some of their income. However, the municipality is adamant that this is the only site that it will consider, and therefore the cost estimates have been prepared on this basis.
Gongolia- Sikatahan 273 Siddharthanagar municipality supported the Regional concept if land could be acquired in the area of VDCs like Gongolia, Sikatahan Makranan karbani. Waste transport will be near and equidistant between three partners like Butwal, Siddharthanagar and Ramgram Municipalities. There are very few settlements and no adverse impact was identified. 274 The proposed locations for the regional waste processing centre are shown in Appendix G.
5.4 Contract packaging and procurement 275 There are five procurement items for the Solid Waste Management component:
Land acquisition for the landfill facilities, A contract in each municipality for design and environmental impact studies; A contract in each municipality for awareness programs, A contract in each municipality for the supply of vehicles, A contract in each municipality for the construction of the landfill facilities.
276 In Birgunj, procurement of the awareness programs should be in conjunction with the procurement of the community mobilization and awareness program for the Drainage and Sanitation component. 277 Procurement will be in accordance with ADB guidelines.36 In the case of the design contract, there should be a prequalification stage in the procurement.
Table 3 Estimate of staffing requirements Stage Process No. of staff Remarks Unloading Receipt of incoming Dumping into a hopper 1 material which feeds a chopper Conveyor belt Manual picking of non- 4 Rejected materials to recycling or organic material. landfill. W i n d r o w s Manual turning once a Rejected materials to recycling or week. landfill. Screening Inclined, static screen Rejected material to landfill. Notes: The number of staff will initially be similar in Butwal and Birgunj. In the longer term, Birgunj will become a larger operation. Source: Consultants estimates. 278 The project does not include covered storage for compost. It can be covered with tarpaulins, but it will be important to sell the compost as quickly as possible.
5.5 Hazardous waste and industrial waste 279 The facility includes a special cell for disposal of hazardous waste. The intention is to use this cell only for health care waste. However, it is inevitable that other hazardous wastes will arrive at the site and of necessity will have to go to the health care waste cell. The municipalities will make every effort to ascertain the origin of hazardous wastes other than health care wastes arriving at the facility and to recover the costs of disposal from the originators.
36 ADB, 2010, Procurement Guidelines, Manila.
TA 7182-NEP - 50 - Final Report, Vol. 3 280 The municipalities will discuss with health care providers establishing a private operator or NGO for the collection of high-risk healthcare wastes and transport to the waste processing centre. Health care providers have the ability to meet the costs of this. Also, the same private company or NGO could supply and recycle the special containers for sharps (such as blades and syringe and drip needles) and infectious wastes (such as bandages and wastes from infectious disease wards). 281 The Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Act contains the following provisions regarding industrial and commercial waste: 4.2.1 In case the Center believes that the solid wastes accumulated in the compound of any industrial or commercial enterprise or any agency, institution, or individual are likely to adversely affect the public health, it may order the concerned enterprise, agency, institution or individual to clean such harmful solid waste and throw them in the prescribed place. 4.2.2 In case the concerned enterprise, agency institution or individual is not in a position to clean or throw the solid wastes mentioned in Sub-Section 4.2.1 by itself and therefore requests the Center to do so, the Center may make arrangements for removing or cleaning such solid wastes by charging the necessary fees. The Centre can delegate these provisions to specific municipalities. The municipalities are therefore in a position to control industrial and commercial wastes.
5.6 Landfill operations and maintenance
5.6.1 11Road maintenance 282 Maintenance of access roads at landfill sites should be conducted on a continuous basis. Regardless of the type of surface (soil, gravel, or pavement), the roads must be inspected and repaired frequently. Typical repairs include cleaning, adding or grading soil and gravel, filling holes, and cleaning drainage ditches. Since road maintenance is a costly operation, typically it is neglected. Unfortunately, lack of proper road maintenance leads to equipment damage, unnecessary delays in operations, and safety problems. It may be advisable to leave a few sections of well marked rough areas on some roads in order to control excessive speed by vehicles using the site.
5.6.2 Dust control 283 Air pollution is a serious problem in the project towns and it is essential to control dust at the landfill. Dust is generated at a landfill site by two main sources: 1) collection vehicles and heavy equipment moving over dry dirt roads, and 2) the wind. Dust can also be generated during the discharge, placement, and compaction of unusually dry materials or during the excavation and movement of dry soils. To reduce the amount of dust generation, access roads should be gravelled or paved. As an alternative, water can be applied to dirt roads on a continuous basis. Excavating or moving soils when they are damp also will limit dust production. Similarly, when a load of dry waste materials is brought to the landfill, it should be slightly moistened prior to disposal. Another means of reducing the total amount of dust generated from a particular facility is to revegetate completed areas as soon as possible.
5.6.3 Control of vectors, pests, and birds 284 Flies, mosquitoes, rodents, birds, dogs, and other animals are a common occurrence at landfill sites. Vectors can be controlled by frequently placing an adequate quantity of compacted soil over the wastes, and by maintaining the smallest possible working face. A daily cover consisting of 15 cm of compacted soil having a low clay content will prevent the emergence of flies. However, even under the best program of prevention, a landfill should have a regular inspection and fly control program. Mosquito control is best accomplished by preventing the accumulation of stagnant water anywhere on the site (e.g., in old tires and depressions). The accumulation of stagnant water on the surface can be prevented by properly grading the surface, by filling depressions, and by placing cover soil over waste materials.
TA 7182-NEP - 51 - Final Report, Vol. 3 285 Occasionally, rats and mice may accompany deliveries of the solid waste. If harborage occurs in areas adjacent to or in some neglected portion of the site, extermination will be necessary. Employees at the landfill should be trained to recognize burrows and other signs of the presence of rats and mice so that appropriate management procedures can be put into force. 286 Birds generally are attracted to a landfill in search of food. As is true with problems arising from other pests, the bird problem is best met by rapidly and completely covering all wastes. 287 Access to wastes by animals such as pigs, cattle, goats, and others should be strictly prohibited because of their ability to transmit pathogens directly or indirectly to humans.
5.6.4 Occupational health and safety 288 The waste is unlikely to contain significant hazardous materials. The biggest risk is with respect to health care waste, and the project includes specific measures to prevent health care waste entering the municipal waste stream. Residents in general generate negligible amount of hazardous waste and whatever is generated rarely ends up at the compost site. While all three project towns are important industrial centers, most of the industry is outside the municipal boundaries. Nevertheless, it will be necessary for municipalities to periodically analyze the composition of the compost to ensure that the concentrations of heavy metals are within acceptable range and generally to assess its quality. 289 The municipalities will take the following special precautions for everyone working inside the waste processing facility fence:37 (i) Register adult waste pickers; provide vaccination for hepatitis A and B, tetanus, polio and typhoid. (ii) Provide annual medical examinations. (iii) Prohibit children from waste picking and prohibit domestic animals from being fed with food waste that has been mixed with other municipal wastes or fed with any waste from slaughtering. (iv) Conduct gate inspection and control. (v) Spot for waste loads that are burning and divert them to a safe unloading area where firefighting equipment is available. (vi) Spot for hazardous wastes and send these to the special cell. (vii) Restrict access to hazardous waste cell such that only safety-trained personnel with protective gear are permitted to enter. (viii) Provide hard-soled safety shoes to all workers to avoid puncture wounds to the feet. (ix) Provide air filtered and air conditioned cabs for all mobile equipment used at landfills. (x) Provide roll bars on mobile equipment. (xi) Clean and wash with disinfectant the cabins of heavy mobile equipment used at regular intervals. (xii) Minimize the working face of the landfill and cover each daily receipt, so as to minimize potential bioaerosols and contaminated particulates. 290 The first problem can be minimized by carefully sorting the waste before placing it in the windrows. The second problem can be tackled by frequently turning the piles or by putting perforated pipes.
37 These proposals are adapted from Sandra Cointreau. 2006. Occupational and Environmental Health Issues of Solid Waste Management. Special Emphasis on Middle- and Lower-Income Countries. World Bank.
TA 7182-NEP - 52 - Final Report, Vol. 3 5.6.5 Environmental monitoring 291 Periodic environmental monitoring of gas, surface water and leachate will be essential in accordance with the requirements of Annex 3 of the Directive of the European Union Council on landfill sites or other recognized standard.
5.6.6 Operations manual 292 To ensure safe and environmentally sound waste disposal management, the design consultant will prepare a site-specific operations manual as well as detailed operational plans. The site-specific operational plans will be based on a detailed topographical survey at a scale 1: 500 with 50 cm- contour intervals and other necessary site investigations.
5.7 Marketing 293 Marketing of the products and services is an essential operations and maintenance activity of the waste processing facility. Developing a market for municipal compost among farmers is a challenge that the municipalities should seek the assistance of the Municipality Association of Nepal (MuAN) and the District Development Committees. MuAN could coordinate the marketing effort by different municipalities and promote the introduction of appropriate standards and testing.
5.7.1 Products and services
Compost 294 In terms of physical quality, contamination due to glass particles and plastic is the single most important deterrent for farmers to use municipal compost. To minimize contamination, the municipalities will need to use a 6 mm sieve. During the initial operations, the municipalities will obtain analysis of the chemical composition of the compost for the purposes of assessing its quality. If necessary, the municipalities will take remedial measures to improve quality such as adding ash or sawdust, or improving screening.
Health care waste disposal 295 It is essential for health, safety reasons and compost quality reasons to keep health care waste out of the municipal waste stream.
Glass1 296 Glass is likely to be about one per cent of the waste by weight. In the case of Birgunj, this translates to annual sales of about NRs130,000.
Paper 297 Paper is likely to be about five per cent of the waste by weight. In the case of Birgunj, this will translate to annual sales of about NRs1.1m.
5.7.2 Distribution 298 The cost estimates assume that all sales of compost are direct to farmers who come direct to the solid waste processing facility to purchase the product. However, this may not be sufficient to sell all the compost. It may be possible to obtain additional sales by opening sales depots or by selling through distributors. The design consultant will investigate these options in consultation with the municipality.
5.7.3 Pricing
299 Table 4 X shows prices for sale of recycled municipal waste in 2008.
TA 7182-NEP - 53 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Table 4 Prices for sale of municipal recycled waste, 2008
Municipality Paper Plastic Glass Metal (NRs/kg) (NRs/kg) (NRs/kg) (NRs/kg)
Bhaktapur 4 5 10 35
Bharatpur 12 10 2 37
Biratnagar 12 6 2 35
Hetauda 12 12 12 n.a. Source: Practical Action Nepal. 2008. Best Practices on SWM of Nepalese Cities. 300 An Indian study found that scrap prices in Delhi fell between twenty-five and thirty per cent during the global economic crisis that began in late 2008, with serious consequences for rag- pickers.38 Most of the waste materials that are collected in Nepal are exported, and prices are therefore subject to international market conditions. 301 Initially, municipalities will need to set the price very low to ensure that they sell all of the compost and do not have to send it to the landfill. The objective should be to achieve recognition of the product and gradually increase prices.
5.7.4 Advertising 302 The most powerful and effective media in the project towns will be personal selling, TV, radio, programs in cooperation with Agriculture Development Office and distribution of simple pamphlets to farmers.
5.8 Institutional arrangements 303 The main institutional issues with respect to SWM are the division of responsibilities. In the first place, there is the division of responsibilities between different levels of government, and second there is the division between government, the private sector, NGOs, and the local community. 304 Biratnagar, Birgunj and Butwal are each the main urban centre in an industrial corridor that comprises other municipalities and VDCs. As the largest local body in an industrial corridor, it is incumbent on each of them to take the lead in regional solid waste management. Of the three, only Butwal has the possibility of a landfill site within the municipal borders, and the consultants do not consider it to be a suitable site. 305 The selection of a suitable site therefore requires consultation with other local bodies and the District Development Committee. After site selection, the next issue is the interest of other local bodies to utilize the facility for a fee. Unfortunately, the willingness to pay a fee is entirely dependent on the level of resolve of the Government to stop local bodies dumping waste in the rivers. Until that resolve is discernible, the concept of a regional facility will remain unattainable notwithstanding the obvious economies of scale. 306 Both Birgunj and Butwal municipalities were adamant that the municipal landfill site be either within or adjoining the municipal boundaries. Whilst this is understandable in terms of avoiding unnecessary administrative complications, it is at the substantial financial and economic costs of selecting sub-optimum sites. 307 If a landfill site serves more than one local body, the municipality could charge tipping fees to cover the cost. Willingness of other local bodies to pay tipping fees is largely dependent on the readiness of the Government to allow widespread dumping of waste in Nepal’s rivers to continue. If
38 Chintan Environmental Research and Action Group. 2009. Scrap crash! What the crash in prices for scrap means for wastepickers and other recyclers.
TA 7182-NEP - 54 - Final Report, Vol. 3 in fact the Government is quite happy to allow dumping in rivers to continue, it is arguable that it would be better for the municipalities to continue dumping waste in rivers rather than construct uneconomic sanitary landfills.
TA 7182-NEP - 55 - Final Report, Vol. 3 Appendix A Contracting solid waste collection in Biratnagar
A1 Solid waste collection in Biratnagar by contractors 1 In Biratnagar, solid waste management services prior to 1997 did not include any household collection. It was common practice to dump rubbish on the street or vacant plots. Street sweeping was carried out by A pool of permanent and temporary municipal workers (working to varying degrees of efficiency) carried out street sweeping; the collected waste was then dumped at a municipal dumping site by the river.
A1.1 Biratnagar was the first Municipality in Nepal to involve the private sector in solid waste management 2 A partnership for integrated solid waste management services in Biratnagar was first discussed in 1996. An international businessman proposed to the municipality to enter a joint venture with his US-based company AmeriCorps Environmental Services Incorporated (AES Inc.). 1997 the proposal was accepted and a contract was finalized. The arrangement incorporated a joint venture called BMC-AmeriCorps Environmental Services Group in which the municipality was given, without investment or risk, a 10 percent share in the company. As after six months it became evident that the arrangement had been a fraud, the instigator fled the country leaving the municipality politically and financially exposed. 3 This resulted also in a strong motive for associates to step in and establish a viable solid waste operation. After consideration, and particularly since they were already visibly implicated in the project (through investing in SW equipment and launching a pilot project) a Kathmandu- based engineering consultancy called SILT established a Sister Concern SILT Environmental Services (BMC-SILTES), which took over the company. 4 With this, 90 percent of the BMC-AmeriCorps shares were transferred to BMC-SILTES´ ownership. However by transferring these shares, BMC-SILTES took also responsibility for the significant debts incurred by AmeriCorps under its previous management. This had disastrous financial consequences and local businessmen continue to present outstanding debts for repayment. Nevertheless BMC-SILTES has continued its role since 1998 and has established itself as a committed and stable partner in solid waste activities. The arrangement, under which the operator now undertakes solid waste services in Biratnagar, is based on the original contract between AES Inc. and Biratnagar Municipality, which still is the legal ground of the partnership. It comprises the spurious initial contract (now mostly ignored), a number of informal agreements and an additional service contract. According to the latest agreement BMC-SILTES has taken over the whole management of solid waste in Biratnagar. The resources set now together of 155 persons, 7 tractors, 2 electric tempos (of which one is out of duty) and 14 cycle rickshaws as well as 22 pushcarts. Additional 2 rickshaws have separate bags for biodegradable and non- biodegradable wastes. Their ownership is presented in the Table 1.
TA 7182-NEP A-1 Final Report Vol.3
Table 1: Ownership of the vehicles BMC-SILTES
Equipment Number Tractors 6 Tractor 1 Rickshaw 14 Rickshaw with bags for bio and non -bio 2 Pushcarts 22 Electric tempos 2 Trailers (3 m 33) 7 Trailers (3 m) 2
5 The company is responsible for the maintenance of the equipment and has 2 own mechanics, which can do small repairs. The company has made an agreement with a workshop for major repairs. Cash collectors and supervisors earn between Rs 2100 – 3800 per month. Sweepers and waste collectors working directly for BMC-SILTES are employed on a temporary basis and earn approximately NRs. 1800 – 2500 per month (this figure varies based on the number of days worked). Workers can supplement this income by scavenging and generally earn up to Rs 500 – 900 per month by selling recyclable items into the local trade. Former municipal sweepers are employed on a permanent basis on the same terms and conditions (wages, leave or social benefits) as they had when they were employed directly by the municipality. Their current wage level is Rs 3000 per month. BMC-SILTES is keeping a computer-based record of the contracted customers. Today the door-to-door collection service includes about 3500 customers. Initially each household customer was assigned 2 plastic bins/buckets for the separation of waste into organic and inorganic matter. The separation does not work though, and it is now made on the disposal site. The collected waste is then transported with the tractors to the disposal site leased within the municipal area under the control of the company. 6 The annual overall costs of the solid waste management for BMC-SILTES are about NRs. 10 million, from which the municipality pays Rs 6.7m according to the contract. This sum is based on cost estimate made by the company, and is meant to cover the running costs of municipality own equipment and employees. The rest should be covered with collection fees, income from compost and briquette trade and support from donors. Since the municipality owns a part of the company, it has an insight in the bookkeeping of the company. There is a Monitoring and evaluation Committee with the deputy mayor as a coordinator, but since the municipality has established its own environment committee, reporting should be done to them. The tariff structure is outlined in the Table 2: Table 2: Commercial and domestic tariffs in Biratnagar Customer Tariff charged (NRs.) Domestic
S.No. Description Tarrif(NRs./month) 1 customers twice-weekly service 20 2 Petty traders paying small amounts 25-30 3 Small and medium sized commercial units 75 4 Medium sized units 150 Larger units 1000
7 The charge of NRs. 20 set down in the initial contract, is currently applied to all domestic customers and the charge is applied irrespective of household size, amount of generated waste, income or affordability. Also the tariffs for other customer groups are fixed in the contract. The operator is responsible for billing and collection of revenue. Major problem is the lack of an effective mechanism to ensure payment by individual households and units. For the first 8 months of the contract, there was a 10 percent collection rate. Due to this level of payment, the operator introduced a legal contract specifying terms and conditions of payment. This increased the
TA 7182-NEP A-2 Final Report Vol.3 payment ratio to 72 percent. The collection rate has again decreased being now 50 percent and monthly NRs. 75 000. The operator has not seen it as being in its interest to stop the service to those defaulting in their payments. Instead the operator focuses on raising awareness and encourages individuals and businesses to join the programme. The municipality performed the function of street sweeping until late 1999. The Solid Waste Sub department employed 100 sweepers, mostly on a temporary or casual day wage basis. In late 1999 however, the municipality elected to establish a service contract also for street sweeping in the core areas of the town. The contract was not tendered, but was negotiated with BMC AES as the only contractor involved in city solid waste activities. After the Operator began providing the street sweeping service, increased number of households has taken up the household collection services, which has resulted in marked improvements to the cleanliness of the streets. Consequently the street sweeping function has been effective in improving willingness to pay. In some areas the number of households and shops signing up for private collection services has doubled since AmeriCorps began the street sweeping service and there is evidence that shop keepers are now more willing to pay for the service rendered. The total volume of waste collected in Biratnagar is currently in the order of 36-40 cubic meters per day. It is estimated that this rate of collection represents somewhere in the region of 80 percent of the waste generated in the city, which is estimated to be 25-30 tons /day. Prior to 1998 it is estimated that the municipality collected and disposed of 30 cubic meters per day. The household collection service added 20-25 percent to this collection rate. Sludge from the septic tanks present a problem as far as there are no pumping equipments available. The residents empty their tanks per hand and dump somewhere in the near neighborhood. The drainage also poses a problem. Especially in the rainy season, the drainages overflow and cause severe hygienic hazard. BMC-SILTES has not come in agreement with the community over the responsibility
A1.2 Samjik Sudhar Tatha Batarniya Bikas Manch 8 Samajik Sudhar Tatha Bataraniya Bikas Manch, a private company, has now taken over the contract for providing services that include door to door waste collection, transport and dumping. Approximately 50 employers are involved in door-to-door collection. The contractor changes NRs 30 to NRs 1,500 per premises according to the sources provided.
TA 7182-NEP A-3 Final Report Vol.3 Appendix B Manufacturing establishments in or near STIUEIP towns
Table 1: Manufacturing establishments near Biratnagar, 2006/07 No. of Value added Industry District Employed establishments (NRs m) Manufacture of textiles Morang 18 8,934 62,700.7 Sunsari 12 7,158 81,265.0 Manufacture of food products and beverages Morang 68 1,881 74,788.8 Sunsari 86 2,500 40,309.5 Manufacture of other non-metal mineral products Morang 19 2,317 9,108.3 Sunsari 19 1,540 5,055.6 Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus NEC Morang 10 1,367 25,018.2 Sunsari 2 Manufacture of rubber and plastics products Morang 36 1,348 30,231.1 Sunsari 9 710 8,875.8 Manufacture of furniture; manufacture NEC Morang 37 630 3,473.9 Sunsari 17 264 1,372.1 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products Morang 17 500 7,056.3 Sunsari 11 520 15,009.1 Publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded media Morang 24 449 4,157.1 Manufacture of structural metal products, except Morang 15 411 64,687.5 machinery and equipment Sunsari 19 178 1,786.4 Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and of Morang 28 253 1,303.5 product of wood and cork Sunsari 18 211 4,760.0 Tanning and dressing of leather; manufacture of luggage, Morang 6 157 1657.0 handbags, saddler and harness Sunsari 5 245 7,250.6 Manufacture of paper and paper products Morang 8 185 1,677.8 Sunsari 5 220 3,329.4 Manufacture of basic metals Sunsari 11 90 687.4 Morang 2 Manufacture of tobacco products Morang 2 Manuf. of wearing apparel, dressing and dyeing of fur Morang 1 Sunsari 1 Manuf. of coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear Morang 2 Manuf. of motor vehicles; trailers and semi-trailers Morang 1 Manuf. of other transport equipments Morang 1 Manuf. of machinery and equipment N.E.C. Sunsari 1
Totals Morang 295 20,641 3,458.2 Sunsari 215 17,122 2,153.8 Nepal 3,446 169,891 41,001.3 Morang and Sunsari as % of Nepal 5.25 Note. NEC, not elsewhere classified.
Source: CBS, 2008, Census of Manufacturing Establishments 2006/07.
TA 7182-NEP B -1 Final Report, Vol. 3
Table 2: Manufacturing and establishments near Birgunj, 2006/07 No. of Value added Industry District Employed establishments (NRs m) Manufacture of other non-metalic mineral products Bara 39 3,362 20,425.2 Parsa 5 220 17,670.5 Manufacture of textiles Bara 11 877 29,191.7 Parsa 23 2,537 37,187.6 Manufacture of food products and beverages Bara 65 2,408 154,596.4 Parsa 82 1,410 47,960.0 Manufacture of structural metal products, except machinery Bara 10 1,721 123,691.1 and equipment Parsa 6 57 982.7 Manufacture of basic metals Bara 10 1,639 97,486.3 Parsa 9 328 59,783.3 Manufacture of rubber and plastics products Bara 18 1,571 33,354.8 Parsa 21 612 20,889.3 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products Bara 15 1,243 21,191.1 Parsa 16 1,038 34,655.5 Manufacture of tobacco products Bara 6 509 398,749.9 Parsa 2 Tanning and dressing of leather; manuf. of luggage, Bara 4 289 7,402.8 handbags, saddler and harness Parsa 8 185 4,867.8 Publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded media Bara 2 Parsa 12 197 2,241.0 Manuf. of coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear Bara 5 197 86,892.0 Manuf. of paper and paper products Bara 1 Parsa 6 175 1,627.0 Manufacture of furniture; manufacture NEC Bara 1 Parsa 8 136 Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and of Bara 2 product of wood and cork Parsa 9 102 1,183.9 Manufacture of wearing apparel; dressing and dyeing of fur Parsa 5 76 422.5 Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus NEC Bara 2 Parsa 3 34 190.6 Manufacture of radio, television and communication Parsa 2 equipment and apparatus Manufacture of other transport equipments Parsa 1 Manufacture of machinery and equipment NEC Bara 1
Totals Bara 192 15,288 1048.1 Parsa 218 8,034 3027.2 Nepal 3,446 169,891 41,001.3
Bara and Parsa as % of Nepal 11.9 13.7 9.9 Note. NEC, not elsewhere classified.
Source: CBS, 2008, Census of Manufacturing Establishments 2006/07.
TA 7182-NEP B -2 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table 3: Manufacturing establishments near Butwal Note. NEC, not elsewhere classified.
No. of Value added District Industry establish- Employed (NRs m) ments Rupandehi Manufacture other non-metallic mineral product 53 2,881 53,886.3 Rupandehi Manufacture of food products and beverages 79 1,099 27,944.3 Rupandehi Manufacture of textiles 9 1,013 6,102.3 Rupandehi Manufacture of structural metal products, except 12 934 29,110.7 machinery and equipment Rupandehi Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products 4 532 13,768.3 Rupandehi Manufacture of rubber and plastics products 11 300 20,792.2 Rupandehi Manufacture of furniture; manufacture NEC 19 253 2,259.7 Rupandehi Publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded 11 198 779.5 media Rupandehi Manuf. of electrical machinery and apparatus NEC 3 158 6184.4 Rupandehi Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and of 11 102 721.0 product of wood and cork Rupandehi Manufacture of paper and paper products 6 87 983.9 Rupandehi Manuf. of machinery and equipment NEC 4 53 216.5 Rupandehi Training and dressing of leather; manuf. of luggage, 1 handbags, saddlery and harness Rupandehi Manuf. of basic metals 2
Totals Rupandehi 225 7485 1752.4 Nepal 3,446 169.891 41,001.3
Rupandehi as % of Nepal 6.5 4.4 4.3
Source: CBS, 2008, Census of Manufacturing Establishments 2006/07.
TA 7182-NEP B -3 Final Report, Vol. 3 Appendix C Photos
Biratnagar, Solid waste clogging drain
TA 7182-NEP C-1 Final Report, Vol.3
Biratnagar Solid waste clogging drain
Biratnagar Solid waste and sewer mixed
Biratnagar Solid waste dumping
TA 7182-NEP C-2 Final Report, Vol.3
Birgunj, Proposed land fill site for Birgunj, Kaliya and periphery VDCs.
Birgunj Solid waste dumping site and sewage in the core area
TA 7182-NEP C-3 Final Report, Vol.3
Birgunj Solid waste dumping site
Birgunj, Broken bottles and glasses in the preparedness for expert Calcutta (India)
TA 7182-NEP C-4 Final Report, Vol.3
Bhairahawa Solid waste in street
Butwal, Forest community office at Tamnagar, ward 14. of Butwal Municipality where Regional waster process has been proposed
TA 7182-NEP C-5 Final Report, Vol.3
Butwal, Drain and rubber at Butwal
Butwal, Drain Clogging (Inhibited by outer connection)
TA 7182-NEP C-6 Final Report, Vol.3
Butwal, Meeting with Siddharthnagar Municipality on “Regional waste processing centre”
Butwal, Meeting with Siddharthnagar Municipality on “Regional waste processing centre”
TA 7182-NEP C-7 Final Report, Vol.3
Butwal, Proposed site for Regional waste processing centre at Tamnagar
Butwal, Solid Transfer centre
TA 7182-NEP C-8 Final Report, Vol.3
Appendix D Statistical data
Table 1: Physical composition of municipal solid waste by weight, 20031 SN Municipality Organic Inert Metal Paper Glass Plastic Textile Rubber Leather Medical Other Total (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1 Amargadhi 41.76 28.72 1.54 13.60 1.54 10.30 0.51 1.54 - - 0.49 100 2 Baglung 57.09 2.30 0.34 13.06 1.04 21.38 2.65 1.04 0.80 - 0.3 100 3 Banepa 53.11 35.66 0.15 4.67 0.77 4.67 0.62 0.15 - 0.15 0.05 100 4 Bhadrapur 45.32 7.00 1.61 16.19 9.17 10.79 6.47 0.37 1.61 1.07 0.4 100 5 Bhaktapur 70.16 21.05 0.07 2.37 1.33 2.23 1.69 0.05 - - 0.05 100 6 Bharatpur 85.09 - 0.22 2.23 1.11 3.58 4.47 0.51 - - 2.79 100 7 Bhimeswor 75.54 15.38 0.54 3.54 1.08 2.99 0.27 0.27 - 0.27 0.12 100 8 Bidur ------100 100 9 Biratnagar 82.60 - 0.23 6.40 - 8.81 1.92 - - - 0.04 100 10 Birendranagar 71.00 9.47 0.99 5.94 1.98 9.19 0.84 - - 0.56 0.03 100 11 Birganj 66.30 8.60 5.00 4.40 1.70 5.60 2.40 - - - 6 100 12 Butwal 74.12 2.70 0.30 5.10 3.51 9.33 2.50 - - - 2.44 100 13 Byas 75.47 - 1.89 13.77 2.26 4.72 0.94 0.38 0.78 0.28 -0.49 100 14 Damak 80.07 5.86 - 7.10 - 6.80 - - - 0.17 100 15 Dasarathchand 40.35 35.88 - 10.25 2.56 7.69 2.56 - 1.92 - -1.21 100 16 Dhangadhi 82.07 1.72 0.07 11.56 - 4.50 0.07 - - - 0.01 100 17 Dhankuta 68.83 14.67 0.14 4.49 1.88 8.33 - 1.62 - - 0.04 100 18 Dharan 44.71 2.62 4.21 22.63 3.15 20.52 0.52 - - 0.52 1.12 100 19 Dhulikhel 72.14 2.60 0.40 8.01 0.02 12.02 2.00 1.20 - - 1.61 100 20 Dipayalsilgadhi 44.19 15.93 2.17 15.94 7.24 11.59 1.45 - - - 1.49 100 21 Gaur 44.50 37.00 5.00 4.05 2.70 4.05 1.30 2.00 - - -0.6 100 22 Gulariya 79.43 6.92 1.73 6.70 1.29 2.59 0.86 - - - 0.48 100 23 Hetauda 70.29 1.02 0.36 13.55 2.18 9.20 2.25 0.29 0.21 - 0.65 100 24 Ilam 67.95 0.22 0.44 14.37 2.54 12.93 1.33 - - - 0.22 100 25 Inaruwa 65.15 13.05 0.42 9.74 4.09 6.23 1.05 0.42 - - -0.15 100 26 Itahari 39.00 25.00 2.59 13.80 3.45 9.21 4.60 1.44 - - 0.91 100 27 Jaleswor 50.41 30.41 - 6.19 - 4.50 1.13 - - 0.56 6.8 100 28 Janakpur 73.90 16.96 - 3.63 - 4.87 - - - - 0.64 100 29 Kalaiya 64.70 12.70 3.70 5.00 1.00 4.00 3.50 - - - 5.4 100 30 Kamalamai 53.16 24.47 - 5.43 5.06 10.13 - - - - 1.75 100 31 Kapilbastu 72.64 6.54 0.39 5.49 0.65 11.64 1.31 - - 0.65 0.69 100 32 Kathmandu 65.98 1.01 0.84 10.38 1.38 16.31 3.58 0.24 0.24 - 0.04 100 33 Khandbari 78.80 4.08 1.93 7.94 0.99 1.89 0.58 0.51 0.45 - 2.83 100 34 Kirtipur 94.86 - - 2.30 1.19 1.58 - - - - 0.07 100 35 Lahan 60.64 4.35 3.78 13.76 7.33 5.27 1.70 0.57 1.14 1.37 0.09 100 36 Lalitpur 53.96 0.27 2.03 9.09 12.80 9.49 2.71 - - 1.30 7.54 100 37 Lekhnath 38.88 6.82 4.43 13.99 6.99 16.55 1.36 4.43 2.04 2.04 2.47 100 38 Madhyapur Thimi 70.09 11.97 0.25 4.90 1.29 8.25 2.31 0.55 - 0.20 0.19 100 39 Mahendranagar 78.00 9.21 0.69 4.25 1.40 2.82 1.40 - - - 2.23 100 40 Malangawa 71.45 5.83 0.22 5.94 1.32 7.26 0.66 0.77 - 0.22 6.33 100 41 Mechinagar 61.80 10.03 2.23 11.83 7.80 9.37 1.33 - - - -4.39 100 42 Narayan 43.48 15.65 3.48 10.43 1.74 10.43 2.61 1.74 1.74 1.74 6.96 100 43 Nepalganj 62.09 9.65 0.27 8.27 2.20 13.33 1.65 - - 2.48 0.06 100 44 Panauti ------100 100 45 Pokhara 62.00 - 2.40 6.51 5.14 12.00 5.83 3.77 - - 2.35 100 46 Prithivinarayan 46.85 11.18 4.19 19.23 5.59 2.09 - 2.09 2.79 0.69 5.3 100
1 SWMRMC. 2004. Diagnostic Report on State of Solid Waste Management in Municipalities of Nepal. TA 7182-NEP D -1 Final Report, Vol. 3 SN Municipality Organic Inert Metal Paper Glass Plastic Textile Rubber Leather Medical Other Total (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
47 Putalibazaar 78.27 4.79 0.73 7.29 0.21 7.63 0.81 0.05 - 0.05 0.17 100 48 Rajbiraj ------100 100 49 Ramgram 53.23 7.89 1.71 16.15 3.43 7.56 3.09 1.71 2.06 2.06 1.11 100 50 Ratnanagar 88.47 1.32 0.13 1.87 0.90 2.85 3.75 0.23 0.10 - 0.38 100 51 Siddharthanagar 76.61 - 1.15 4.60 6.10 3.46 8.06 - - - 0.02 100 52 Siraha 68.93 7.60 0.02 12.80 - 8.50 - - - 0.85 1.3 100 53 Tansen 85.70 - 0.40 5.30 0.90 5.10 1.40 - 0.40 - 0.8 100 54 Tikapur 87.40 5.22 - 4.06 - 2.61 - - - - 0.71 100 55 Tribuvannagar 64.97 7.37 - 10.42 2.42 7.51 4.84 2.42 - - 0.05 100 56 Triyuga 84.60 3.60 - 4.70 - 5.20 0.90 - - - 1 100 57 Tulsipur 64.97 7.37 - 10.42 2.42 7.51 4.84 2.42 - - 0.05 100 58 Waling 40.10 20.70 2.79 9.79 1.39 5.59 8.39 1.39 2.00 5.59 2.27 100
Table 2: Existing Waste Generation and Collection Per capita waste Estimated Total Total municipal Municipal generation population municipal waste collection** collection (2003) waste coverage generation SN Name Household Municipal (nos.) (ton/d) (ton/d) (% by wt.) (kg/cap.ld) (kg/cap.ld) 1 Amargadhi 0.29 0.39 18,804 7.27 5.8 79.77 2 Baglung 0.19 0.25 22,208 5.63 1.5 26.66 3 Banepa 0.23 0.31 16,576 5.08 4 78.69 4 Bhadrapur 0.35 0.47 18,797 8.77 0 0 5 Bhaktapur 0.39 0.52 75,002 39 20 51.28 6 Bharatpur 0.28 0.37 98,539 36.79 11 29.23 7 Bhimeswor 0.34 0.45 22,489 10.2 4 39.23 8 Bidur 0.24 0.32 21,732 6.95 6 86.28 9 Biratnagar 0.17 0.23 175,333 39.74 40 100.65 10 Birendranagar 0.17 0.23 33,401 7.57 4 52.83 11 Birganj 0.7 0.93 124,032 115.76 25 21.6 12 Butwal 0.21 0.28 83,851 23.48 18.2 77.52 13 Byas 0.31 0.41 30,226 12.49 3 24.01 14 Damak 0.18 0.24 55,417 13 3 22.56 15 Dasarathchand 0.27 0.36 18,404 6.63 0.5 7.55 16 Dhangadhi 0.14 0.19 73,213 13.67 1.5 10.98 17 Dhankuta 0.19 0.25 21,473 5.44 2 36.77 18 Dharan 0.36 0.48 102,466 49.18 7 14.23 19 Dhulikhel 0.14 0.19 11,897 2.22 1 45.03 20 Dipayalsilgadhi 0.28 0.37 24,771 9.25 3 32.44 21 Gaur 0.2 0.27 26,508 7.07 1.07 15.14 22 Gulariya 0.11 0.15 49,912 7.32 0 0 23 Hetauda 0.25 0.33 71,858 23.95 9 37.57 24 Ilam 0.49 0.65 16,924 11.06 3.6 32.56 25 Inaruwa 0.42 0.56 24,262 13.59 2 14.72 26 Itahari 0.41 0.55 44,905 24.55 0 0 27 Jaleswor 0.28 0.37 22,936 8.56 1.2 14.01 28 Janakpur 0.15 0.2 78,852 15.77 0 0 29 Kalaiya 0.4 0.53 36,056 19.23 9 46.8 30 Kamalamai 0.15 0.2 34,857 6.97 0.5 7.17 31 Kapilbastu 0.13 0.17 29,797 5.16 1.86 36.01 32 Kathmandu 0.39 0.52 737,588 383.55 250 65.18 33 Khandbari 0.19 0.25 22,452 5.69 0 0
TA 7182-NEP D -2 Final Report, Vol. 3 Per capita waste Estimated Total Total municipal Municipal generation population municipal waste collection** collection (2003) waste coverage generation SN Name Household Municipal (nos.) (ton/d) (ton/d) (% by wt.) (kg/cap.ld) (kg/cap.ld) 34 Kirtipur 0.34 0.45 43,055 19.52 0 0 35 Lahan 0.32 0.43 29,804 12.72 24 188.73 36 Lalitpur 0.54 0.72 174,504 125.64 48 38.2 37 Lekhnath 0.37 0.49 44,084 21.75 0 0 38 Madhyapur 0.11 0.15 51,740 7.59 3.58 47.18 Thimi 39 Mahendranagar 0.39 0.52 85,231 44.32 4 9.03 40 Malangawa 0.09 0.12 19,501 2.34 1.5 64.1 41 Mechinagar 0.29 0.39 51,878 20.22 3.76 18.73 42 Narayan 0.23 0.31 20,286 6.22 1.2 19.29 43 Nepalganj 0.18 0.24 59,703 14.33 10 69.79 44 Panauti 0.18 0.24 26,725 6.41 1 15.59 45 Pokhara 0.14 0.19 172,578 32.21 12.36 38.37 46 Prithivinarayan 0.26 0.35 26,958 9.35 1.5 16.05 47 Putalibazaar 0.08 0.11 30,491 3.25 4 122.99 48 Rajbiraj 0.12 0.16 31,753 5.08 4.4 86.61 49 Ramgram 0.24 0.32 23,457 7.51 2.5 33.31 50 Ratnanagar 0.13 0.17 41,008 7.11 4.5 63.31 51 Siddharthanagar 0.13 0.17 55,669 9.65 4 41.45 52 Siraha 0.11 0.15 24,436 3.58 0.5 13.95 53 Tansen 0.43 0.57 22,164 12.71 4 31.48 54 Tikapur 0.09 0.12 42,050 5.05 0.92 18.23 55 Tribuvannagar 0.25 0.33 46,672 15.56 0 0 56 Triyuga 0.1 0.13 59,752 7.81 1.2 15.37 57 Tulsipur 0.25 0.33 36,715 12.24 2 16.34 58 Waling 0.21 0.28 21,248 5.59 0 0 Total 14.58 19.44 3,487,000 1369 Average 0.25 0.34
TA 7182-NEP D -3 Final Report, Vol. 3
Appendix E Biratnagar: maps
1 Biratnagar: solid waste collection system
2 Biratnagar: involvement of stakeholders in solid waste management
3 Biratnagar: treatment plant, with land use
4 Biratnagar: priority of solid waste management
5 Biratnagar: catchment area for regional approach
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TA 7182-NEP E - 3 Final Report, Vol. 3
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TA 7182-NEP E - 5 Final Report, Vol. 3 Appendix F Birgunj: maps
1 Birgunj: house type and solid waste management
2 Birgunj: involvement of stakeholders solid waste collection
3 Birgunj: priority of solid waste management
4 Birgunj: coverage area, street sweeping
5 Birgunj: landfill site, VDC treatment plant, and solid waste processing centre, Itiyahi- Bishrampur
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1 Butwal: house type and solid waste management
2 Butwal: Involvement of stakeholders solid waste management
3 Butwal: priority of solid waste management
4 Butwal: proposed catchment area for regional approach
5 Butwal: Tamnagar site
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TA 7182-NEP G - 5 Final Report, Vol. 3 Appendix H Birgunj: volume projections and cost estimates
H1 Assumptions and actuals
Table H.1 Waste generated 2006 2036 Munici- Non- Non- pality Organic organic Total Organic organic Total (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) Birgunj 0.20 0.13 0.33 0.20 0.20 0.40 Butwal 0.20 0.13 0.33 0.20 0.20 0.40
Table H.2 Actual waste collected, 2006 Organic Other Total Popu- Munici- waste waste waste lation pality collected collected collected (t/d) (t/d) (t/d) Birgunj 150,646 12.2 7.8 20.0 Butwal 100,959 18.3 11.7 30.0
Table H.3 Waste collected per person (of total population) 2006 2036 Increase per year Total Non- Total Munici- Organic Non-organic Organic Organic waste Other waste pality collected organic collected (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (%) (%)
Birgunj 0.10 0.06 0.16 0.20 0.20 0.40 2.5 4.0
Butwal 0.21 0.14 0.35 0.20 0.20 0.40 -0.2 1.3
Table H.4 Transport Truck operating costs per km (excluding depreciation, spares) Round- Truck Munici- trip capacity Maint- Fuel Oil Tyres Total pality distance enance (km) (m3) (NRs) (NRs) (NRs) (NRs) (NRs) Birgunj 21 5.83 9.5 0.5 3.2 2.7 15.9
Butwal 30 5.83 9.5 0.5 3.2 2.7 15.9 Notes: 1 Round-trip distance includes collection distance. 2 Capacity of truck = 3.6*1.8*0.9= 5.83 m3
Table H.5 Recycling Recovery Material Quantity/t Output Sorting rate Sorters rate (kg) (%) (kg) (kg/d/sorter) (no./t)
Paper 131 60 78.6 1000 0.079 Glass 50 60 30 400 0.075 Plastic 166 70 116.2 200 0.581 Metal 148 80 118.4 50 2.368 Total 495 343.2 3.103
TA 7182-NEP H-1 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table H.6 Other assumptions (see text) Category Item Value Units
Trucks & landfill Cost of each truck 1.2 NRs million operations (excl. Average utilisation of truck capacity 75 % composting) Life of trucks and landfill spreaders 15 years Cost of landfill spreaders 5 NRs million Cost of spares each year 1 % of truck cost Cost of constructing landfill 116.72 NRs million Annual O&M costs for landfill site 1 % of construction cost Compacted waste density 0.85 t / cu.m Daily cover of soil 20 % of the total waste Post compacted density 1.15 t / cu.m Proportion of organic waste to landfill 25 % of organic waste Proportion of non-organic waste to landfill 20 % of non-organic waste Waste is separated into organic and non-organic by instituting separate containers/collections
Composting Method Windrow, hand-turning (ie labor intensive method) Covered facility So that composting can be undertaken during monsoon Storage Compost is stored outdoors (covered by tarpaulin in rain) Windrow dimensions Base 3 m Height 1.5 m Length 60 m No. of windrows per shed 2 Space for relocating windrow 4.5 m During turning DensitDensityy of waste in windrow 1.41.4 times that of incominincomingg waste Time required to produce compost 2 months No. of times windrow turned 3 week Staff required for turning etc per m3/day 0.3 nos. Cost of ancillary facilities 13000 NRs/m2
Staffing (excluding Staff before project 387 nos. composting) Staff required at start of project 200 nos. Incremental staffing -187 Additional staff required after start-up 0.4 per annum Average annual staffing cost 146000 NRs/year
TA 7182-NEP H-2 Final Report, Vol. 3 H2 Birgunj projections
Table H.7 Birgunj: projection of waste collection and transport Non- Organic organic Truck- Trucks Trucks to Row no. Year Popul-ation waste Truck km waste loads required buy collected collected (m3/d) (m3/d) (no./d) (no.) (no.) (km/y)
1 2012 175,893 2 2013 179,875 3 2014 183,946 15.4 21.4 9 8 10 68,985 4 2015 188,110 16.3 22.4 9 8 0 68,985 5 2016 192,000 17.3 23.5 10 10 2 76,650 6 2017 195,779 18.4 24.5 10 10 0 76,650 7 2018 199,631 19.5 25.7 11 10 0 84,315 8 2019 203,560 20.7 26.8 11 10 0 84,315 9 2020 207,566 22.0 28.0 12 10 0 91,980 10 2021 212,000 23.3 29.4 13 12 2 99,645 11 2022 215,451 24.7 30.6 13 12 0 99,645 12 2023 218,959 26.1 31.9 14 12 0 107,310 13 2024 222,524 27.6 33.2 14 12 0 107,310 14 2025 226,146 29.1 34.6 15 12 0 114,975 15 2026 230,000 30.8 36.1 16 14 12 122,640 16 2027 233,036 32.5 37.5 16 14 0 122,640 17 2028 236,112 34.2 38.9 17 14 2 130,305 18 2029 239,229 36.1 40.4 18 14 0 137,970 19 2030 242,387 38.0 42.0 19 16 2 145,635 20 2031 246,000 40.1 43.7 20 16 0 153,300 21 2032 248,549 42.2 45.3 21 16 0 160,965 22 2033 251,124 44.3 46.9 21 16 2 160,965 23 2034 253,725 46.6 48.6 22 18 2 168,630 24 2035 256,354 49.0 50.3 23 18 0 176,295 25 2036 259,000 51.5 52.1 24 18 0 183,960
Notes: 1 For details of population projections, see Volume 1, Appendix H.
TA 7182-NEP H-3 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table H.8 Birgunj: projection of waste processing volumes Non- Waste to Organic Total Cumul- Waste organic Total compost waste to waste to ative recycled waste to waste Row no. Year plant landfill landfill waste landfill (m3) (m3) (m3) (t/d) (t/d) (t/y) (t)
1 2012 2 2013 3 2014 16.0 5.3 12.3 3.1 7.6 2,781 2,781 4 2015 16.8 5.6 13.1 3.3 12.6 4,602 7,383 5 2016 17.6 5.9 13.9 3.5 13.3 4,860 12,242 6 2017 18.4 6.1 14.7 3.7 14.0 5,127 17,369 7 2018 19.2 6.4 15.6 3.9 14.8 5,409 22,777 8 2019 20.1 6.7 16.6 4.1 15.6 5,706 28,484 9 2020 21.0 7.0 17.6 4.4 16.5 6,021 34,505 10 2021 22.0 7.3 18.7 4.7 17.4 6,363 40,868 11 2022 22.9 7.6 19.7 4.9 18.3 6,692 47,560 12 2023 23.9 8.0 20.9 5.2 19.3 7,039 54,599 13 2024 24.9 8.3 22.0 5.5 20.3 7,403 62,003 14 2025 26.0 8.7 23.3 5.8 21.3 7,787 69,790 15 2026 27.1 9.0 24.7 6.2 22.5 8,197 77,987 16 2027 28.1 9.4 26.0 6.5 23.6 8,597 86,584 17 2028 29.2 9.7 27.4 6.8 24.7 9,017 95,601 18 2029 30.3 10.1 28.9 7.2 25.9 9,457 105,058 19 2030 31.5 10.5 30.4 7.6 27.2 9,920 114,978 20 2031 32.8 10.9 32.1 8.0 28.6 10,423 125,401 21 2032 34.0 11.3 33.7 8.4 29.9 10,903 136,303 22 2033 35.2 11.7 35.5 8.9 31.2 11,406 147,709 23 2034 36.4 12.1 37.3 9.3 32.7 11,932 159,641 24 2035 37.7 12.6 39.2 9.8 34.2 12,483 172,124 25 2036 39.1 13.0 41.2 10.3 35.8 13,060 185,185
TA 7182-NEP H-4 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table H.9 Birgunj: calculation of land requirements Receival, Daily & Cumul- 0.75 ha Land- health care, Annual intermedi- Total Cells to ative cells scaping, com-posting, Row no. Year Volume ate covers volume construct volume required access, recycling Total volume drains (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (no.) (no.) (ha) (ha) (ha) 1 2012 2 2013 2 3 2014 3,271 556 3,827 3,827 1 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 4 2015 5,414 920 6,335 10,162 1 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 5 2016 5,717 972 6,689 16,851 1 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 6 2017 6,031 1,025 7,057 23,908 2 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 7 2018 6,363 1,082 7,445 31,352 2 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 8 2019 6,713 1,141 7,855 39,207 2 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 9 2020 7,083 1,204 8,288 47,495 3 1 0.8 2.0 5.0 10 2021 7,486 1,273 8,759 56,254 3 0 0.8 2.0 5.0 11 2022 7,873 1,338 9,212 65,466 4 1 1.0 2.0 6.0 12 2023 8,281 1,408 9,689 75,154 4 0 1.0 2.0 6.0 13 2024 8,710 1,481 10,190 85,345 5 1 1.3 2.0 7.0 14 2025 9,161 1,557 10,719 96,063 5 0 1.3 2.0 7.0 15 2026 9,644 1,639 11,283 107,347 6 1 1.5 2.0 8.0 16 2027 10,114 1,719 11,834 119,181 6 0 1.5 2.0 8.0 17 2028 10,608 1,803 12,411 131,592 7 1 1.8 2.0 9.0 18 2029 11,126 1,891 13,018 144,609 8 1 2.0 2.0 10.0 19 2030 11,670 1,984 13,654 158,264 8 0 2.0 2.0 10.0 20 2031 12,262 2,085 14,347 172,610 9 1 2.3 2.0 11.0 21 2032 12,827 2,181 15,008 187,618 10 1 2.5 2.0 12.0 22 2033 13,418 2,281 15,699 203,317 10 0 2.5 2.0 12.0 23 2034 14,038 2,386 16,424 219,741 11 1 2.8 2.0 13.0 24 2035 14,686 2,497 17,183 236,924 12 1 3.0 2.0 14.0 25 2036 15,365 2,612 17,977 254,901 13 1 3.3 2.0 15.0
Composting facility calculations Volume of waste to plant 19.2 m3/d Volume of waste in each windrow 189 m3 Windrows required 7 nos. Windrow sheds required 4 nos. Floor area of each shed 900 m2 Sorting staff required 6 nos. Staff required at start 13 nos.
TA 7182-NEP H-5 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table H.10 Equipment projections Incre- Incre- Trucks Spreaders mental Total O&M Year mental Spares purchase purchase operating costs labour costs (NRs m) (NRs m) (NRs m) (NRs m) (NRs m) (NRs m)
2012 0.0 0.0 2013 0.0 0.0 2014 12.0 10.0 2.3 0.0 0.3 24.6 2015 0.0 0.0 2.3 0.0 0.3 2.6 2016 2.4 0.0 2.4 0.0 0.3 5.1 2017 0.0 0.0 2.4 0.0 0.3 2.7 2018 0.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.3 2.8 2019 0.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.3 2.8 2020 0.0 0.0 2.6 0.0 0.3 2.9 2021 2.4 0.0 2.8 0.0 0.3 5.5 2022 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.0 0.3 3.1 2023 0.0 0.0 2.9 0.0 0.3 3.2 2024 0.0 0.0 2.9 0.0 0.3 3.2 2025 0.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.3 3.3 2026 14.4 10.0 3.1 0.0 0.4 27.9 2027 0.0 0.0 3.1 0.0 0.4 3.5 2028 2.4 0.0 3.2 0.0 0.4 6.0 2029 0.0 0.0 3.4 0.0 0.4 3.7 2030 2.4 0.0 3.5 0.0 0.4 6.3 2031 0.0 0.0 3.6 0.0 0.4 4.0 2032 0.0 0.0 3.7 0.0 0.4 4.1 2033 2.4 0.0 3.7 0.0 0.4 6.5 2034 2.4 0.0 3.8 0.0 0.4 6.7 2035 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.4 4.4 2036 0.0 0.0 4.1 0.0 0.4 4.5
TA 7182-NEP H-6 Final Report, Vol. 3 Appendix I Butwal: volume projections and cost estimates
I1 Assumptions and actuals
Table I.1 Waste generated 2006 2036 Munici- Non- Non- pality Organic organic Total Organic organic Total (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) Birgunj 0.20 0.13 0.33 0.20 0.00 0.40 Butwal 0.20 0.13 0.33 0.20 0.00 0.40
Table I.2 Actual waste collected, 2006 Organic Other Total Popu- Munici- waste waste waste lation pality collected collected collected (t/d) (t/d) (t/d) Birgunj 150,646 12.2 7.8 20.0 Butwal 100,959 18.3 11.7 30.0
Table I.3 Waste collected per person (of total population) 2006 2036 Increase per year Non- Total Non- Total Munici- Organic Organic Organic waste Other waste pality organic collected organic collected (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (L/p/d) (%) (%)
Birgunj 0.10 0.06 0.16 0.20 0.20 99 2.5 4.0
Butwal 0.21 0.14 0.35 0.20 0.20 99 -0.2 1.3
Table I.4 Transport Truck operating costs per km (excluding depreciation, spares) Round- Truck Munici- trip capacity Maint- Fuel Oil Tyres Total pality distance enance (km) (m3) (NRs) (NRs) (NRs) (NRs) (NRs) Birgunj 21 5.83 9.5 0.5 3.2 2.7 15.9
Butwal 30 5.83 9.5 0.5 3.2 2.7 15.9
Notes: 1 Round-trip distance includes collection distance. 2 Capacity of truck = 3.6*1.8*0.9= 5.83 m3
Table I.5 Recycling Recovery Material Quantity/t Output Sorting rate Sorters rate (kg) (%) (kg) (kg/d/sorter) (no./t)
Paper 131 60 78.6 1000 0.079 Glass 50 60 30 400 0.075 Plastic 166 70 116.2 200 0.581 Metal 148 80 118.4 50 2.368 Total 495 343.2 3.103
TA 7182-NEP I-1 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table I.6 Other assumptions (see text): Category Item Value Units
Trucks & landfill Cost of each truck 1.2 NRs million operations (excl. Average utilisation of truck capacity 75 % composting) Life of trucks and landfill spreaders 15 years Cost of landfill spreaders 5 NRs million Cost of spares each year 1 % of truck cost Annual O&M costs for landfill site 1 % of construction cost Compacted waste density 0.85 t / cu.m Daily cover of soil 20 % of the total waste Post compacted density 1.15 t / cu.m Proportion of non-organic waste to landfill 20 % of non-organic waste Waste is separated into organic and non-organic by instituting separate containers/collections
Composting Method Windrow, hand-turning (ie labor intensive method) Covered facility So that composting can be undertaken during monsoon Storage Compost is stored outdoors (covered by tarpaulin in rain) Windrow dimensions Base 3 m Height 1.5 m Length 60 m No. of windrows per shed 2 Space for relocating windrow 4.5 m During turning Density of waste in windrow 1.4 times that of incoming waste Time required to produce compost 2 months No. of times windrow turned 3 week Staff required for turning etc per m3/day 0.3 nos. Value of compost 500 NRs/m3 of organic material sent for composting Cost of ancillary facilities 13000 NRs/m2
Staffing (excluding Staff before project 86 nos. composting) Staff required at start of project 112 nos. Incremental staffing 26 Additional staff required after start-up 0.4 per annum Staff required for sorting per m3/day 0.2 nos. Average annual staffing cost 146000 NRs/year
TA 7182-NEP I-2 Final Report, Vol. 3 I2 Butwal projections
Table I.7 Butwal: projection of waste collection and transport Non- Organic Popul- organic Truck- Trucks Trucks to Row no. Year waste Truck km ation waste loads required buy collected collected (m3) (m3) (no./d) (no.) (no.) (km/y)
1 2012 114,535 2 2013 117,128 3 2014 119,779 18.1 25.2 10 10 10 109,500 4 2015 122,490 18.7 25.7 11 10 0 120,450 5 2016 124,000 19.2 25.9 11 10 0 120,450 6 2017 126,440 19.8 26.4 11 10 0 120,450 7 2018 128,929 20.4 26.9 11 10 0 120,450 8 2019 131,466 21.1 27.3 12 10 0 131,400 9 2020 134,053 21.8 27.8 12 10 0 131,400 10 2021 134,000 22.1 27.8 12 10 0 131,400 11 2022 136,182 22.7 28.2 12 10 0 131,400 12 2023 138,399 23.4 28.6 12 10 0 131,400 13 2024 140,652 24.0 29.0 13 12 2 142,350 14 2025 142,941 24.7 29.4 13 12 0 142,350 15 2026 142,000 24.9 29.1 13 12 10 142,350 16 2027 143,874 25.5 29.5 13 12 0 142,350 17 2028 145,774 26.2 29.8 13 12 0 142,350 18 2029 147,698 26.9 30.1 14 12 0 153,300 19 2030 149,647 27.6 30.5 14 12 0 153,300 20 2031 149,000 27.8 30.3 14 12 0 153,300 21 2032 150,047 28.4 30.4 14 12 0 153,300 22 2033 151,102 28.9 30.6 14 12 0 153,300 23 2034 152,165 29.5 30.7 14 12 0 153,300 24 2035 153,234 30.1 30.9 14 12 0 153,300 25 2036 154,000 30.6 31.0 15 12 2 164,250
Notes: 1 For details of population projections, see Volume 1, Appendix H.
TA 7182-NEP I-3 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table I.8 Butwal: projection of waste processing volumes Non- Waste to Organic Total Cumul- organic Waste Total compost waste to waste to ative waste to recycled waste Row no. Year plant landfill landfill waste landfill (m3) (m3) (m3) (t/d) (t/d) (t/y) (t)
1 2012 2 2013 3 2014 17.6 7.5 3.6 14.4 10.0 3,659 3,659 4 2015 18.0 7.7 3.7 15.0 10.3 3,754 7,414 5 2016 18.2 7.8 3.8 15.3 10.4 3,814 11,227 6 2017 18.5 7.9 4.0 15.8 10.7 3,902 15,129 7 2018 18.8 8.1 4.1 16.3 10.9 3,992 19,122 8 2019 19.1 8.2 4.2 16.9 11.2 4,085 23,207 9 2020 19.5 8.3 4.4 17.4 11.5 4,181 27,388 10 2021 19.4 8.3 4.4 17.6 11.5 4,194 31,582 11 2022 19.7 8.4 4.5 18.2 11.7 4,278 35,860 12 2023 20.0 8.6 4.7 18.7 12.0 4,364 40,224 13 2024 20.3 8.7 4.8 19.2 12.2 4,452 44,675 14 2025 20.6 8.8 4.9 19.8 12.4 4,541 49,216 15 2026 20.4 8.7 5.0 19.9 12.4 4,529 53,745 16 2027 20.6 8.8 5.1 20.4 12.6 4,607 58,352 17 2028 20.9 8.9 5.2 21.0 12.8 4,686 63,038 18 2029 21.1 9.0 5.4 21.5 13.1 4,767 67,805 19 2030 21.3 9.1 5.5 22.1 13.3 4,849 72,654 20 2031 21.2 9.1 5.6 22.2 13.3 4,848 77,503 21 2032 21.3 9.1 5.7 22.7 13.4 4,903 82,405 22 2033 21.4 9.2 5.8 23.1 13.6 4,958 87,364 23 2034 21.5 9.2 5.9 23.6 13.7 5,014 92,378 24 2035 21.6 9.3 6.0 24.1 13.9 5,071 97,449 25 2036 21.7 9.3 6.1 24.5 14.0 5,119 102,569
TA 7182-NEP I-4 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table I.9 Butwal: calculation of land requirements Receival, Daily & Cumul- 0.75 ha Land- health care, Annual intermedi- Total Cells to ative cells scaping, com-posting, Row no. Year Volume ate covers volume construct volume required access, recycling Total volume drains (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (no.) (no.) (ha) (ha) (ha) 1 2012 2 2013 2 3 2014 4,305 732 5,037 5,037 1 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 4 2015 4,417 751 5,168 10,205 1 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 5 2016 4,487 763 5,249 15,454 1 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 6 2017 4,590 780 5,371 20,825 2 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 7 2018 4,697 798 5,496 26,320 2 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 8 2019 4,806 817 5,623 31,944 2 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 9 2020 4,918 836 5,755 37,698 2 0 0.5 2.0 4.0 10 2021 4,934 839 5,773 43,471 3 1 0.8 2.0 5.0 11 2022 5,033 856 5,889 49,360 3 0 0.8 2.0 5.0 12 2023 5,134 873 6,007 55,367 3 0 0.8 2.0 5.0 13 2024 5,237 890 6,127 61,494 3 0 0.8 2.0 5.0 14 2025 5,343 908 6,251 67,745 4 1 1.0 2.0 6.0 15 2026 5,328 906 6,234 73,979 4 0 1.0 2.0 6.0 16 2027 5,420 921 6,341 80,320 4 0 1.0 2.0 6.0 17 2028 5,513 937 6,450 86,770 5 1 1.3 2.0 7.0 18 2029 5,608 953 6,561 93,331 5 0 1.3 2.0 7.0 19 2030 5,705 970 6,675 100,006 5 0 1.3 2.0 7.0 20 2031 5,704 970 6,674 106,680 6 1 1.5 2.0 8.0 21 2032 5,768 981 6,749 113,429 6 0 1.5 2.0 8.0 22 2033 5,833 992 6,825 120,253 6 0 1.5 2.0 8.0 23 2034 5,899 1,003 6,902 127,156 7 1 1.8 2.0 9.0 24 2035 5,966 1,014 6,981 134,136 7 0 1.8 2.0 9.0 25 2036 6,023 1,024 7,046 141,183 7 0 1.8 2.0 9.0
Composting facility calculations Volume of waste to plant 18.8 m3/d Volume of waste in each windrow 189 m3 Windrows required 7 nos. Windrow sheds required 4 nos. Floor area of each shed 900 m2 Sorting staff required 6 nos. Staff required at start 13 nos.
TA 7182-NEP I-5 Final Report, Vol. 3 Table I.10 Butwal: cost estimates Unit rate No. Description Units Quantity (excl. VAT) (NRs) (NRs m) 4.1 Software Promotion of Clean Waste Mechanisms LS 1 2,500,000 2.50 4.2 Solid Waste Collection 4.2.1 Tractor Nos 3 900,000 2.70 4.2.2 Hand carts and rickshaws Nos 50 12,000 0.60 4.2.3 Tools, equipments and safety gear LS 50 300,000 15.00 4.2.4 Solid waste skip containers Nos 12 250,000 3.00 4.2.5 Refuse Collector Truck Nos 10 4,000,000 40.00 4.2.6 Tools and Equipment LS 1 320,000 0.32 4.2.7 Water Supply and Safe Waste Water Disposal LS 1 500,000 0.50 Sub-total, collection 62.12 4.3 Solid Waste Final Disposal / Landfill Site 4.3.1 Access Road (3.5m wide metal road of 3km long) Sqm 10,500 1,875 19.69 4.3.2 Site Clearance and Surface Dressing Work Sqm 20,000 25 0.50 4.3.3 Replace 2,000 trees to be cut with 25 trees each and maintain for 5 Nos 50,000 100 5.00 4.3.4 Boundary Wall (1.2m wall and 1m barbed fencing) m 1,500 5,000 7.50 4.3.5 Tree Plantation, Turfing & Landscaping LS 1 1,875,000 1.88 4.3.6 Concrete Turnaround and Incoming Waste Deposit Area Sqm 5,000 2,500 12.50 4.3.7 Parking Lot Sqm 2,000 1,875 3.75 4.3.8 Administrative Building Sqm 65 18,750 1.22 4.3.9 Watchmen Quarter and Generator House Sqm 50 18,750 0.94 4.3.10 Workers Changing Room and Workshop Sqm 100 18,750 1.88 4.3.11 Workshop machinery (welder, grinder, drills etc) LS 1 150,000 0.15 4.3.12 Water Supply Distribution Network LS 1 175,000 0.18 4.3.13 Construct and Equip Well / Borehole & Pump Hse LS 1 400,000 0.40 4.3.14 Supply/Erect 11kV HTT line (poles conductors insulators etc) Km 3 375,000 1.13 4.3.15 Supply/ Install 100kVA 11kV/440V Transformer Complete set 1 225,000 0.23 4.3.16 Supply/Install Control panel for Transformer complete set 1 156,250 0.16 4.3.17 Transformer Yard Sqm 10 5,000 0.05 43184.3.18 Supply/Install site lights and fire extinguishers etc LS 1 437, 500 0440.44 4.3.19 Standby Generator 18kVA No 1 437,500 0.44 4.3.20 Construction of Processing Sheds Sqm 3600 10,000 36.00 Receiving shed (1000 m2), hoppers (2), conveyor belts (2), chopper LS 1 10,000,000 10.00 4.3.21 Truck axle weight measuring pads LS 1 300,000 0.30 4.3.22 Disposal facility (separate dedicated pit) for medical waste LS 1 150,000 0.15 4.3.23 Excavation of initial fill cells (75 m x 100 m x 3m) ea 2 4,162,500 8.33 4.3.24 Lining cells (75 m x 100 m x 1.2) ea 2 22,500,000 45.00 4.3.25 Installation of cell membrane (heavy duty) and leachate drains set 2 6,000,000 12.00 4.3.26 Construct leachate drainage collection sump tanks LS 1 100,000 0.10 4.3.27 Supply portable generator for leachate pump (6kVA) set 1 260,000 0.26 4.3.28 Supply leachate pump (5L/s 15m head 2kW) with hoses set 2 87,500 0.18 Allowance for special leachate protection measures LS 1 30,000,000 30.00 4.3.29 Compactor Loader Spreader No 2 5,000,000 10.00 4.3.30 Motor Bike (100cc Indian make) No 2 156,250 0.31 Sub-total, collection 210.62 4.4 Environmental Impact Assessment for Landfill site LS 1 3,000,000 3.00 Topographical and groundwater surveys LS 1 1,000,000 1.00 4.5 Training for Staff (5% of Costs) LS 1 3,000,000 3.00 4.6 Design and construction supervision @ 5% LS 1.0 16.74 Subtotal for Solid waste Management 296.49
TA 7182-NEP I-6 Final Report, Vol. 3