Ghana J. Sci. 56 (2016), 25

Ghana J. Sci. 56 (2016), 25 – 37

Ethnobotanical study of the use of natural dye plant species in the Southern Forest-Savanna Transition Zone of Ghana

F. Baa-Poku* and L. Enu-Kwesi (F.B.-P.: Department of Environmental Management and Technology, Koforidua Polytech- nic, P. O. Box KF 981 Koforidua, Eastern Region, Ghana; L.E.-K.: Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon) *Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

Abstract Ethnobotanical studies were carried out in the United Nations University People’s Land-Use and Environmental Change (UNU/PLEC) demonstration sites of Gyamfiase-Adenya, Sekesua-Osonson and Amanase-Whanabenya with detailed floral inventory undertaken in the Gyamfiase-Adenya demonstration site. Ethnobotanical knowledge gathered from focus group discussions indicated that, a number of plant species were used traditionally as food colours and dyes for clothing. These included Alchornea cordifolia, Carica papaya, Citrus sinensis, Combretum mucronatum, Lecaniodiscus cupanioides, Mangifera indica, Lonchocarpus cyanescense and Morinda lucida. The use of these species for food colouring was widespread among females than among males. Food colouring was also found to be a common household practice although it was not commercialised. Floral inventory in the Gyamfiase-Adenya site indicated that Albizia zygia, Bombax buonopozense, Ceiba pentandra, Cola gigantea, Morinda lucida, Rauvolfia vomitoria and Terminalia ivorensis are left as standard trees in-situ on farms in traditional agro-forestry. Out of seven species screened initially as sources of materials for food colouring and dyes for clothing, Morinda lucida and Combretum mucronatum were predominant in the area. Whilst Combretum mucronatum was readily available in the fallows, Morinda lucida was found in each of the different land-use types (farms with annual crops, fallows and tree crop farms). Local communities with the support of district assemblies should be encouraged to maintain and pursue other effective and sustainable methods in the harvesting of these plants.

Introduction purposes (Yujing, 2014). Traditional knowl- Plants have been used for various purposes edge of local people also plays a major role including food, housing, medicine, dyes, in the identification of natural resources for clothing, and leatherworks among others. commercialisation (Anon, 2005). Jansen The use of dye plants in enhancing food and &Cardon (2005) also recognised the impor- clothing in communities, however, is a prac- tant role in economic growth. ITDG (2003) tice that has existed for several decades. The further notes that, in most developing coun- practice, though widespread, is more com- tries, the diverse sources of dyes produced mon among indigenous communities in re- from natural dyes contribute to improved mote areas, where dyes derived from plants livelihood, particularly, through its use and are used both for colouring food products commercialisation. and clothing, as well as for other cultural Even though synthetic dyes have been 26 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Vol. 56 commonly used on commercial basis in demographic characteristics of the people in Kenya, the use of natural dyes is still an the selected communities. The ethnobotani- old practice. Musyoki, Luvana & Kitheka cal uses of dye plant species in the transi- (2012) in a study that documented the trees tion zone and the sustainability methods of and other plant species used as sources of harvesting dye plant species in the selected natural dyes and tannins, identified some communities have also been discussed. plant sources for dyes and tannins. Some of these include Commiphora holtiziana (Hag- Experimental gar), Acacia bussei, L. inermis L (Elan) and Location Commiphora campestris Engl, among many The study was conducted in the United Na- others. tions University’s People Land Use and In Ghana the most popular use of plant Environmental Change (UNU/PLEC) dem- dyes in the forest zone is for the preparation onstration sites at Sekesua-Osonson (in the of saffron dyes from the bark of Bombax Krobo area), Gyamfiase-Adenya (Akwapim brevicuspe (onyinakobin) and Lannea wel- North) and Amanase-Whanabenya (Akwap- witschii (kumanini) for dyeing funeral cloths im South), all in the southern forest-savanna (kuntunkuni) and for stamping the adinkra transition zone of Ghana. The main sites se- signs and symbols (Abbiw, 1990). Dyes de- lected for the study included: Sekesua – Os- rived from plants in forests are usually non- onson; Gyamfiase – Adenya; and Amanase toxic and edible, and have, thus, been used – Whanabenya. as food colour in both traditional cooking Sekesua – Osonson. Sekesua – Osonson and formal commercial catering (Abbiw, UNU/PLEC, Ghana, demonstration site 1990). Throughout southern Ghana, forests is situated in the Eastern Region of Ghana serve as sources of food, especially during within the southern forest-savanna transition seasonal food shortages and other periods of zone. The ecosystem of the site provides the hardship (Falconer, 1992). Forests contrib- right environment for the growth of different ute to all aspects of rural life providing food, crops and other plants adapted to humid and fodder, fuel, medicine, building materials dry conditions. The characteristically high and household items, as well as many more agro-diversity observed reflected the cultur- intangible benefits such as cultural symbols, al imprint of migrant Krobo cocoa farmers ritual artefacts and sacred sites. The southern (PLEC News and Views, 2003) despite the forest – savanna transition zone of Ghana, system of monoculture that was also evident within which the study was carried out, is in the area. known to contain very diverse plant species Gyamfiase – Adenya. This site is about with a vegetation zone which contains most 70 km inland from Accra, the capital of of the country’s valuable timber species. Ghana and is in the Eastern Region. It is The paper provides a compilation of a situated off the main Mamfe – Adawso road. comprehensive inventory of forest species in The inhabitants are mainly natives and set- three communities of southern forest-savan- tler farmers. Gyamfiase has a sacred grove na transition zone of Ghana including the estimated to be about 20 ha in size. Apart Vol. 56 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 27

Fig. 1. Map of the study area from the Gyamfiase village, there are about equatorial climatic region with two rainfall four other villages namely Bewase, Adenya, maxima. The mean annual rainfall is be- Obom and Otwetiri that surround the Gyam- tween about 1250 and 2000 mm. The first fiase sacred grove (Gyasi et al., 2004). rainy season is from May to June, with the Amanase – Whanabenya. This town is in- heaviest rainfall in June, and the second habited by a mixture of the offsprings of mi- rainy season is from September to October. grant Akuapim and Siade/Shai people, and a The dry seasons are quite pronounced. The growing component of recent migrant Ewe highest mean monthly temperature of about settler farmers. Landholding arrangements 30 °C occurs between March and April and are both the mosaic and linear huza type. the lowest of about 26 °C in August. Aver- Average annual rainfall ranges between age monthly relative humidities (RH) (based 1,200 and 1,450 mm. The main food crops on figures recorded each day at 12 noon) are grown in this area include cassava, maize, highest (75-80%) during the two rainy sea- plantain, cocoyam and oil palm. Apart from sons and lowest (70-80%) during the rest of farming, people in the area also indulge in the year (Dickson & Benneh, 2004). cassava processing, distillation of local gin (akpeteshie) and extraction of oil from fruits Vegetation and soils and kernels of oil palm (Gyasi et al., 2004). Akwapim is in the moist semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana. This vegetation zone Weather and climate contains most of the country’s valuable tim- The study area falls under the wet semi- 28 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Vol. 56 ber trees species. The moist semi- deciduous pants were involved in the study. The FGD forest is distinguished by trees in its upper was ideal because it helped to extract de- and middle layers exhibiting deciduous char- tailed qualitative information from partici- acteristics during the long dry season when pants. A focus group discussion guide was the influence of the harmattan is greatly felt. used to obtain information on the partici- The deciduous habit of the trees, in this belt, pants’ beliefs and perception on the follow- is by no means as strong and definite as ing: Knowledge of use of plants for dyes, among the deciduous trees of the temperate cosmetics and insecticides, use of plant parts zone. Trees of the lower layer of this forest for various purposes, sustainability of the remain evergreen during the dry season and harvesting techniques, and plant propaga- so do most of the young trees of the species tion and availability. which belong to the two uppermost layers. This may be due to the generally moist con- Description of field floral inventory ditions under the lower tree storey. A detailed floral inventory was carried out Due to the rapid expansion of the cocoa at Gyamfiase-Adenya. The area was divided industry in this vegetation zone, very little of into four cells comprising Cell A, Cell B, Cell the original forest remains and most of what C, and Cell D (Fig. 1). Each cell consists of is left is secondary forest. The size of trees a number of communities which also serves in the secondary forest depends on how long as the boundary of the cell. The boundary it has been abandoned by farmers for the of Cell A starts from Kwamoso, through to soils to recover (MEST, 2002). The principal Gyamfiase Adenya Junction, Gyamfiase soils, which cover nearly the whole area, are Adenya, Bewase and back to Kwamoso. forest Ochrosols, i.e. highly coloured soils. Cell B starts from Gyamfiase Adenya Junc- They develop over the same kinds of highly tion, through Mampong Nkwanta, Otwitiri, weathered parent materials. Under reduced Gyamfiase Adenya, and back to Gyamfiase amounts of rainfall, the Ochrosols are not Adenya Junction. Cell C starts from Gyam- as highly leached as Oxysols of rain for- fiase Adenya through Apenkwa, Asaasekok- ests, with the result that they contain greater oo, Bewase and back to Gyamfiase Adenya. quantities of nutrients and are generally al- Cell D starts from Gyamfiase Adenya, Ot- kaline. The soils support many tree crops witiri, Obom, Apenkwa and back to Gyam- including cocoa (Dickson & Benneh, 2004). fiase Adenya. In accordance with similar methods em- Data collection ployed by Bakang, Oduro & Nkyi (2004), in Focus group discussion (FGD) was used each of the four cells (A, B, C, D), ten 20 × to elicit information from selected commu- 20 m2 sample plots (each with ten 1m2 sub nity members comprising males and females or nested plots) were randomly sited and all 18 years and above in each of the three study the trees and shrubs present were identified areas: Gyamfiase (16 males, 15 females), and counted. Amanase (5 males, 14 females),and Sekesua In each 1m2 subplot, all non-tree and (4 males, 6 females). A total of 56 partici- shrub species, i.e. herbs and grasses were Vol. 56 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 29 also identified and counted. The utility value Table 1 or ethnobotany of each species encountered Results of attendance and participation in the focus group was also recorded with the assistance of par- discussion ticipating expert farmers. Location Males Females Total

Data analysis Gyamfiase 16(51.6%) 15(48.4%) 31% The collected plants species were iden- Sekesua 5(26.3%) 14(73.7%) 19% tified by plant ecologists from the Ghana Amanase 4(66.7%) 2(33.3%) 6% Herbarium, Department of Plant and Envi- respondents on the average (51.8%) than ronmental Biology, University of Ghana, males (48.2%). This, therefore, suggested Legon. All plant collections made were that the information provided captured more properly vouchered, with voucher herbari- of the female knowledge on environmental um specimens preserved at the Ghana Her- resources than the males. The major occu- barium. The bark of the stems of Mangifera pation of the participants in the focus group indica and Morinda lucida and the leaves discussion was mostly farming. of Lecaniodiscus cupanioides, Combretum mucronatum, Alchornea cordifolia, and Plant species diversity of the forest-savanna Lonchocarpus cyanescens were collected transitional zone and air-dried for about three weeks before Table 2 shows the number of species, they were pulverized into fine powder sepa- families and life forms found in the forest- rately. The data obtained were used to plot savanna transitional zone. species-area curves for the determination Natural dye plants species in the study area of the total number of species present in a Tables 3 and 4 show the natural dye plant cell, and also the frequencies and densities species used for food and clothing in com- of each of the species. The girth or circum- munities in the study area. ference at breast height of each tree species found in each sample plot was measured. Social and cultural uses of plant species in The availability or conservation status of the the study area species was also identified. Plant species in the study area served the following purposes: Medicinal, food colour, Results and Discussion Table 2 Demographic structure of communities Summary of plant species diversity at Gyamfiase-Adenya of There were 31 participants present at Gyam- the forest-Ssavanna transition zone fiase, 19 at Sekesua and 6 at Amanase. The No. of species No. of families No. of life ages of participants ranged between 18 and forms 70 years. Out of the 31 people present at Gyamfiase, 15 were females and 16 males. Cell A 89 42 4 Cell B 74 32 4 At Sekesua, there were 14 females and 5 Cell C 64 36 4 males. There were 2 females and 4 males at Cell D 69 38 4 Amanase (Table 1). There were more female Total 296 148 16 30 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Vol.56

Table 3 List of natural dye plant species used for colouring food for human consumption

S/N Scientific name Common/Local Life form Part used Purpose Locality available name

1 Mangifera indica L. Mango Tree Leaves, bark, Give cassava the Amanase, colour of plantain Gyamfiase 2 Alchornea cordifolia Christmas bush, Shrub Leaves Give cassava the Amanase Müll.Arg. ‘Agyama’ colour of plantain Gyamfiase Sekesua 3 Psidium guajava . L Guava Tree Leaves, bark, Give cassava the Gyamfiase, colour of cocoyam Amanase, Sekesua 4 Combretum ‘Nkanfohama’, Climber Leaves of the Give cassava the Gyamfiase, mucronatum ‘Duankanfo’, female species colour of cocoyam. Amanase. Schumach. & Thonn. Laga Sekesua 5 Combretum sp. ‘Ohwerem barima’ Climber Leaves, Give cassava the Amanase Hutch. colour of cocoyam. 6 Lecaniodiscus ‘Odwenyinaa’ Tree Leaves Give cassava the Gyamfiase cupanioides Planch. colour of cocoyam ex Benth. 7 Musa paradisiaca L. Plantain Shrub Dried peels, Give cassava the Gyamfiase, colour of plantain. Sekesua 8 Bambusa sp. Bamboo Woody Suckers, Give cassava the Gyamfiase McClure colour of plantain 9 Citrus sinensis Lemon Tree Leaves Give cassava a Sekesua (L.) Osbeck slight yellowish colour 10 Carica papaya L. Pawpaw Shrub Stem peel of the Give cassava the Amanase male species colour of cocoyam Gyamfiase

11 Morinda lucida Buronya dua Trees Bark Gives yellowish Gyamfiase Benth. colour to cloth

22 Lonchocarpus Aho Climber Young tender leaves Gives blue colour Gyamfiase cyanescens (Schum. and flowers to cloth and Thonn) Benth clothing colour, insecticide, traditional agro- the starch content and gluey nature of food, forestry, timber, spices, fauna feed, construc- for example in the cassava (fufu) (Table 3). tion, and fuel wood. Participants highlighted Respondents emphasised the use of dyes for some characteristics that accompanied the food colour and clothing. The use of dyes use of plant species as food dyes, change for clothing has been reported world wide in the presentation of the food, change in and especially in the use of Morinda species the colour of the food but no effect on the as dyes for clothing (Raja & Sujata, 2014). original taste of the food, and reduction in The use of plant materials as food colour for Vol. 56 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 31

Table 4 Cummulative number of species for Cell A

Plot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

New species 32 7 5 13 11 3 5 2 4 0 Cumm no. of species 32 39 44 57 68 71 76 78 82 82 garnishing is a common practice in most of that are deliberately left in situ on farms the communities. An example of this is in can combine well with crops in traditional the preparation of ‘waakye’ (rice and beans agro-forestry and enhance their growth and cooked together). In the preparation of this yield. Some of these include: Cola gigantea, food, sorghum leaves are cooked together Tetrapleura tetraptera, Milicia (Chloro- with the food to give it its characteristic phora) excelsa and Holarrhaena floribun- brick red colour. But sorghum is a plant of da. However, plant species such as Baphia the northern territories. The information on nitida and Alchornea cordifolia which were the use of some plant species as dye stuff also found in situ did not combine well with for food colour and clothing conforms to re- crops on farms. ports by other investigators (PROTA, 2006), The information provided by the farmers where Morinda lucida has been cited as a on specific standard trees that combine well source of dye for clothing. with crop to enhance both their vegetative However, the observation that Combretum growth and yield is similar to the informa- mucronatum (Table 3) is used as a food dye tion that has been provided in other studies has not been previously reported although (Asafo et al., 2004; Poku, 2004). Similar other species of Combretum (i.e. C. glutino- species of trees have also been cited by Nkyi sum) have been reported as a plant for tannin (1989). According to the participants, dyes production (PROTOA, 2006). Similarly the for clothing were generally scarce at Ama- use of other species such as Mangifera in- nase (FGD-Amanase, pers.com.2006) even dica (mango) has also been reported in other though Morinda lucida and Lonchocarpus studies (Morton, 1987). It was observed that cyanescens were named as plants that were the knowledge of food colouring was prac- used as cloth dyes in the area. For example, ticed by both males and females. when the bark of Morinda lucida is boiled Results and observations from interac- together with white cloth, a yellowish col- tions with the local people indicated that, our is obtained. The young tender leaves there were a number of tree species in the and flowers of Lonchocarpus cyanescens (a zone that are known to be as good as tim- climber), when pounded and soaked in a pot ber and are useful for making furniture, with a white cloth gives a blue colour after doors and railway sleepers. Examples of about 3 to 5 days. Harvesting techniques such species include Terminalia ivorensis, used by the community were found to be Piptadeniastrum africanum and Terminalia sustainable. superba. The farmers indicated that, plants 32 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Vol. 56

Sustainability and conservation to either the fallow or the farm with tree/ Findings from the study generally showed cash crops. that, the communities employed sustainable There was a steady increase in the cu- harvesting techniques in the harvesting of mulative number of species encountered as food colouring plants. According to the lo- the area sampled increased (Fig. 3). This cal people, harvesting of dye plants and the increased up to plot 10, where an estimated subsequent use for food colouring involves number of 70 species were encountered (Ta- the process of carefully breaking off a small ble 5) (Cell B). Although there was a tenden- branch of about 10-15 leaves so that the cy for the cumulative number of species en- shoots are not destroyed, and placing them countered to level off between plots nine and underneath a pot before filling with food 10, two new species had been encountered item of a sizeable meal and cooked together. in the 10th plot. The distribution of species This process is similar to that observed by according to land-use types in this cell in- Bukuluki et al. (2014) on harvesting prac- dicated that there were more species (39) tices of medicinal plants found in Uganda. found in the fallows than those in the farm with annual crop either as in monocropping Floral inventory or a mixed cropping system. In Cell B, no Flora were sampled in the four differ- farm with tree/cash crops was encountered ent cells (A, B, C and D) of the Gyamfiase- for sampling. Adenya demonstration site. There was an There was an increase in the cumulative increase in the cumulative number of spe- number of species encountered as the area cies encountered as the area sampled or sampled increased, and levelled off between the number of plots sampled increased, and sample plots nine and 10 where no new spe- levelled off between sample plots nine and cies were encountered (Fig. 4). This implied 10 where no new species were encountered that sampling was efficient and effective and (Fig. 2). This implied that sampling was effi- that the total number of species present in cient and effective, and that the total number Cell C can be estimated at 64 (Table 6). The of species present in cell A 90 can be estimated at 82 (Table 80 4). Three land use types were 70 sampled namely fallow, an- 60 nual crop farm, and tree/cash 50 crop farm. The distribution of 40 species according to land-use 30 types in this cell indicated that 20 there were more species (47 Cummulative no. of species 10 out of 82) found in the farms cummulative no. of species 0 with annual crops either as a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 monocrop or in a mixed crop- areaArea sampled sampled (no. (no. of 20 20m m × x20 20m m plots) plots) ping system, when compared Fig 2. Species-area curve for Cell A

Vol. 56 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 33

80 mixed cropping system when 70 compared to either the fallow or 60 the farm with tree/cash crops. 50 40 Floral inventory check on the 30 availability of plant resources in 20 the study area 10 The levelling-off of the spe- Cummulative no. of species

Cummulative no. of species 0 cies-area curve as noted for the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 different Cells following infor- AreaArea Sampled sampled (no.(no. of of 20 20m m × 20x 20m m plots) plots) mation obtained after the use Fig. 3. Species - area curve for Cell B of 10 samples plots in each Cell distribution of species according to land-use in the study is indicative of the effective- types indicated that there were less species ness and efficiency of the sampling meth- (29) found in the farms with annual crops ods used. This observation was confirmed either as a monocrop or in a mixed cropping by Asafo et al. (2004) in a previous study. system when compared to the fallows (35). The number of species observed in the vari- In Cell C, there was no farm with tree/cash ous cells (Cell A = 82, Cell B = 70, Cell C crops encountered for sampling. = 64 and Cell D = 61) and the frequencies It was realised that there was a steady in- and densities recorded were a true reflection crease in the cumulative number of species of each of the species encountered in each encountered as the number of plots sampled Cell. Ocimum basilicum (akokobesa) was increased (Fig. 5). This increase levelled identified by the participants to be readily off between plots eight and nine where no available in the study area, however, results new species were encountered, but in plot of the deliberate floral inventory suggested 10 where a matured fallow of about 7 years otherwise. Alchornea cordifolia was report- was encountered for sampling, two new spe- ed to be readily available during the focus cies were encoutered to give an estimated group discussion, but observations from the number of species present in Cell D as 61 deliberate field inventory indicated that it (Table 7). The distribution of species ac- occurred only in Cells A, B and C but not in cording to land use types indicate that there Cell D, and their frequencies (Cell A and C were more species (34) in the farms with an- = 10% , Cell B = 20% ) and densities (Cell nual crops either as a monocrop or in other A = 0.1, Cell B and C = 0.2) were also very

Table 5 Cummulative number of species for Cell B

Plot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

New species 20 16 4 3 4 5 7 8 1 2 Cumm. no. of species 20 36 40 43 47 52 59 67 68 70 34 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Vol. 56

70 confirmed the availability of 60 Morinda lucida in the study area. This was attributed to its 50 relatively high frequencies (Cell 40 A - 40, C B - 30, Cell C – 20, 30 Cell D - 40) even though rela- 20 tively low densities were observed (Cell A - 1.0, Cell B - Cummulative no. of species 10

cumulative no. of species 0.6, Cell C - 0.3, Cell D - 0.4). 0 The low densities observed im- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Area sampled (no. of 20 m × 20 m plots) plied a measured and sustainable Area sampled (no. of 20m x 20m plots) Fig. 4. Species-area curve for Cell C use of Morinda lucida in order to

Table 6 Cummulative number of species for Cell C

Plot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

New species 30 7 5 6 7 4 2 0 3 0 Cumm no. of species 30 37 42 48 55 59 61 61 64 64 low. Alchornea cordifolia, therefore, may avoid depletion despite its availability in the not be readily available in the study area as area. The observed frequencies and densities reported by the local people. of Combretum mucronatum recorded point- Mangifera indica (mango) was found in ed to its predominance in the fallow land-use only Cell B with a frequency and density of type but not in tree/cash crop farm land-use 10 per cent, and 0.1, respectively, in both types. The species may, thus, be adapted to the fallow and the annual crop farm land- that habitat with its peculiar micro-climate. use types. However, numerous mango trees This was confirmed by the information pro- were found during the traverse walks, an vided by the local people. indication that probably it was not a good Cell A recorded more plant species (82) agro-forestry tree and, hence, it is not left in than all the other Cells. Cell D on the other situ on farms. Lonchocarpus cyanenses was hand recorded more tree and shrub species reported by the local farmers at Gyamfiase- from both the sampled plots and the traverse Adenya as a cloth-dyeing plant, known to walks compared to Cell C, which contained impact blue colour to clothings. However, more fallow lands comprising predominant- this was not identified throughout the entire ly of grasses. Some of the different standard sampling in all the four Cells, except in one tree species recorded during rapid sampling farmer’s pen-house in Adenya, an indication through the study site (from Okuto-Aboabo, that the plant was scarce in the Gyamfiase close to the main Accra-Suhum road) in- –Adenya. cluded Albizia zygia, Holarrhaena floribun- The results and the field inventory both da, Spathodea campanulata, Bombax buo- Vol. 56 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 35

Table 7 Cummulative number of species for Cell D

Plot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

New species 25 9 11 5 3 3 3 0 0 2 Cumm no. of species 25 34 45 50 53 56 59 59 59 61

70 nopozense, Milicia excelsa, 60 Alchornea cordifolia, Dialum 50 guineesis and Lecaniodiscus 40 cupanioides were identified 30 during traverse walks/drives 20 from Sekesua to Adwenso, all 10 within the study area. Cumulative Cumulative no. of species Cummulative no. of species It was observed, gener- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ally along the various traverse AreaArea sampled sampled (no.(no. ofof 20 20m m × x20 20m m plots) plots) drives, that clearing and fell- ing of trees for farming pur- Fig.5 . Species-area curve for Cell D poses in the Amanase-Whana- nopozense, Milicia excelsa and Terminalia benya demonstration area was less rampant superba. compared to what existed in Gyamfiase- Observations from rapid sampling of a six Adenya and Sekesua-Osonson. This obser- acre cocoa agro-forestry farm in the study vation was also made in an earlier studies area revealed undergrowth that consisted during the United Nations Universities Peo- predominantly of regenerations of Mallotus ple Land-Use and Environmental Change oppositifolius. Other relatively larger trees project (UNU/PLEC) (Gyasi & Uitto, 1997). encountered on-farm included: Antiaris tox- icaria, Ceiba pentandra, Albizia zygia, Cola Conclusion and recommendations gigantea and Tetrapluera tetraptera, whilst Responses from participants clearly indicat- the smaller woody species identified in- ed a fairly balanced traditional knowledge cluded: Rauvolfia vomitoria, Baphia nitida, and awareness of forest plants (especially Baphia pubescens, Morinda lucida, Psidium dye plants and their uses) among both males guajava, Alchornea cordifolia and Lecanio- and females in the study area. The use of discus cupanioides. A number of woody spe- plant materials for food colouring, though cies including Cnestis ferruginea, Rauvolfia not commercialised in the area, was found vomitoria, Baphia nitida, Baphia pubescens, to be practiced by females who were mostly Ceiba pentandra, Albizia zygia, Cola gi- involved with the household cooking. The gantea, Tetrapluera tetraptera, Moringa sp, practice of food colouring was found to be Morinda lucida, Holarrhaena floribunda, common mostly when plantain and or co- Spathodea campanulata, Bombax buo- coyam were out of season. Harvesting of the 36 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Vol. 56 dye plants by the local people did not result The Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, UK. in the total destruction or posed threat to Anon. (2005) Special issue on traditional knowl- plant species diversity. Methods employed edge of North East India. Indian Journal of in the harvesting of the plant species for use Traditional Knowledge. 4(1), 10 – 20. appeared sustainable. Unlike the food col- Asafo, L., Laing, E., Enu-Kwesi, L. & Vord- zogbe, V. V. (2004) Preliminary observations ouring practice, the art and knowledge of on effects of traditional farming practices on cloth-dyeing was not common with the local growth and yield of crops. In Managing agro- communities. diversity the traditional way: Lessons from The following standard trees were found West Africa in sustainable use of biodiversity in-situ on farms in traditional agro-forestry: and related natural resources (G.Kranjac- Albizia zygia, Bombax buonopozense, Ceiba Berisavljevic, E. T. Blay and W. Oduro eds), pentandra, Cola gigantean, Morinda lu- pp. 165 – 176. United Nations University cida, Rauvolfia vomitoria and Terminalia Press . New York. ivorensis during the study. Data from the Bakang, J. A., Oduro, W. & Nkyi, K. A. (2004) field inventorying indicated that Morinda Resource access and distribution and the use- of land in Tano-Odumasi, Central Ghana. In lucida and Combretum mucronatum, were Managing agrodiversity the traditional way: readily available in the study area, an asser- Lessons from West Africa in sustainable. New tion that was made by participants at the fo- York use of biodiversity and related natural cus group discussion. Whereas Combretum resources (E. A. Gyasi, G. Kranjac-Berisav- mucronatum was readily available in the fal- ljevic, E. T. Blay. and W. Oduro eds). pp. 228 lows, Morinda lucida was found in each of – 240. United Nations University Press, New the three land-use types (farm with annual York. crops, fallow and tree crop farms). Bukuluki, P., Luwangula, R., Joshua, E. & It is recommended that, concerted efforts Walakira, E. J. (2014) Harvesting of medici- should be made by the communities with the nal plants in Uganda: Practices, conservation and implications for sustainability of supplies. support of their district assemblies to main- International Journal of Medicinal Plant Re- tain and further explore the use of more ef- search 3(1), 1 – 10. fective and sustainable methods of harvest- Dickson, B. K. & Benneh, G. (2004) A New Ge- ing of dye plant species, especially Morinda ography of Ghana. 5 edn. Longman Group, lucida and Combretum mucronatum, given UK Ltd, England, their availability and use. Further research Falconer, J. (1992) Non-timber forest products on Morinda lucida and Combretum mucro- in southern Ghana. Summary Report. Forest natum to determine the exact identities of Research Institute of Ghana, Accra. the naturally-occurring food colours and Gyasi, E. A., Kranjac-Berisavljeric, G., Blay, dyes for clothing is also suggested. E. T. & Oduro, W. 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