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Open Research Online The Open University’s repository of research publications and other research outputs "Only the rames of a man": Investigating Masculinities in the Novels of Thomas Hardy. Thesis How to cite: Hayes, Tracy L. (2017). "Only the rames of a man": Investigating Masculinities in the Novels of Thomas Hardy. PhD thesis The Open University. For guidance on citations see FAQs. c 2016 The Author https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Version: Version of Record Link(s) to article on publisher’s website: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21954/ou.ro.0000c339 Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policies page. oro.open.ac.uk 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Abbreviations................................................................................................................3 Introduction..............................................................................................................................5 - Theorising Masculinity..........................................................................................................5 - Chapter Summary.................................................................................................................17 Chapter 1 – Constructions of Victorian Masculinity: Social, Psycho-Sexual, Evolutionary/Biological.........................................................................................................26 Social Constructions of Victorian Masculinity.................................................................26 Psycho-Sexual Constructions of Victorian Masculinity...................................................39 Evolutionary/Biological Constructions of Victorian Masculinity....................................60 Reading Evolutionary Masculinities................................................................................66 Hardy and Darwinism......................................................................................................75 Chapter 2 – 'The Thing Must be Male we Suppose': A Literary Review...............................78 Chapter 3 – 'Interesting but inadequate': The Alpha-Male.....................................................96 - The Lover.............................................................................................................................98 - The Soldier.........................................................................................................................107 - The Androgyne...................................................................................................................111 - The Piner.............................................................................................................................120 Chapter 4 – 'Being a man of the mournfullest make': Hardy's Unmen and Others..............124 Masculine Otherness in the Nineteenth Century............................................................126 The Other........................................................................................................................129 The Unman.....................................................................................................................140 The Man-Girl..................................................................................................................146 Chapter 5 - '...how that fellow does draw me': Misogyny and the Homosocial...................154 2 'No man ever loved another as I did thee': Hardy and the Homosocial..........................157 'Being by nature something of a woman-hater': Hardy and the Misogynist..................168 'A killing air': Hardy's Experiment in Temperament......................................................173 Chapter 6 - 'His equilibrium disturbed: he was in extremity at once': The Unstable Male..181 - The Monomaniac................................................................................................................186 - The Oedipal Character........................................................................................................193 - The Aggressive Melancholic..............................................................................................198 - The Inferior Tantalus..........................................................................................................203 Chapter 7 - 'No man had ever suffered more from his own charity': Hardy's New Men, Empathy and Stoicism..........................................................................................................209 Victorian Empathy and Stoicism....................................................................................213 Gabriel Oak – Nature's Midwife.....................................................................................216 Giles Winterborne – Hintock's Adam.............................................................................220 Richard Phillotson – Liberal Philanthropist...................................................................227 Conclusion............................................................................................................................236 Bibliography.........................................................................................................................242 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express grateful thanks to my supervisors Suman Gupta, Sara Haslam and Fiona Doloughan for their patience, advice and expertise. I would like to express my gratitude to the Open University Document Delivery team, without whom I could not have had access to such a vast array of research sources. I would like to thank my family for having faith in me, and most especially my husband who set me on the road to academia with unfaltering belief in my capabilities many years ago. 3 ABBREVIATIONS The following texts will feature throughout this thesis in the abbreviated format given in parenthesis: (DR) Thomas Hardy, Desperate Remedies. ([1871]2003), edited with an introduction and notes by Patricia Ingham for Oxford World's Classics. (UGT) Thomas Hardy, Under the Greenwood Tree. ([1872]1999), edited with an introduction and notes by Simon Gatrell for Oxford World's Classics. (PBE) Thomas Hardy, A Pair of Blue Eyes. ([1873]1998), edited with an introduction and notes by Pamela Dalziel for Penguin Classics. (FFMC) Thomas Hardy, Far From the Madding Crowd. ([1874]2002), edited with notes by Suzanne B. Falck-Yi, and an introduction by Linda M. Shires for Oxford World's Classics. (HE) Thomas Hardy, The Hand of Ethelberta. ([1876]1997), edited with an introduction and notes by Tim Dolin for Penguin Classics. (RON) Thomas Hardy, The Return of the Native. ([1878]2005), edited by Simon Gatrell, with an introduction by Margaret R. Higgonnet and notes by Nancy Barrineau for Oxford World's Classics. (TM) Thomas Hardy, The Trumpet-Major. ([1880]1997), edited with an introduction and notes by Linda M. Shires for Penguin Classics. (L) Thomas Hardy, A Laodicean. ([1881]1997), edited with an introduction and notes by John Schad for Penguin Classics. (TOT) Thomas Hardy, Two on a Tower. ([1882]1998), edited with an introduction and notes by Suleiman M. Ahmad for Oxford World's Classics. (MOC) Thomas Hardy, The Mayor of Casterbridge. ([1886]2004), edited with notes by Dale Kramer, with an introduction by Pamela Dalziel for Oxford World's Classics. (W) Thomas Hardy, The Woodlanders. ([1887]2005), edited with notes by Dale Kramer, 4 with an introduction by Penny Boumelha for Oxford World's Classics. (Tess) Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d'Urbervilles. ([1891]2005), edited by Juliet Grindle and Simon Gatrell, with an introduction by Penny Boumelha and notes by Nancy Barrineau for Oxford World's Classics. (WB) Thomas Hardy, The Well-Beloved. ([1892]1998), edited with and introduction and notes by Tom Hetherington for Oxford World's Classics. (JO) Thomas Hardy, Jude the Obscure. ([1895]2002), edited with an introduction and notes by Patricia Ingham. (Life, 1) Florence Hardy, The Early Life of Thomas Hardy, 1840-1891. ([1928]1994) London: Studio Editions. (Life, 2) Florence Hardy, The Later Years of Thomas Hardy, 1892-1928. ([1930]1994) London: Studio Editions. (Letters, 1) Richard Little Purdy and Michael Millgate (eds.), The Collected Letters of Thomas Hardy, Volume 1: 1840-1892. (1978) Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Letters, 2) Richard Little Purdy and Michael Millgate (eds.), The Collected Letters of Thomas Hardy, Volume 2: 1893-1901. (1980) Oxford: Clarendon Press. 5 INTRODUCTION Theorising Masculinity In books such as Madness and Civilization (1971), The Birth of the Clinic (1973), Discipline and Punish (1975) and The History of Sexuality (1976), Michel Foucault posited that knowledge is power and is institutionalized in various ways, through educational, psychiatric and judicial establishments among others, undergirding a multiplicity of discourses.1 As Jill Matus notes, Foucauldian discourse analysis prompted us to think beyond disciplinary borders. It called for an interrogation of the ways various discourses formed and differentiated themselves. And it had particular impact on nineteenth-century studies, since Foucault singled out that century as one in which the human sciences organized themselves into the shapes they have today, and brought all aspects of human life into discourse.2 Psychiatric, educational