CSS Analyses in Security Policy CSS ETH Zurich N0. 148, February 2014, Editor: Christian Nünlist Interreligious Tension in South and Southeast Asia Growing tensions in Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand between Buddhist majorities and Muslim minorities pose a challenge to peace and security both within these countries and in the wider region. Enforcing the rule of law will not be enough. A deeper understanding of Buddhist nationalist discourses and the grievances that underpin them is vital for improving interreligious coexistence in the region. By Sabina Stein In 2007, thousands of Buddhist monks de- scended onto the streets of Myanmar to protest peacefully against the military re- gime ruling the country at the time. The “Saffron Revolution” – as the events came to be known, owing to the coloured robes of Myanmar’s spiritual leaders – saw monks fall before the bullets of Myanmar’s all- powerful army. The images coming out of Myanmar today are different. Across the country, monks have been leading demon- strations in defence of Buddhism that have been reported as being directed against the country’s minority Muslim communities. Interreligious tensions also grew elsewhere in the region. In Sri Lanka, monk-led groups such as Bodu Bala Sena (BBS, Sin- A mosque stands in ruins in the central Burmese town of Meikhtila where clashes between Buddhists halese for Buddhist Power Force) have un- and Muslims left 40 dead in March 2013. Soe Zeya Tun / Reuters dertaken similar campaigns. There have been demonstrations against the construc- tion of mosques and churches as well as ha- lal certification. In Thailand’s south, where Buddhist and Muslim communities in the driving force behind these discourses is un- the government is engaged in a century- world’s most populous Theravada Bud- derstood can the challenge of growing in- old struggle with Malay Muslim insur- dhist-majority countries (see box on next terreligious tensions in South and South- gents, monks have become caught up in the page). Making sense of such developments east Asia be constructively addressed. conflict. The military has moved into some requires an appreciation of Buddhism’s his- temples, and rumours are circulating of so- torical role in legitimising political author- Defending Religion and Nation called “military monks”. ity in Theravada Buddhist societies. It also Prior to European colonial consolidation demands an understanding of Buddhist in South and Southeast Asia in the second These developments appear to contradict nationalist discourses, which claim that the half of the 19th century, Theravada Bud- Buddhism’s First Precept, which prohibits state belongs to a majority nation – be it dhism served as the organising principle of the killing of any living being. They also Burman, Sinhalese, or Thai – and that this pre-modern states in parts of Thailand, seem to indicate a growing rift between nation is inherently Buddhist. Only if the Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. In all three con- © 2014 Center for Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zurich 1 CSS Analysesin Security Policy No. 148, February 2014 Theravada Buddhism less, colonial encroachment in the region Sri Lanka and Indian Muslims in Myan- did challenge the religious legitimation of mar. Herein lay the roots of much of the Buddhism encompasses several traditions the kingdom. To secure sovereignty in an interreligious tensions unfolding in the re- that are based on the teachings of Gautama expanding system of nation-states, ruling gion today. Buddha. Theravada Buddhism is the older of the two major traditions, with the word elites saw a need to construct a modern “Theravada” believed to mean “Teaching of “Thai” nation. This nation was also in great Present Tensions the elders”. Its origins closely associated part built on a Buddhist identity. Relations between Buddhists and religious with Sri Lankan history, Theravada Buddhism minorities in Thailand are generally good. is also known as Southern Buddhism. Its 150 The emergence of modern Buddhist na- Nevertheless, the country’s three southern- million adherents mostly live in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand. tionalisms expanded the traditional rela- most provinces have suffered from over a Mahayana Buddhism, the second and larger tion between state and Buddhism to in- century of conflict between the central of the major traditions, is practiced clude a third, potent element: the nation. state and a Malay Muslim minority that predominantly in East Asia in places such as Threats to the state, to the religion, and to constitutes a majority locally. Following the China, Japan, Korea, and Tibet. the nation were now all interrelated. With official incorporation of territories claimed the end of colonialism, sections of the by the Sultanate of Pattani in 1909, Bang- monkhood stayed true to their mission to kok sought to consolidate its sovereignty defend Buddhism against new threats, be over the territories by promoting a strong these Communism or non-Buddhist ele- Buddhist Thai presence and identity in the ments within the body politic. This was es- region. Malay Muslims have responded texts, monarchic states drew their legitima- pecially true in Sri Lanka and Myanmar, with non-violent and violent resistance. cy by basing their rule on the Dhamma, the where the traditional monarchy was not re- Buddha’s teachings, and the support of the stored. Here, the monkhood played an as- A new cycle of violence began in 2004, Buddhist monkhood. Monarchs thus had sertive and independent role in defending with Malay insurgents increasingly target- an interest in materially and politically nation and religion. This included exerting ing Thai Buddhist civilians. Teachers and supporting the monkhood and took on the pressure upon the newly independent states monks, both symbols of the Thai state, have role of defenders and promoters of Bud- to promote and support Buddhism, not been targeted. The killing of monks has dhism. Threats to Buddhism were threats least by adopting it as state religion. Politi- worsened intercommunal distrust and re- to the state, and threats to the state were cally active monks also rejected extending inforced the perception of the conflict as a threats to Buddhism. religious minority rights to non-Buddhist religious one. It has also contributed to minorities. Such activism led to state poli- some southern Thai monks becoming more European colonialism broke with centuries cies that have been criticised for being ex- assertive in defending Buddhism and the of Buddhist kingship in Sri Lanka and clusionary and discriminatory against reli- Thai nation. Some monks have been ac- Myanmar, a rupture that transformed the gious minorities. The identification of the cused of propagating anti-Muslim dis- political role of the Sinhalese courses and spreading fear among local and Burman monkhood. With Politically active monks Buddhists of Muslim plans for religious the traditional defender of cleansing of the territories. Military pres- Buddhism gone and the state rejected extending religious ence in Buddhist temples and security es- no longer supporting the minority rights to corts for monks have also strengthened the monkhood, sections of the perception among Malay Muslims that the monkhood took it upon them- non-Buddhist minorites. state is only interested in protecting the selves to defend Buddhism Buddhist population. against foreign rule. This led to the increas- state with Buddhism also reinforced the ing political engagement of some monks in political, economic, military, and cultural In Sri Lanka, some political Buddhist or- Myanmar and Sri Lanka, actors who would dominance of the Burman and Sinhala ganisations have a history of confrontation lead the early resistance against colonialism ethnic majorities in both post-colonial with minorities in the country. Many at the turn of the 20th century. Myanmar and Sri Lanka. The same was monks opposed granting a degree of terri- true in Thailand, although here, the role of torial and cultural autonomy to the minor- Modern notions of nationalism brought in the monkhood was less prominent. Never- ity Hindu Tamils during the country’s dec- by Western education also had transforma- theless, Buddhism helped strengthen state ades-long civil war. Their opposition was tive effects. The historical role of Buddhism sovereignty, including in territories inhab- reinforced following attacks by the Libera- in legitimating state authority and the in- ited by non-Buddhist groups such as the tion Tigers of Tamil Eelam on Buddhist tegrative role that Buddhism had played in hill tribes in northern Thailand. holy sites in the 1980s and 90s. Recently, pre-colonial Burman and Sinhalese socie- tensions have developed between political ties as purveyor of culture, language, law, In all three countries, the strong link made Buddhist organisations and the country’s and education, made Buddhism a primary by majorities between Buddhism and the Muslim and Christian minorities. Al- ingredient of modern nationalist self-con- “nation-state” has been suggested to have though there has been violence against ceptions. This was true among both monas- contributed to the emergence of separatist Christians, much of these organisations’ re- tic and lay nationalists. Unlike Myanmar conflict in southern Thailand, north and cent discourse has concerned the Muslim and Sri Lanka, Thailand – then the King- north-eastern Sri Lanka, and several fron- minority, comprising circa 7 per cent of the dom of Siam – was never colonised. Tradi- tier regions of Myanmar.