Interreligious Tension in South and Southeast Asia

CSS Analyses in Security Policy CSS ETH Zurich N0. 148, February 2014, Editor: Christian Nünlist

Interreligious Tension in South and Southeast Asia Growing tensions in Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand between Buddhist majorities and Muslim minorities pose a challenge to peace and security both within these countries and in the wider region. Enforcing the rule of law will not be enough. A deeper understanding of Buddhist nationalist discourses and the grievances that underpin them is vital for improving interreligious coexistence in the region.

By Sabina Stein

In 2007, thousands of Buddhist monks de- scended onto the streets of Myanmar to protest peacefully against the military re- gime ruling the country at the time. The “Saffron Revolution” – as the events came to be known, owing to the coloured robes of Myanmar’s spiritual leaders – saw monks fall before the bullets of Myanmar’s all- powerful army. The images coming out of Myanmar today are different. Across the country, monks have been leading demonstrations in defence of Buddhism that have been reported as being directed against the country’s minority Muslim communities.

Interreligious tensions also grew elsewhere in the region. In Sri Lanka, monk-led groups such as Bodu Bala Sena (BBS, Sin- A mosque stands in ruins in the central Burmese town of Meikhtila where clashes between Buddhists halese for Buddhist Power Force) have un- and Muslims left 40 dead in March 2013. Soe Zeya Tun / Reuters dertaken similar campaigns. There have been demonstrations against the construc- tion of mosques and churches as well as halal certification. In Thailand’s south, where Buddhist and Muslim communities in the driving force behind these discourses is un- the government is engaged in a century- world’s most populous Theravada Bud- derstood can the challenge of growing in- old struggle with Malay Muslim insur- dhist-majority countries (see box on next terreligious tensions in South and South- gents, monks have become caught up in the page). Making sense of such developments east Asia be constructively addressed. conflict. The military has moved into some requires an appreciation of Buddhism’s his- temples, and rumours are circulating of so- torical role in legitimising political author- Defending Religion and Nation called “military monks”. ity in Theravada Buddhist societies. It also Prior to European colonial consolidation demands an understanding of Buddhist in South and Southeast Asia in the second These developments appear to contradict nationalist discourses, which claim that the half of the 19th century, Theravada Bud- Buddhism’s First Precept, which prohibits state belongs to a majority nation – be it dhism served as the organising principle of the killing of any living being. They also Burman, Sinhalese, or Thai – and that this pre-modern states in parts of Thailand, seem to indicate a growing rift between nation is inherently Buddhist. Only if the Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. In all three con-

Theravada Buddhism less, colonial encroachment in the region Sri Lanka and Indian Muslims in Myan- did challenge the religious legitimation of mar. Herein lay the roots of much of the Buddhism encompasses several traditions the kingdom. To secure sovereignty in an interreligious tensions unfolding in the re- that are based on the teachings of Gautama expanding system of nation-states, ruling gion today. Buddha. Theravada Buddhism is the older of the two major traditions, with the word elites saw a need to construct a modern “Theravada” believed to mean “Teaching of “Thai” nation. This nation was also in great Present Tensions the elders”. Its origins closely associated part built on a Buddhist identity. Relations between Buddhists and religious with Sri Lankan history, Theravada Buddhism minorities in Thailand are generally good. is also known as Southern Buddhism. Its 150 The emergence of modern Buddhist na- Nevertheless, the country’s three southern- million adherents mostly live in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand. tionalisms expanded the traditional rela- most provinces have suffered from over a Mahayana Buddhism, the second and larger tion between state and Buddhism to in- century of conflict between the central of the major traditions, is practiced clude a third, potent element: the nation. state and a Malay Muslim minority that predominantly in East Asia in places such as Threats to the state, to the religion, and to constitutes a majority locally. Following the China, Japan, Korea, and Tibet. the nation were now all interrelated. With official incorporation of territories claimed the end of colonialism, sections of the by the Sultanate of Pattani in 1909, Bang- monkhood stayed true to their mission to kok sought to consolidate its sovereignty defend Buddhism against new threats, be over the territories by promoting a strong these Communism or non-Buddhist ele- Buddhist Thai presence and identity in the ments within the body politic. This was es- region. Malay Muslims have responded texts, monarchic states drew their legitima- pecially true in Sri Lanka and Myanmar, with non-violent and violent resistance. cy by basing their rule on the Dhamma, the where the traditional monarchy was not re- Buddha’s teachings, and the support of the stored. Here, the monkhood played an as- A new cycle of violence began in 2004, Buddhist monkhood. Monarchs thus had sertive and independent role in defending with Malay insurgents increasingly target- an interest in materially and politically nation and religion. This included exerting ing Thai Buddhist civilians. Teachers and supporting the monkhood and took on the pressure upon the newly independent states monks, both symbols of the Thai state, have role of defenders and promoters of Bud- to promote and support Buddhism, not been targeted. The killing of monks has dhism. Threats to Buddhism were threats least by adopting it as state religion. Politi- worsened intercommunal distrust and re- to the state, and threats to the state were cally active monks also rejected extending inforced the perception of the conflict as a threats to Buddhism. religious minority rights to non-Buddhist religious one. It has also contributed to minorities. Such activism led to state poli- some southern Thai monks becoming more European colonialism broke with centuries cies that have been criticised for being ex- assertive in defending Buddhism and the of Buddhist kingship in Sri Lanka and clusionary and discriminatory against reli- Thai nation. Some monks have been ac- Myanmar, a rupture that transformed the gious minorities. The identification of the cused of propagating anti-Muslim dis- political role of the Sinhalese courses and spreading fear among local and Burman monkhood. With Politically active monks Buddhists of Muslim plans for religious the traditional defender of cleansing of the territories. Military pres- Buddhism gone and the state rejected extending religious ence in Buddhist temples and security es- no longer supporting the minority rights to corts for monks have also strengthened the monkhood, sections of the perception among Malay Muslims that the monkhood took it upon them- non-Buddhist minorites. state is only interested in protecting the selves to defend Buddhism Buddhist population. against foreign rule. This led to the increas- state with Buddhism also reinforced the ing political engagement of some monks in political, economic, military, and cultural In Sri Lanka, some political Buddhist or- Myanmar and Sri Lanka, actors who would dominance of the Burman and Sinhala ganisations have a history of confrontation lead the early resistance against colonialism ethnic majorities in both post-colonial with minorities in the country. Many at the turn of the 20th century. Myanmar and Sri Lanka. The same was monks opposed granting a degree of terri- true in Thailand, although here, the role of torial and cultural autonomy to the minor- Modern notions of nationalism brought in the monkhood was less prominent. Never- ity Hindu Tamils during the country’s dec- by Western education also had transforma- theless, Buddhism helped strengthen state ades-long civil war. Their opposition was tive effects. The historical role of Buddhism sovereignty, including in territories inhab- reinforced following attacks by the Libera- in legitimating state authority and the in- ited by non-Buddhist groups such as the tion Tigers of Tamil Eelam on Buddhist tegrative role that Buddhism had played in hill tribes in northern Thailand. holy sites in the 1980s and 90s. Recently, pre-colonial Burman and Sinhalese socie- tensions have developed between political ties as purveyor of culture, language, law, In all three countries, the strong link made Buddhist organisations and the country’s and education, made Buddhism a primary by majorities between Buddhism and the Muslim and Christian minorities. Al- ingredient of modern nationalist self-con- “nation-state” has been suggested to have though there has been violence against ceptions. This was true among both monas- contributed to the emergence of separatist Christians, much of these organisations’ re- tic and lay nationalists. Unlike Myanmar conflict in southern Thailand, north and cent discourse has concerned the Muslim and Sri Lanka, Thailand – then the King- north-eastern Sri Lanka, and several fron- minority, comprising circa 7 per cent of the dom of Siam – was never colonised. Tradi- tier regions of Myanmar. Communal vio- total population. This may seem puzzling, tional institutions remained in place, and lence had also by then become a frequent given that Sri Lanka’s Muslims are gener- the monkhood had no need to replace the occurrence in Sri Lanka and Myanmar, ally characterised as a small, well-integrat- state as defender of Buddhism. Neverthe- predominantly involving Hindu Tamils in ed, and scattered minority. With the excep-

tion of the 1915 Sinhalese-Muslim riots, Buddhist Majorities and Muslim Minorities in South and Southeast Asia Muslims have maintained generally peace- ful relations with the Sinhalese majority.

Today, however, organisations such as the BBS and Jathika Hela Urumaya ( JHU), a partner in the ruling coalition, allege that Muslims are a threat to Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Led by monks, the BBS has held rallies calling for the boycott of Muslim businesses and has raised alarm over the size of Muslim families. In March 2013, the group was successful in having Halal certification of domestic meat products banned. Since 2012, there have also been increasing attacks on mosques and Mus- lim-owned businesses. There are claims that the BBS has high-level government support, including that of powerful De- fence Secretary Gotabaya Rajapaksa, the brother of President Mahinda Rajapaksa, who in March 2013 attended the opening ceremony of a BBS teaching academy.

Levels of anti-Muslim violence in Sri Lan- ka do not compare to those of Myanmar. In The Fall of Nalanda Sinhalese nationalists as the last strong- the context of rapid political and economic Common to the on-going interreligious hold or “teardrop” of Buddhism in the In- transformations, violence broke out in tensions in all three countries is the percep- dian subcontinent. 2012 in Rakhine State between Buddhist tion of Muslim communities as a threat. Rakhine and Muslim Rohingya. The Roh- Such dynamics are giving rise to common Rumours of Islamic conspiracies to take ingya are a stateless minority considered by regional discourses that portray Islam as an over the country – be it through marriage the central government and the local Ra- expansionist force in Buddhist lands. These to Buddhist women or through rapid pop- khine majority to be illegal immigrants. discourses resonate with historical griev- ulation growth – resonate with deep-root- These tensions, which left approximately ances stemming back to the 12th century, ed fears. In this context, Burmese monks’ 200 dead and 140’000 displaced, were seen when Islam began making significant in- recent proposals to pass a law curtailing in- as being interethnic rather than interreli- roads in South and Southeast Asia. The terfaith marriage and attempts to limit the gious. Since then, violence involving Bud- 1193 sack of the ancient Buddhist learning size of Rohingya families in Rakhine State dhists and diverse Muslim communities centre of Nalanda (today in the Indian state become easier to understand. Anti-Muslim has spread across the country. of Bihar) by Turkic armies is kept alive in discourses also find fertile ground in com- the collective memory of those who feel to- munities where Muslims are perceived to According to reports, the 969 movement day’s Muslims represent a similar threat. have or indeed have achieved a certain level led by Burman monk Ashin Wirathu has The assumed retreat of Buddhism in the of economic success. In the Burmese town been raising alarm over purported Muslim face of invading religions – Islam in par- of Meiktila, for example, where violence plans to take over the country and has led ticular – helped develop among certain seg- broke out in March 2013, Muslims report- ments of the South and South- edly own 75 per cent of jewellery shops. Many Buddhists share a east Asian Buddhist community Meanwhile, in southern Thailand, the Bud- a sense of being a minority in dhist community is a clear demographic sense that their nations must the wider region. This percep- minority that has borne the brunt of insur- be unified and that their tion was exacerbated by Euro- gent violence. pean colonialism, especially in religion is under threat. Myanmar and Sri Lanka. In The violent dynamics in all three countries British Burma, moreover, colo- influence and reinforce each other. Leaflets successful campaigns to boycott Muslim nial policies led to a high influx of Indian distributed by the BBS in Sri Lanka, for businesses. In 2012, it organised large-scale Muslims, who eventually came to dominate example, decry Muslim violence against protests against plans by the Organization certain sectors of the local economy. Buddhists and Buddhist holy sites in in of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) to open an Myanmar, Thailand, and Bangladesh, office in Yangon and against the visit of an All of these latter factors help to explain where Buddhists in the Chittagong Hill OIC delegation to Myanmar. The position why many Buddhists, though they consti- Tracts have been victims of violent attacks. of the government remains ambiguous and tute comfortable majorities in their respec- The Sri Lankan government’s decision to has been criticized internationally for a tive states, share a sense that their nations censor the July 2013 issue of Time maga- weak response to the tensions. With gen- must be unified and that their religion is zine because of its cover story on Myanmar, eral elections scheduled for 2015, political under threat. This has been most pro- “The Face of Buddhist Terror”, further il- elites’ margin of maneuver may be limited. nounced in Sri Lanka, often described by lustrates the growing interrelation of Bud-

Switzerland’s Support for Religious Coexistence in the Region One limitation of this approach is that few monks are willing to become involved in Between 2006 and 2011, the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA) ran the “Sri Lanka politics or take part in such initiatives. Non- Dialogue Project” within its “Religion, Politics, Conflict” desk. The project engaged senior members political monks – the vast majority of the of the Sri Lankan monkhood in a dialogue, exploring their hopes and fears for the future of their country. The project also sought to bring Buddhist leaders together with members of the Muslim monkhood in South/Southeast Asia – con- and Tamil communities to discuss possible solutions to conflict on the island. The project was sider it inappropriate on religious grounds suspended in 2011. As part of its on-going peace promotion efforts in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and to participate in political affairs, especially Myanmar, Switzerland continues to explore ways of addressing the role of religion in these contexts. when violence is at play. This means that a small, but vocal group of nationalist monks continue to dominate public discussions on majority-minority relations.

On the international front, the Bangkok- dhist nationalist discourses in different intended as retaliation for attacks on Mus- based International Network of Engaged countries. Sri Lankan monkhood, per- lim communities in Buddhist-majority Buddhists held a large interfaith conference ceived as the purest in the Theravada Bud- countries. Such incidents suggest there is a in Kuala Lumpur in 2013 to address inter- dhist world, plays a particularly important risk of hardening Buddhist-Muslim fault religious violence in the region. Interna- role in the legitimation and reinforcement lines domestically, of Buddhist-Muslim tionally prominent Buddhist figures such as of such discourses. violence spreading across the region, and of the Dalai Lama have publicly condemned attacks by violent foreign Islamist organi- attacks on Muslim communities. The OIC Buddhist fears of Islamic encroachment sations in Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thai- has also called on governments to control have been compounded by international land. However, it is important not to be violence against Muslims and has offered discourses on the “War on Terror” that overly alarmist. It is worth noting, for ex- humanitarian help to both Buddhists and frame Muslims as threatening extremists. Muslims in conflict-afflicted The Taliban’s 2001 destruction of the Bud- A small, but vocal group of Rakhine State. International dhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan stoked re- human rights groups have also gional fears of a Muslim challenge to Bud- nationalist monks dominate voiced concerns, though they dhism. Commentators have also pointed to public discussions on have been more pointed in their the Thai government’s efforts to frame Ma- denouncements. Amnesty In- lay Muslims as part of global and regional majority-minority relations. ternational, for example, has ac- jihadi organisations, something that many cused Naypyidaw of commit- local Thai Buddhists have come to believe. ample, that Malay insurgents in southern ting ethnic cleansing and crimes against Thailand have remained distant from inter- humanity against the Rohingya with the Threats to Regional Stability national jihadi organisations. support of nationalist monks. Dynamics in Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand suggest the possibility of a widen- Responding to the Tensions However, as the general indignation over ing Buddhist-Muslim fault line in the Interreligious tensions in the region cannot Time magazine’s damning report on 969 region. Neighbouring Muslim-majority be ignored. Strengthening the rule of law and its spiritual leader Ashin Wirathu countries have been vocal in their criticism and security – a solution advocated by demonstrated, such external condemnation of Naypyidaw and Colombo for failing to some domestic and international voices – is only likely to reinforce the perception protect Muslim communities from violent will not be enough. Moreover, it has been among many of South and Southeast Asia’s attacks. Buddhist migrant workers from questioned how much the view of the con- Buddhists that they are maligned and mis- Myanmar have been attacked in Malaysia, cerned states differs from that of politically understood. A potentially more fruitful ap- as have Rakhine Buddhist residents in active clerics. Responding to these realities, proach would be to engage with Buddhist Bangladesh. There has also been a foiled at- many local and national efforts have been nationalism to understand its concerns and tack on Myanmar’s Jakarta embassy in May launched by concerned Buddhist and Mus- address its fears. Only then will it become 2013; a bombing in India of the Mahabodhi lim religious leaders and laypeople to ad- possible to find sustainable solutions to in- Temple, the site where Gautama Buddha is dress the violence. These initiatives, some terreligious violence in South and South- believed to have attained enlightenment, in with the support of international peace- east Asia. July 2013; and a bombing the following building NGOs, have included interreli- month of a Buddhist centre in Indonesia. gious dialogues and joint activities across Sabina Stein is a Researcher in the Mediation faith groups as well as training of religious Support Team at the Center for Security Studies All these attacks have been blamed on vio- leaders – including monks – in conflict (CSS) and a Program Officer in the CSS project lent Muslim groups and were apparently prevention and resolution. “Culture and Religion in Mediation” (CARIM).

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