History, Distribution, and Potential of the Olive Industry in China: a Review

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Review History, Distribution, and Potential of the Olive Industry in China: A Review

ChunJiang Su 1, Junfeng Sun 2,3,* ID , Wanze Zhu 2 and Li Peng 1 ID

1 Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, # 9, Block 4, Renminnan Road, Chengdu 610041, China; [email protected] (C.S.), [email protected] (L.P.) 2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, #19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China; [email protected] 3 School of Tourism, History, and Culture, South West Minzu University, # 16, South Section, 1st Ring Road, Chengdu 610041, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-28-8522-5378

Received: 7 April 2018; Accepted: 2 May 2018; Published: 4 May 2018

Abstract: China, as a non-Mediterranean country with non-Mediterranean climate, is taking olive cultivation as an important part of its agricultural development. In order to highlight some important facts about the history, status, distribution, and trends of the olive industry in China, we performed analyses based on Internet databases, online GIS software, and scientiﬁc papers. Results show that the olive industries have been concentrated in several key areas in Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Chongqing, and Hubei. However, the business scope of olive enterprises is still narrow, the scale of enterprises is generally small, and individual or family management of farmers plays an important role. Thus, increased investment and policies are needed to enhance their capacities of R&D and production, and Chinese investigators should carry out socio-economic studies at the microcosmic level and take the initiative to innovate the products by cooperating with people in the same professions worldwide.

Keywords: olive industry; history; distribution; GIS; spatial analysis; development potential; agriculture products

1. Introduction Due to the well-balanced oil composition and the great commercial value of the olive (Olea europaea L.), many traditional and emerging countries have developed their olive industries, such as Spain, Italy, Greece, France, the USA, and Australia. With the expansion of olive cultivation areas, the development of emerging growing regions and traditional cultivated areas have attracted researchers’ attention, and it is clear that most of these regions have Mediterranean climates or belong to the Mediterranean area. However, it is interesting that China, as a non-Mediterranean country with non-Mediterranean climate [1], is taking olive introduction and cultivation, starting more than 50 years ago [2], as an important part of its crop introduction and agricultural development [3]. The FAO sees the introduction and development of olives in China as an exceptional experiment [4], which has been carried out on the fact that China is a vast country with a north–south latitude spanning of nearly 50◦, resulting in a wide variety of ‘microclimates’. Therefore, it was expected to ﬁnd some suitable growing areas in China for olive trees [5], especially in the western provinces of China, such as Gansu, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Yunnan. However, from the perspective of rigorous academic research, the current situation of the development of the olive sector in China, and whether it can maintain itself in some sustainable way or promote the sustainable development of the Western China, has no clear answers. On a scientiﬁc level, from the 1960s to the 2010s very few studies have focused on olive industries in China from a macro and quantitative perspective since it is still in the early stages of development when compared with the Mediterranean countries. Thus, this paper wants to highlight

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426; doi:10.3390/su10051426 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 2 of 19 some important facts about the history, status, distribution, and trends of the olive industry in China. Academics might be attracted by these facts when they approach the issue of sustainability with a speciﬁc focus on olive cultivation and industrialization in China.

2. History of the Olive’s Introduction to China Olive trees were grown sporadically in China as early as the ninth century, most of which were brought back by missionaries and businessmen for ornamental usage without any economic benefit [6]. In 1956, the government of Albania sent 30 olive trees as a gift to China. These trees were introduced and cultivated in the big cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. Six trees were cultivated in the Nanjing botanical garden of Zhongshan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, where they have gone through the indoor and outdoor experiments, and three of them bloomed and yielded in 1963 [7]. This was regarded as the first introduction and cultivation of cultivated olive trees in Modern China. In November 1959, Mr. Zou Bingwen (1893–1985) recommended the introduction of olives to the Ministry of Agriculture based on his experiences in the FAO [8]. In Mr. Zou’s proposal, some important information might help us recognize the purposes or aims of China’s olive introduction. He mentioned the following points: (1) olive oil was the highest quality edible oil in the world and could be used as the main source of food; (2) after the October Revolution, the Soviet Union attached great importance to the development of olives; (3) the average yield of 787.5 kg/ha of olive oil in the Soviet Union was much more than the corresponding average yields of peanut oil (375 kg/ha) and soybean oil (270 kg/ha) in China in the 1950s; (4) the olive tree’s cold resistance was more outstanding than many other evergreen fruit trees, which means it can live in temperatures of −8 ◦C without any freezing injury; (5) olive trees are beautiful, with strong and adaptable wood, and could grow in arid and barren soils which are not suitable for many other crops; (6) the olive oil processing method is so simple that the small scale waterpower mills could be competent; (7) China is a big agricultural country endowed by nature with rich agricultural resources, which has a long history of farming and the tradition of intensive cultivation as well as a huge rural population that would be able to find a suitable place for olive trees. Mr. Zou’s proposal received the attention of the Ministry of Agriculture and the responsible officers quickly organized the relevant units to establish the working schedules for the olive’s introduction. The introduced germplasm resources included 1696 seedlings, 60 kg of seeds, and 202 cuttings. The introduction points were concentrated in the major cities of Kunming, Nanjing, Chengdu, Changsha, Nanchang, Guiyang, Wuhan, Hangzhou, Guangzhou, Xian, and Beijing. Mengzi County, Yunnan province and Miyi County, Sichuan province were the only small towns that received some of this germplasm. The introduction of this stage proved preliminarily that olives, a Mediterranean plant, could grow normally without serious cold or freezing injury. The success of the introduction test had become an important reason for the popularization of olives. Prime Minister Zhou Enlai’s visit to Albania on 31 December 1963 is regarded as another cause of the large-scaled introduction of olive trees to China [9]. As a witness, Premier Zhou was impressed by the olive trees and their accompanying culture, which had been passed down from ancient mythology, as well as their miraculous efficacy in health care. Thus he decided to introduce olives in a large scale to China. On 19 January 1964, two senior technicians were sent to China with 10,680 strains and 4 varieties of olive seedlings on a special Albanian ship. When it arrived in Zhanjiang port on 18 February 1964, the olive seedlings were sent to eight provinces (districts) in the south of the Yangtze River. Most of the more than 10,000 seedlings were conducted experimental production in the National forest farms such as Haikou forest farm of Kunming. The provinces of Guangxi, Yunnan, Sichuan (including Chongqing) and Guizhou had undertaken the main production tasks, thus their introduced seedlings accounted for more than 90% of the total, and more than 80% of the seedlings were concentrated in the cities of Liuzhou, Guilin, Kunming, Chongqing, which were likely to be considered as the main production bases. The main introduction areas and the distribution of seedlings are shown in Table1. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 3 of 19

Table 1. Seedling counts in the main introduction areas in 1964 1,2.

Province Number City Number Percentage Purpose Rank Liuzhou 1900 17.79% P, SE Guangxi 4535 1 Guilin 2635 24.67% P, SE Kunming 2048 19.18% P, SE Eshan 14 0.13% SE Yunnan 2200 2 Yuanjiang 133 1.25% SE Xishuangbanna 5 0.05% SE Sichuan 1503 Chongqing 1503 14.07% P, SE 3 Guizhou 1440 Dushan 1440 13.48% P, SE 4 Hubei 400 Wuhan 400 3.75% SE 5 Zhejiang 395 Fuyang 395 3.70% SE 6 Zhanjiang 10 0.09% SE Guangdong 107 7 Qingyuan 97 0.91% SE Jiangsu 100 Nanjing 100 0.94% SE 8 Total number 10,680 100.00% 1 Data sources: [10]. 2 P = Production, SE = Scientiﬁc experiments.

Since large-scale introduction in 1964, the cultivated areas have obviously expanded in China. From then on, led by the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and other national institutions, olive germplasm resources from Albania, the Soviet Union, and some Western countries have been introduced to China many times, and observational experiments—such as growth, drought resistance, cold resistance, disease, grafting, fertilization and irrigation—have been carried out. Since 1978, China has carried out step by step the policy of reform and opening up, bringing along a quickened pace in agricultural reform and development. Thus, more and more Chinese researchers have been sent to the Western countries—such as Italy, France, and Spain—to investigate their olive cultivation and industry. As a result, olive trees have been cultivated almost all over China’s Southern provinces and regions as well as in some Northern provinces such as Gansu and Shaanxi until 2017. Although the South of Gansu and the South of Shaanxi belong to the typical ‘south’ or the Yangtze River Valley in the view of geographical science, and their climate and vegetation have distinct southern characteristics, they were marginalized or even completely ignored in the introduction process in 1964. This phenomenon might reﬂect the complexity and diversity of the natural, cultural, and social environment in China. The advantages of soil and climate have ﬁnally made Longnan city, Gansu province become the most suitable area for olive cultivation in China. This success might rely on the spontaneous introduction of Shaanxi and the technological exchanges between Shaanxi and Gansu. Through the successful introduction of Hanzhoung, Shaanxi province and Longnan, Gansu province, olive trees have spread to the traditional or cultural northern regions and provinces of China. After more than half a century of introduction, Chinese researchers have found the suitable areas for olive production in China, and according to the differences of climate and soil conditions, these regions are divided into the primary and secondary suitable areas. Table2 shows the suitable areas for olives cultivation in China. Table3 shows the different major cultivars or varieties in the main grown areas of Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Chongqing. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 4 of 19

Table 2. Suitable areas for olive growth in China [11].

Suitalbe Level Range Climate Average annual temperature of 14~18 ◦C; average temperature in January of 9~13 ◦C; The Hot Valley zone of the Jinsha Jiang no frost damage and low temperature with River (Binchuan, Yongsheng, Yongren, etc.); Primary ﬂower bud differentiation; extremely low the west slope of the Qinling Mountains suitable areas temperature of −7~−9 ◦C; annual and the low mountain valley of the white accumulated temperature of 5000 degrees; Longjiang (Wudu, etc.) annual rainfall of 500~1000 mm; average relative humidity of 61%~69%. The western and southern slopes of the Qinling Mountains river basin upstream Average annual temperature of 14~17.4 ◦C; zone (Hanzhoung etc.); the Sichuan basin in average temperature in January of 5.9 ◦C; Secondary the southern slope of the Daba Mountains; extremely low temperature of −3.7~−8.9 suitable areas the Jialing River Valley (Guangyuan etc.); ◦C; annual rainfall of 700~1006.5 mm; the low mountain valley area of the Three average relative humidity of 70% (82% in Gorges of the Yangtze River (Fengjie, etc.); summer) central Yunnan (Kunming, etc.)

Table 3. The main varieties of olives in China [12–17].

Variety Name Country of Origin Usage Main Cultivated Area Frantoio Italy Oil Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Chongqing Leccino Italy Oil Gansu, Chongqing Picholine France Table olive Gansu, Chongqing E’ZhiNo.8 China Oil Gansu, Yunnan, Chongqing Coratina Italy Oil & Table olive Gansu, Yunnan, Chongqing Picual Spain Oil & Table olive Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan Coroneike France Oil Gansu Barnea Israel Oil Sichuan Arbosana Spain Oil Sichuan Tanche Greece Oil Sichuan Manzanillo Spain Oil Sichuan, Chongqing Arbequina Spain Oil Sichuan, Chongqing Ascolana Tenra Italy Oil Yunnan, Chongqing Cheng’Gu no.32 China Oil Yunnan

3. Status and Trends In recent decades, the olive industry in China has been concentrated in several important regions in the suitable areas. Since 2006, Longnan city, Gansu province has become the largest olive cultivation and industrial base in China. By the end of 2009, the provinces could be ranked according to their cultivated olive areas as: Gansu, Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Hubei, and Jiangsu. Besides Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan also have realized their olive industrialization. In 2015, according to the output of olive fruit, Gansu, Sichuan, and Yunnan were the top three provinces in turn. It is known from Table4 that in 2015, there were 65,600 hectares of olive trees planted in the above three provinces, and 37.4 thousand tons of olive fruits and 4902 tons of virgin olive oil were cultivated, which generated an income of 0.26 billion US dollars (based on the exchange rate in 2015) in the 39 counties. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 5 of 19

Table 4. Industrialization of olives in the main three provinces in 2015 [18].

Number of Number of Virgin Oil Value Province Area (hm2) Fruit (kt) Cities Counties (t) (billion/$) Gansu 1 4 36,000 25.9 3885.0 0.19 Sichuan 4 20 22,300 8.3 997.0 0.05 Yunnan 4 15 7300 3.2 20.0 0.01 Total 9 39 65,600 37.4 4902.0 0.26

In 1985, the first olive enterprise in China was established in Santai county of Mianyang city, Sichuan province [19]. By the end of 2015, there were more than 40 olive enterprises in China, and more than 20 virgin olive oil production lines were established. Traditional olive oil production methods—such as stone mill and direct mechanical extrusion, water press, and plate and frame filtration—have been very rare in China. However, crushing, fruit pulp mixing, centrifugal decanting, and centrifugal separation technologies have been widely used in olive processing in China. In particular, centrifugal dip technology includes three-phase and two-phase centrifugal systems. The three-phase centrifugal system is the most commonly used method in the intensive production areas such as Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Chongqing. In this process, grated olives are released directly into a three-phase separator. Water, oil, and pomace are separated. The main drawback of this method is that a lot of water is needed. The two phase centrifuge system, also known as an ‘ecosystem’ for the grated olives, can be separated in a two phase centrifuge (oil and pomace), which might reduce the consumption of fresh water and eliminate the production of waste water. Thus, this process has been used in some demonstration areas such as Longnan, Gansu. In order to describe the new changes since 2016, we got the data of olive enterprises in China through the Internet and analyzed their regional distributions. The data source websites included: Baidu enterprise credit (BEC), TianYan Cha (TYC), QiXin Bao (QXB), the National Enterprise Credit Information Publicity System (NECIP), and the National Administration for Code Allocation to Organizations (NACAO). The interactive query platforms of the above five websites were used to get the preliminary results, which are shown in Table5.

Table 5. Preliminary results of the olive industry and related organizations in China

Site Name Website Query Time Results Type NACAO http://www.nacao.org.cn/ 22 January 2018 707 enterprise, community NECIP http://www.gsxt.gov.cn/ 21 January 2018 >100 enterprise QXB http://www.qixin.com/ 24 January 2018 3549 enterprise, community TYC https://www.tianyancha.com/ 25 January 2018 3318 enterprise BEC https://xin.baidu.com/ 26 January 2018 3211 enterprise

The main research objects were the province, municipality, and autonomous region. The results did not contain data from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. After the irrelevant and repeated records were excluded, it was found that there were 2825 olive enterprises in China by January 2018, and 2459 of them were in operation. The Beijing Shenzhou Olives Technology and Development company, founded in 1988, might be the oldest enterprise in operation according to its registration time, which is a scientiﬁc and technological enterprise initiated and controlled by the Chinese Academy of Forestry Sciences.

3.1. Time Trend There are only 12 enterprises which were established before 2000 (excluding 2000). Among them, six were in Gansu; three were in Sichuan; one was in Shandong, Yunnan, and Beijing respectively. In the period of 2001~2008, the annual number of new registered enterprises was below 20, and the growth was also slow. Since 2009, olive enterprises in China have been increasing signiﬁcantly, especially in the last ﬁve years since 2012. In 2012, the number of newly registered enterprises exceeded 100, and Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19 Sustainabilityenterprises2018 ,exceeded10, 1426 100, and in the following two years, more than 200 new registrations6 of have 19 enterprisesbeen made exceeded annually 100,. In andthe threein the years following of 2015 two~2017, years, 410, more 596 , thanand 618200 enterprisesnew registrations were added have in inbeen theeach made following year annually. Since two the. years, In olive the more industrythree than years has 200 of been new2015 supported registrations~2017, 410, by 596 havethe, andgo beenvernments 618 made enterprises annually.of Western were In provincesadded the three in in yearseachrecent year of 2015~2017, .years, Since the92.56% 410,olive of 596, industry the and existing 618 has enterprises been enterprises supported were were addedby registeredthe go invernments each after year. 2012. Sinceof Western In the 2016 olive provinces and industry 2017, in the hasrecentnumber been years, supported of 92.56%registered by of the theenterprises governments existing reachedenterprises of Western 1214, were accounting provinces registered infor recent after49.37% years,2012. of theIn 92.56% 2016total. ofand There the 2017, existing were the 286 enterprisesnumberenterprises of wereregistered in registered operat enterprisesion after for 2012.more reached In than 2016 1214, five and accounting 2017,years, the accounting number for 49.37% of for registered of 11.63 the total.% enterprisesof Therethe total were reached; and 286 60 1214,enterprisesenterprises accounting in haveoperat for been 49.37%ion infor operat of more theion total. than for There morefive wereyears,than 28610 accounting years, enterprises accounting for in 11.63 operation for% 2.44% of forthe of more totalthe total. than; and ﬁveFig 60ure years,enterprises1 shows accounting havethe annualbeen for 11.63%in growthoperat ofion theof for total;the more number and than 60 enterprisesof10 oliveyears, enterprisesaccounting have been infor in China2.44% operation. ofFig theure for total. more2 shows Fig thanure the 101 shows years,registration accountingthe annual time distribution for growth 2.44% of (data thethe total. innumber 2000 Figure includes of 1olive shows previously enterprises the annual registered in growth China ones of. Fig the). ure number 2 shows of olive the enterprisesregistration in time China. distribution Figure2 shows (data thein 2000 registration includes time previously distribution registered (data in ones 2000). includes previously registered ones). 2500

2500 2000

2000 1500

1500 1000

1000 500 Number of of Number enterprises

500 Number of of Number enterprises 0

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Year2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Year Figure 1. Annual trend of the number of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 1. Annual trend of the number of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 1. Annual trend of the number of the olive enterprises in China. 700 618 596 700 600 618 596 600 500 410 500 400 410 400 264 300 234 264 300 200 234

Number of of Number enterprises 103 200 100 43 51 19 23 38 Number of of Number enterprises 13 3 4 3 11 8 5 13 103 100 0 43 51 23 38 13 3 4 3 11 8 5 13 19 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Figure 2. The distribution of the registeredYear years of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 2. The distribution of the registered years of the olive enterprises in China. 3.2. Types andFigure Businesses 2. The distribution of the registered years of the olive enterprises in China. 3.2. Types and Businesses Among the 2459 enterprises, there are five corporations (joint stock companies); 28 private 3.2. TypeAmongs and B usinessthe 2459es enterprises, there are five corporations (joint stock companies); 28 private associations; 582 limited liability companies (LLC); 1342 partnerships; and nearly 500 family farms, associations; 582 limited liability companies (LLC); 1342 partnerships; and nearly 500 family farms, plantingAmong bases, the and 2459 other enterprises sole proprietorships, there are five (SP). corporations The number (joint of the stock partnerships companies and); 28 the private SP is planting bases, and other sole proprietorships (SP). The number of the partnerships and the SP is aboutassociations 1800, accounting; 582 limited for liability nearly 75%companies of the total (LLC business); 1342 partnerships entities. No; quoted and nearly companies 500 family were farms, found. about 1800, accounting for nearly 75% of the total business entities. No quoted companies were Itplanting is seemed bases that, and the other sizes sole of the proprietorship olive enterprisess (SP) in. The China number are generally of the partnerships small and that and household the SP is found. It is seemed that the sizes of the olive enterprises in China are generally small and that managementabout 1800, accounting has played anfor importantnearly 75% role of in the olive total growing business regions. entities Only. N threeo quoted companies companies of Garden were household management has played an important role in olive growing regions. Only three City,found XIANGYU,. It is seemed and that Enlai the have size respectivelys of the olive opened enterprises their offices in China or branches are gener inally Beijing, small Shenzhen, and that companies of Garden City, XIANGYU, and Enlai have respectively opened their offices or branches andhousehold Guangzhou. management The companies has play of Gardened an Cityimportant and XIANGYU role in haveolive establishedgrowing regions their O2O. Only marketing three in Beijing, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou. The companies of Garden City and XIANGYU have channelscompanies through of Garden Tmall.net City, XIANGYU and Jingdong.net., and EnlaiHowever, have respectively most of opened the other their enterprises offices or havebranches not in Beijing, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou. The companies of Garden City and XIANGYU have Sustainability , 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19 Sustainability20182018, 10, 1426 7 of 19 established their O2O marketing channels through Tmall.net and Jingdong.net. However, most of the yetother made enterprises obvious distributionhave not yet channels made obvious across thedistribution whole country, channels and across their the offices whole or branches country, are andmostly their offices within or their branches provinces, are indicatingmostly within that thesetheir enterprisesprovinces, indicating have not formed that the anyse enterprises cross-regional havecollaboration not formed networks.any cross-regional collaboration networks. TheThe business businesseses are areconcentrated concentrated in seedling in seedling cultivation cultivation and and seedling seedling sales, sales, and and only only a few a few companiescompanies are are engaged engaged in in the productionproduction of of olive olive oil andoil and related related products. products. There areThere 1459 are enterprises 1459 enterprisesengaged engaged in olive planting, in olive planting 852 engaged, 852 in engaged seedling in cultivation, seedling cultivation 108 engaged, 108 in oliveengaged oil production in olive oil and productionoperation, and and operation only 69, engagedand onlyin 69 olive engaged cosmetics in olive and cosmetics skin care and products. skin care There products. are 144 There enterprises are 144that enterprises have developed that have the develop olive tourismed the olive based tourism on their based farms on or their forests. farms There or areforests 119. enterprises There are 119 whose enterprisesregistered whose capital registered was more capital than was 20 million more than Yuan 20 (3.17 million million Yuan USD) (3.17 (Figure million3 ).US AmongD) (Figure them, 3). 62 Amongenterprises them, 62 are enterprises in Gansu, accountingare in Gansu, for accounting 51% of the for total. 51% This of the reflects total that. This Gansu’s reflects olive that Gansu investment’s olivehas investment been at the ha forefront.s been at Some the enterprisesforefront. Some in Gansu enterprises province in have Gansu begun province investing have in otherbegun olive investinggrowing in areasother sucholive asgrowing Yunnan areas and such Sichuan. as Yunnan and Sichuan.

Chongqing Fujian Zhejiang 2% 7% Yunnan 3% 10% Tianjin 1% Sichuan 14% Shanxi 1% Gansu Shandong 52% 1% Jiangsu 1% Hubei Henan 5% Guangdong 2% 1% FigureFigure 3.3.Distribution Distribution of of enterprises enterprises whose whose registered registered capital capital is more is more than than 20 million 20 million Yuan Yuan (3.17 million(3.17 USD). million USD). In China, a corporation (joint stock company) is generally regarded as a public company because In China, a corporation (joint stock company) is generally regarded as a public company of the large amount of its investment (at least more than 793.65 thousand USD) and the relatively large because of the large amount of its investment (at least more than 793.65 thousand USD) and the holders (not restricted by 50 persons). Thus, the number and businesses of the corporations might relatively large holders (not restricted by 50 persons). Thus, the number and businesses of the reﬂect the olive industrialization process in China. There are ﬁve corporations in olive cultivation and corporations might reflect the olive industrialization process in China. There are five corporations the related investments, products, and services. Among them, Yunnan Supply & Market E-commerce in olive cultivation and the related investments, products, and services. Among them, Yunnan (SME) and Jin Feng Hui Oils & Fats (JFH) belong to Yunnan province; Green Lustre Fruit and Vegetable Supply & Market E-commerce (SME) and Jin Feng Hui Oils & Fats (JFH) belong to Yunnan (GLFV) is in Gansu; Ruifu Sesame Oil (RSO) is in Shandong; and China Oil Agriculture (COA) is in province; Green Lustre Fruit and Vegetable (GLFV) is in Gansu; Ruifu Sesame Oil (RSO) is in Zhejiang (Table6). Shandong; and China Oil Agriculture (COA) is in Zhejiang (Table 6). Table 6. Olive corporations (limited by share) in China. Table 6. Olive corporations (limited by share) in China. Registered Capital Name Province City Registered Capital Website Name Province City (Million USD) Website (Million USD) JinJin Feng Feng Hui Hui Oils Oils && FatsFats (JFH)(JFH) Yunnan Yunnan Kunming Kunming 7.94 7.94 http://www.ynjfhhttp://www.ynjfh-oil.com/-oil.com/ YunnanYunnan Supply Supply & & Market Market E-commerce E-commerce (SME) (SME) YunnanYunnan Kunming Kunming 8.63 8.63 http://www.coopygx.com/http://www.coopygx.com/ RuifuRuifu Sesame Sesame OilOil (RSO)(RSO) Shandong Shandong Weifang Weifang 19.19 19.19 http://www.cuizi.com/http://www.cuizi.com/ ChinaChina Oil Oil AgricultureAgriculture (COA)(COA) Zhejiang Zhejiang Jinhua Jinhua 7.94 7.94 http://zynygf.etlong.com/http://zynygf.etlong.com/ GreenGreen Lustre Lustre FruitFruit andand VegetableVegetable (GLFV)(GLFV) Gansu Gansu Tianshui Tianshui 1.90 1.90None None

SMESME is the is theonly only e-commerce e-commerce company company among among the thefive five corporations corporations,, which which belongs belongs to the to the YunnanYunnan Supply Supply and and Marketing Marketing Cooperative Cooperative Union. Union. This This organization organization was was founded founded by the by theYunnan Yunnan governmentgovernment and and its agricultural its agricultural leading leading enterprises; enterprises; SME SME has hasbuilt built its e its-commerce e-commerce platform platform named named “Cloud“Cloud Commodity Commodity”” and and is operat is operatinging the the“cloud “cloud supply supply and and marketing marketing”” shop shop on Taobao on Taobao network network.. SMESME provide providess tea, tea, fungus, fungus, fruit, fruit, Chinese Chinese traditional medicinalmedicinal materials,materials, vegetables, vegetables and, and dried dried fruits fruits to consumers. However, there are no olive-related commodities in the website of SME, Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 8 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19 indicatingto consumers. that However,olive are thereonly a are small no olive-related part of its business commodities planning in the, the website corresponding of SME, indicating products that or servicesolive are are only still a smalllacking part. JFH, of itsRSO business, and COA planning, are engaged the corresponding in oils and fats products and the or related services products, are still whilelacking. GLFV JFH, is RSO, engaged and in COA fruits are and engaged vegetables in oils and and other fats andagricultural the related products. products, JFH while mainly GLFV deals is inengaged rapeseed in fruits oil and and soybean vegetables oil and, whose other brand agricultural of ”Jincaihua products.” JFHis a mainlyblended deals product in rapeseed of olive oil and and rapeseedsoybean,oil, not whose including brand virgin of ”Jincaihua” olive oil. RSO is a mainly blended produces product ofsmall olive mill and oil, rapeseed, and its olive not includingbusiness involvirginve olives the oil. filling RSO, packing mainly produces, and sales small of the mill imported oil, and itsolive olive oil business, which involveshas little therelationship filling, packing, with theand olive sales growing of the imported or development olive oil, which areas hasin China little relationship. COA originally with the produced olive growing and sold or development some plant seedlingsareas in China.. The edible COA originallyoil and the produced olive cultivation and sold somewere plant included seedlings. in its Themain edible business oil and after the 2015 olive. GLFVcultivation owns were two includedolive brands in its— mainGreen business Lustre Manor after 2015. and GLFVDai Shi owns Na— twobut olive the products brands—Green of these Lustre two brandsManor andwere Dai not Shi popula Na—butr. It the is productsundoubted of thesethat a twolthough brands the were above not five popular. corporations It is undoubted have their that relativelyalthough thelarge abover registered five corporations capital, their have olive their-related relatively products larger or registered services are capital, extremely their olive-relatedlimited. products or services are extremely limited. 3.3. Distribution and Density 3.3. Distribution and Density As shown in Figures 4 and 5, the olive enterprises in China are mainly distributed in Gansu, Chongqing,As shown Yunnan, in Figures Sichuan4 and, 5and, the Hubei. olive enterprisesAll of the intop China five areprovinces mainly have distributed 2388 enterprises in Gansu,, accountingChongqing, for Yunnan, 97.11% of Sichuan, the total and throughout Hubei. the All country of the top. There five are provinces 1290 olive have enterprises 2388 enterprises, in Gansu paccountingrovince, accounting for 97.11% for of 52.46% the total of throughout the total, showing the country. a strong There regional are 1290 concentration. olive enterprises There in are Gansu 460 enterprisesprovince, accounting in Chongqing for 52.46%, accounting of the for total, 18.71% showing of the a strong total. regionalWith a larger concentration. amount Thereof registered are 460 enterprisesenterprises than in Chongqing, Sichuan and accounting Yunnan, Chongqing for 18.71% ofhas the become total. one With of a the larger important amount regions of registered in the oliveenterprises development. than Sichuan The anddensity Yunnan, of en Chongqingterprises in has Chongqing become one is of55.89 the important/km2, which regions has exceed in the olive the recorddevelopment. of Gansu The (28.39/km density2 of), ranking enterprises the infirst Chongqing in China. is The 55.89/km distribution2, which of hasthe exceedenterprises the recordhas a strongof Gansu consiste (28.39/kmncy with2), rankingthe cultivated the first area in and China. the amount The distribution of fruit production, of the enterprises which indicates has a strong that dueconsistency to the olive with fruit the cultivatedneeding to area be processed and the amount in time of after fruit its production, harvest, the which related indicates enterprises that dueare mostlyto the olivedistributed fruit needing in their to planting be processed and producing in time after areas its harvest,when facing the related the lack enterprises of cold storage are mostly for freshdistributed olive fruit in their in China. planting and producing areas when facing the lack of cold storage for fresh olive fruit in China.

1400 60.00

1200 50.00

1000 Number 40.00 800 Density 30.00 600 Density 20.00 400 Nuber of enterprises Nuber of 200 10.00 Number/ square kilometre square Number/

0 0.00 Hubei Fujian Anhui Gansu Yunan Henan Shanxi Beijing Jiangxi Tianjin Hunan Hainan Jiangsu Shaanxi Sichuan Guizhou Zhejinag Gguangxi Shandong Chongqing Guangdong Province

Figure 4. Distribution and density of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 4. Distribution and density of the olive enterprises in China. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 9 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

Figure 5. Distribution map of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 5. Distribution map of the olive enterprises in China.

The registered addresses of the enterprises were converted to latitude and longitude, and the convertedThe registered data were addresses presented of the in enterprises a scatter werepoint converted through to the latitude GeoHey and longitude,GIS software and the(http converteds://geohey.com/ data were) and visualized presented by in athe scatter thermal point map through. The results the GeoHeyare shown GIS in softwareFigures 6 (andhttps: 7. //geohey.com/The geographical) anddistribution visualized of bythe theolive thermal enterprises map. is Theboth results extensive are and shown concentrative, in Figures6 and and ha7. s Thethe geographicalfollowing characteristics distribution: of ( thei) olive olive enterprises ishave both been extensive distributed and concentrative, in the 21 andprovinces, has the followingmunicipalities, characteristics: autonomous (i) olive regions enterprises, and chartered have been distributedcities in north in the and 21 provinces, south China municipalities,. (ii) nine autonomouscentralized hot regions, areas of and olive chartered development cities in have north been and formed south China. in China (ii), t ninehey are centralized (1) Lanzhou, hot areas Gansu; of olive(2) Longnan, development Gansu have and beenGuangyuan formed,in Sichuan; China, they(3) Chengdu are (1) Lanzhou, and Mianyang, Gansu; (2)Sichuan; Longnan, (4) Nanchong, Gansu and Guangyuan,Sichuan and Sichuan;Chongqing (3) main Chengdu city; and(5) Northeast Mianyang, of Sichuan;Chongqing; (4) Nanchong, (6) Lijiang Sichuanand Diqing, and Yunnan; Chongqing (7) mainChuxiong, city; (5)Yunnan; Northeast (8) Liangshan, of Chongqing; Sichuan; (6) Lijiang and ( and9) Shiyan, Diqing, Hubei. Yunnan; Among (7) Chuxiong, them, Lanzhou, Yunnan; (8)Chengdu Liangshan, and Chongqing Sichuan; and are (9) large Shiyan, cities; Hubei. the other Among regions them, are Lanzhou,located in Chengduthe Qinba andmountain Chongqing area, areJinsha large river cities; dry the hot other valley, regions Sichuan are locatedhilly area in the, and Qinba other mountain poverty- area,stricken Jinsha or minority river dry areas. hot valley, (iii) SichuanEnterprises hilly in area,Lanzhou and otherand Chengdu poverty-stricken are more or concentrated. minority areas. Enterprises (iii) Enterprises in Chengdu in Lanzhou are mainly and Chengduconcentrated are morein the concentrated. main urban Enterprisesarea and the in ChengduJintang C areounty, mainly located concentrated in the east in the of main Longquan urban areaMountain and the. Enterprises Jintang County, in Lanzhou located are in themainly east concentrated of Longquan in Mountain. its main Enterprisesurban area intoo Lanzhou. Compared are mainlywith other concentrated capital cities in itssuch main as Kunming, urban area Wuhan too. Compared, and Chongqing, with other the capital number cities of suchenterprises as Kunming, in the Wuhan,above two and cities Chongqing, is obviously the number higher. of In enterprises recent years, in the the above development two cities isof obviouslyenterprises higher. in Mianyang, In recent years,Deyang the, and development Ziyang near of enterprisesChengdu has in Mianyang,also been rapid, Deyang, which and has Ziyang become near the Chengdu representative has also of been the rapid,olive industry which has in become a megacity the representative city and its surrounding of the olive industry areas. In in the a megacity above 9 cityareas, and o itslive surrounding companies areas.are further In the concentrated above 9 areas, in olive 11 companiesplaces. They are are further Longnan concentrated of Gansu; in11 Shiyan places. of They Hubei; are LongnanMianyang, of Gansu;Panzhihua Shiyan and of Liangshan, Hubei; Mianyang, Guangyuan, Panzhihua Dazhou, and and Liangshan, Chengdu Guangyuan, of Sichuan; Dazhou, Lijiang, andChuxiong, Chengdu and of Sichuan;Diqing of Lijiang, Yunnan Chuxiong,; and the andprovince Diqing-level of Yunnan; municipality and the of province-levelChongqing. The municipality distribution of of Chongqing. the olive Theenterprises distribution in the of above the olive 11 areas enterprises is shown in thein Table above 6.11 areas is shown in Table6. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 10 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

Figure 6. Scatter point map of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 6. Scatter point map of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 6. Scatter point map of the olive enterprises in China.

Figure 7. Thermal map of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 7. Thermal map of the olive enterprises in China. Figure 7. Thermal map of the olive enterprises in China. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 11 of 19

From Table7, we can see that the distributions of the olive enterprises in Chuxiong, Longnan, and Chongqing are very concentrated. The number of enterprises in Longnan is not only ranked ﬁrst, but also far exceeds the total of the other 10 regions, reaching 1250, and its olive industry is mainly concentrated in Wudu area. Wudu alone has 1148 enterprises, the other 2 counties of Wenxian and Dangchang in Longlan have 80 and 18 companies respectively.

Table 7. Distribution of olive enterprises in the typical 11 areas.

Number of the Number of the Number of the Cities Counties Having Main Development Counties Total Counties Olive Enterprises Olive Enterprise Chuxiong 2 10 62 Yongren Longnan 5 9 1250 Wudu, Wenxian Chongqing 9 38 454 Fengjie, Hechuan Chengdu 5 20 38 Jintang Diqing 3 3 113 Shangri-La, Deqin Dazhou 2 7 11 Kaijiang, Xuanhan Lijiang 5 5 74 Yulong, Yongsheng Shiyan 7 8 74 Yunyang Guangyuan 5 7 31 Lizhou, Qingchuan Mianyang 5 9 18 Youxian, Santai Panzhihua & Liangshan 14 22 115 Xichang, Huili, Huidong, Puge

Chuxiong has 62 enterprises, which are mainly distributed in Yongren County (61). The total development area of Yongren county is about 7600 hectares, and its olive industry has been strongly supported by the government in Yunnan. Before 2010, the first large-scale planting base in Yunnan had been built in Yongren, with an area of about 133.3 hectares. In 2015, the planting area was expanded to more than 1300 hectares, and about 6600 hectares of planting area in the future of 2020 were planned. Most of the olive enterprises in Yongren are family farms, planting bases, and other sole proprietorships. Thus, the development of Yongren needs to further strengthen the role of the leading enterprises. Diqing is another one key area of poverty alleviation in Yunnan, thus there are more than 100 olive businesses in this area, but their scales are generally small. The enterprises in Chongqing are concentrated in nine counties. The number of the total is 454. Among them, 417 are located in Fengjie County, and another 27 are registered in Hechuan County. The local government of Fengjie planned to develop 10,000–13,000 hectares of olive forest, and has completed the development of 1500 hectares by 2017. There are 38 enterprises in Chengdu, and 33 of them are registered in Jintang County. The olive development of Chengdu is characterized by a comprehensive development of agricultural tourism. In recent years, the planning and construction of the Tianfu new area has attracted the olive planting into the Shuangliu, Hua Yang, and other counties in the Tianfu new area, but their development goals are not to produce olive oil, but to form landscape or scenery by planting olive trees and other ornamental flowers and trees, and building traditional European architectures. As a typical area for the development of olive industry around a megacity in recent years, Jintang county has gradually taken the road of comprehensive development of the olive rural tourism, olive culture, and olive oil processing experience, relying on Chengdu’s huge tourist market. Jintang has planned to develop olive growing area of about 6600 hectares, and by 2017, it has achieved about 3000 hectares. The enterprises in Dazhou, Sichuan are mainly concentrated in Kaijiang and Xuanhan County, and the number of the enterprises is relatively small, with a total of 11. Six of them are in Kaijiang and the other five enterprises are in Xuanhan. Guangyuan and Mianyang are closely related in Sichuan. The number and distribution of olive enterprises in these two places is also very similar. However, Guangyuan has become the key object of the overall planning of poverty alleviation in the Qinba Mountains and Daba Mountains in recent years because of the high pressure on poverty alleviation in the local mountainous counties, such as Qingchuan. Therefore, the number of the olive enterprises in Guangyuan is more than that of Mianyang. The enterprises in Mianyang mainly concentrated in Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 12 of 19 its main city area of Youxian and the Santai County. Led by the local leading enterprises, an annual production and processing capacity of more than 3000 tons of olive oil has been formed in Mianyang. Panzhihua and Liangshan are the most important introduction and development zones for olives in Sichuan as they have a large suitable area for olive cultivation. The introduction and development of olives in these two areas not only has a long history, but also plays an important role in local poverty alleviation. Thus, the policy support is great, which results in a relatively large number of counties involved in the development of olive. It is interesting that the number of the enterprises in Lijiang and Shiyan is equal to 74. Furthermore, Lijiang has been supported by the industrial capital and technologies from Longnan, Gansu. Gansu’s Garden City Co., Ltd., one of the leading enterprises in Longnan, has completed its capital output in Lijiang, and has registered and put into operation the two branches of Lijiang Garden City and Shangri-La Garden City. The experience, capital, and technologies from Gansu, combined with the local policies and the important geographical location of Lijiang, might be expected to lead to the further development of olive, driven by the consumption of its famous leisure tourism. Shiyan is located in Hubei Province and the introduction and development of olive tree in Hubei is early, and the experience accumulated in Hubei is expected to play an active role. Shiyan has a geographical position in Qinba mountain area, thus it is now regarded as the ‘new continent’ of olive developing outside of Sichuan, Yunnan, and Gansu.

3.4. Development Potential According to the land resources needed for olive development, there are some limitations in the development of olive industry in Wudu County of Longnan city, Gansu province. The land suitable for planting olives in Longnan is rather limited to its low elevation area along the Bai Longjiang River. There are about 19 thousand hectares suitable for olive trees in Wudu, and the total area of the entire Longnan is about 20 to 30 thousand hectares. Even with the development of the very limited suitable land in the Kang County and the Li County, the total area of the suitable development of olives in Longnan is also difﬁcult to exceed 50 thousand hectares. By 2017, the area of olive planting in Longnan has reached 40 thousand hectares [20]. In order to meet the needs of a variety of operations, some land will continue to be planted with pepper and other economic crops, so the actual planting area will be lower. Longnan’s olive industry, due to the limit of the scale of the land, will be developing towards the direction of optimizing the product structure and improving the brand. The further improvement of olive industry in China might require the development of other regions especially Liangshan, Dali, Chuxiong, and Lijiang along the dry and hot valleys of the Jinsha River. An overview of the potential of olive planting in the main districts and counties is shown in Table8.

Table 8. Potential of olive planting in the main districts and counties.

Cultivated Area Planned Area Percentage of District & County City & Province (Hectare) (Hectare) Completion (%) Yongren 4000.00 7600.00 52.63% Chuxiong, Yunnan Wudu 25,000.00 33,000.00 75.76% Longnan, Gansu Wenxian 8000.00 17,333.33 46.15% Longnan, Gansu Dangchang 1866.67 2400.00 77.78% Longnan, Gansu Fengjie 3000.00 13,333.33 22.50% Chongqing Hechuan 1333.33 4000.00 33.33% Chongqing Jintang 3000.00 6666.67 45.00% Chengdu, Sichuan Shangri-La 1333.33 6666.67 20.00% Diqing, Yunnan Deqin 400.00 Nodata No data Diqing, Yunnan Kaijiang 5466.67 6666.67 82.00% Dazhou, Sichuan Yulong 3333.33 13,333.33 25.00% Lijiang, Yunnan Yongsheng 1666.67 5000.00 33.33% Lijiang, Yunnan Shiyan 2666.67 6666.67 40.00% Hubei Qingchuan 5733.33 6666.67 86.00% Guangyuan, Sichuan Lizhou 666.67 2400.00 27.78% Guangyuan, Sichuan Mianyang 2000.00 13,333.33 15.00% Sichuan Liangshan 2000.00 66,666.67 3.00% Sichuan Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 13 of 19

According to Table 8, the planting area of olives in these 17 districts has exceeded 70 thousand hectaresAccording, which toaccounts Table8 ,for the 33.75% planting of areathe total of olives planned in these area 17 for districts more than has exceeded206 thousand 70 thousand hectares inhectares, the next which few years. accounts Among for 33.75% them, ofthe the development total planned degree area forof moreQingchuan, than 206 Wudu, thousand and Kaijiang hectares Dangchangin the next fewis at years. the highest Among level them,, reached the development 86, 82, 75.76 degree, and 77.78% of Qingchuan,, respectively Wudu,. Wudu and Kaijiang is very closeDangchang to its development is at the highest limit, level, and reachedthe increase 86, 82, in 75.76,the area and of 77.78%, future respectively.olive planting Wudu in Longnan is very mightclose to depend its development mainly on limit, Wenxian. and the increaseThe other in themain area planting of future areas olive, plantingexcept Longnan in Longnan, ranked might accordingdepend mainly to the on Wenxian.relative Thedevelopment other main potentia plantingl areas,(unfinished except Longnan,percentage ranked) are: according Liangshan to the> Mianyangrelative development > Shangri-La potential > Fengjie (unfinished > Yulong percentage)> Li Zhou > are:Hechuan/Yongsheng Liangshan > Mianyang > Shiyan > Shangri-La > Jintang > WenxianFengjie > Yulong> Yongren. > Li ZhouThe main > Hechuan/Yongsheng planting areas ranked > Shiyan according > Jintang to the > Wenxian absolute > Yongren.development The potentialmain planting (unfinished areas rankedplanned according cultivation to thearea absolute) are as developmentfollows: Liangshan potential > Mianyang (unfinished > Fengjie planned > Yulong>cultivation Wenxian area) are > Wudu as follows: > Shangri Liangshan-La > Shiyan > Mianyang > Jintang > Fengjie > Yongren > Yulong> > Yongsheng Wenxian > Hechuan > Wudu > lizhouShangri-La > Kaijiang > Shiyan > Qingchuan > Jintang >> YongrenDangchang. > Yongsheng Liangshan >nn, Hechuan Sichuan > province lizhou > Kaijiangis the most > Qingchuanpromising area> Dangchang. for olive Liangshannn,production and Sichuan processing. province Yulong is the and most Fengjie promising also areahave for the olive great production potential andfor futureprocessing. development. Yulong and Although Fengjie alsoShiyan, have Jintang, the great Wenxian potential, and for futureYongren development. have completed Although 40–50% Shiyan, of theirJintang, total Wenxian, planned and area Yongrens, they havestill completedhave considerable 40–50% ofpotential their total for planned planting areas, and theydevelopment still have becauseconsiderable of their potential large for planned planting or and growing development area. becauseFurthermore, of their Figure large planned 8 shows or growingthe relative area. developmentFurthermore, Figurepotential8 shows (unfinished the relative percentage) development of the potential main provinces (unfinished: Sichuan percentage) > Chongqing of the main > Yunnanprovinces: > Hubei Sichuan > >Gansu, Chongqing as well > Yunnan as the >absolute Hubei >development Gansu, as well potential as the absolute (unfinished development planned cultivationpotential (unfinished area) ranking planned: Sichuan cultivation (83,533.34 area) ha) ranking: > Yunnan Sichuan (22 (83,533.34,266.67 ha) ha) > Gansu > Yunnan (17 (22,266.67,866.66 ha) ha) > Chongqing> Gansu (17,866.66 (13,000 ha)ha) >> ChongqingHubei (6666.67 (13,000 ha). ha) The > Hubei geographical (6666.67 distributions ha). The geographical of the cultivated distributions areas andof the the cultivated potentials areas are also and shown the potentials in Figure ares 9 alsoand shown10. in Figures9 and 10.

100.00% 102400.01 100000 90.00%

80.00% Cultivated area（Hectare） 80000 % ） 66.12% （） 70.00% Planned area Hectare （（） Percentage of completion % 60.00% 60000 52733.33 50.00% 40.00% 40.00% 40000 34866.67 32.53% 33000 25.00% 30.00%

18866.67 18.42% 20000 17333.33 20.00%

10733.33 completion of Percentage 6666.67 10.00% 4333.33 2666.67 0 0.00% Gansu Yunnan Chongqing Sichuan Hubei

FigureFigure 8 8.. TheThe status status and and potential potential of olive olive planting planting in the main provinces provinces..

In recent years, Chinese researchers have done some work about the quality, yield, and their In recent years, Chinese researchers have done some work about the quality, yield, and their relationship identification for the introduced varieties and locally bred varieties [21]. Olive mill relationship identification for the introduced varieties and locally bred varieties [21]. Olive mill wastewater (OMW) arises from the production of olive oil in olive mills. It is produced seasonally wastewater (OMW) arises from the production of olive oil in olive mills. It is produced seasonally by a large number of small olive mills scattered throughout the olive oil-producing areas [22]. by a large number of small olive mills scattered throughout the olive oil-producing areas [22]. Chinese researchers attempted to solve this problem by making olive wine [23,24]. The Chinese researchers attempted to solve this problem by making olive wine [23,24]. The corresponding corresponding products have been produced and gained benefits in the local market of Gansu and products have been produced and gained benefits in the local market of Gansu and Sichuan Sichuan province [25,26]. As olive trees were planted in the subtropical and temperate monsoon province [25,26]. As olive trees were planted in the subtropical and temperate monsoon climate climate regions of China, their fruit oil content is usually lower than those of Mediterranean origin, regions of China, their fruit oil content is usually lower than those of Mediterranean origin, but but the volume of fruit, the pulp rate, and content of the olive polyphenols were relatively higher the volume of fruit, the pulp rate, and content of the olive polyphenols were relatively higher [27]. [27]. Therefore, the comprehensive development of table olive, oil, and leaf has gradually become Therefore, the comprehensive development of table olive, oil, and leaf has gradually become the the consensus of the Chinese olive industry and academic circles in recent years. However, as table consensus of the Chinese olive industry and academic circles in recent years. However, as table olive cultivation and deep processing has become an internationally modernized industry, the olive cultivation and deep processing has become an internationally modernized industry, the related related scientific output is so abundant and the product is very rich; but for Chinese consumers, scientific output is so abundant and the product is very rich; but for Chinese consumers, table olive table olive products are extremely limited and less. According to the statistics of International Olive products are extremely limited and less. According to the statistics of International Olive Council, Council, China has an annual olive oil import of 30,000 to 40,000 tons, which far exceeds the import of table olives [28,29]. This is mainly because foreign table olive products are mostly slightly salty Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 14 of 19

China has an annual olive oil import of 30,000 to 40,000 tons, which far exceeds the import of table Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19 olives [28,29]. This is mainly because foreign table olive products are mostly slightly salty pickles with picklesa soft mouth-feel,with a soft which mouth does-feel, not which completely does satisfynot completely the demands satisfy of Chinese the deman consumers.ds of ThroughChinese consumers.the Chinese Through Journal the Full-Text Chinese Database Journal (CJFD),Full-Text we Database found that (CJFD) studies, we onfound olives that in studies China on date olives back into China 1964. Thedate SCI back papers to 1964 from. The China SCI thatpapers report from olive China studies that report date back olive to studies 2001 [30 date], but back the to number 2001 [30of] papers, but the has number increased of paper at a relativelys has increased low rate. at a Duringrelatively the low past rate. few During years, the numberpast few ofyears, research the numberpapers involvingof research olive papers trees involving and olive olive oil has tree increaseds and olive significantly oil has increased to cater tosignificantly the increased to cater demand to thein theincreased olive market demand due in to the the olive interests market shown due by to Chinese the interest consumerss shown for by Mediterranean Chinese consumers diets as wellfor Medias theterranean wide-scale diets acceptance as well as of the Western-style wide-scale acceptance foods. However, of Western the SCI-style papers foods. published However, by the Chinese SCI papersscholars published have just mainlyby Chinese focused scholars on the have introduction just mainly and the focused cultivation on the of oliveintroduction trees as well and as the the cultivationextraction of valuableolive trees pharmaceuticals, as well as the extraction the identification of valuable of olive pharmac oil, andeuticals organic, the components, identification rarely of oliveinvolving oil, and specific organic processing components, issues. rarely The SCIinvolving papers specific from China processing mainly issues. involved The theSCI following papers from four Chinaaspects: mainly (1) introduction involved andthe cultivation,following (2)four pharmaceutical aspects: (1) value,introduction (3) component and cultivation, analysis, and (2) (4) pharmaceuticalsocial events. In value, spite of(3) somecomponent increase analysis, in the recent and (4) number social ofevents. domestic In spite research of some papers, increase most in of the the recentresearch number results of for domestic planting research and product papers, processing most of of the olives research in Chinese results monsoon for planting climate and regions product are processingabundant. of However, olives in most Chinese of them monsoon were notclimate translated regions into are otherabundant languages. However, such asmost English of them and w wereere notnot translated submitted into to any other international languages journals. such as If English they were and written were innot English, submitted more to researchers any international might be journals.concerned If they about were the progresswritten in of English Chinese, more research researchers and development might be concerned of olives. Inabout 2016, the China’s progress Olive of ChineseIndustry research Innovation and Strategicdevelopment Alliance of olives (COIISA). In 2016 was, founded,China’s Olive which Industry might facilitate Innovation the Strategic exchange Allianceand cooperation (COIISA) of was Chinese founded, research which institutions might facilitate with authoritative the exchange bodies and suchcooperation as the International of Chinese researchOlive Council institutions [31]. with authoritative bodies such as the International Olive Council [31].

Distribution of the cultivated areas (hectares) in the main districts and counties. FigureFigure 9 9.. Distribution of the cultivated areas (hectares) in the main districts and counties.

As most of the scientific output concerning olives in China has been published in Chinese journalsAs, mosttheir ofcontent the scientiﬁc is often output related concerning to rural olivespoverty in Chinaalleviation has been and publishedprosperity in and Chinese their journals, topics havetheir included: content is (1) often market related and to policies, rural poverty (2) introduction alleviation and prosperitycultivations and, (3) their international topics have exchange, included: (5)(1) olive market fruits, and olive policies, oil, (2)olive introduction cannel, olive and wine, cultivations, table olive, (3) internationalas well as the exchange, comprehensive (5) olive benefit fruits, sucholive as oil, intercropping olive cannel, oliveand breeding wine, table and olive, even as olive well as eggs the comprehensive(from a hen who beneﬁt has eaten such asolive intercropping fruit). In theand future, breeding more and studies even olive might eggs be (from needed a hen on who fruit has eatenharvesting. olive fruit). With Inthe the expansion future, more in studiesolive cultivation areas in China, the focus of studies might shift from introduction and cultivation to harvesting and processing. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 15 of 19 might be needed on fruit harvesting. With the expansion in olive cultivation areas in China, the focus ofSustainability studies might2018, 10 shift, x FOR from PEER introduction REVIEW and cultivation to harvesting and processing. 15 of 19

Figure 10.10.Distribution Distribution of of the the non-planted non-planted planned planned areas areas (hectares) (hectares) in the mainin the districts main anddistricts counties. and counties. 4. Discussion 5. Discussion Since the 1964 introduction and development of olives in China, more than 60 years have passed. Since the 1964 introduction and development of olives in China, more than 60 years have Before 1964, the experimental introduction areas were concentrated in the cities of Nanjing, Kunming, passed. Before 1964, the experimental introduction areas were concentrated in the cities of Nanjing, Chengdu and some other provincial capital cities. In 1964, the planned large-scale productive Kunming, Chengdu and some other provincial capital cities. In 1964, the planned large-scale introduction was concentrated in Liuzhou, Guilin, Kunming, Chongqing, Dushan, and other places in productive introduction was concentrated in Liuzhou, Guilin, Kunming, Chongqing, Dushan, and the southwest regions of China, it has since expanded to 15 provinces, chartered cities, and autonomous other places in the southwest regions of China, it has since expanded to 15 provinces, chartered regions in the south and north of China. If we compare the introduction process of olive and other cities, and autonomous regions in the south and north of China. If we compare the introduction crops—such as pumpkin, watermelon, and capsicum—in China, the main features of the introduction process of olive and other crops—such as pumpkin, watermelon, and capsicum—in China, the and development of olives could be found as the follows: the sources, targets, and routes of olive main features of the introduction and development of olives could be found as the follows: the germplasm resources are clearly distinguishable; the planned introductions had been supported by sources, targets, and routes of olive germplasm resources are clearly distinguishable; the planned the power of modern sciences and technologies accompanied by top-down cultural communication introductions had been supported by the power of modern sciences and technologies accompanied and political propaganda, which showed or annotated the national strength of the New China and had by top-down cultural communication and political propaganda, which showed or annotated the the symbolic meaning of national integration; the selection and distribution of the introduction points national strength of the New China and had the symbolic meaning of national integration; the in the plan were obviously attached to the southern provinces and avoided the northern ones, but the selection and distribution of the introduction points in the plan were obviously attached to the spontaneous technological diffusion between regions has countered this tendency. As an example, southern provinces and avoided the northern ones, but the spontaneous technological diffusion Shaanxi and Gansu were not in the planned areas in the large-scale introduction in 1964. However, between regions has countered this tendency. As an example, Shaanxi and Gansu were not in the the spontaneous introductions in Shaanxi and the spontaneous technology diffusion and cultural planned areas in the large-scale introduction in 1964. However, the spontaneous introductions in exchange between Shaanxi and Gansu were the important reasons leading to the emergence of Gansu Shaanxi and the spontaneous technology diffusion and cultural exchange between Shaanxi and later. From big cities such as Nanjing, Beijing, and Wuhan to the western counties such as Wudu, Gansu were the important reasons leading to the emergence of Gansu later. From big cities such as Yongsheng, et al., there have been obvious regional changes and evolutions in such a long period of Nanjing, Beijing, and Wuhan to the western counties such as Wudu, Yongsheng, et al., there have olive cultivation and development in China. However, studies on this history and the differences and been obvious regional changes and evolutions in such a long period of olive cultivation and causes between different regions are relatively limited, though they are so obvious. In order to explore development in China. However, studies on this history and the differences and causes between the reasons of regional differences and seek methods leading to more efﬁciency, more studies on the different regions are relatively limited, though they are so obvious. In order to explore the reasons regional changes should be carried out. The main driving forces and resistances to the introduction of regional differences and seek methods leading to more efficiency, more studies on the regional and development of olives in China should be summed up too. changes should be carried out. The main driving forces and resistances to the introduction and development of olives in China should be summed up too. According to our analysis, the introduction of olive trees in China has experienced its evolution for more than half a century, but most of the olive growing areas in China are still at the initial stage of agricultural industrialization, especially when talking about the scales of the olive enterprises and their products. As an economic crop, olive oil or table olives lacked normal trade Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 16 of 19

According to our analysis, the introduction of olive trees in China has experienced its evolution for more than half a century, but most of the olive growing areas in China are still at the initial stage of agricultural industrialization, especially when talking about the scales of the olive enterprises and their products. As an economic crop, olive oil or table olives lacked normal trade and consumption channels in China before 2000, and the consumption of olive oil and other related products in China was also very limited for such a long time. Thus, olive planting was disastrous in the 1990s because it could not produce enough benefits for the farmers, and especially could not bring short term economic benefits. Since the implementation of the policy of reform and opening up in China, especially since the beginning of this century, the industrialization development of olives in China has changed from the initial comprehensive promotion to the key development in the western areas because of stimulus from the imported olive oil. Most of the cultivation seedlings and the production of olives has been concentrated in several important areas in Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Chongqing, and Hubei and has contributed to local poverty alleviation and development. However, the business scope of the olive enterprises in these areas is still narrow, which was concentrated on the cultivation and sales of seedlings. Though there are many enterprises engaged in fruit transportation and picking, the number of enterprises engaged in olive oil and its related products is very less; the scale of enterprises is generally small, and the individual or family management of farmers still plays an important role in China’s olive industry. Thus, increasing investment and policies are needed to enhance their capacities for R-&-D and production, as well as the corresponding services. It is fortunate that a few enterprises in Longnan city, Gansu province have begun to invest in planting areas in Yunnan and Sichuan to achieve a multi-channel acquisition of expanded production and olive fruit, which might bring the technology, experience, and lessons of Longnan to other areas in western China. It is undoubted that in the western provinces or regions of China—such as Gansu, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Yunnan, Chongqing, and Hubei—olive cultivation has been used as a corresponding method of the policy of poverty alleviation and as a result, various enterprises of different sizes have been established to gain market benefits. However, when talking about olives, which are as equally important as wine in Mediterranean agriculture and culture, many Chinese consumers only know that it is some plant or tree which can provide olive oil. Furthermore, they might directly express their dislike of table olives because of their flavor, and most Chinese consumers could not recognize the differences between Chinese olives (Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch.) and olives (Olea europaea L.), even though they are more and more enjoying olive oil as it can bring them health and good flavours. In fact, China has a long history of pickle processing as well as a strong culture of fermentation and brewing. Consumers do not feel strange about the healthful fruit pickle, such as table olives, even though they come from Mediterranean countries, but it is necessary to modify the Chinese consumer’s characteristics according to their preferences and to carry out studies on marketing. Studies in China, based on the recognition that Chinese consumers favor sweet fruit products, successfully developed table olive products with Chinese characteristics, such as olive wine, candied olives, olive dairy products, olive jam, and sour and sweet fermented olive fruits. However, few comprehensive and systematic studies have been carried out on these products, and the market feedback has also been limited. The lack of knowledge of olive products for Chinese consumers might be attributed to the lack of industrialization and its related research. By the end of 2017, no domestic study has focused on the business process management (BPM) or life cycle assessment (LCA) of olive production, or producer/consumer decision-making and marketing, which is somewhat associated with the scale of production and processing enterprises and the regional limitations, and is an indication that the production and value chain studies are insufficient. Therefore, more effort needs to be applied to studies on these fields and related microeconomic and market studies are needed too. China, as a non-Mediterranean country, has introduced and cultivated olives successfully, which has been regarded as an achievement in the world history of varietal introduction. However, there is still a huge gap in the scale of production, product quality, and marketing between China and Mediterranean countries. Mediterranean countries, the EU, and the USA are the three major forces Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 17 of 19 in olive R&D. In terms of olive production and corresponding culture, the Mediterranean countries stand out; production from Spain, Greece, and Italy are in the top in terms of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) [32], and the Spanish cultivation areas and production have ranked first in for such a long time. As far as the table olive is concerned, some non-Mediterranean countries such as the USA have played an important role in the olive trade, which somewhat indicates the relatively high quality of their research topics and achievements, and their experiences are worth emulating for Chinese researchers. It is also interesting that the US is faced with a similar bottleneck to China during the promotion of olive planting and industrial expansion due to its monsoon climate (such as in Georgia and Florida), so it is worthwhile for Chinese developers and scholars to communicate with their American peers and learn from their development and research experiences. In recent years, international olive studies have paid more attention to the fields of product processing, sustainability, and olive tourism [33]. In the 10 years of 2004~2014, China’s olive oil imports increased by 792% and maintained an annual growth rate of 10% [34]. With the growth of China’s economy and the increase of the residents’ income, the Chinese consumption group of olive oil might further expand and become a big consumer of olive oil in the near future. IOC has made statistics on the product types of olive oil imported to China. It was found that China’s olive oil products were mainly imported from Europe. Extra virgin and virgin olive oil accounted for about 78% of the total import of olive oil in China, and about 8% was the ordinary olive oil and 14% was the pomace oil. At the same time, Chinese olive oil production has improved. According to the records of IOC, China produced about 5000 tons of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and virgin olive oil (VOO) in 2015~2016, which increased by 75% over 2014~2015. However, olive oil in China only accounts for about 1% of the total consumption of nearly 30 million tons of edible oil per year. The worldwide consumption of olive oil is about 2~3% of the total consumption of nearly 100 million tons of edible oil, of which EVOO accounts for about 1.8%; therefore, if the consumption of olive oil in China reaches 50% of the world’s average level (accounting for 1~1.5% of total edible oil), China will consume about 300 thousand tons to 450 thousand tons of olive oil per year. If the world average is reached, it needs to consume about 600 thousand tons of olive oil per year. As a non-Mediterranean region and a non-Mediterranean climate country, China is not only one of the importers of olive oil, but also a growing country for the cultivation and industrialized development of olive oil. Thus Chinese investigators should carry out socio-economic studies at the microcosmic levels and take the initiative to innovate the products by cooperating with people in the worldwide olive indutry. This will allow them to tap the potential of Chinese consumers for olives and to develop the Chinese olive industries for use of the oil, fruits, and leaves. With the further deepening of Chinese people’s understanding of olives and their function and culture, Chinese society is expected to bring about innovations in consumption concepts, research methods, development ideas, production methods, and health standards through the consumption and study of olive oil and its related knowledge. China’s olive oil markets and olive industries might both have a bright future.

5. Conclusions China’s introduction of olives has spanned more than half a century. As a result, some western provinces such as Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Chongqing and Hubei succeeded to develop their olive industries, and the olive sector began to play an important role in the economic and social development of western China. However, the planting areas of olives in China have changed signiﬁcantly. The experimental introduction sites before 1964 were distributed in the big cities along the Yangtze River. After 2001, olives’ cultivation and industrialization were concentrated in some western provinces. Nine centralized hot areas have been formed in China. In these 9 areas, Olive companies are concentrated in 11 places. As Wudu County, Gansu province is very close to its development limit, the increase in the area in the future in Gansu will depend mainly on Wenxian county. The other main planting areas except Longnan ranked according to the relative development potential are: Liangshan > Mianyang > Shangri-La > Fengjie > Yulong > Li Zhou > Hechuan/Yongsheng > Shiyan > Jintang > Wenxian > Yongren. The main planting areas ranked according to the absolute development potential Sustainability 2018, 10, 1426 18 of 19 are as fellows: Liangshan > Mianyang > Fengjie > Yulong> Wenxian > Wudu > Shangri-La > Shiyan > Jintang > Yongren > Yongsheng > Hechuan > lizhou > Kaijiang > Qingchuan > Dangchang.

Author Contributions: J.S. and C.S. conceived and designed the research; J.S. and W.Z. analyzed the data; L.P. contributed analysis tools; J.S. and C.S. wrote the paper. Acknowledgments: This work is supported by the International Cooperation Project of Sichuan Provincial Science and Technology Department, P.R.C (2013HH0017) and the Youth Program Special Fund of Central Colleges and Universities Basic Scientific Research Expenses of the Southwest Minzu University (2017NZYQN21). Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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