A cifically target women and girls because of their their of because girls and women target cifically spe- violence gender-based of forms of A number p. 93). 2002, al., et (Krug partner intimate an by committed are homicides female all of cent 40–70 per that suggests (WHO) Organization Health World The (IPV). violence than men and boys to die through intimate partner likely more also are They violence. non-conflict non-lethal and lethal by and violence, conflict indirect and direct by including ways, different in violence armed by affected are girls and Women violence. armed of women’sto experience attention our turn we when limited are they level, population the at violence armed of burden the on information valuable provide indicators these While costs. economic and deaths, conflict rect indi- deaths, conflict direct homicide, including of armed violence and impactits on development, burden the quantify and capture to used cators indi- main the on focused has report present The p. 14). 2005, CICS, 2003; al., et (Dreyfus armed violence as the rest of the male population diefrom to likely as 15twice of 29 and are ages the between men while violence, armed by killed be to women than likely more times 24 are men young example, for Janeiro, de Rio In injuries. and deaths firearm-related of majority the for account also boys and men and men, by mitted com- are violence of acts most cultures, Across perpetrators and targets of armed violence. both ways—as different in boys and girls, men, women, affects violence rmed Armed ViolenceArmed Women Against Chapter

Six

chapters. Its main findings are: findings main Its chapters. previous in issues gender of examination the It complements women. at directed specifically violence of forms of overview an provides and violence armed of burden global the of dimensions This chapter examines some of the specific gender 1990). (Sen, abortion sex-selective and infanticide female as such violence based gender- and care, health and food to access of lack ill-treatment, to due women’ missing million 100 than ‘more for is responsible forms, many its in women, against violence n.d.). And (UNIFEM, it as ‘a universal problem of epidemic proportions’ Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) to describe Nations United the prompted has women against violence of impact severe The 2007). (UNIFEM, years 15 44 to aged women for injury of cause ing lead a and mortality female of cause a significant is abuse, sexual and murder, violence, domestic rape, including women’. violence, Such against ‘violence as them to refers chapter this sex; should be made. be should ments in improved data collection and analysis invest- significant unsystematic; and sparse is women against violence on collected Data costs. economic and social, psychological, physical, significant have and women target specifically violence of forms of A number women. against violence of form common most the is IPV and women, are IPV of victims of majority The - 109 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 ARMED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 110 GLOBAL BURDEN of ARMED VIOLENCE Photo border. © Lynsey Addario ©Lynsey border. Chadian the near Sudan, Abunduruk, ear. her behind exited and eye her entered bullet The face. the in shot was woman

 This 35-year-old 35-year-old This conflict on women. women. on conflict armed of impact the to violence partner intimate in women of abuse the from ranging violence of violence armed than rather women against violence of on to question the broader focus it is useful more To assess the burden of armed violence on women,

armed violence. violence. armed experience women how of picture a partial only provide definitions conventional because understandings of ‘arms’ and ‘armed violence’ conventional broadens approach A gender in order to understand broader patterns patterns broader understand to order in rites of passage from boyhood to manhood manhood to boyhood from passage of rites weapon-related through behaviour violent into socialized are Boys 2006). Buchanan, and Barker, (Widmer, accepted or expected socially are men and boys by use weapons and violence ties, socie- many In violence. armed of dynamics the shaping factors underlying key are masculinities violent of forms and relations power Gendered victims. the among also are men while violence, armed of perpetrators the be also can women that recognizes since it perpetrators, of role the to men and victims of role the to women violence. Finally, such an approach does not limit thelights power relations inherent in much armed high- approach Agender-sensitive men. among mental in enforcing the gender hierarchy of power instru is also it but women, over power assert and because violence is not only used by men to claim gender, and transsexual people. This is important trans lesbian, gay, as well as boys and men against violence gender-based include to one allows women than rather gender on Focusing men. and women affects violence armed which in ways different the for account to is useful approach A gender p. 44). 1995, (Connell, socialization through acquired behaviour learnt are and tures cul different within and between vary roles These setting. agiven in adopt to is expected a woman or aman that behaviour and roles the are These ships associated with masculinity with associated ships relation- and values, behaviour, roles, the mine deter and power of relations rooted deeply reflect institutionsGender or constructions stereotypes. as such mechanisms, various through operate that roles social of construction the to refers sex) to opposed (as Gender roles. gender by mined deter are violence armed of experiences Different violence armed of dimensions gender The and femininity and - - - - - . and 30 per cent of combatant roles (Schroeder, (Schroeder, roles combatant of cent per 30 and for example, women held 40 per cent of leadership Salvador, El in conflict armed the During 1995). Warnock, and Bexley, (Bennett, violence armed use also children and women violence, armed of acts of perpetrators main the are men Although p. 37). 2003, (Myrttinen, one’s masculinity reassert to order in persons unarmed over power acquire to or gain, social and economic achieve to tools as symbols, status as used be also can Weapons formations. trans- social through 1990) (Messner, privilege’ and power of loss of a‘fear and masculinity of to armed violenceresort is linked often to a crisis The p. 3). 2006, Buchanan, and Barker, (Widmer, men’ ‘real are they that demonstrate to wanting and powerless, and ‘emasculated’ feeling men leave can unemployment ‘breadwinner’, main the being to tied is intricately role gender male the where societies In transformations. social or unemployment, dislocation, economic from arise also can one’s to masculinity threats Perceived ‘manhood’. and ‘toughness’, ‘status’, to challenges and issues honour-related to linked often are example, for wars, pp.1–2). turf Gang 2003, (Connell, murder even or injuries and disputes of sources mon com- are one’s to masculinity challenges as men, among violence and conflict of source important an is masculinity of forms different of hierarchy The exclusion. and hierarchy, power, of tionships rela- by interlinked are and exist masculinities of and femininity in any given society: different types masculinity of form one just not however, is, There masculinity. of expression an becomes violence cases some In roles. gender conventional of images reinforcing culture link often violence, arms, and masculinity, popular and media p. 38). The 2003, (Myrttinen, (Carpenter, 2003). Such sex-selective killings of of killings sex-selective Such 2003). (Carpenter, forces enemy by massacred be to likely most the were men civilian adult Yugoslavia, former the in non-combatants Among DEATHS). CONFLICT (INDIRECT reported were boys and men against violence sexual of cases numerous (DRC), Congo African Republic and the Democratic Republic of the Central the of conflicts armed the in example, For conscription, and sexual violence (Carpenter, 2006). against men include sex-selective killings, forced directed specifically violence gender-based of Forms victims. the among also are people sexual transgender/trans- and boys, men, victims, main the are women though even and violence, based gender- of acts commit also women perpetrators, main the are men while lines: fault gender follow necessarily not does violence gender-based of perpetrator and victim between distinction The actors. state or religious, cultural, of behalf on acting those and members, community members, family partners, intimate include perpetrators of Categories trafficking. or violence, dowry-related killings, honour assault, cultural, such as intimate violence, partner sexual socio- or economic, psychological, sexual, ical, phys- be may violence p. 9). Gender-based 2003, (RHRC, roles’ gender on based are that inequities against a person’s will, and that results from power ‘an umbrella term for any harm that is perpetrated violence, gender-based with so is especially This the victim. becomes who violence but also armed perpetrates who only not influence roles Gender pp.2–3). 2004, (HRW, fear suppress and aggression induce to used alcohol and drugs of influence the under often atrocities and killings committed reportedly old years nine as young as soldiers child Liberia, in conflict armed the In gangs in Haiti (OTHER FORMS OF ARMED VIOLENCE). in involved are girls and p. 1), women and 2005, 111 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 ARMED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 112 GLOBAL BURDEN of ARMED VIOLENCE Photo Panos Pictures Panos Hammond/ © Robin Bosnia. in war 1992–95 the during raped was she when old 13 years only



This woman was was woman This et al., 1993). 1993). al., et (Kellermann victim ahomicide becoming of risk the threefold increases generally household the ofthat the presence ina gun example, for shown, have Surveys violence. armed of consequences indirect the as or presence their through either violence, to linked indirectly or directly often are arms However, weapons. of use the involve necessarily not do violence gender-based of Acts 1996). HRW, 2002; Ward, p. 89; 2006, (Carpenter, violence sexual of victims the became frequently women Tutsi whereas men, Tutsi specifically targeted killings sex-selective genocide, Rwandan the In §91). §85–88, 1999, Clarification, Historical for (Commission targeted specifically were origin Mayan ethnic of children and women example, for Guatemala, in war civil the During religion. or class, ethnicity, race, age, only by gender but also by othersuch factors, as The experience of armed violence is influenced not pp.88–89). 2006, (Carpenter, hierarchies gendered reproducing roles, time war- male of assumptions the in rooted are men women (CARE and ICRW, 2007, ICRW, p. and 8). (CARE women of abuse the and violence male of likelihood the increases crisis’, which a‘masculinity face war from returning men that shows Herzegovina and Bosnia in violence domestic on Astudy violence. gender-based to contribute also war, of ences experi- the or training army through example for violence, armed by shaped roles and Attitudes cent in 2005 and 2006 (Office on Women in the the in on Women (Office 2006 and 2005 in cent armed forcestries’ 0.5 varied between and 20 per coun- NATO in soldiers female of percentage The groups. armed or forces armed in combatants female of proportion the on is available data little cases, most In 21–23). pp. 2004, Mazurana, and McKay 2004; Peimani, Sri andLanka, 2002; South UgandaAfrica, (Barth, Leone, Sierra Nicaragua, Nepal, Mozambique, Liberia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Salvador, El Chechnya, in including 2005), (Williams, since 1990 tries 57 coun least at in conflicts armed in participated or members of fighting forces. Women have actively as combatants battlefield the dieon also Women settings conflict Violence against women in to the hospital.’ the to me took die.” to They want don’t “I men: the to Isaid sky, the at looking Iwas setting, was sun the numb, were they them, feel not could I legs, my shot he stop, didn’t he then But . alone” her “Leave said: neighbours . The ‘Heand was angry very he took his Kalashnikov (AI, 2004) (AI, 2003 in Iraq in husband her by shot old, 19 years — Fatima,

- This leads both to indirect conflict deaths of women p.189). 2003, Russett, and Huth, Ghoborah, 2006; clean water, and health care (Plümper andfood, to access reduced as such Neumayer, conflict, armed of consequences indirect the from suffer ately disproportion- to likely also are girls and Women 2006). (Wood, conflicts between tremendously vary violence the of nature and scope The rape. from resulting infections mitted trans sexually or pregnancies from death and ofvivors sexual violence (such as honour killings), sur- against violence secondary violence, sexual include These conflict. after and during lence vio- lethal potentially of forms other of targets women and children are often disproportionately battlefield, the on killed get men more While increase. to expected be may deaths battle combatant female of share the and theatres war to deployed be will women more forces, armed many in equality gender increased With ties. causali- 4,452 a total of cent per 2.4 representing Iraq, in forces) US (including Forces Coalition the among fatalities female 108 2008, 2August of as p. 612). Iraq The Coalition Count Casualty reports, 2002, (Clodfelter, women were fatalities combat 65,000 the of one-third that estimated historians independence, of war Eritrea’s during However, available. often not are women of representation a high with groups armed for figures Fatality Front. Liberation National Sandinista the and (FARC), Colombia de Revolucionarias Armadas Fuerzas the Maoists, Nepal– of Party Communist the Tamil (LTTE), Eelam of Tigers Liberation the women: be to observed were groups armed non-state following the in fighters the of cent per 30 than More higher. much be can proportions the however, groups, armed n.d.). non-state In Institute, Education & Women’s Research The and Forces NATO 1

- global burden of armed violence. armed of burden global the to relevant areas some highlight to women on conflict armed of burden gendered the of aspects socio-economic and health-related ous vari- at looks therefore section This is available. evidence quantitative Little economy the to flict con- armed of costs of calculations narrow in or figures death battle or in conflict either reflected not It is conflict. armed of impact the of ments assess in neglected is often burden gendered This order. and law of breakdown the and infrastructure, destroyed injuries, and deaths others’ of burden the bearing girls and women to and girls, and - Photo AP Photo AP Mazalan/ © Ricardo 2001. Colombia, Caguan, del Vicente San of square main the at parade amilitary in march

 FARC soldiers soldiers FARC 113 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 ARMED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 114 GLOBAL BURDEN of ARMED VIOLENCE 42 sub-Saharan countries sub-Saharan 42 6.1 Table experienced armed conflict since 1990. since conflict armed experienced Source Mortality rates (median) Maternal mortality rate (median) Under-five mortality rate : O’Hare and Southall (2007). The study covered 42 sub-Saharan countries, of 21which have countries, 42 sub-Saharan covered study (2007). The and Southall O’Hare Comparison of maternal mortality and under-five mortality in mortality under-five and mortality maternal of Comparison the baseline rates. rates. baseline the than higher cent per 44 both are rates mortality under-five and maternal The 2007). Southall, and (O’Hare conflict armed experienced recently had that in countries rates mortality under-five and maternal increased showed mortality, under-five and mortality maternal on conflict armed of impact the assessing study a from in 6.1, Table findings indirect impact of armed conflict on women. on conflict armed of impact indirect the assess to used be can and condition, health 100,000 live births, is a good indicator of women’s per causes pregnancy-related from deaths of definedMaternal as mortality, the annual number measles. and infections, respiratory malnutrition, severe diseases, diarrhoeal to due mortality increased high forvulnerability very children under five, and show Findings risk. pre-conflict the with conflict armed during years five than older persons and old years five than younger children for dying of risk the compares 2004) Panhuis, von and Sapir (Guha- mortality conflict-related on datasets 37 of analysis an example, For mortality. female and studies tend to focus on age groups rather than Mortality male conflict. armed during available less even and countries developing in is sparse data reliable and relevant as ascertain to is difficult women’son health conflict armed of impact The armed conflict Countries with recent ,0/0,0 its690/100,000 births 1,000/100,000 births 9/,0 iebrh 137/1,000 live births 197/1,000 live births armed conflict Countries without recent 2 The The fighting forces, are detained, are taken hostage, hostage, taken are detained, are forces, fighting join relatives male when breadwinner sole the becoming of and displacement family of burden the carry Women women’s lives. for consequences Beyond battle, armed conflict has many disruptive 70 per cent were gang rapes) (Omanyondo, 2005). than more (of which rape and kicking, beating, aweapon, by threatened being woman’s will, a against detention were acts violent reported commonly most The conflict. the after and during acts violent multiple or one to subjected been had girls and women selected randomly 1,216 of after the conflict inLiberia found that 81.6 per cent and during violence of women’s experience on survey aWHO from 2.2). Evidence Box DEATHS, CONFLICT (INDIRECT conflicts armed in violence impossible to estimate the overall extent of sexual it making scarce, however, is, violence sexual of women and girls. Data on the scope and magnitude stories of sexual violence, especially rape, against horrifying to refer frequently DRC the or Darfur in conflicts armed the on reports NGO and News Saharan African countries African Saharan sub- seven in people displaced and affected conflict- among infections HIV of incidence the on Copenhagen of University the and UNHCR by study recent of a findings the However, groups. armed some in HIV/AIDS of levels high and conflict armed during girls and women of rape widespread on reporting increased by fuelled been has assumption This infections. HIV of incidence ahigher experience to likely and risk at particularly are people displaced internally and refugees that and infections, HIV increases conflict armed that is assumption A common B research is thus needed. needed. thus is research Further 2007). al., et (Spiegel data insufficient to due level population the at assumptions these ox 6. ox 1 Armed conflict and HIV/AIDS and conflict Armed 3 could not confirm confirm not could lence against women takes many forms: many takes women against lence vio- that clear makes Declaration the 2of Article as: women against violence defines (1993) Women against Violence of Elimination the on Declaration Assembly’s General UN The women against violence Non-conflict women’s health. for conflict exacerbates the consequencesnegative of armed girls and women of status socio-economic lower the services, health deteriorated and resources scarce of situations In 2006). Neumayer, and (Plümper differently’ women and men affect to likely are mortality and health on consequences negative ‘indirect why reasons main the are ity inequal gender and women against Discrimination opportunities. other and livelihood legal obstacles that may seriously hamper women’s and social contain but war-torn only not are that environments in challenges these face Women people. elderly and sick, disabled, wounded, and children their for caring of and generation income of responsibilities additional on take go missing, or are killed. In such situations, women in private life. life. private in or public in occurring whether liberty, of vation depri- arbitrary or coercion acts, such of threats including women, to suffering or harm logical psycho or sexual physical, in, result to likely is or in, results that violence gender-based of act any dowry-related violence, marital rape, female female rape, marital violence, dowry-related household, the in children female of abuse ual sex- battering, including family, the in occurring violence psychological and sexual physical,

-

- lence: female infanticide, for example, is often is often example, for infanticide, female lence: vio- such commit also women women, against violence of perpetrators main the are men While

it occurs. (UNGA, 1993) (UNGA, occurs. it wherever State, the by condoned or perpetrated violence psychological and sexual physical, prostitution; forced and women in trafficking elsewhere, and institutions educational in work, at intimidation and harassment sexual abuse, sexual rape, ing includ- community, general the within occurring violence psychological and sexual physical, violence related to exploitation; exploitation; to related violence and violence non-spousal women, to harmful practices traditional other and mutilation genital Photo © Q. Sakamaki/Redux Sakamaki/Redux © Q. Lanka. Sri in Jaffna, house war-torn her at stays

 A Tamil woman woman ATamil 115 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 ARMED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 116 GLOBAL BURDEN of ARMED VIOLENCE et al. (2004) al. et Sources violence domestic 6.2 Table onr erArea of Year Country utai 20–3Ntoa Health, production, National 2002–03 Australia aaa20 ainlDrc eia 1.1billion Direct medical National 2002 Canada Chile ooba20 ainlPrevent, detect, National 2003 Colombia Netherlands S 02Ntoa Legal andmedical National 2002 USA ties and societies. and ties communi- on imposes women against violence that costs socio-economic the of scope potential the highlight does it but comparisons, make to used be cannot It methods. and definitions various used that studies different several of findings the summarizes 6.2 Table greatest. is women against violence of issue the to attention where countries, developed in violence domestic or partner intimate of costs the to paid been has attention Most unknown. remains violence this of cost true Yet the indirect. some and direct some costs, development and economic of range awide creates violence, of forms all like women, against Violence B 6.2 ox : Australia: Access Economics (2004); Colombia: Sánchez et al. (2004); all others: Waters Waters all others: (2004); et al. Sánchez Colombia: (2004); Economics Access Australia: Selected studies on costs of intimate partner violence and/or violence partner intimate of on costs studies Selected The costs of violence against women against violence of costs The 1999 1997 study in Santiago 310 women ainlDirect medical, National analysed Categories costs second-generation administration, consumption, otpoutvt 1.7 billion Lost productivity family violence to survivors of and offer services costs of policing monetary costs, incarceration, other services, costs of costs of legal lost productivity system costs and services, judicial Costs (USD) and suffering) (excluding pain 6.1 billion 73.7 million 142.2 million 12.6 billion from view. Comprehensive and comparative sex- comparative and Comprehensive view. from women often goes unreported and remains hidden Despite consequences, grave its violence against consequences. these of scale and scope the systematically demonstrate that studies national cross- good no however, yet, as are There system. and represents a considerable burden on the health of women the productivity women affects against violence addition, In services. support and social weak with societies in implications serious has which families, their for care to unable often are Victims awhole. as society for and victim, the of community the and family the for consequences serious has also women against violence survivor, individual the on impacts the Beyond victims. the for consequences socio-economic and cal) psychologi and (physical health long-lasting and flict (INDIRECT CONFLICT DEATHS)—can have severe con- in violence sexual as forms such especially women— against violence lethal, is not it when Even violence. of women’s experience for conventional definitions often only partially account violence’, since ‘armed and ‘arms’ of standing under- our broaden to us forces women against violence of forms different these Examining cide. infanti- female or abortion, sex-selective of tice prac the attacks, in acid of use the as things such purpose of violence against women. This includes the for arms into turned are that tools involve can but defined, conventionally as ‘arms’ involve always not does It lethal. be nevertheless can but violence armed or strength physical involve necessarily not does violence Gender-based regions. all across societies and cultures many in women of status economic and social lower the in reflected is also that relationship asymmetric women—an and men between relations power unequal of manifestation a is women against violence variety, its Despite women. by practised - - abusive relationship. It has been estimated that that estimated been has It relationship. abusive ongoing an endures rather but violence, domestic report or help for search not does victim the that such be can Intimidation humiliation. and dation intimi as abuse—such psychological beating—or and kicking, hitting, battering, slapping, as such aggression— physical of acts including non-lethal, and lethal both forms, many take can It spouse. or partner intimate former or acurrent by trated violence’, is perpe- ‘domestic as known also IPV, 2002, et al., p. 89). are women (Krug victims of its andwomen, of the majority violence against form common most is the violence partner Intimate Intimate violence partner 2008). Nevala, and Ollus, (Johnson, way under however, are, women against violence of understanding our improve to efforts International incomplete. or existent non- is either Africa—data regions—especially data is available for subregions,certain for many on homicide of women is still rare. While accurate data reliable instance, For data. disaggregated sex- contain not do often datasets such and datasets, and surveys victimization in reflected tradition, sexual violence tends to be improperly historical or cultural of part as tolerated Often 2007). (UNIFEM, honour family the of ‘soiling’ perceived the of consequences the fear victims because unreported remain incidents countries many In statistics. crime official in including under-reporting, of rate high a to leads which crimes, such reporting from victims prevent women the taboo and tostigma attached violence against and Intimidation rare. are partners non-intimate or intimate by sex coerced and violent of studies example, For women. against violence of forms most for available not is still data disaggregated

- of arms). of presence the to linked be can violence partner without the direct use of armed violence, intimate even that, show violence partner intimate and availability arms small between relationship the on Studies women. for than higher is even men for stigma the as reported, less even are men against IPV of Crimes penalized. and reported adequately not therefore and matter’ ‘private a as regarded is often violence partner intimate countries, many in acrime is considered gers stran by committed violence gender-based While 2003). Wright, and (Hall agency an to IPV report women before years seven of period average an it takes as many as 35–37 repeated incidents over assaulted by an intimate male partner at some some at partner male intimate an by assaulted physically being reported interviewed women the of 13 cent 61 and per year, between each For women. against violence of forms all on study Assembly’s General UN the to according tries, coun- 71 in conducted been have IPV on Studies 3

- Photo Magnum Photos Magnum Arthur/ ©Olivia Russia. Yekaterinburg, husband. ex- her with apartment an shares still violence domestic of victim this divorce, her after

 Three years years Three 117 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 ARMED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 118 GLOBAL BURDEN of ARMED VIOLENCE Provincial-Territorial Ministers Responsible for the Status of Women (2002) Women of Status the for Responsible Ministers Provincial-Territorial Sources Percentage Zimbabwe (1996) Zambia (2000) Uganda (2000) Thailand province (2000) Thailand city (2000) Tanzania province (2001) Tanzania city (2001) Swaziland (2000) South Africa (2000) Serbia andMontenegro city (2000) Samoa (2000) Peru province (2000) Peru city (2000) Nigeria (1998) Namibia (2002) Mozambique (2002) Lesotho (2000) Japan city (2000–01) Ethiopia province (2002) Canada (1993) Brazil province (2000–01) Brazil city (2000–01) Botswana (2000) Bangladesh province (2001) Bangladesh city (2001) Figure6.1 : García-Moreno et al. (2005, p. 28); Naudé, Prinsloo, and Ladikos (2006, p. Federal- 107); (2006, and Ladikos Prinsloo, p. 28); Naudé, (2005, et al. García-Moreno

Percentage of women on IPV,surveyed reporting selected cases 2002, p. 151). Figure 6.1 shows the percentage of of percentage the 6.1 shows p. 151).2002, Figure al., et (Krug violence sexual involves often IPV 83–84). pp.27–41, 2005, al., et (García-Moreno countries developed less in women are as IPV to exposed much as are countries developed in women tries: coun- low-income and middle, high, between IPV of prevalence the in difference no be to appears acts of aggression over a long period of time. There is but includes not anmultiple IPV event, isolated Often, §114). 2006, (UNGA, lives their in point 0 10 20 30 050 40 from less than 5 per cent to more than 50 per cent. 50 per than more to cent 5per than less from the incidence of any form of sexual violence ranges widely, vary rates reporting Although countries. by a current or former spouse or partner in selected violence sexual of form any experiencing women pp. 44–45). 2008, Nevala, and Ollus, (Johnson, Rica Costa in cent per eight to up and Australia, in cent per five Poland, and Republic Czech the in cent per three Mozambique, and Denmark in cent per two ence, experi- an such reported interviewed women the of cent per one Switzerland and Philippines, the knife among the women interviewed. In Hong Kong, a or agun using partners intimate of experience varied found countries of anumber in conducted InternationalThe Violence against Women Survey pp. 8–11). sexual exploitation 2005, (IASC, p. 8; RHRC, 2003, of purpose the for trafficking and contraception, or sterilization abortion, pregnancy, forced ery, slav- sexual rape, attempted or gang-rape rape, exploitation, and abuse sexual harassment, ual sex- including forms, many takes violence Sexual as: defined is commonly violence Sexual victims. and perpetrators, motives, of a variety with settings, different many in occurs that lence vio- gender-based of is aform violence Sexual violence Sexual work. (IASC, 2005, p. 8) p. 2005, (IASC, work. and home to limited not but including setting, any in victim, the to relationship of regardless person any by force, physical or harm of threats coercion, using sexuality, person’s a traffic to acts or advances, or comments sexual unwanted act, asexual obtain to attempt act, sexual any 5 killings. Sexual violence can also have severe severe have also can violence Sexual killings. honour through murdered even or re-victimized, be may victims cases, suicide). to ing some In lead- sometimes depression, and trauma severe as (such HIV/AIDS) psychological and including diseases transmitted sexually and infertility, or infections injuries, direct as (such physical both Sexual violence often has grave health implications, a‘reward.’ or booster’ a ‘morale as used be may it and brutality, and aggression affirm to serve may violence sexual groups, and forces armed Within conflict. Rwandan the in as such group, ethnic or social aparticular destroy to even or group, enemy an humiliate and punish to objectives, military achieve to strategy plicit ex- an as used be may violence sexual conflict, are common as a form of domination. During armed violence sexual of acts violence, partner intimate In context. the to according vary acts such for motives specific 1992). The ..’nation (Seifert, domi- and violence anger, of . amanifestation aggression of expression asexual but sexuality, relations: ‘rape is not an expression aggressive of power about but sex about is not violence Sexual 2007, p. Kunz, 55). and Grimm, (Bastick, genocide Rwandan the in example for violence, sexual commit and incite to reported been also are men and boys. However, women and girls have perpetrators main the violence, sexual of acts of of victims are the majority While women and girls 49). 42, 2007, pp.35, Kunz, and Grimm, (Bastick, Liberia in and DRC, the Republic, African Central conflicts inthe armed the in reported been has as violence, of sexual bemay people victims also transsexual/transgender and boys, men, girls; and women to limited is not violence Sexual settings. during armed conflict, or in refugee or post-conflict workplace, the in or home at including contexts, different many in occur violence sexual of Acts or unknown individuals remains unreported. remains individuals unknown or known by perpetrated violence sexual societies many in that acknowledge must one however, analysis, such any For 1994). Frate, del Alvazzi and (Zvekic manner this in victimized are Africa in women of cent per 33 and America, Latin in 10 per cent of women in Asia, 15 per cent of women that finds regions across behaviour) offensive or assault, indecent rape, attempted (rape, dents’ inci- ‘sexual comparing study Institute Research 2005, p. 167). A UN Interregional Crime and Justice al., et (García-Moreno Bangladesh in women of cent in Serbia and Montenegro up to 49.7 per cent 6.3 per from ranging as lifetime their in partner intimate an by sex forced completed or attempted experienced having women of prevalence the reports Women against Violence Domestic and Women’s on Health Study Multi-country WHO The and the stigma attached to such forms of violence. andunreported hidden due to the victims’ shame remain often violence sexual of acts However, 2007, 15). p. Kunz, and Grimm, (Bastick, families munity, and unable to findwork or tocare for their com- the or family the from excluded sometimes and stigmatized partners, their by rejected are survivors whereby implications, socio-economic mitted by people unknown to the victim (Krug et al., 2002, p. 153). p. 2002, al., et (Krug victim the to unknown people by mitted com mostly are rapes 1997,Gang 4). p. (Greenfeld, perpetrators multiple by committed is assault sexual of acts ten of out one about States United the In 33). p. 2005, Haffejee, and (Vetten rapes gang are rapes all of third one that found Johannesburg of inner-city the for study surveillance African A South 153). p. 2002, al., et (Krug perpetrators two least at involves it when rape’ ‘gang as classified is Arape 2002). Zimmerman, and (Watts States United the and Guinea, New Papua Africa, South including countries in reported commonly violence—are sexual of form extreme women—an of rapes Gang B ox 6. ox 3 Gang rapes Gang - 119 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 ARMED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 120 GLOBAL BURDEN of ARMED VIOLENCE Photo © Lynsey Addario/Corbis © Lynsey crime. honour-related an in 2003 in death to stoned was who woman a of grave the at woman

 A Turkish ATurkish divorce, or being a victim of sexual violence. sexual of avictim being or divorce, a demanding affairs, extra-marital marriage, arranged an of refusal the behaviour, vocative’ ‘pro- perceived are killings honour for reasons common most The killings. honour to lead can and women on is blamed norms such of breach in behaviour ‘immoral’ perceived behaviour; of cultures, women are subjected to strict social norms of women as bearers of the family honour. In some perceptions cultural on based girls, and women 2007). Most honour killings are perpetrated against UNIFEM, p. 27; 2005, Biason, and (Vlachová our lation of the community, family, or individual hon individual or family, community, the of lation vio- aperceived to reaction in (male)by relatives committed is amurder killing’ ‘honour A so-called Honour killings

- of passion’ (GCSKSW, n.d.) (GCSKSW, passion’ of ‘crimes be to assumed are they because year each women of murders of hundreds investigate rarely police America in Latin Guatemala and elsewhere in that reports Watch Rights Human relative. reduced sentence to a man who murders a female asignificantly or immunity grants code penal Syrian The excused. is not adultery of act the in him discovering upon husband her kills who wife delicto in flagrante them discovering upon immediately murder by a husband of his wife and/or her partner the that states code penal the example, for Haiti, In unpunished. go to killings honour allowing crimes by thus granting impunity to perpetrators, such of persistence the to contribute laws natory discrimi honour, of notions to gendered addition In 2007). (UNIFEM, women’s brothers or girls’ the are killings honour of perpetrators all of cent per 70–75 Lebanon, and Jordan In members. family male often are killings honour of petrators 2007, per- p. 16). The (MADRE, reasons related’ ‘honour- for killed later were half than more which of reportedly raped between April and October 2004, were girls and women 400 Iraq, in government Hussein’s Saddam of fall the After victims. the of honour’, with women representing more than half edly killed between 1998 and 2003 ‘in the name of report- were men and women 4,000 Pakistan, In 2000). (UNFPA, year every killings honour to victim fall women 5,000 worldwide that estimates Fund Population Nations United The America. North and countries European western to exported been have killings honour of incidents migration, Through 2007). and other Mediterranean and Gulf states (UNIFEM, Turkey, Yemen, Syria, Pakistan, Morocco, Lebanon, Jordan, Iran, Egypt, in reported been mainly have but phenomenon aglobal are killings Honour in the conjugal residence is pardonable. A is pardonable. residence conjugal the in . - 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Number of incidents dowry of aresult as suicide committed have to sameThe year 2,276 Indian women were reported killings 2007). inof dowry-related 2006 (UNIFEM, victims were women 6,822 UNIFEM, to According wealth. bride the back pay to obliged, being of fear or inability, of out maltreated, being is she where cases in even daughter their back’ his Families ‘property’. sometimes to refuse ‘take becomes spouse the that belief the to leading often family, bride’s the to wealth’ a‘bride pays instead husband future the societies, certain In continuous harassment by their husbands or in-laws. after suicide commit also women Some woman. gender-based violence including the killing of the to lead can dowry, additional an receive to order the husband’s wish to pursue another in marriage which may arise ordue to dowry an unsatisfactory but also occurs in other countries. disputes, Dowry countries Asian South some in common ticularly is par- payment dowry of practice The marriage. at husband her to family bride’s the by given are that estates or goods, money, is the A dowry violence Dowry-related in Bangladesh, May 1999–July 2008 Figure 6.2 1999 0020 0220 0420 0620 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 Reported incidents of acid attacks Source ASF (2008) : ASF by the husband or in-laws. or husband the by cides may actually have been homicides committed sui- these of percentage acertain that out ruled be cannot It 2008). (Niazi, respectively suicides, 2,585 and 2,305 2004: and 2005 in higher even were figures The husbands. their with disputes family or dowry-related disputes (ASF, 2006, p. 8). 2006, (ASF, disputes dowry-related or family ofrefusal love, or marriage, or sexual by services, by money, and property land, over conflicts by talia of women. Acid areattacks usually motivated geni- and face the at especially body, victim’s the at is thrown acid violence, gender of form this In p. 7). 2006, (ASF, women and girls against directed are Bangladesh in attacks acid of cent per 68 about that estimates Foundation Survivors Acid The victims. of majority the resent rep- women and girls attacks, acid of victims be may boys and men While countries. Asian other and India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, in mainly ring occur- violence gender of aform are attacks Acid Acid attacks into their families and communities, avoiding their isolation (Scholte, 2006). (Scholte, isolation their avoiding communities, and families their into victims reintegrate to help also efforts These victims. for rehabilitation and counselling to access ensures psychotherapy—and and therapy, physical surgery, plastic nursing, treatment, burn as care—such medical free offers crimes, acid against laws of existence the promulgates assistance, legal guaranteed provides also It incidents. report to victims encourage to paigns cam awareness-raising public launched has Foundation Survivors Acid The 2008). (ASF, declined since have and injured, were people 490 when 2002, in peaked attacks Acid n.d.). (Woolf, strategies opment devel- micro-credit through notably standing, social increased and power financial growing women’s of atrend with coinciding 1990s, early the since prominence in grown have attacks Such 3). p. 2006, (ASF, days two every incident one to attacks—up acid of level high arelatively reports Bangladesh B 6.4 ox Acid attacks in Bangladesh in attacks Acid - 121 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 ARMED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 122 GLOBAL BURDEN of ARMED VIOLENCE Photo WPN Hanigan/ ©Olivier 2006. Dhaka, Bangla 1998. in attack acid an after blind left was woman

 This 45-year-old 45-year-old This ­desh, of family planning in societies where boys are are boys where societies in planning family of amethod as is practised Infanticide birth. her of weeks few first the within child agirl of killing the as infanticide female defines Fund Children’s UN The history. throughout deaths sex-selective of Female infanticide has likely accounted for millions abortion selective Female infanticide and sex- families. their to aburden remaining thus marry, rarely Victims of acidindirect a effect. attacks further hearing, and sometimes death. Social isolation is of loss blindness, potential disfiguration, body, the on marks permanent include Consequences

(Watts and Zimmerman, 2002). Zimmerman, and (Watts China and India show the most extreme disparities is lower. ratio the countries, African sub-Saharan South Korea, India, and Pakistan, as well as some Taiwan, China, as such countries in but 95:100, is approximately America North and Europe in born boys to girls of ratio The abortion. selective sex- of extent the suggest born boys and girls of numbers the between disparities Substantial abortion. sex-selective of form the in face a modern ultrasound technology has given female infanticide While infanticide of newborn girls still takes place, windpipes. infant’s the puncture to rice unhulled her feeding or smothering, poisoning, including cruel, be can life girl’s ababy ending of Methods girls. above socially, and economically valued, plausible explanation for the low female-to-male female-to-male low the for explanation plausible ‘most aboy.The have to yet have that families to fewer females are as born second or third children that shows that research by is suggested tuses foe- female of killing selective The males. 1,000 every to females 972 were there figures, census India’s In 1901 males. 1,000 every to 929 females only be to there India’s showed 1996 In census 1999). (Manthorpe, prostitution and selling, wife women, of trade slave and kidnapping increased of Already, ofa shortage brides is seen as the cause 2007, pp. 5–7) UNFPA, 2007; (Macartney, wife a find to unable be 20 45 and will between aged men ten every in one 15 years within that dicted pre recently Commission Planning Family and tion Popula- China’s State women. million 30 around It is estimated that by 2020 China could be ‘missing’ uted to China’s strict ‘one couple, one child’ policy. attrib- is generally and 1980s the during China in or abandoning female infants markedly increased killing of practice The lower. is even birth female 2007,100 boys (UNFPA, p. 5), and in some regions In China, approximately 84are forgirls born every 6 . - of violence. of experience women’s for account partially only often definitions conventional since violence’ ‘armed and ‘arms’ of understandings broadens approach agender Finally, perpetrators. as men defying simplistic notions of women as victims and It becomes clear that the picture is highly complex, ical, psychological, social, and economic impacts. phys multiple their and violence of forms of variety burden of armed violence demonstrates the great global the of dimensions gender the Analysing groups. ent of differ needs specific the account into take that policies of development the for allowing opment, devel- programme and policy-making of terms in against women. Such an analysis is also important targeted specifically violence of forms the and violence, armed of impacts gender-specific the of armed violence. This is crucial to understanding the direct and indirect impact of the global burden Using a gender approach reveals the full ofextent Conclusion 2003). (Sen, states richest the of some in and poorest the of some in thatof abortion female isfoetuses most prevalent tant role. In India, for example, it has been observed impor an play to seem also factors Cultural alone. level income by explained be cannot practice the be paid, often incurring substantial debt. However, to adowry requires adaughter while his parents, for care and property, inherit income, an earn to is expected ason family, Asian South traditional a In forces. cultural and economic both by driven Female infanticide and are sex-selective abortion 2006). Oster, mination andfollowed by (Jha abortion’ selective deter- sex is prenatal birth at reported ratios sex - - - violence. armed of burden global the of part tant makeimpor an up which violence, of experiences gendered the of picture balanced amore present to order in indicators and methods collection data existing review to is aneed There situation. this to contribute all crimes such condemn to will political of alack and perpetrators, for immunity widespread implementation, ineffective or laws around the world. Inadequate data, discriminatory but least punished categories of crime in societies Violence against women is one of the most common research. further of is worthy relationship contradictory This rights. taking on new responsibilities and their asserting women or through groups, in armed participation women’s through it be women’s emancipation, for aspace offered sometimes have situations such paradoxically, However, violence. armed indirect or direct, non-lethal, lethal, from suffer women upheaval, social and conflict of times In 3 2 1 Endnotes UNIFEM IPV DRC Abbreviations Uganda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, and Burundi. These countries include the DRC, (southern) Sudan, Rwanda, or incidental causes.’ the pregnancy orits management but not from accidental pregnancy, from any cause related to oraggravated by of pregnancy, irrespective of theduration andsite of the a woman while pregnant orwithin 42days of termination The definitionof maternal death (by WHO):‘Thedeath of (1999). Shrestha (2006,p. 147); Marón (2003); andKarame Bouta, Frerks, andBannon (2005,p. 11);Gyawali and United Nations Development Fund for Women Intimate partner violence Democratic Republic of theCongo -

123 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 ARMED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 124 GLOBAL BURDEN of ARMED VIOLENCE 5 4 cally forced to have sexual intercourse whenshedidnot includes thefollowing elements: thewoman was physi- The definitionof sexual violence by anintimate partner Peace.org (n.d.). Greenfeld (1997); Kellermann et (1993); al. WomenWar See AI,IANSA, andOxfam (2005);Jackson et (2005); al. 6 different data. It should be noted, however, that different studies produce found degrading orhumiliating (WHO, 2005,pp. 13–16). do; shewas forced to dosomething sexual that she want to because shewas afraid of what thepartnermight want to; shehad sexual intercourse whenshedidnot