Festinger theory of pdf

Continue 's theory of cognitive dissonance has been widely recognized for his important and influential concepts in motivation and . The dissonance theory here applies to the problem of why partial remuneration, delayed remuneration, and effort costs during training lead to increased resistance to extinction. The author argues that there is a stalemate in learning theory, mainly because some of its basic assumptions are clearly opposed to established experimental results. The book puts forward a new theory that seems to reconcile this data and assumptions. This new theory may take into account data that other theories have difficulties with: it integrates empirical phenomena that have been considered unrelated and is supported by experiments designed specifically to verify its effects. These experiments are fully described in the text. Psychological stress experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time Part of the series onPsychology Outline History Subfields Basic Types abnormal behavioral genetics Biological Cognitive / Cognitiveism Comparative cross-cultural differential development of evolutionary experimental mathematical neuropsychology Personality Positive quantitative social social Applied Psychology Applied Behavior Analysis Clinical Community Consumer Counseling Critical Educational Environmental Ergonomics Forensic Industrial and Organizational Legal Military Music Professional School of Health Sports Traffic Lists Discipline Organization Psychology Publishing Research Methods Theory Theory Topics portalvte In psychology, cognitive dissonance occurs when a person adheres to conflicting beliefs, ideas, or values, and are usually experienced as psychological stress when they engage in an action that goes against one or more of them. According to this theory, when two actions or ideas are psychologically inconsistent with each other, people do their best to change them until they become consistent. Discomfort is caused by the fact that a person's faith contradicts new perceived information, in which he tries to find a way to resolve the contradiction to reduce discomfort. In The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957), Leon Festinger suggested that people strive for internal psychological sequencing in order to function normally in the real world. A person who experiences an internal discrepancy tends to become psychologically uncomfortable and motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance. They tend to make changes to justify stressful behavior, either by adding new pieces of cognition psychological dissonance (rationalization) or avoiding circumstances and information can increase the amount of cognitive dissonance (confirmation of bias). Coping with the nuances of conflicting ideas or experiences is mentally stressful. It takes energy and effort to sit with those seemingly opposite things that all seem true. Festinger argued that some people would inevitably allow dissonance by blindly believing in everything they wanted to believe. The relationship between knowledge To function in the reality of modern society, people constantly adjust the conformity of their mental relationships and personal actions; such constant adjustments, between cognition and action, lead to one of three relationships with reality: Consonant relationships: Two cognitions or actions corresponding to each other (for example, not wanting to get drunk when for dinner, and ordering water, not wine) Irrelevant relationships: Two cognitions or actions unrelated to each other (e.g., not wanting to become drunk when wearing a shirt) not wanting to get drunk when, but then drink more wine) The magnitude of dissonance Term dissonance refers to the level of discomfort caused to a person. This may be due to a connection between two different internal beliefs, or an action that is incompatible with a person's beliefs. Two factors determine the degree of psychological dissonance caused by two contradictory knowledges or two contradictory actions: the importance of cognition: the greater the personal value of the elements, the greater the amount of dissonance in relation. When the importance of these two dissonant elements is high, it is difficult to determine which action or thought is correct. Both had truths, at least subjectively, in the human mind. So when ideals or actions are being clashed, it is difficult for a person to decide which takes precedence. Cognition ratio: share of dissonant and consonant elements. There is a level of discomfort in each person that is acceptable for life. When a person is within this level of comfort, dissonance factors do not interfere with functioning. However, when dissonance factors are plentiful and insufficient in line with each other, goes through the process of regulation and bring the ratio to an acceptable level. As soon as the subject decides to keep one of the dissonant factors, they quickly forget the other to restore peace of mind. There is always some degree of dissonance within the person as they go about making decisions, due to the changing quantity and quality of knowledge and wisdom that they receive. The value itself is a subjective dimension, as reports are transmitted independently, and there is no objective way to obtain a clear measurement of the level The theory of cognitive dissonance reduction suggests that people are looking for a psychological sequence between their expectations of life and the existential reality of the world. To function in accordance with this expectation of existential consistency, people constantly reduce their cognitive dissonance to align their cognition (perception of the world) with their actions. Creating and establishing a psychological sequence allows a person affected by cognitive dissonance to reduce mental tension by actions that reduce the magnitude of dissonance realized either by changing with or by justification against or being indifferent to the existential contradiction that causes mental tension. In practice, people reduce the value of their cognitive dissonance in four ways: to change behavior or cognition (I will no longer eat this doughnut). Justify behavior or cognition by altering conflicting cognition (I am allowed to cheat my diet from time to time.) Justify behavior or cognition by adding new behavior or cognition (I will spend thirty extra minutes in high school to work out a doughnut.) Ignore or deny information that contradicts existing beliefs (This doughnut is not high in sugar food.) Three cognitive biases are components of the theory of dissonance. The prejudice that one has no bias, bias, that one is better, kinder, smarter, more moral and better than average and confirmation of bias. The fact that functioning in the real world requires consistent psychology was also stated in the results of The Psychology of Prejudice (2006), in which people facilitate their functioning in the real world by using human categories (i.e. gender and gender, age and race, etc.), through which they manage their social interactions with others. The study Cognitive Belief Models, Reducing Dissonance among Smokers: Longitudinal Analysis conducted by the Four Country Survey (ITC) International Tobacco Control Survey (2012) found that smokers use the beliefs of justification to reduce their cognitive dissonance regarding tobacco smoking and the negative effects of smoking. Continued smoking (smoking and no attempts to quit smoking since the previous round of research.) Successful quitrs (Exit during the study and do not use tobacco since the previous round of study.) Unsuccessful quitters (Exit during study, but relapsed to smoking during study.) To reduce cognitive dissonance, smokers-participants adjusted their beliefs to fit their actions: Functional beliefs (Smoking soothes me when I am stressed. an important part of my life. and smoking makes it easier for me to communicate.) Beliefs minimizing risk (Medical proof that smoking is harmful, exaggerated; you need to die from something, so why not yourself and smoke? and smoking is not more risky than many other things people do.) Selective Exposure Another method of reducing cognitive dissonance through selective impact theory. This theory has been discussed since the early days of Festinger's discovery of cognitive dissonance. He noted that people would selectively expose themselves to some media outlets in relation to others; in particular, they will avoid dissonance messages and prefer cossonal messages. Through selective exposure, people actively (and selectively) choose what to watch, view or read, which corresponds to their current mood, mood or beliefs. In other words, consumers choose consistent information and avoid information that is difficult for relationships. This can be applied to the media, news, music and any other messaging channel. The idea is choosing what is in opposition to how you feel or believe in will make cognitive dissonance. In 1992, for example, a study of single residents - those without a family or frequent visitors - was conducted in a nursing home. Citizens were shown a series of documentaries: three, which featured a very happy, successful elderly man and three, which featured an unhappy, lonely old man. After watching the documentaries, residents indicated that they preferred the media featuring an unhappy, lonely person over a happy man. This can be condemned by their feelings of loneliness, and the experience of cognitive dissonance watching someone of their age feeling happy and being successful. This study explains how people choose media that are consistent with their mood, both in selectively exposing themselves to people and the experiences they are already experiencing. It's more convenient to watch a movie about a character who looks like you than to watch a movie about a man your age who is more successful than you. Another example is how people mostly consume media that conform to their political views. In a 2015 study, participants were shown behaviorally consistent, complex or politically balanced online news. The results showed that participants trusted the attitude-consistent news the most of all the others, regardless of the source. It is obvious that the participants actively selected the media that conformed to their beliefs rather than opposing the media. Paradigms There are four theoretical paradigms of cognitive dissonance, mental stress people suffer when exposed to information that is incompatible with their beliefs, ideals or values: Faith Confirmation, induced conformity, free choice, and justification of effort, accordingly, explain what happens after a person acts inconsistently, in relation to his or her intellectual perspective; what happens after a person makes decisions and what are the consequences for a person who has spent a lot of effort to achieve the goal. Common for each Cognitive-dissonant theory is a principle: people invested in this perspective must when faced with opposing evidence-spend a great effort to justify keeping a contested point of view. Faith does not confirm the contradiction of faith, ideal or value system causing cognitive dissonance, which can be solved by changing the contested faith, but, instead of pronouncing changes, resulting in mental stress restores psychological cohabitation to the person through misperception, rejection or refutation of contradictions, seeking moral support from people who share conflicting beliefs or acting to convince other people that the contradiction is unrealistic. 13:123 The early hypothesis of the contradictions of faith, presented in When The Prophecy Fails (1956), reported that faith deepened among members of an apocalyptic religious cult, despite the unfortunate prophecy of an alien spaceship that soon landed on Earth to save them from earthly corruption. In a determined place and time, the cult gathered; they believed that only they would survive planetary destruction; but the spacecraft didn't arrive on Earth. Confused prophecies caused them acute cognitive dissonance: If they were victims of hoaxes? Had they sacrificed their material property in vain? To resolve the dissonance between apocalyptic, doomsday religious beliefs and earthly, material reality, most of the cult restored their psychological co-ism, choosing to believe the less mentally tense idea of explaining the missed landing: that the aliens gave planet Earth a second chance at existence, which in turn allowed them to re-direct their religious cult to ecology and social propaganda to end the human damage to planet Earth. Overcoming bewildered beliefs, moving to a global ecology, the cult has increased in numbers proselytism. The study of Rebe, the Messiah and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference (2008) reported that the contradiction of the faith occurred with the orthodox Jewish congregation of Chabad, which believed that their Rebe (Menachem Mendel Schneerson) was the Messiah. When he died of a stroke in 1994, instead of admitting that their Rebe was not the Messiah, some parishioners were indifferent to this contradictory fact and continued to claim that Schneerson was the Messiah and that he would soon return from the dead. Induced Compliance See also: Forced theory of conformity After performing dissonant behavior (lying) a person can find external, consonant elements. Thus, the seller of snake oil may find psychological self-justification (big profits) to encourage medical lies, but otherwise may need to change their beliefs about lying. In cognitive forced enforcement (1959), investigators Leon Festinger and Merrill Carlsmith asked students to spend an hour doing Tasks for example, turning a peg a quarter of a turn, at fixed intervals. The tasks were designed to cause a strong, negative, mental attitude in the subjects. After the subjects had done the tasks, the experimenters asked one group of subjects to talk to another topic (actor) and convince the impostor-subject that the tedious tasks were interesting and interesting. Twenty dollars ($20) were paid to the subjects of one group; those in the second group were paid one dollar ($1) and those in the control group were not asked to speak to the impostor. At the end of the study, when asked to evaluate tedious tasks, the second group subjects (paid $1) rated the tasks more positively than either the subjects in the first group (paid $20) or the subjects of the control group; the responses of the paid subjects were evidence of cognitive dissonance. Researchers, Festinger and Karlsmith, hypothesized that the subjects experienced dissonance between conflicting cognitions. I told someone that the task was interesting and I was actually bored. Subjects paid one dollar were forced to comply, forced to internalize an interesting mental attitude problem because they had no other excuse. The subjects paid twenty dollars were forced to observe through an obvious, external justification for internalizing the interesting mental attitude task and experienced a lesser degree of cognitive dissonance. The Forbidden Paradigm of Behavior in the Impact of The Seriousness of threat on the devaluation of taboo behavior (1963), a variant of the induced conformity paradigm, by and Carlsmit, studied self-justification in children. Children were left in a room with toys, including a very coveted steam shovel, a forbidden toy. Leaving the room, the experimenter told half a group of children that there would be severe punishment if they played with a steam shovel toy and told the other half of the group that there would be a lenient penalty for playing with a banned toy. All children abstained from playing with a prohibited game (steam shovel). Later, when children were told they were free to play any game they wanted, children in the mild punishment group were less likely to play with a steam shovel (prohibited toy), despite the withdrawal of the threat of lenient punishment. Children facing lenient punishment had to justify why they did not play a banned game. The degree of punishment was not strong enough to solve their cognitive dissonance; children had to convince themselves that playing with a banned game was not worth the effort. The Effectiveness of Musical Emotions, provoked by Mozart's music to reconcile cognitive dissonance (2012), shows a version of the forbidden paradigm listening to music reduces the development of cognitive dissonance. Without music in the background, a control group of four-year-olds was told to avoid playing a banned game. After playing alone, the children of the control group later devalued the importance of the banned game. In the variable group, classical music played in the background while children played alone. In the second group, the children did not devalue the banned toy. The researchers, Nobuo Masataka and Leonid Perlovsky, have concluded that music can inhibit cognition that causes cognitive dissonance. Music is an incentive that can reduce dissonance after a decision; In a previous experiment, Washing Away Postdecisional Dissonance (2010), researchers pointed out that the actions of hand washing can inhibit cognition that cause cognitive dissonance. Free Choice In the Post-decision Changes in Desirability of Alternatives (1956) study, 225 female students rated household appliances and were then asked to choose one of two devices as a gift. The results of the second round of the ranking showed that female students upgraded their ratings of household appliances, which they chose as a gift, and lowered their ratings of devices, which they rejected. This type of cognitive dissonance occurs in a person facing a difficult decision when there are always aspects of the rejected object that turn to the selector. The action of the decision provokes psychological dissonance arising from the choice of X instead of Y, despite the small difference between X and Y; the solution I chose X is dissonance with the knowledge that there are some aspects of Y that I like. Study Choice Induced Preferences in No Choice: Evidence of the Blind Two Choice Paradigm with Young Children and Capuchin Monkeys (2010) reports similar results in the occurrence of cognitive dissonance in humans and animals. Peer effects in pro-social behavior: social norms or social preferences? (2013) pointed out that in an internal discussion, structuring decisions between people can influence how a person acts, and that social preferences and social norms are linked and operated with the payment of wages between three people. The actions of the first person affected the necessary actions of the second person to provide wages. This aversion to inequality is a top priority for the participants. Effort Justification Additional Information: Effort justification for Cognitive dissonance occurs with a person who voluntarily engages in (physically or ethically) unpleasant actions to achieve a goal. The mental tension caused by dissonance can be reduced by a person, exaggerating the desirability of purpose. In the impact of the gravity of the initiation on sympathy for the group (1956) to qualify for admission to the discussion group, two groups of people awkward onset of varying psychological severity. The first group of test subjects read aloud twelve sexual words that were considered obscene; the second group of subjects read aloud twelve sexual words, not considered obscene. Both groups were given headphones to unknowingly listen to a recorded discussion about animal sexual behavior, which the researchers designed as boring and banal. As the subjects of the experiment, groups of people were told that the discussion of animal sexuality was actually taking place in the next room. Subjects whose strong dedication required reading obscene words aloud rated their group's people as more interesting people than people in the group who had a soft initiation into the discussion. In Washing Your Sins: Threatened Morality and Physical Cleansing (2006), the results showed that a person washing away his hands is an action that helps to solve the post-decision of cognitive dissonance, because mental tension was usually caused by a person's ethical and moral aversion to himself, which is an emotion associated with physical aversion caused by a dirty environment. The study,-neural basis for rationalization: reducing cognitive dissonance during decision-making (2011) found that participants rated 80 names and 80 paintings based on how much they liked names and patterns. To make sense of the decisions, participants were asked to choose names they could give to their children. To evaluate the paintings, participants were asked to base their ratings on whether they would show such art at home. The results showed that when the decision makes sense for the person deciding the value, the likely rating is based on his or her attitude (positive, neutral or negative) to the name and to the picture in question. Participants were also asked to double-evaluate some of the objects and believed that at the end of the session they would receive two paintings that they rated positively. The results showed a significant increase in the participant's positive attitude towards a couple of things, as well as an increase in negative attitudes towards an unloved couple of things. Double ratings of pairs of things to which the rating participant had a neutral attitude, did not show any changes during the rating period. The participant's existing relationship was strengthened during the rating period, and participants suffered cognitive dissonance when confronted with a loved name paired with unloved painting. Examples In the fable Fox and Grapes, Aesop, having failed to reach the desired bunch of grapes, the fox then decides that it really does not want fruit, because it is sour. The act of fox rationalization (justification) reduced his anxiety about cognitive dissonance from the desire he I see it. Meat-eating can include discrepancies between the behavior of eating meat and the different ideals that a person holds. Some researchers call this form of moral conflict a meat paradox. Hank Rothgerber suggested that meat eaters may face a conflict between their food behavior and their attachment to animals. This occurs when a dissonant state involves acknowledging one's behavior as a meat eater and faith, attitude or value, which is contrary to that behavior. A person with this condition may try to use a variety of methods, including avoidance, willful ignorance, dissociation, perceived changes in behavior and a better retreat to prevent this form of dissonance. Once it has happened, he or she may reduce it in the form of motivated cognitions such as denigrating animals, offering pro-meat excuses, or denying responsibility for eating meat. The degree of cognitive dissonance regarding meat consumption can vary depending on a person's attitude and values, because it can lead to whether they see any moral conflict with their values and what they eat. For example, people who are more dominant minded and who value having a male identity are less likely to experience cognitive dissonance because they are less likely to believe eating meat is morally wrong. Unpleasant Medical Screenings In a Study Called Cognitive Dissonance and Attitudes Toward Unpleasant Medical Screenings (2016) researchers Michael R. Ent and Mary A. Gerend told the study participants about an uncomfortable test for a specific (fake) virus called the human-27 breathing virus. The study used a fake virus to prevent participants from thinking, opinions and feelings about a virus that would interfere with the experiment. The study participants were in two groups; one group was told that they were actual candidates for a virus-27 test, while the other group was told that they were not candidates for the test. The researchers said: We predicted that study participants who thought they were candidates for an unpleasant test would experience dissonance associated with knowing that the test was unpleasant and in their best interest - this dissonance is predicted to lead to an adverse attitude to the test. Related phenomena of cognitive dissonance can also occur when people seek: Explain inexplicable feelings: When an earthquake occurs in the community, irrational rumors based on fear quickly reach neighboring communities unaffected by the disaster, because these people, not in physical danger, psychologically justify their concerns about the earthquake. Minimizing regret for irreversible choice: At the racetrack, players have more confidence after betting on they picked up shortly before the after-time time This confidence prevents a change of heart; players felt cognitive dissonance after the decision. Explain your motives for taking some actions that have had an external stimulus attached (known as motivational displace). Justify behavior that contrasted their views: after being forced to cheat on an academic exam, students were judged less harshly. Aligning a person's perception with that person's behavior: The Ben Franklin effect refers to this statesman's observation that the act of doing favors to an opponent leads to an increase in positive feelings towards that person. Confirm the beliefs that have been held: the bias of confirmation determines how people easily read information that confirms their well-established opinion and easily avoid reading information that contradicts their opinion. Confirmation bias is evident when a person is confronted with deep-rooted political beliefs, i.e. when a person is largely committed to his beliefs, values and ideas. Applications Education Management Cognitive Dissonance easily affects the student's seeming motivation to continue education. A study by Turning Play into Work: Effects of Adult Surveillance and Extrinsic Rewards on Children's Intrinsic Motivation (1975) found that the application of the justification paradigm increased students' enthusiasm for education with the offer of external tuition fees; Preschool students who completed puzzle-based adult promise awards were later less interested in puzzles than students who completed puzzle-tasks without the promise of rewards. Incorporating cognitive dissonance into the model of basic learning processes to promote students' self- awareness of psychological conflicts between their personal beliefs, ideals and values, as well as the reality of conflicting facts and information, requires students to protect their personal beliefs. After that, students are taught to objectively perceive new facts and information to resolve the psychological stress of the conflict between reality and the student's value system. In addition, educational software that applies the guidelines facilitates students' ability to successfully deal with questions posed in a complex subject. Meta-analysis of studies shows that psychological interventions, provoking cognitive dissonance to achieve directional conceptual changes, increase students' learning of reading skills and science. Psychotherapy The general effectiveness of psychotherapy and psychological intervention is partly explained by the theory of cognitive dissonance. In this vein, social psychology has suggested that the mental health of the patient is positively affected by his and her actions in the free choice of specific therapy and in what is needed, what is needed, efforts to overcome cognitive dissonance. This effective phenomenon was stated in the results of the Effects of Choice on Behavioral Treatment of Overweight Children (1983), in which children believe that they are free to choose the type of therapy received, resulting in each overweight child losing more excessive body weight. In the study Reducing Fears and Increasing Care: The Role of Reducing Dissonance (1980), people suffering from opchidiophobia (fear of snakes), who put a lot of effort into activities of little therapeutic importance (experimentally presented as legal and appropriate), showed an improvement in the symptoms of their phobia. Similarly, the results of Cognitive Dissonance and Psychotherapy: The Role of Justification In Stimulating Weight Loss (1985) showed that the patient felt better in justifying their efforts and therapeutic choices towards effective weight loss. That therapy costs effort can predict long-term changes in patient perception. Social Behavior Cognitive Dissonance is used to promote positive social behavior, such as increased condom use; Other studies show that cognitive dissonance can be used to encourage people to go pro-social, such as campaigns against public littering, campaigns against racial bias, 47 and conformity with anti-speeding campaigns. The theory can also be used to explain the reasons for donating to charity. Cognitive dissonance can be applied in social areas such as racism and racial hatred. Acharya, of Stanford, Blackwell, and Seine of Harvard State CD, increases when a person commits an act of violence against someone from another ethnic or racial group and decreases when a person does not commit such an act of violence. Studies conducted by Acharya, Blackwell and Sen show that perpetrators of violence against members of another group develop hostility towards their victims as a way of minimizing CDs. It is important to note that hostility can persist even after the violence itself has decreased (Acharya, Blackwell, Sen 2015). The app provides a social psychological basis for the constructivist view that ethnic and racial differences can be socially or individually constructed, possibly as a result of acts of violence (Fearon and Laitin, 2000). Their framework speaks to this possibility, showing how the violent actions of individuals can affect individual relationships, either ethnic or racial animosity (Acharya, Blackwell, Sen 2015). Consumer Behavior Three basic conditions exist to provoke cognitive dissonance when buying: (i) the decision to buy should be For example, the amount of money you need to spend Psychological costs; and iii) The purchase has a personal relationship to the consumer. The consumer of it 1 can choose from alternatives and solution solutions buying is irreversible. The Beyond Reference Pricing: Understanding Consumers' Encounters with Unexpected Prices (2003) found that when consumers experience an unexpected price meeting, they adopt three methods of cognitive decline: (i) use a strategy of constant information; In changing attitudes; and (iii) participation in minimization. Consumers use a strategy of constant information, engaging in bias and finding information that supports previous beliefs. Consumers can search for information about other retailers and replace products according to their beliefs. Alternatively, consumers can change attitudes, such as oversoeidae prices in relation to external reference prices, or instil high prices and low quality prices. Minimizing reduces the importance of dissonance elements; Consumers tend to minimize the importance of money, and therefore shop around, save, and find the best deal. The theory of cognitive dissonance politics may suggest that because votes are an expression of preference or belief, even the act of voting can force someone to defend the actions of the candidate for whom they voted, and if the decision was close, then the effects of cognitive dissonance should be greater. This effect was studied in connection with the 6th presidential elections in the United States between 1972 and 1996, and it was found that the difference of opinion between the candidates changed more before and after the election than the difference in opinion of non-voters. In addition, elections in which voters were positive about both candidates, making it difficult to choose, had a more dramatic change in the opinion of the candidates than those who had only a favorable opinion of one candidate. What was not studied were the cognitive effects of dissonance in cases where the person had an adverse relationship with both candidates. The 2016 U.S. election held historically high unfavorable ratings for both candidates. The theory of cognitive dissonance of communication was originally put forward by the American psychologist Leon Festinger in the 1960s. Festinger noted that cognitive dissonance usually occurs when a person holds two or more incompatible beliefs at the same time. This is normal because people face different situations that cause conflicting sequences of thought. This conflict leads to psychological discomfort. According to Festinger, people experiencing a mental conflict, trying to reduce psychological discomfort, trying to achieve emotional balance. This equilibrium is achieved in three main ways. First, a person can downplay the importance of dissonant thought. Secondly, a person may try to outweigh the dissonant thought with the sosonant thoughts. Finally, a person can turn on the dissonance in their current belief system. Dissonance plays an important role in persuasion. To convince people, you have to make them experience dissonance and then offer their offer as a way to resolve the discomfort. While there is no guarantee that your audience will change your mind, the theory argues that without dissonance, there can be no persuasion. Without feeling uncomfortable, people are not motivated to change. Artificial intelligence suggests that the introduction of cognitive dissonance into machine learning can help in the long-term goal of developing creative autonomy on the part of agents, including in multi-agent systems (such as games), and ultimately in the development of strong forms of artificial intelligence, including artificial general intelligence. Alternative paradigms of Dissonant self-confusion: a lawyer can experience cognitive dissonance if he is to defend as an innocent client whom he finds guilty. In terms of Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Current Perspective (1969), a lawyer may experience cognitive dissonance if his false statement about his guilty client contradicts his personality as a lawyer and an honest man. The theory of self-confusion in self-confusion: An alternative interpretation of the cognitive phenomena of dissonance (1967), social psychologist Daryl Beam proposed the theory of self-creation, according to which people do not think much about their relationships, even when involved in a conflict with another person. The theory of self-congratulation assumes that people develop attitudes by observing their behavior, and concludes that their attitude has caused behavior observed self-congratulation; especially true when internal signals are either ambiguous or weak. Thus, a person is in the same position as an observer who must rely on external signals to infer his inner state of mind. The theory of self-discovery assumes that people accept relationships without access to their states of mood and cognition. Thus, the experimental participants of the Festinger and Karlsmith study (Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance, 1959) made their mental attitude to their own behavior. When the survey participants were asked, Did you find the problem interesting?, the participants decided that they must have found the task interesting, because that's what they told the questionnaire. Their responses indicate that the participants, who were paid twenty dollars, had an external incentive to accept this positive attitude and probably perceived twenty dollars as the reason that the task was interesting, rather than saying that the task was really interesting. The theory of self-confusion (Bem) and the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger) make identical predictions, but only the theory of cognitive dissonance predicts the presence of unpleasant arousal, disasters that have been tested in laboratory experiments. In The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Current Perspective (Aronson, Berkowitz, 1969) Elliot Aronson linked cognitive dissonance with self- esteem: this mental stress occurs when conflicts between cognitions threaten a person's positive self-esteem. This interpretation of Festinger and Karlsmith's original study, using an induced conformity paradigm, suggested that the dissonance was between the knowledge of I am an honest man and I lied about finding the task interesting. Cognitive Dissonance Study: Private Odds or Public Spectacle? Tedeschi, Schlenker, ect. 1971) reported that maintaining cognitive consistency, rather than protecting private self-esteem, is how a person protects his public image. Moreover, the results of the study I'm No Longer Torn After Choice: How Explicit Choices implicitly Shape Preferences of Odors (2010) contradict this explanation, showing the appearance of a re-evaluation of material elements, after a person has chosen and decided, even after having forgotten the choice. The main article of balance theory: Fritz Haider's Theory of Balance offered a motivational theory of relationship change that stems from the idea that people are forced to establish and maintain psychological balance. The driving force behind this balance is known as the motive of consistency, which is the desire to maintain one's values and beliefs consistent over time. The concept of the psychological balance haider has been used in theoretical models of cognitive dissonance measurement. According to balance theory, there are three interacting elements: (1) I (P), (2) another person (O) and (3) elements (X). Each of them is located on the same top of the triangle and has two common relationships: the unity of relationships - things and people that belong to each other on the basis of similarity, intimacy, destiny, etc. Relationship of feelings - assessment of people and things (like, dislike) Under the theory of balance, people are looking for a balanced state of relations between the three positions. It can take the form of three positives or two negatives and one positive: P - you O - your baby X - picture of your child drew I love my child She drew me this picture I love this picture People also avoid unbalanced relationship conditions, such as three negatives or two positives and one negative: P and you O and John X and John's dog I do not like John John has a dog I do not like the dog either cost-benefit In the study Jules Dupuit reported that behavior and cognition can be understood from an economic point of view, in which people participate in the systematic processing of comparisons of the costs and benefits of a solution. Psychological process of comparing costs and benefits helps a person and to justify the feasibility (waste of money) of an economic solution and is the basis for determining whether the benefit outweighs the cost and to what extent. Moreover, while the cost-benefit analysis method operates in an economic environment, men and women continue to be psychologically inefficient in comparing costs with the benefits of their economic solution. The theory of self-re discrepancy E. Tory Higgins suggested that people have three own sides, to which they compare: Actual self - the representation of attributes a person believes it - or himself to possess (basic self-concept) The ideal self - ideal attributes a person would like to possess (hope, aspiration, motives to change) self - ideal attributes a person believes that he or she should possess (duties, obligations, obligations) When these self-husbands are conflicting psychological sufferings (cognitive distress) People are motivated to reduce the self-over discrepancy (the gap between the two self-events). In the 1980s, Cooper and Fazio argued that the dissonance was due to the opposite, not inconsistency. According to this interpretation, the belief that lying is wrong and harmful, rather than a mismatch between knowledge, is what makes people feel bad. Subsequent studies, however, have shown that people experience dissonance even if they feel they have done nothing wrong. For example, Harmon-Jones and his colleagues have shown that people experience dissonance even when the consequences of their statements are helpful, such as when they convince sexually active students to use condoms when they themselves do not use condoms. Criticism of the free-choice paradigm In the study How Choice Influences and Reflects Preferences: Redefining the Paradigm of Free Choice (Chen, Risen, 2010) researchers have criticized the paradigm of free choice as invalid because the rank-choice method is inaccurate for the study of cognitive dissonance. That the design of the research models is based on the assumption that if the experimental variants rates the subject elsewhere in the second study, then the subject's attitude to the variants has changed. That there are other reasons why an experimental subject can achieve different ratings in the second survey; the actors may have been indifferent to the election. While the results of some subsequent studies (e.g., do choices affect preferences? some doubts and new evidence, 2013) have provided evidence of the unreliability of the rank-and-rank method, the results of studies such as neural correlates of cognitive dissonance and choice-induced preference change (2010) have not found the choice of rank-choosing method to be invalidated, and indicate that the choice may change Person. The model of motivation for action The original theory was not intended to explain how dissonance works. Why is inconsistency so aggressive? The action motivation model seeks to answer this question. He suggests that inconsistencies in a person's cognition cause mental stress, because psychological inconsistency interferes with the functioning of a person in the real world. Among the ways to cope, a person may choose to exercise behavior that is incompatible with his or her current attitude (faith, ideal, value system), but later try to change that belief to be consistent with current behavior; cognitive dissonance occurs when a person's cognition does not correspond to the actions taken. If a person changes the current attitude, after the dissonance occurs, he or she, then must commit to that course of behavior. Cognitive dissonance produces a negative influence state that motivates a person to reconsider causal behavior to resolve the psychological inconsistency that has caused mental stress. As the victim works on behavioral obligations, the motivational process is activated in the left frontal cortex of the brain. The predictive dissonance model of the Prognostic Dissonance model suggests that cognitive dissonance is fundamentally associated with the predictive coding (or predictive processing) model of cognition. A predictive report on mind processing suggests that perception actively involves the use of the Bayesian hierarchy of acquired preliminary knowledge, which primarily serves the role of predicting incoming proprioceptive, non-arterative and asteroceptive sensory inputs. Thus, the brain is the output machine that tries to actively predict and explain its sensations. Minimizing the forecasting error is crucial for this conclusion. Predictive dissonance suggests that the motivation for cognitive decline is associated with the body's active desire to reduce prediction error. In addition, he suggests that human (and possibly other animals) brains evolve to selectively ignore conflicting information (as suggested by the dissonance theory) to prevent their predictive cognitive patterns from overworking to local and therefore unsociable conditions. The forward-facing account is largely compatible with the motivation model, because in practice, a prediction error can result from a bad behavior. Neuroscience findings allow psychologists to study the biomechanics of cognitive dissonance. Visualization Study of Neural Activity Predicts Relationship Change in Cognitive Dissonance (Van Veen, Krug, ect, 2009) neural basics of cognitive dissonance with functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); neural scans of participants reproduced the main findings of the induced conformity paradigm. Match. in the MRI scanner, some study participants claimed that the uncomfortable, mechanical environment of the MRI machine was nevertheless a pleasant experience for them; some participants in the experimental group stated that they used the mechanical environment of the MRI scanner more than the participants of the control group (paid subjects) who were arguing about an uncomfortable experimental environment. The results of the neural scanning experiment support the original theory of cognitive dissonance proposed by Festinger in 1957; and also supports the theory of psychological conflict, according to which the anterior cingulate function, in a counter-relationship response to activate the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior other insular cortex; the degree of activation of these areas of the brain is predicted by the degree of change in the psychological attitude of the person. Cognitive Dissonance Biomechanics: MRI shows that the greater the psychological conflict signaled by the anterior cortex, the greater the magnitude of cognitive dissonance experienced by a person. As the application of the paradigm of free choice, the study How Choice Shows and Forms Of Expected Hedonic Results (2009) shows that after making a choice, neural activity in the strip is changing to reflect a new assessment of a person's choice of object; neural activity increased if the object was selected, neural activity decreased if the object was rejected. Moreover, studies such as The Neural Basis of Rationalization: Cognitive Decline in Dissonance During Decision-Making (2010) and How Choice Changes Preference: Neural Correlations of Choice Excuses (2011) confirm the neural foundations of cognitive dissonance psychology. The neural basis for rationalization: decreased cognitive dissonance during decision-making (Jarcho, Berkman, Lieberman, 2010) applied the free choice paradigm to fMRI- research of decision-making while the study participant actively tried to reduce cognitive dissonance. The results showed that an active decrease in psychological dissonance increased neural activity in the right-bottom frontal gyrus, in the medial front-parithal region, and in the abdominal striatum, and that neural activity decreased in the anterior insula. That neural activity of rationalization occurs in a matter of seconds, without conscious discussion on the part of the person; and that the brain is involved in emotional reactions when making decisions. Emotional Correlations Results of Anger and Cognitive Dissonance Studies to Understanding motivational functions of asymmetrical frontal brain activity (Harmon- Jones, 2004) indicate that the occurrence of cognitive dissonance is associated with neural activity in the left frontal cortex of the brain, brain structure Emotion-related anger; In addition, functionally, anger motivates neural activity in the left frontal cortex. Applying a targeted model of motivation approach, anger research and behavioral approach (2003) showed that the link between cognitive dissonance and anger is supported by neural activity in the left frontal cortex, which occurs when a person takes control of a social situation, causing cognitive dissonance. Conversely, if a person cannot control or cannot change a psychologically stressful situation, he or she is without the motivation to change the circumstance, then there are other negative emotions to manage cognitive dissonance, such as socially inappropriate behavior. The anterior cingulate activity of the cortex increases when errors occur and are tracked, as well as having behavioral conflicts with self-recotomy as a higher-level form of thinking. A study has been made to verify the prediction that the left frontal cortex will have increased activity. University students had to write a paper depending on whether they were assigned with a high choice or low-choice condition. The low-choice condition required students to write about supporting a 10 percent increase in their university. The point of this condition is to see how significant counterchoice can affect a person's ability to cope. The high-choice condition asked students to write in favor of raising tuition fees as if it were their entirely voluntary choice. Researchers use EEG to analyze students before they wrote an essay, as dissonance at its highest during this time (Beauvois and Joule, 1996). Participants with a higher choice of condition showed a higher level of the left frontal cortex than participants with a lower choice. The results suggest that the initial dissonance experience may be evident in the anterior cingulate cortex, then the left frontal cortex is activated, which also activates the motivational system's approach to reduce anger. The Psychology of Mental Stress Results presented in The Origins of Cognitive Dissonance: Evidence from Children and Monkeys (Egan, Santos, Bloom, 2007) showed that the decline in cognitive dissonance in the actions of preschoolers and Capuchin monkeys may be a choice between two variants, distinctive marks and. The teams were then offered a new choice between the uneopted chosen object and the new selected object, which was as attractive as the first object. As a result, the choice of human and Simian subjects was combined with the theory of cognitive dissonance, when children and monkeys each chose a new choice-object instead of selecting an object not chosen in the first choice, despite the fact that each object has Value. Hypothesis of a pattern of cognitive dissonance based on actions (Harmon-Jones, Levy, 2015) speculated that psychological dissonance occurs as a result of stimulating thoughts that interfere with goal-driven behavior. Researchers mapped the participant's neural activity while performing tasks that triggered psychological stress when performing contradictory actions. The participant read aloud the printed name of the color. To test the appearance of cognitive dissonance, the color name was printed in a color other than the word read aloud by the participant. As a result, participants experienced increased neural activity in the anterior cortex cingulate when experimental exercises caused psychological dissonance. Studying the cognitive neuroscience of social emotions and the effects on psychopathology: The study of embarrassment, guilt, envy and Schadenfreude (Jankowski, Takahashi, 2014) identified neural correlations with specific social emotions (e.g. envy and embarrassment) as a measure of cognitive dissonance. Neural activity for emotions of envy (feeling displeasure at another person's happiness) has been found to attract neural activity from the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. That such increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex occurred either when a person's self-recenomesis was at risk or when a person suffered embarrassment (social pain) caused by noticeable, upwardly socially-comparison, social- class snobbery. That social emotions such as embarrassment, guilt, envy and Schadenfreude (joy from another person's unhappiness) correlate with a decrease in activity in the insular lobe, and with increased activity in the striped nucleus; these nervous actions are associated with a decrease in empathy (social responsibility) and an increased propensity for antisocial behavior (crime). Simulations in neural networks Artificial neural network models of cognition provide methods of integrating the results of empirical studies on cognitive dissonance and attitude into a single model, which explains the formation of psychological moods and mechanisms of change of such views. Among the artificial neural networks of models that predict how cognitive dissonance can affect a person's attitudes and behaviors are: Parallel processes of satisfaction of limitation of the 100 Meta-cognitive model (MCM) of relationships 101 Adaptive model of cognitive dissonance compound 102 Attitude as a model of satisfaction of limitation 103 Contradictions to the theory because of the new theory. Charles G. Lord wrote an article on whether the theory of cognitive dissonance was not sufficiently tested, and whether it was a mistake to accept it in theory. He argued that the theorist did not take into account all the factors and concluded without looking at all However, even with this contradiction, cognitive dissonance is still accepted as the most likely theory that we have today. See also Affective Prediction Ambivalence Antiprocess Faith Perseverance Buyer's Remorse Choice Choice Support Bias Cognitive Bias Cognitive Inertia Cognitive Inertia Compartmentalization (Psychology) Cultural Dissonance Duck Test Devaluation Failure Double Link Double Consciousness Doublethink Dunning- Kruger Effect Effort Justification Emotional Conflict Gaslighting The Illusory Effect of Truth (Psychoanalysis) Love-Hate Relationship Memory Matching Metanoia (Psychology) Motivated Reasoning Mythopoeic Thoughts Narcissistic Rage and Narcissistic Trauma Rationalization (justifying) Semmelweis Reflex Cleavage (Psychology) Stockholm Syndrome Methods neutralization Theory of Terror Management Emperor's New Clothes Trauma Linking True Believer's Syndrome Cognitive dissonance. A scientific American. 207 (4): 93–107. Bibkod:1962SciAm.207d. 93F. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1062-93. PMID 13892642. 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Mistakes were made (but not by me): Why do we justify stupid beliefs, bad decisions, and harmful actions. Orlando, Florida: Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-15-101098-1. MacLeod, S. Cognitive Dissonance. Received on December 3, 2013. Joanna M. Jarcho; Berkman, Elliot T.; Lieberman, Matthew D. (2010). Neural basis of rationalization: reduced cognitive dissonance during decision-making. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience. 6 (4): 460–467. doi:10.1093/scan/nsq054. PMC 3150852. PMID 20621961. Wagner, D.A. (2014). Global Warming Marketing: Repeated measures to address the effects of cognitive dissonance, endorsement and information about beliefs for a social reason. Proquest Digital Thesis: . Osikawa, S. (1972). Measuring cognitive dissonance: some experimental findings. Received from External Links Listen to this article This audio file was created from the revision of this article from 2019-12-07, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio referenceMore colloquial articles) Wikiquote has quotes related to: Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance Record in the Dictionary of skeptic Festinger and the original work by Karlsmith Leon Festinger, An Introduction to the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1956) extracted from the festinger theory of cognitive dissonance pdf. festinger theory of cognitive dissonance 1957 pdf. leon festinger theory of cognitive dissonance pdf. leon festinger and his theory of cognitive dissonance. festinger l. (1957). a theory of cognitive dissonance. festinger's theory of financial cognitive dissonance. a theory of cognitive dissonance (1957) leon festinger. a theory of cognitive dissonance leon festinger book

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