Planarian worms, shock generators and apathetic witnesses: Teaching psychology and graphic novels Paul A. Aleixo & Claire E. Norris

Comics and graphic novels have made a greater impact on popular culture in recent years and can be used for enhancing the learning experience of psychology students. One of the best known and respected comic book writers of the last 30 years is Alan Moore, who has included a number of detailed references to psychological studies and experiments in three of his best known comic book works. These are described in context and the psychological work they refer to examined with a view to using this material as starting points for the study of the psychological phenomena by students. Keywords: Comics; graphic novels; teaching; psychology; Alan Moore; Watchmen.

OMIC BOOKS have undergone a and rich quality that was arguably missing change of image in recent times. Their from the majority of Anglo-American comics. C‘re-branding’ as graphic novels has led Part of Moore’s success and popularity could to the acceptance of comics as a more legiti- lie in the cultural and literary references that mate art form worthy of academic study. The litter his work. He is clearly well read and recent creation of two academic journals informed on a variety of subjects. His work devoted to the study of comics suggests how references a number of topics including the far the medium has advanced from its occult and magic, Victorian fiction, environ- perception as a children’s reading material mental issues, political ideology, erotica, and that is worthy of little serious attention. comic book history. It is undoubtedly this Comics are also now a major influence level of detail that imbues an Alan Moore on popular culture, especially in Hollywood, story with a high level of interest and involve- where blockbuster movies of comic book ment. Moore has stated that he is interested characters attract large mainstream audi- in stories that have some sort of meaning ences that may never have experienced the attached to them and clearly referencing source material. This is one of the influences these different areas goes some way to that is likely to have contributed to the eleva- fulfilling this goal (Moore, 2003). tion of comics’ image since, as Gravett In several of Moore’s early works, specific (2009) has suggested, even poor film adapta- references are made to psychological studies tions of comics will bring new audiences to and ideas that are not very well known the originals. In addition, since the 1980s, outside of academic psychological circles. comics have also attracted more serious This suggests that Moore also has some fairly creators who want specifically to work in specialised knowledge of psychology and its comics. Successful screenwriters and novel- inclusion is interesting from an educational ists, for example, have written a number of point of view as it affords the opportunity to high profile comic book stories. However, introduce students of psychology to these within comics one writer’s name stands out, studies and be a launch pad for further that of Alan Moore. study. The incredible impact of Alan Moore’s The idea of using comic books to teach is work on the field of comic books and graphic not a new one. There have been various novels is difficult to overestimate. His scripts suggestions such as teaching science have brought to mainstream comics a literary (Cheesman, 2006) and history (Aiken,

36 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 © The British Psychological Society Graphic novels and psychology

2010). Indeed we have previously discussed the creators’ knowledge and interest in a how comics may help children to enjoy variety of different ideas and topics. He also reading (Aleixo & Norris, 2007) as well as notes that Alan Moore was more knowledge- investigating the possibilities of comics as able in many areas than many others. educational materials (Aleixo & Baillon, Although beyond the scope of the present 2008; Aleixo & Norris, 2010). text, it would be interesting to explore the However, the idea in the present article is origins of Moore’s knowledge of psychology to explore the possibilities of using Alan in more detail and the implications this has Moore’s works to help students study certain for the influence of psychological work on aspects of psychology. We aim to explore popular culture in the present day. Moore’s use of psychological research in three key texts (all readily available in Graphic Novel 1: V for Vendetta and reprint format), detail some of the research Obedience to Authority that is referenced and provide some sugges- Alan Moore first made his name as a comic tions as to how these may be used in a book writer in the British anthology comic teaching environment. Warrior. Moore wrote two strips: Marvelman (later published in the US as Miracleman) Alan Moore and Psychology and V for Vendetta. It is the latter that refer- In the three texts discussed herein, Moore ences experimental psychology. Written by uses real psychological work to create realistic- Moore and drawn by British artist David sounding backgrounds for his characters. It is, Lloyd and serialised in all 26 issues of Warrior therefore, interesting to speculate why Moore between 1982 and 1985, V for Vendetta is a has chosen academic research as a basis for complex political thriller set in a future his character’s origins. American super-hero where Britain is a fascist police state. The characters are often endowed with motivating strip garnered a number of awards within origins. For example, Batman is motivated by the comic book industry. It remained unfin- the death of his parents and a need for ished in Warrior and was completed by revenge against criminals, and Spider-Man is Moore and Lloyd and published by DC motivated by failing to act when he could have Comics in 1988 (see Gray, 2010, for a brief prevented the death of his beloved uncle. description of the strip’s history). V for Moore goes further and uses real evidence Vendetta deals with issues of anarchy and the and theories of human behaviour to motivate individual responsibility for the governance his characters. of a country, while still remaining an enter- There is evidence from early on in his taining melodrama. The narrative involves career that Moore clearly had (and indeed the character known only as ‘V’ and his may still have) an interest in psychological attack on the state. Near the beginning of work. In a short science-fiction story the story, V targets all those individuals who published in a December 1981 issue of the were involved in his earlier incarceration. classic British comic 2000AD, Moore refer- In Chapter 10 of book 1 (originally ences the ‘autokinetic effect’ as a way to make published in Warrior in 1983), V visits and a character sound very intelligent (Moore & kills Doctor Delia Surridge using a lethal Tiner, 1981). David Lloyd, artist on V for injection. This doctor had been responsible Vendetta and part of a group of influential for carrying out experiments on V and other comic book creators in the UK in the early inmates in a concentration camp several 1980s, suggests that there was a conscious years previously. Before she dies, she calmly effort by those creators to move away from attempts to explain the reasons for the what he calls, ‘the usual comic capers’ to horrific acts she committed. It is at this point produce stories that were drawn from real-life that Moore references psychological work to and that were a product of and influenced by provide this explanation:

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‘I heard of an experiment once, one the feedback condition). Colman (1987) Americans did. They had volunteers working a provides a good summary of both the history shock generator. The volunteers were told that it and the research in this area. was wired to a patient in an adjoining room… It wasn’t, there was only an actor, whose voice Graphic Novel 2: Swamp Thing and the could be heard through the intercom. The Biology of Memory volunteers were instructed by a doctor to start Alan Moore’s work for Warrior led to his first administering electric shocks. They were told to work in the US. This was to write the Saga of gradually increase the voltage. The ‘victim’ the Swamp Thing for DC Comics. Swamp began begging them to stop. They were told to Thing is not well known outside of comics increase it again. This time the victim started and was originally created by Len Wein and screaming. After a while the screams were Bernie Wrightson in 1971 as the main choked off to be replaced by silence. The protagonist of an on-going horror story. volunteers were told to increase the voltage once The basic premise of the character was that more… Nearly 80 per cent of those tested carried Dr Alec Holland was involved in an accident on administering the shocks after the ‘victim’ that turned him into a monster made of begged them to stop. Nearly 60 per cent vegetation. His early adventures featured his continued even after they believed that they’d quest to find a way to turn himself back into killed him. They were ordinary people and they a man and ran until 1976 when the comic were prepared to torture a stranger to death just was cancelled. The character was revived in because they were told to by someone in his own comic book series in the early 1980s authority.’ (Moore & Lloyd, 1988, p.15) to mixed success. By the time Alan Moore Moore is using psychological work in order took over the writing on the series, the basic to create a motivation for his character. He premise seemed to have run its course and uses the work to suggest that human beings sales were reportedly low. Moore’s solution can carry out despicable acts under the influ- to inject some interest in the character was to ence of someone in charge. The idea of the turn the concept of the Swamp Thing on its darker side of human behaviour is some- head – by using experimental psychology. In thing he returned to later in Watchmen. the landmark issue 21, The Anatomy Lesson (Moore’s second issue with a publication Stanley Milgram and the Studies on date of February 1984) Dr Jason Woodrue Obedience (a typical ‘scientist’ in comic book terms), The reference in V for Vendetta is to one of after examining the apparent corpse of the the most well known experiments in social Swamp Thing, comes to the conclusion that psychology. This is, of course, a reference to all that was known about the Swamp creature the famous series of studies by Stanley was wrong: Milgram, the American psychologist working ‘…You see, a while ago some people did an at Yale University, who used experimental experiment. They taught a planarian worm to methods to investigate the question of how run a simple maze. They educated it. Then they far ordinary individuals would go to harm chopped it up and fed its remains to a batch of another human being when directed to do planarian worms that couldn’t run the maze… so by an authority figure (e.g. Milgram, except that after digesting their educated 1974). comrade, the worms could run the maze These studies are extremely well known perfectly!’ (Moore, Bissette & Totleben, and their details will not be repeated here. 1984, p.10) Their basic format is, however, very well This is used to explain that the Swamp Thing described by Moore in V for Vendetta is not a man turned into a plant but instead (although he only sticks to one of Milgram’s that the memories and personality of Alec variations of the study – that of the voice- Holland were absorbed by the vegetation

38 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 Graphic novels and psychology and created a creature that thought it was physical and biochemical basis for learning. Alec Holland. In other words, researchers were interested In one fell-swoop, Moore (along with in the physical representation of learning in artists Stephen Bissette, John Totleben and the brain: for example, some thought that Rick Veitch amongst others) managed to learning represented a change in the change the entire direction of the Swamp connections between different areas of the Thing comic book and went on to write brain (e.g. Lashley, 1950). Thus, in one many more stories to critical and sales series of experiments, McConnell and his success. This also cemented Moore as one of colleagues used the incredible regenerative the best writers in the Anglo-American powers of planarian worms to examine how comic book industry. Moore went on to write learning would transfer once a worm was cut more comics for DC which included what is in half (McConnell, Jacobson & Kimble, argued to be one of the most important 1959). If planarian worms are cut in half, comics of the 20th century: Watchmen (more each piece will regenerate into a new indi- about this later). vidual animal; thus the question was: which piece would retain the learning? The Real planarian worm studies Amazingly, McConnell and his colleagues Unlike Milgram’s obedience studies, which found that the learning transferred to both led to a bestselling book and a documentary new animals. Furthermore, when the worms film, the studies that Moore refers to in were cut into three or more pieces, each Swamp Thing are not as well known in piece regenerated into a new worm which general academic psychology and thus are also retained the original learning. The worth summarising here. researchers, therefore, reasoned that there In a study published in 1955, PhD must be some chemical affected by the students James McConnell and Robert learning which was distributed throughout Thompson investigated the possibility of the animal which was transferred to the new conditioning invertebrates using techniques parts of the regenerated creatures. It was and principles developed by behavioural postulated that this chemical could be RNA psychologists using animals with more (which is closely associated with DNA). complex central nervous systems (usually Following this train of thought, in a mammals and birds). They developed a tech- subsequent experiment, McConnell (1962) nique that attempted to teach planarian tried to transfer the learning from trained worms simple conditioning responses. planarian worms into naïve ones. Initially, he Contrary to Moore’s description and Bissette attempted to inject ground up pieces of and Totleben’s accompanying artwork, trained worms but this proved unsuccessful. however, they did not teach planarian worms Instead, he found that hand feeding small to ‘run a simple maze’. Instead, they tried to pieces of trained animals to untrained teach the planarians to associate a light with worms produced the required transfer of an electric shock whilst they were moving learning. So McConnell had shown that the along at the bottom of a trough-like chemicals that were affected by learning had aquarium (Thompson & McConnell, 1955). been transferred to naïve animals through This work seemingly answered an impor- cannibalism. tant question in psychology – that inverte- However, despite this apparent success, brates could be conditioned along similar McConnell was not without his critics. Many lines to vertebrates. After this initial work, were sceptical about conditioning in inverte- McConnell (along with others) continued to brates and he was criticised for his method. explore learning in planarian worms. The Particular criticism came in the form of most pressing interest in the physiology of potential experimenter bias in terms of learning at the time was concerned with the deciding whether each individual planarian

Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 39 Paul A. Aleixo & Claire E. Norris worm had actually learned the avoidance 1986, Watchmen represents the creators’ de- response (by, for example, turning round). construction of the super-hero genre Clearly, it is difficult to visually detect wrapped up in a who-dunnit detective story. changes in a planarian worm’s behaviour. In it, Moore and Gibbons create super-hero Despite making changes to his method- prototypes that they explore in a modern ology in subsequent experiments, context. In essence, Watchmen asks the McConnell was never truly able to shake off question: What if super-heroes really existed? his critics, especially given that other Unusually for Moore, Watchmen is firmly researchers were unable to replicate rooted in the era in which it was written McConnell’s findings. These criticisms were given that the plot relies on the preoccupa- compounded by McConnell’s standing in tions of the Cold War. the academic community. He was also criti- One of the most popular characters in cised for making wild claims in the media Watchmen is Rorschach, named after Herman about the transfer of memory. McConnell Rorschach’s inkblot test. Based on The gave interviews and wrote many articles in Question and Mister A (Kavanagh, 2000), both popular magazines such as Esquire created by Steve Ditko (the co-creator and (McConnell, 1968); Psychology Today original artist of Spider-Man), Rorschach is (McConnell, 1970) and Fanfare (McConnell, Moore’s version of an extreme vigilante who 1987). In these, he made claims about the uses violence and intimidation to fight possible extensions of the planarian memory crime. This type of super-hero character transfer studies for which he had no direct became extremely popular in the 1980s and evidence. For example, he helped to popu- Moore created a realistic justification for larise the idea that the day would come when Rorschach’s behaviour. learning would be in tablet form. For character motivation, Moore once In a review of McConnell’s work, Rilling again looked to psychology. However, this (1996), whilst arguing that McConnell time, rather than refer to a psychological should be given credit for his pioneering experiment, he refers to a case-study that led invertebrate conditioning work, presents to the investigation and description of a McConnell as a ‘maverick’ who dabbled in social psychological phenomenon. In the 1960’s counter-culture. He wrote several chapter VI of Watchmen, Rorschach (real science fiction stories and founded his name Walter Kovacs), who has been own journal-come-humour magazine called captured by the authorities, is interviewed by The Worm Runner’s Digest. a psychiatrist. On page 10, Kovacs explains It is, of course, McConnell’s work on his motivations for becoming the vigilante: cannibalism in planarians that Moore refer- ‘Kitty Genovese. Raped. Tortured. Killed. Here. enced in the Swamp Thing story. In New York. Outside her own apartment building. Almost forty neighbours heard screams. Graphic Novel 3: Watchmen and Nobody did anything. Nobody called cops. Some Bystander Apathy of them even watched. Do you understand? Some Watchmen is generally accepted to be one of of them even watched. I knew what people were, the most important comics/graphic novels then, behind all the evasions, all the self- of the 20th century. It was named as one of deception. Ashamed for humanity, I went home.’ Time Magazine’s 100 best English-Language (Moore & Gibbons, 1987, p.10) novels since 1923 – the only comic book/ graphic novel on the list and it was also the The Kitty Genovese murder and winner of The Hugo Award in 1988 from the Bystander apathy World Science Fiction Society. The case of Kiity Genovese, who was sexually Written by Moore and drawn by British assaulted and murdered on the 13 March artist Dave Gibbons and first published in 1964 in Queen’s, New York, is well known to

40 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 Graphic novels and psychology most psychologists. The case is also known to It is not our intention to be prescriptive have inspired the work on ‘bystander apathy’ or indeed exhaustive in our suggestions for by Bibb Latané and John Darley, where an the use of this material in teaching. As individual is more likely to intervene in a William James put it, ‘Psychology is a science, situation where another needs help when and teaching is an art; and sciences never that individual is alone than when others are generate arts directly out of themselves. An also present (e.g. Darley & Latané, 1968; intermediary inventive mind must make the Latané & Darley, 1968, 1970; Latané, 1981). application, by using its originality’ (James, However, the details of the case of Kitty 1899, p.23). Genovese have since been re-examined and We are, therefore, only making sugges- are worth briefly outlining here (see tions that may be used or adapted for indi- Manning, Levine & Collins, 2007). vidual teaching purposes. The case was reported in an article in the New York Times by Martin Gansberg on Example 1: Using the graphic novels to 27 March (Gansberg, 1964) and subse- stimulate discussion quently in a book by A.M. Rosenthal, The The graphic novel examples outlined above Thirty Eight Witnesses (Rosenthal, 1964). They could be used as source material for a small explained how Kitty Genovese was murdered group discussion. For example, students in front of 38 witnesses who did not inter- could be asked to read the source graphic vene, even to the extent to failing to call the novel and suitable academic references as police. The murderer took over 30 minutes preparation for small group work. During to commit the crime during which he the session, students could address the returned several times. These reports of the following questions: case sent ripples of shock around the world. 1. How accurate is Moore’s portrayal of the In recent years, since the publication of relevant studies? Moore’s work, the Kitty Genovese murder 2. What do you think are the reasons why has been re-evaluated. Manning, Levine and Moore’s descriptions differ from the real Collins (2007), looking at transcripts of the work? trial of Genovese’s murderer, showed that 3. How do the psychological studies inform there is actually little evidence for the idea real life? that 38 witnesses observed the murder over a 4. Are Moore’s use of the studies in fiction 30-minute period without helping. In fact, justified? they found that several witnesses called the police and that some even shouted at the Example 2: Using graphic novels to murderer from their apartments which encourage research skills caused him to leave the scene temporarily. Another way to use these sources is to Furthermore, they showed that the evidence provide students with them and ask them to suggests that the murder was not committed explore the actual research. At introductory in full view of all those 38 people. This, levels, V for Vendetta and Milgram’s work on however, does not detract from the robust- obedience would be appropriate as this ness of the bystander apathy findings. material is quite straightforward. For more advanced work the less well known work of Using the graphic novels in teaching McConnell would be more appropriate, as The three examples described here can be would be the more complex area of used as stimulus materials (either separately bystander apathy and the veracity of the Kitty or in combination) for teaching the psycho- Genovese case. logical concepts covered in them to under- The idea here would be to ask students to graduate students (and possibly A-level act as ‘detectives’ attempting to discover students). what the reference in the graphic novel

Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 19 No. 1, Spring 2013 41 Paul A. Aleixo & Claire E. Norris refers to and to produce either written or by others. It is also of note that two of summaries with correct references or instead these stories (V for Vendetta and Watchmen) to discuss it in small group work. have resulted in big budget Hollywood One such issue that could be explored movies. However, whilst being seen as would be the extent to which Moore’s justifi- faithful re-creations of the comic book mate- cations for the character’s behaviour be rial (although without any involvement from upheld upon examining the actual research Moore) and indeed the Watchmen movie in greater depth. script containing lines identical to those that appear in the graphic novel, neither movie Example 3: The graphic novels as the references the relevant psychological impact of psychology on popular studies. It would appear that either these are culture not considered interesting enough for a For more advanced students, the graphic movie-going audience or perhaps it is consid- novels could be used as a source for course- ered that these kinds of motivations for work on how psychology has influenced super-hero characters are not required or popular culture and possibly to investigate easily portrayed, in the film medium. There- other popular culture sources that may fore, the use of the films in a teaching either reference or rely on psychological context is less useful in this regard. work. Another suggestion is to explore the It is worth noting that it is extremely impact of psychological findings upon the interesting to see information such as obedi- general public in more recent years using ence to authority and bystander apathy Moore’s graphic novels as a springboard. (including the use of the Kitty Genovese case Allied to this, there is the more philosoph- as demonstration of bystander apathy) which ical concept of the popularisation of are taught in undergraduate psychology psychology and the responsibility that degrees and indeed the less well known researchers have in the way material is research on conditioning in planarian presented to the media which is particularly worms presented within popular culture relevant to the work and life of James which provides exposure to this information McConnell. This could also form part of a in an extremely accessible manner. discussion in a course on conceptual or philosophical issues in psychology. Acknowledgement Grateful thanks to David Lloyd for his Final words helpful comments. We have shown how Alan Moore’s references to real world psychological investigations can The Authors be used as a launch pad for teaching Paul Aleixo PhD FHEA, is a senior lecturer students of psychology some important in Psychology at De Montfort University in psychological research and go on to explore the UK and is the writer of the comic book the history of the science and the issues that textbook Biological Psychology: An Illustrated the studies raise. It is noteworthy that the Survival Guide published by John Wiley and medium of comics is primarily consumed by Sons. This is a textbook aimed at intro- approximately 14- to 25-year-olds and as such ducing biological psychology to undergrad- means that the graphic novel material would uate psychology students. be especially useful in engaging traditional undergraduate students. Claire Norris PhD, is an academic who spent It is interesting to speculate on the many years in higher education teaching reasons for Moore’s interest in psychology and researching in developmental although there appears to be little explo- psychology prior to becoming a freelance ration of these either by the author himself writer.

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Both writers have taught and researched in Correspondence the Psychology of Education and published a Dr P.A. Aleixo number of papers on the use of comic books Senior Lecturer, in educational settings as well as other areas Division of Psychology, of psychology and education including De Montfort University, ability grouping and school discipline. The Gateway, Leicester LE7 9BH. Email: [email protected]

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