Nanos in the Human Body – Medical Perspectives and Ethical Concerns

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Nanos in the Human Body – Medical Perspectives and Ethical Concerns 36 Autumn-winter 2009/HesaMag #01 Special report 25/30 Nanos in the human body – Medical perspectives and ethical concerns Healthcare is a priority focus of nanotechnology research, where the convergence of nanosciences, molecular and cell biology, and medicine can act to deliver improvements in human health and quality of life. It is an appealing prospect; but as with any new technology, there are both ethical and health and safety issues to be addressed, especially where applications in human bodies are concerned. Aída Maria Ponce Del Castillo ETUI Researcher Nanotechnologies can be seen as a Other developments are the generation “tool-kit” that enables different life sciences of nanomaterials that could be applied to im- to work together to produce new tools for di- prove tissue regeneration, like restoring car- agnosis and treatments. tilage function to overcome arthritis, in vitro Advances in nanotechnology harbour engineered organ patches or biomaterials for many potential uses in medicine. They will in situ regeneration of bones. Nanotechnol- help increase our understanding of the hu- ogy could also help in the fight against cancer, 1. National Nanotechnology man body, its mechanisms and diseases, and by developing nanomaterial systems to attack Initiative 2003, how to restore it to health. and destroy tumours. Workshop Report on One possible application will be to cus- Their multiple properties give nanoma- Nanobiotechnology, tomise medical treatment through personal- terials a wide spectrum of medical uses; some Virginia, p. 39. Liposomes for drug delivery ised medicine delivery, where patients will have a biocidal activity used in self-cleaning in some cases of cancer be given the precise, controlled dose of their surfaces. Recent research has investigated the therapy; nano-magnetic 2 specific medication at the right time. Nan- properties of fullerene compounds as antivi- particles for magnetic otechnologies will enable the development ral agents to eliminate pathogens and bacteria resonance imaging and of nanostructures to deliver drug molecules in place of long-term antibiotic treatments3. nanomaterials for void filler directly into the cells. Nanoparticles can act Nano-tool kits are also being developed and dental restoration have as drug-carriers or Trojan horses by encap- that will use nano-robots to monitor health been recently approved sulating the medication, travelling around inside a patient or to act at the sub-cellular in the USA. Engineering and Physical Sciences the body indiscriminately and delivering the level where a disease occurs. Nano-robots Research Council 2008, medication to the patient at the molecule lev- could be introduced through the vascular sys- Nanotechnology for el at the required dose when it is needed1. tem, and could be programmed and guided Healthcare, p. 3. by a surgeon to identify the molecular origins of severe diseases like Alzheimer’s or Parkin- 2. Fullerene is one of the son’s, or to perform intra-cellular surgery4. four types of naturally- Behind this ostensibly rosy prospect, occurring forms of carbon. Its architectural structure however, loom ethical and health and safety Nanotechnology could resembles a football, or the issues that any new technology raises, and geodesic domes designed also help in the fight which must be addressed to make a reasoned by the architect and assessment of what is in view. philosopher R. Buckminster against cancer, by On ethical aspects, there is a wide-rang- Fuller; C60 is the most ing discussion of the potential risks of nano- common, and consists of 60 developing nanomaterial materials and nanotechnologies for humans, carbon atoms. Fullerenes as little is still known about how they interact were discovered as recently as 1985, and their most with the human body in terms of toxicity and systems to attack and striking properties ― high carcinogenicity. This lack of knowledge is one symmetry, stability and destroy tumours. reason why specific regulations are needed to versatility ― give them a control the use of nanotechnologies. wide range of applications. 37 Autumn-winter 2009/HesaMag #01 Special report 26/30 What is a nano-device? Very tiny objects could be manufactured and inserted in the organs of the body for a specific purpose. They are small enough to enter the body, travel around, enter the cells and interact with DNA and proteins. Some examples of nano-devices or nano-implants are the so-called smart pills, organ replace- ments, neural interfaces, and brain implants. They would offer a good way to treat neurological dysfunctions, cancers and other diseases and disabilities. Nano-devices might help to cure some diseases or deliver treatments; they could provide drug delivery, photodynamic therapy, or read the genetic code and detect errors. Other examples are titanium-bases micro-needles to control drug delivery, carbon nanotubes that trace the shape of the DNA and make a map, and quantum dots as sensors. Their ability to penetrate cell membranes allows some nanoparticles to enter the human body, travel easily through the bloodstream and deposit in organs. Skin, lungs and the in- testine are likely to be the first entry route for such nanomaterials into the human body. Nano-applications, by contrast, are tiny devices deliberately inserted into the human body as a tool for tracking, diagnosis or treat- ment delivery without handling or exposure Nanomedicine opens up of the patient. untold prospects, but A big aim is to develop a single, multi- at what price for the integrity of humankind, purpose nano-device that will be able to as- personal free agency sist in imaging inside the body, recognize pre- and respect for privacy? Image: © Belga, NSP cancerous or cancerous cells, release a drug that targets only those cells, and report back on the effectiveness of the treatment. Nano-applications in humans should There are two key considerations when deliver a better quality of life and health, but implementing nano-devices. One relates to there are inherent risks in the development of the individual or patient who must specifical- any new technology. The ethical issues must ly consent to having the device implanted in be considered to gain a more rounded view of their body. The other is how the nano-device what the consequences might be, and how so- itself reacts once in the organism, its effects ciety can respond to them. Ethical concerns and safety. have been raised in the sphere of health care For the individual, the risks and adverse in relation to implanting nano-devices and outcomes of agreeing to a nano-implant raise the possibility for human enhancement of- issues of autonomy – control over one’s body fered by the use of nanotechnologies. – privacy, data protection, and informed con- 3. Freitas, RA 2005, sent. It also has wider societal implications, What is nanomedicine? Nano-implants in the human body raising questions of prudence and distribu- Nanomedicine: Nanotech. tive justice. Biol. Med. 1, p. 2-9. Nanotechnology could change the face On the technical side, the small size and of medical implants by allowing miniature complexity of nano-devices means that their 4. Freitas, RA 2005, devices to be further reduced in size and in- behaviour inside the human body may be Nanotechnology, serted in the human body to cure and repair unpredictable and uncontrollable, having un- nanomedicine and nanosurgery, International damaged cells using nano-materials that known effects that could cause a health prob- Journal of Surgery, Vol. 3, have improved biocompatibility and physi- lem. Future nanomaterials used in biomedical Issue 4, p. 243-246. ological integration with human tissue. applications must be biologically compatible, 38 Autumn-winter 2009/HesaMag #01 Special report 27/30 Lab-on-a-chip inside battle suits soldiers exposed to toxic agents and biological hazards by sampling one of their cells. The results Battlefield hospitals are not easily come by, so the can be available within 10 minutes. Institute for Soldiers Technologies based in Massa- chusetts, USA, is researching ways of improving the Another battle suit project is nano-enabled survival of soldiers in combat. Its exploration of the material and devices to far-forward medical treat- use of nanomaterials, has led it to develop laborato- ment and drug delivery, like splinting wounds ries on chips that will be fitted into battle suits. or preventing adverse movements after head or neck injury, and materials and devices to enable This lab-on-a-chip consists of nano-devices that controlled release of medication. carry out rapid, real-time medical monitoring of 5. Harris, J 2007, ment or any technology with health benefits Enhancing Evolution. The ethical case of making until we are in the position to provide equita- better people, Oxfordshire, ble and universal access. The more beneficial Princeton University Press. the technology, whether it be therapeutic or Professor John Harris, enhancing, the greater moral imperative for British philosopher at the wide and equitable access"5. The complexity University of Manchester, of the issue, however, lies in ensuring safety defends a libertarian (of treatments and effects) and universal ac- position on bioethical issues. cess, among other matters that must be ad- dressed in order to justify enhancements. Human enhancement means the aug- mentation, improvement, enrichment or addition of human functions, sensorial per- formances (physical and performance excel- as well as functional within biological fluids tions about health, life
Recommended publications
  • Distance Learning Program Anatomy of the Human Brain/Sheep Brain Dissection
    Distance Learning Program Anatomy of the Human Brain/Sheep Brain Dissection This guide is for middle and high school students participating in AIMS Anatomy of the Human Brain and Sheep Brain Dissections. Programs will be presented by an AIMS Anatomy Specialist. In this activity students will become more familiar with the anatomical structures of the human brain by observing, studying, and examining human specimens. The primary focus is on the anatomy, function, and pathology. Those students participating in Sheep Brain Dissections will have the opportunity to dissect and compare anatomical structures. At the end of this document, you will find anatomical diagrams, vocabulary review, and pre/post tests for your students. The following topics will be covered: 1. The neurons and supporting cells of the nervous system 2. Organization of the nervous system (the central and peripheral nervous systems) 4. Protective coverings of the brain 5. Brain Anatomy, including cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum and brain stem 6. Spinal Cord Anatomy 7. Cranial and spinal nerves Objectives: The student will be able to: 1. Define the selected terms associated with the human brain and spinal cord; 2. Identify the protective structures of the brain; 3. Identify the four lobes of the brain; 4. Explain the correlation between brain surface area, structure and brain function. 5. Discuss common neurological disorders and treatments. 6. Describe the effects of drug and alcohol on the brain. 7. Correctly label a diagram of the human brain National Science Education
    [Show full text]
  • Human Microbiome: Your Body Is an Ecosystem
    Human Microbiome: Your Body Is an Ecosystem This StepRead is based on an article provided by the American Museum of Natural History. What Is an Ecosystem? An ecosystem is a community of living things. The living things in an ecosystem interact with each other and with the non-living things around them. One example of an ecosystem is a forest. Every forest has a mix of living things, like plants and animals, and non-living things, like air, sunlight, rocks, and water. The mix of living and non-living things in each forest is unique. It is different from the mix of living and non-living things in any other ecosystem. You Are an Ecosystem The human body is also an ecosystem. There are trillions tiny organisms living in and on it. These organisms are known as microbes and include bacteria, viruses, and fungi. There are more of them living on just your skin right now than there are people on Earth. And there are a thousand times more than that in your gut! All the microbes in and on the human body form communities. The human body is an ecosystem. It is home to trillions of microbes. These communities are part of the ecosystem of the human Photo Credit: Gaby D’Alessandro/AMNH body. Together, all of these communities are known as the human microbiome. No two human microbiomes are the same. Because of this, you are a unique ecosystem. There is no other ecosystem like your body. Humans & Microbes Microbes have been around for more than 3.5 billion years.
    [Show full text]
  • Study Guide Medical Terminology by Thea Liza Batan About the Author
    Study Guide Medical Terminology By Thea Liza Batan About the Author Thea Liza Batan earned a Master of Science in Nursing Administration in 2007 from Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio. She has worked as a staff nurse, nurse instructor, and level department head. She currently works as a simulation coordinator and a free- lance writer specializing in nursing and healthcare. All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text shouldn’t be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. Copyright © 2017 by Penn Foster, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner. Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton, Pennsylvania 18515. Printed in the United States of America CONTENTS INSTRUCTIONS 1 READING ASSIGNMENTS 3 LESSON 1: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY 5 LESSON 2: DIAGNOSIS, INTERVENTION, AND HUMAN BODY TERMS 28 LESSON 3: MUSCULOSKELETAL, CIRCULATORY, AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM TERMS 44 LESSON 4: DIGESTIVE, URINARY, AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM TERMS 69 LESSON 5: INTEGUMENTARY, NERVOUS, AND ENDOCRINE S YSTEM TERMS 96 SELF-CHECK ANSWERS 134 © PENN FOSTER, INC. 2017 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY PAGE III Contents INSTRUCTIONS INTRODUCTION Welcome to your course on medical terminology. You’re taking this course because you’re most likely interested in pursuing a health and science career, which entails ­proficiency­in­communicating­with­healthcare­professionals­such­as­physicians,­nurses,­ or dentists.
    [Show full text]
  • Neuroscience
    NEUROSCIENCE SCIENCE OF THE BRAIN AN INTRODUCTION FOR YOUNG STUDENTS British Neuroscience Association European Dana Alliance for the Brain Neuroscience: the Science of the Brain 1 The Nervous System P2 2 Neurons and the Action Potential P4 3 Chemical Messengers P7 4 Drugs and the Brain P9 5 Touch and Pain P11 6 Vision P14 Inside our heads, weighing about 1.5 kg, is an astonishing living organ consisting of 7 Movement P19 billions of tiny cells. It enables us to sense the world around us, to think and to talk. The human brain is the most complex organ of the body, and arguably the most 8 The Developing P22 complex thing on earth. This booklet is an introduction for young students. Nervous System In this booklet, we describe what we know about how the brain works and how much 9 Dyslexia P25 there still is to learn. Its study involves scientists and medical doctors from many disciplines, ranging from molecular biology through to experimental psychology, as well as the disciplines of anatomy, physiology and pharmacology. Their shared 10 Plasticity P27 interest has led to a new discipline called neuroscience - the science of the brain. 11 Learning and Memory P30 The brain described in our booklet can do a lot but not everything. It has nerve cells - its building blocks - and these are connected together in networks. These 12 Stress P35 networks are in a constant state of electrical and chemical activity. The brain we describe can see and feel. It can sense pain and its chemical tricks help control the uncomfortable effects of pain.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Anatomy and Physiology
    LECTURE NOTES For Nursing Students Human Anatomy and Physiology Nega Assefa Alemaya University Yosief Tsige Jimma University In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education 2003 Funded under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. 663-A-00-00-0358-00. Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education. Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this publication for educational, not-for-profit use by health care workers, students or faculty. All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the original document. Under no circumstances is it permissible to sell or distribute on a commercial basis, or to claim authorship of, copies of material reproduced from this publication. ©2003 by Nega Assefa and Yosief Tsige All rights reserved. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the author or authors. This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or students and faculty in a health care field. Human Anatomy and Physiology Preface There is a shortage in Ethiopia of teaching / learning material in the area of anatomy and physicalogy for nurses. The Carter Center EPHTI appreciating the problem and promoted the development of this lecture note that could help both the teachers and students.
    [Show full text]
  • The Human Body Is Like a Complex Machine, with Many Little Parts That Work by Themselves Or with Other Parts to Perform Specific Functions
    Have you ever wondered about how the human body works? The human body is like a complex machine, with many little parts that work by themselves or with other parts to perform specific functions. Sometimes, it seems like our body has a mind of its own and it embarrasses you. Have you ever passed gas accidentally when other people were around? In most cases, the things that your body does are normal, but it’s important to know your body so you can recognize what is normal body behavior and what is not. If there is a problem with how your body works, by recognizing that there is a problem, you can take steps to fix it or get help. To understand how the body works, it helps to understand how the body is organized. The smallest living unit in any organism is a cell and the human body is made up of trillions of them. That is more than 1,000,000,000,000 cells! Cells are so small you cannot see them without a microscope. Cells are important for many reasons. They produce the energy in your body to do daily activities, or hold the coded instructions for everything from the color of your hair to whether you have freckles or not. Cells differentiate from each other to perform different, important tasks within the body. For example, some cells might become brain cells while others make bone, and red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body, while white blood cells fight infection. When a group of cells work together to perform ?a specific function, they are called tissue.
    [Show full text]
  • Grade 6: the Heart and Circulatory System Lesson 1: the Heart Lesson 2: the Heart Rate Lesson 3: the Circulatory System and Blood
    Grade 6: The Heart and Circulatory System Lesson 1: The Heart Lesson 2: The Heart Rate Lesson 3: The Circulatory System and Blood Objectives: 1. Students will identify the four chambers of the heart 2. Students will identify four important structures of the Circulatory System and what they do. 3. Students will explain heart rate and be able to take their resting and active heart rates. 4. Students will describe the major functions of the Circulatory System. 5. Students will explain the role of the heart in circulation 6. Students will give a basic explanation of the cardio-pulmonary sequence. 7. Students will describe systemic circulation. Materials: Lesson 1: • Animal heart (Example: cow, pig, sheep) • Note cards • Picture of the heart (See Figure 1) • Dissection tools (Scissors, pan, etc.) Lesson 2: • Small drum • Watch or clock with second hand, or time • Optional: Stethoscope Lesson 3: • Corn Syrup • Plastic Beads: flat red disks, white ovals, green or blue seed beads • “Explain” experiment (per group): o Two small balloons or large finger cots o One clear tube (1/2” diameter) about 8” long o One clear tube (3/4” diameter) about 8” long o 16 - 20 oz. water o Red food coloring o Measuring cup o Funnel o Two empty plastic containers (such as cottage cheese or yogurt cartons) Activity Summary: In this lesson students will learn the basic functioning of the heart, Circulatory System and blood, the connection to lung functioning, and the activity of the Grade 6: The Heart & Circulatory System – Revised 2008 Page 1 Circulatory System in the body.
    [Show full text]
  • SAY: Welcome to Module 1: Anatomy & Physiology of the Brain. This
    12/19/2018 11:00 AM FOUNDATIONAL LEARNING SYSTEM 092892-181219 © Johnson & Johnson Servicesv Inc. 2018 All rights reserved. 1 SAY: Welcome to Module 1: Anatomy & Physiology of the Brain. This module will strengthen your understanding of basic neuroanatomy, neurovasculature, and functional roles of specific brain regions. 1 12/19/2018 11:00 AM Lesson 1: Introduction to the Brain The brain is a dense organ with various functional units. Understanding the anatomy of the brain can be aided by looking at it from different organizational layers. In this lesson, we’ll discuss the principle brain regions, layers of the brain, and lobes of the brain, as well as common terms used to orient neuroanatomical discussions. 2 SAY: The brain is a dense organ with various functional units. Understanding the anatomy of the brain can be aided by looking at it from different organizational layers. (Purves 2012/p717/para1) In this lesson, we’ll explore these organizational layers by discussing the principle brain regions, layers of the brain, and lobes of the brain. We’ll also discuss the terms used by scientists and healthcare providers to orient neuroanatomical discussions. 2 12/19/2018 11:00 AM Lesson 1: Learning Objectives • Define terms used to specify neuroanatomical locations • Recall the 4 principle regions of the brain • Identify the 3 layers of the brain and their relative location • Match each of the 4 lobes of the brain with their respective functions 3 SAY: Please take a moment to review the learning objectives for this lesson. 3 12/19/2018 11:00 AM Directional Terms Used in Anatomy 4 SAY: Specific directional terms are used when specifying the location of a structure or area of the brain.
    [Show full text]
  • The Human Body Book
    By Helen and Mark Warner www.teachingpacks.co.uk © Teaching Packs - The Human Body - Page 1 Image © ThinkStock Thank you for downloading this e-book from Teaching Packs. We hope that it, along with the accompanying resources, are useful to you and the children that you teach. Please be aware of the following information before using this book. Please DO: * Print and copy this book (on paper or electronically), so that you can use it with the children that you teach. * Tell others if you have found it useful. * Email [email protected] if you have any suggestions, or find any mistakes, so that we can continue to improve the book in the future. Please DO NOT: * Copy or share this book (in part or whole) with others who have not joined our site. By becoming a member for themselves, they will help us to continue making more fantastic resources for everyone in the future. Thank you, Mark and Helen Warner © Teaching Packs - The Human Body - Page 2 Introduction The Skin 4 Why is skin so important? 23 The Skeleton The Eyes What does the skeleton do? 6 How do we see? 26 The Muscles The Ears Why do we have muscles? 10 How do we hear? 28 The Lungs The Nose and Mouth How do we breathe? 13 How do we smell and taste? 31 The Heart The Nervous System How does blood move around the body? 16 What are nerves for? 35 The Digestive System The Immune System How does the body break down food? 19 How do we protect ourselves against infection? 37 The Kidneys Staying Healthy How does the body get rid of waste? 21 Why are diet and exercise so important? 40 All the underlined words in this book can be found in the glossary (on page 43).
    [Show full text]
  • Biology C - Circulation
    Unit: Biology C - Circulation LESSON 1.1 - AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Overview: Students will read about the circulatory system and answer probing questions to test their understanding. Suggested Timeline: 1.5 hours Materials: An Introduction to the Circulatory System (Student Handout) Teacher access to computer, projector and the Internet QUIZ – An Introduction to the Circulatory System (Student Handout) Method: INDIVIDUAL FORMAT: 1. Have students complete their vocabulary list, reading and questions on ‘An Introduction to the Circulatory System’ (Student Handout). 2. Set a date for the quiz on the material (‘QUIZ – An Introduction to the Circulatory System’ – Student Handout). GROUP FORMAT: 1. Introduce the circulatory system by showing students the following online video clip: http://pennhealth.com/health_info/animationplayer/cardiac_system.html 2. Have students complete their vocabulary list, reading and questions on ‘An introduction to the Circulatory System’ (Student Handout). 3. Set a date for the quiz on the material (‘QUIZ – An Introduction to the Circulatory System’ – Student Handout). Assessment and Evaluation: Assessment of student’s understanding of material through review of questions Student grade on quiz Science 21 Bio C - Circulation B46 Unit: Biology C - Circulation Student Handout AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM VOCABULARY blood vessel - arteries – veins – capillaries – blood – plasma – white blood cells – red blood cells – platelets – WHAT IS CIRCULATION? What messenger makes trillions of stops in just thirty seconds? Your blood! In just under thirty seconds, your blood moves (circulates) through your entire body. It reaches every one of your trillions of cells. Blood carries things to each cell that are needed. These things include oxygen and nutrients.
    [Show full text]
  • The Digestive and Endocrine Systems Examination
    The Digestive and Lesson 3 Endocrine Systems Lesson 3 ASSIGNMENT 6 Read in your textbook, Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary Technicians, pages 358–377, 436, and 474–475. Then read Assignment 6 in this study guide. Introduction The endocrine system involves the secretion of chemicals called hormones by glands within the body. These chemicals control bodily functions, often at locations very distant from the gland that secreted the chemical. The opposite of endocrine is exocrine, which involves the secretion of sub- stances into spaces outside the body. The glands in the skin and gastrointestinal tract are examples of exocrine organs. (The lumen of the intestine is a space that technically isn’t “within” the body, because it’s continuous with the outside environment via the mouth and anus.) The pancreas is unique in being both an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland. The endocrine function is the secretion of substances such as insulin, which metabolizes sugar. The exocrine function involves the secretion of digestive enzymes into the duodenum. Many endocrine organs exist throughout the body (see Table 15-2 on page 360 of your textbook). While they’re all classified as endocrine glands, their anatomy and functions aren’t necessarily similar or even remotely related. Therefore, there isn’t really a grand organizational scheme to this sys- tem as there is with some of the other body systems. The glands are considered together only because their means of secretion is similar. All endocrine glands secrete hormones in the form of proteins that travel via the blood to the target organ for that particular hormone.
    [Show full text]
  • How Is the Brain Organized?
    p CHAPTER 2 How Is the Brain Organized? An Overview of Brain Structure The Functional Organization Brain Terminology of the Brain The Brain’s Surface Features Principle 1: The Sequence of Brain Processing The Brain’s Internal Features Is “In Integrate Out” Microscopic Inspection: Cells and Fibers Principle 2: Sensory and Motor Divisions Exist Focus on Disorders: Meningitis and Throughout the Nervous System Encephalitis Principle 3: The Brain’s Circuits Are Crossed Focus on Disorders: Stroke Principle 4: The Brain Is Both Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Principle 5: The Nervous System Works A Closer Look at Neuroanatomy Through Excitation and Inhibition The Cranial Nervous System Principle 6: The Central Nervous System Has The Spinal Nervous System Multiple Levels of Function The Internal Nervous System Principle 7: Brain Systems Are Organized Both Focus on Disorders: Magendie, Bell, and Bell’s Hierarchically and in Parallel Palsy Principle 8: Functions in the Brain Are Both Localized and Distributed A. Klehr / Stone Images Micrograph: Carolina Biological Supply Co. / Phototake 36 I p hen buying a new car, people first inspect the In many ways, examining a brain for the first time is outside carefully, admiring the flawless finish similar to looking under the hood of a car. We have a vague W and perhaps even kicking the tires. Then they sense of what the brain does but no sense of how the parts open the hood and examine the engine, the part of the car that we see accomplish these tasks. We may not even be responsible for most of its behavior—and misbehavior. able to identify many of the parts.
    [Show full text]