MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

September 2016 Neeti Daftari

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Neeti Daftari Author and Head Researcher

Neeti has been associated with The Aangan Trust since 2004 in various different capacities, and is currently Head - Knowledge and Impact. Along with being a qualified Clinical Psychologist, she is a Commonwealth Scholar and has a Master’s degree in Social Policy & Development from the London School of Economics. With core expertise in child rights and protection, Neeti’s experience spans program design, project management, monitoring and evaluation, program scale- up, and advocacy. She has also undertaken significant national-level social policy and programmatic research for statutory bodies, national and international NGOs. She has been awarded numerous international fellowships, and is an international trainer and facilitator in human rights.

Field Researchers 1 Adyasha Mahanti - Sonaghar Madhavi Kalbele - Pritampur Sharib Mohammad - Amalganj Dipika Rohra - Darukhana Santosh Kanaujia - Sultankot

1 Some community location names have been changed to protect identities and maintain confidentiality

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FOREWORD

As this powerful study notes: “India’s heaving cities epitomize disparity… the poverty of many is …obscured by the flashy display of the wealthy few”. One aspect of this obscurity is the dramatic neglect of egregious child protection issues pervasive in urban India. As rural to urban migration accelerates, so does the concentration of extreme poverty and child vulnerability within cities. Over half the children living amongst the urban poor are stunted, over one third do not attend school and chronic exposure to violence, crime, and sexual and labor exploitation are endemic. At a time when cities all over India are embracing global corporate culture including gleaming high tech offices and luxurious residential and recreational facilities with a vengeance, this bleak backdrop of child suffering, deprivation and abuse is not just evidence of complacency but of complicity. The political and civic will necessary to reverse this dire status quo depends on a range of factors. Key among them is the production of compelling and evidence based arguments that dispassionately document what is wrong or not working and that rationally address and describe strategies for change.

Aangan’s new study is a masterly contribution to this urgent process. With impressive clarity and meticulous care, “Minor Issues in Major Cities” marshals a wealth of new quantitative and qualitative data gathered from five urban slum neighbourhoods in as many states. From Bhubaneswar to Patna, Varanasi, Bhopal and Mumbai, the report documents the interwoven factors that contribute to child vulnerability and the key resources needed to reverse it. Drawing on a holistic public health model that combines issues of physical safety, access to healthcare, familial and relational support and social and economic rights, the report builds a rigorous and comprehensive picture of what is needed to move forward in the field of child protection in urban India today. It combines quantitative analysis with powerful qualitative reporting. We learn that 75% of children experience verbal and physical abuse within their homes and that most of their families are unable to afford their basic needs. We read about children hacked to death because of a father’s debt, or under-vaccinated because of the inaccessibility of primary health care or eating from garbage dumps. But we also learn of innovative and strategic solutions – from the construction of makeshift collective usage toilets to afford girls a modicum of sanitation safety and privacy, to participatory approaches that give children a say and build collective negotiating strength, to integrated child programming that sets a high goal but needs more robust and coordinated support to fully succeed. The product of meticulous research and intelligent editing, “Minor Issues in Major Cities” is an invaluable tool and data source for those concerned with one of the most egregious and complex human rights challenges facing contemporary India today. I commend it to all those eager to contribute to a more equitable and inclusive future for India’s cities and the millions of children for whom they are home.

Jacqueline Bhabha FXB Director of Research; Professor of the Practice of Health and Human Rights Harvard University, Cambridge, MA

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PREFACE

Aangan’s preoccupation with preventing child harm started when we first came face to face with traumatized children in government shelter homes. These were children who had seen and experienced brutality, exploitation, abandonment, loss - more tragedy than any human being, and certainly no child, should ever have to know about let alone experience. As our work deepened over the years and spread across 16 states where we worked with state governments to implement standards of care that might somehow mitigate the harm done and restore children back to family and to wholeness, we knew that what we were dealing with was just the tip of the iceberg. So when children we were working with went back home, we started to follow some of them in order to understand what had brought them here to begin with. We wanted to know what could have been done to prevent harm in the first place, and what we could do to prevent its recurrence.

What followed were community programs in urban bastis (slum settlements) with groups of adolescent girls and boys, engagement with their families and all too often inert government authorities. We gained a deep understanding of the ways in which family vulnerability and insecurity, social exclusion, the lack of access to even the most basic services, all came together to create situations of extreme risk for children. We learned how heavily stacked the odds are against children raised in families forever poised on the brink of catastrophe, in fractured communities battling for survival on contested land, adopting strategies to subsist that more often than not drove them further into ruin.

City governance structures are complicated labyrinths where multiple authorities exist and accountability is opaque, rendering them impenetrable and unapproachable especially to those most desperately in need. Moreover, there is resistance to acknowledging the monumental scale of the problems poor people face. Over the years, we have found ourselves far too many times trying to convince a city official who refuses to accept that a particular child protection violation – for example, andmost notably, child marriage – is rampant in cities and actually does warrant the allocation of personnel and resources to combat it. Far too many times we have found ourselves hitting a stonewall as we try to convince a policy maker that urban slum settlements are today both the source as well as the destination for child trafficking, and require interventions that account for this.

The urban slum is a dangerous place for a child to grow up in. We believe that what is first required is the recognition of these settlements as high-risk locations – ‘hotspots’ of child harm. This study is intended to do that.

Atiya Bose Executive Director, The Aangan Trust

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CONTENTS

1. Introduction: Setting the Context...... 6

2. Theoretical Framework: The SAFE Model...... 13

3. The Process: Research Methodology, Objectives and Approach...... 16

4. Data Analysis: Urban Poor Neighbourhoods

(I) Sonaghar, Bhubaneswar...... 22

(II) Pritampur, Bhopal...... 41

(III) Amalganj, Patna ...... 65

(IV) Darukhana, Mumbai...... 90

(V) Sultankot, Varanasi...... 119

5. Conclusion: The Big Picture...... 148

6. The Way Forward: Towards a Secure Urban Childhood...... 156

7. Appendices: SAFE Tool Quantitative Data

(I) Appendix 1: Sonaghar, Bhubaneswar...... 164

(II) Appendix 2: Pritampur, Bhopal...... 176

(III) Appendix 3: Amalganj, Patna ...... 189

(IV) Appendix 4: Darukhana, Mumbai...... 201

(V) Appendix 5: Sultankot, Varanasi...... 213

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INTRODUCTION SETTING THE CONTEXT

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The number of children growing up in urban of poverty differs from one slum to the next. areas is continually on the rise. Currently, Each slum neighbourhood has it’s own over 50% of the world’s children live in cities history, economic culture, social protocol, and towns. Of these, about a third are slum and manner of functioning. Community life in dwellers. By 2050, it is estimated that over these neighbourhoods is typically well-defined. 70% of the world’s population will live in urban Each marginalised locality gradually develops areas.2 When compared to the world average, into a unique community setting wherein it’s the level of urbanization in India at about 31% inhabitants are expected to comply with the of the populace is considered to be relatively set communal norms, social and moral order. low. But similar to trends observed around the Some larger slums, especially those that have world, India’s urban population is growing at an a fairly stable population, also establish informal accelerated pace. It currently stands at 377.1 councils in order to resolve intra-slum matters million, displaying an unabated increase from or to represent core slum dweller groups. 0.17% of the total population in 1951 to 31.16% in 2011. National statistics reveal a 3.35% rise Nonetheless, slums are universally viewed as in urban population during the decade of 2001- a physical manifestation of poverty, deprivation 2011 as opposed to a significantly lower 2.10% and exclusion. The UN-Habitat defines a slum increase during 1991-2001.3 Moreover, India’s household as one that lacks one or more of the urban population is projected to further increase following: access to improved water, access to 470 million in 2021 and to a whopping 700 to improved sanitation, secure tenure, durable million by 2041.4 This increasing urbanization housing, and sufficient living area. Disturbingly, has already led to tremendous pressure on a majority of Indian slum settlements satisfy the country’s urban land, civic infrastructure, all five deprivation criteria. The latest definition transport, and open spaces5, in addition to utilized by the Population Census of India a spontaneous and unprecedented swelling to describe a slum states, “A slum is any of slum and squatter settlements. Precarious compact housing cluster or settlement of living conditions in these impoverished slum at least 20 households with a collection of neighbourhoods undoubtedly signify the most poorly built tenements which are mostly pervasive violations of child rights in urban temporary in nature, crowded together usually India. with inadequate sanitary and drinking water facilities and unhygienic conditions.” A similar The slums that have mushroomed across the definition has been adopted by the National country though cannot be clubbed together Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) for its as one homogeneous entity. The experience round surveys. Such settlements with at least 20 households are considered as non-notified slums in India, while those identified as slums by respective municipalities, corporations, 2 UNICEF (2012). The State of the World’s Children 2012: Children in an Urban World. New York: United Nations local bodies or development authorities are Children’s Fund (UNICEF). treated as notified slums.6 Forced evictions of 3 Census of India data (n.d.). Retrieved July 27, 2015, from the Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India illegal slum settlements by state authorities are website: http://censusindia.gov.in a commonly occurring phenomenon in urban 4 MoSPI (n.d.). Retrieved July 20, 2015, from the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India website: http://mospi.nic.in 5 MoHUPA (2013). Urban Statistics: Ministry of Housing and 6 MoUD (2013). Urban Statistics: Status, Issues & Suggestions. Urban Poverty Alleviation (HUPA), NBO. Conference of Central Ministry of Urban Development. Conference of Central and and State Statistical Organisations (COCSSO) Gangtok, Sikkim, State Statistical Organisations (COCSSO) Gangtok, Sikkim, 10‐11 January, 2013 Agenda Item‐4. MoSPI. 10‐11 January, 2013 Agenda Item‐4. MoSPI.

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India. Unfortunately, such moves to ‘tidy up’ parental abuse. For several, migration is a result in significant upheaval and destruction of brave step towards signaling independence; of long-established economic and social support outlining one’s own separate identity.9 Whether networks. forced or voluntary, migration, especially when it involves children, is a risky move that entails Rural to urban migration on account of extreme exposure to social and financial uncertainty, poverty, landlessness, insufficient assets, trafficking, various forms of violence and draughts, environmental disasters, loss of indiscriminate exploitation. livelihood, etc. has indisputably resulted in significant urban expansion in India. When Natural calamities such as cyclones, floods, poor rural migrants enter the city, they are earthquakes, mudslides and extreme weather unable to find affordable housing eventually conditions can wreck havoc in the lives of the leading them to opt for substandard housing already vulnerable slum dwellers. Every year, in squatter settlements. Yet, national statistics rainwater enters dwellings during intense reveal that migration does not constitute the rainfalls destroying possessions and household most important factor in urban growth. About infrastructure; heat waves convert unventilated 20% increase in urban population is attributed tin-sheet covered shacks into heated ovens; to rural-urban migration, while the remaining strong gusts of wind flatten homes made of 80% has been ascribed to natural causes such flimsy material within minutes. Poor drainage as expansion of urban area and growth of the facilities, high population density and narrow existing urban population.7 Nevertheless, a lanes that prevent speedy evacuation further significant number of poor families and child complicate and intensify frequently occurring migrants find their way into urban slums daily. disasters such as fires and floods. Post- disaster, the potential risk of communicable Over 4 million children in India are currently estimated to migrate seasonally, either by diseases spreading is also increased manifold. themselves or with their families.8 While most In such disaster settings, children are amongst move along with their families, a significant the most susceptible to injury and death. proportion of children move within the country Available data reveals that over 75% casualties on their own. Children migrate for reasons in South Asia have been children in recent 10 similar to those of adults. Most children view decades. Similarly, open defecation, which migration to urban areas as an attempt to is a regular and visible feature within urban secure a better life in terms of economic and slums in India, has alarming consequences for employment opportunities. Some others public health due to the high possibility of fecal relocate as a way of escaping low-paying contamination in densely populated slums. and backbreaking agricultural labour, or as Not surprisingly, diarrhea is one of the leading an escape from difficult and unstable family causes of childhood mortality in India, killing circumstances such as death of a parent or an estimated 300,000 under-5 children each

7 MoSPI (n.d.). Retrieved July 29, 2015, from the Ministry of 9 Whitehead, A., Hashim, I. M. & Iverson, V. (2007). Child Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India Migration, Child Agency and Inter-generational Relations in website: http://mospi.nic.in Africa and South Asia. Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty, University of Sussex. 8 ILO & UCW (2010). Joining Forces against Child Labour: Interagency report for the Hague Global Child Labour 10 UNICEF (2012). The State of the World’s Children 2012: Conference of 2010. Geneva: International Labour Organization Children in an Urban World. New York: United Nations (ILO) & Understanding Children’s Work (UCW). Children’s Fund (UNICEF).

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year.11 and girls respectively, as opposed to 75% and 63% in rural areas. But the disaggregated urban India’s heaving cities epitomize disparity, wherein data is revealing in the extreme disparity that it affluence is juxtaposed against poverty. The showcases. Only 61% (boys) and 59% (girls) poverty of many is thus subliminally obscured of the urban poor children attend school, as by the flashy display of the wealthy few. Due against 84% (boys) and 83% (girls) of the urban to this wide inequality, the often quoted urban non-poor child population.12 The prevailing versus rural statistical averages conceal the situation is thus vastly different from what the true picture. Even though most urban child overall urban and rural numbers suggest. Child

NHFS-3 disaggregated data on child nutritional status and school attendance indicators outshine the corresponding rural vulnerabilities encountered in urban slums are indicators, these statistics depict an inaccurate as severe, or sometimes even worse and more picture of children living in urban poverty. widespread than those found in rural areas. Consider taking a closer look for instance, at the disaggregated data on nutritional status and Similarly, there is no denying that the general school attendance of children in the country. amenities available in urban areas far outweigh In urban India, 40% children below age five those provided in rural areas. Unfortunately, years are stunted and 33% are underweight. despite the ‘urban advantage’, slum children These percentages are significantly lower than do not benefit as they are nearly always the rural measurements, which stand at 51% excluded from the most basic provisions and 46% respectively. However, the most and services. These include drinkable water, disadvantaged are the children living amongst electricity, toilets, waste disposal, recreational the urban poor, of who 54% are stunted and spaces, adequate school infrastructure and 47% are underweight. A similar distribution in health care facilities. Factors such as an school attendance is noted. The urban school absence of official identification documents, attendance rates are 77% and 76% for boys direct and indirect service costs, transportation fees etc. additionally serve to exclude the poor.

11 Lakshminarayanan, S. & Jayalakshmy, R. (2015). Diarrheal diseases among children in India: Current scenario and future perspectives. Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine, 6(1), 24-28. 12 National Family Health Survey - 3 (NFHS – 3), 2005-2006

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Poverty and scarcity are further reinforced by academic performance, higher school dropout discrimination on the grounds of religion, caste, rates, anxiety, depression, and lower levels of gender and disability. Marginalized children in self-control.15 urban settings thus confront a daily deprivation of their rights. Such constant deprivations Moreover, children from informal settlements severely impact the psychological health of face a constant threat of eviction. They risk children and adolescents, often giving rise to repeated exposure to a range of health prolonged behavioral and emotional problems. epidemics due to poor nutrition, lower levels of immunization, overcrowding, and insalubrious Exclusion from basic entitlements can lead surroundings. Alcoholism, drug abuse, sexual to feelings of helplessness, frustration and abuse and domestic violence are widespread aggression. A 2007 multi-country study and woven into daily living in slum communities. confirms that the more unequal a society, All too often, children from such deprived the more likely it is to experience higher rates neighbourhoods are additionally pushed into of violence, crime and imprisonment.13 In dangerous or exploitative situations such as most urban slums, children become daily child labour, crime, sex work, early marriage targets, participants or witnesses to crime and teenage pregnancy, which further increase and brutal acts that include assault, murder, their vulnerability. armed robbery, drug trafficking, communal conflict, and domestic violence. Children The growing menace of child trafficking too is a are particularly vulnerable to violence due to grave concern. Children are regularly trafficked lower levels of influence, emotional maturity into Indian cities for labour, prostitution, and physical strength, as compared to begging, drug peddling, sale of organs, adults. Young children’s discernment of thieving, smuggling, forced marriage and illegal what comprises violence or abuse, and their adoption. After drugs and arms trafficking, ability to comprehend such experiences is trafficking of human beings is considered to also limited, putting them at increased risk of be the third largest illegal trade in the world. being perceived as easy targets. Additionally, Child victims of trafficking are the most at- attitudes ingrained from a young age can also risk group for physical, mental, sexual torture play a role. For instance, a high number of and abuse, occasionally leading to irreversible adolescent girls (45%) and boys (47%) aged health problems and even death. A worrying 15 - 19 years in India believe that a husband is trend is the consistent global rise in the number justified in hitting his wife if she argues with her of child trafficked victims that grew from 20% husband, goes out without telling him, neglects in 2003-2006 to 27% in 2007-2010.16 Due to the children, refuses to have sexual relations its clandestine nature, comprehensive data with him or burns the food.14 Violence in its remains difficult to obtain although global and many forms, invariably breeds instability and country-level data reveals that a majority are insecurity. Studies further reveal that chronic trafficked from rural to urban areas. Trafficking exposure to violence is associated with poor often involves kidnapping and abduction of

13 Pickett, K. E. & Wilkinson, R. G. (2007). Child Wellbeing and 15 UNICEF (2012). The State of the World’s Children 2012: Income Inequality in Rich Societies: Ecological cross sectional Children in an Urban World. New York: United Nations study. British Medical Journal, 335(7629), 169–172. Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 14 UNICEF (2014). Hidden in Plain Sight: A statistical analysis of 16 UNODC (2012). Global Report on Trafficking in Persons violence against children. New York: United Nations Children’s 2012. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Fund (UNICEF). New York: United Nations.

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minor victims. In 2014 alone, over 73,000 and full participation in family, cultural and children were reported missing in India, of social life. The UN Millennium Development which nearly 32,000 remain untraced.17 Goals (followed by the post-2015 sustainable Moreover, India is widely believed to produce development goals) too provide several the highest number of child labourers in the practical time-bound and quantified targets world, a large number of who are trafficked into aimed at fulfilling children’s rights across cities and engaged in bonded labour. While the world. In particular, Target 11 in MDG 7 bonded labour has traditionally been rampant known as the ‘Cities without Slums’ initiative in the rural agricultural sector, it has over the is specially focused on improving the lives of past few decades expanded into more urban- millions of slum dwellers by 2020. based segments such as brick kilns, beedi- rolling, carpet weaving, making of fireworks, In its efforts to meet these commitments, matches, silk, synthetic gems etc. Cross- the Indian government has initiated several border trafficking of children for labour and sex missions and schemes. This includes the recent work from the neighbouring countries such as ‘Housing for All by 2022’ mission launched in Nepal and Bangladesh, into urban destinations 2015, and other schemes such as the ‘National in India has also been on the rise. At the same Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM)’, ‘Basic time, child victims from within the country too Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP)’, ‘Integrated are being trafficked via the major cities into Housing and Slum Development Programme countries in the Middle East. Trafficking rackets (IHSDP)’ etc., in addition to revamping existing and gangs have become more organized, child-focused schemes such as the Integrated and their operations have extended to almost Child Development Services Scheme (ICDS). every state in the country.18 Thus, nearly all the Several civil society and other charitable big Indian cities have now become prominent organizations too are actively engaged in source, transit and destination points for programmes aimed at alleviating urban poverty trafficking. and child vulnerability. However, despite the numerous child-oriented initiatives both on the The Constitution of India bestows a special legal as well as policy and programme levels, status to children as deserving of special the condition of urban slum children in India provisions and protection to secure and remains dismal. safeguard the entitlements of ‘those of tender age.’ It directs the State to ensure that children One key factor amongst the many elements are not abused and are given opportunities contributing to this dreary picture is the grossly and facilities to develop in a healthy manner in inadequate and disproportionate Budget for conditions of freedom and dignity. Moreover, Children (BfC) allocated by the Government of the United Nations Convention on Rights of the India. BfC includes the yearly budget estimates Child (UNCRC), ratified by the Government of for all child specific schemes within all the key India in 1992, ensures the rights of all children child sectors of education, health, development to survival, protection from abuse, exploitation and protection. Yet, the average share of BfC and discrimination; development to the fullest; in the Union Budget between 2000-2001 and 2015-2016 has been a miniscule 3.95%, even though children constitute nearly 40% of the 17 National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 2014 country’s population. Shockingly, despite 18 UNODC (2013). India Country Assessment Report: Current worsening child indicators, Child Budget as a Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors proportion of total Union Budget outlays have on Anti Human Trafficking. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). largely declined rather than improved over the

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years. The current year has in fact seen the steepest decline ever in the Government’s financial commitment towards children, with the BfC having plummeted from an already low 4.52% in 2014-2015 to a measly 3.26% of the Union Budget in 2015-2016.19 A BfC analysis over the past decade and a half clearly shows that all four child sectors within BfC are grossly underfunded, with budgetary disbursements that are far too low to fulfill the proposed programmatic requirements.20

The lives of the urban poor are increasingly marked by scarcity, violence and exploitation. The expanding urban population, low urban poor child indices, inadequate government expenditure, inefficient on-ground implementation of schemes, and the continued widening of inequality in access and uptake of vital urban provisions, puts impoverished slums at the center of urban child rights violations. Children born into and raised in these under-resourced communities deserve more focused attention and investment, with solutions designed to include those who are the hardest to reach. This highlights an urgent need to expand our understanding of slum settlements and the child vulnerabilities that spew within, so as to in turn construct the basis for more effective child-centered policy and programmatic interventions aimed towards ensuring the rights of all children within urban settings. To this end, the present study explores the daily life experiences of children and families in diverse long-established, yet impoverished urban settlements. In addition to examining the nature of urban poverty and how it affects children, it elucidates the different adaptive strategies utilized by slum dwellers in their fight for survival, along with the potential implications of these choices.

19 Haq (2015). Politics, paisa or priorities: Where do children fit into the 2015-16 Union Budget? Haq: Centre for Child Rights. 20 Daftari, N. (2013). Status Report on Child Rights in India: An Overview of the Past Decade. Child Rights and You (CRY).

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK THE SAFE MODEL

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THE SAFE MODEL21 and connection to others, and Education and economic security. Of central importance to The present study is rooted in the SAFE model the SAFE model is the concept that insecurity of child protection developed by Dr. Theresa S. in any of these core domains threatens security Betancourt from the Harvard School of Public in the others. Health. Using a rights-based approach and a child development perspective, the model The SAFE model further posits that in the draws from the UN Convention on the Rights face of adverse circumstances, children and of the Child, and models of children and human families adopt survival strategies to cope with security. It provides a holistic framework for the deficits in basic needs represented within examining four fundamental and interdependent these domains. Such survival strategies may domains of child security. These include Safety take on either negative dangerous or positive and protection from harm, Access to health constructive forms. The model holds that care and basic physiological needs, Family dangerous strategies result in harmful

Interdependence of child security needs

21 Betancourt,T. S., et al. (2010). Children affected by HIV/ AIDS: SAFE, a model for promoting their security, health and development. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 15 (3), 243-265. Betancourt,T. S., et al. (2012). Interrelatedness of child health, protection and well-being: An application of the SAFE model in Rwanda. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 1504-1511.

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consequences by putting children at further risk, while constructive or healthy strategies lead to resilient outcomes despite exposure to risk.

The SAFE figure represents the interrelation and interdependence of children’s security requirements. It shows that the wellbeing of children depends on safety, physiological necessities, household and communal relationships, and opportunities for learning as well as securing a future livelihood, with all of these factors being intimately linked to the child’s social environment. The healthy development of children in turn leads to a healthier, more secure, and economically viable community. In acknowledging the interrelated nature of children’s security needs and rights, the SAFE model is therefore as concerned with the maintenance of healthy social relationships, as it is with the provision of physiological and physical security.

THE AANGAN TRUST 15 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums THE PROCESS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, OBJECTIVES AND APPROACH

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The study aims to provide an in-depth evaluation Basic research design and geographical of the daily struggles faced by households scope within the urban Indian slum context and its repercussions on child safety and protection. In order to collect data that is truly representative In addition to furthering research efforts within of the population under study, a community- the child rights space, it is hoped that the based survey method was chosen, with slum evidence-based results of this study will also residents as the primary data source. The help inform child protection policy planning and research plan included extensive quantitative community-based programmatic interventions. and qualitative on-field data collection through A description of the research rationale, tools the use of structured interviews from five urban and process is presented below. slum neighbourhoods having an Aangan presence. The selected neighbourhoods are located in the cities of Bhubaneswar, Bhopal, Patna, Mumbai and Varanasi. Uniqueness and rationale of the present research

Research contributions within the child rights Research tools space has grown by leaps and bounds. A number of community, country and global level The two SAFE survey questionnaires used in research studies on different child vulnerabilities this study are practical applications to assess have been published over the past two the SAFE theoretical framework in settings of decades. However, the present research is the adversity. They outline a comprehensive list of first of its kind, in that it attempts to provide factors critical to the SAFE model, so as to in a detailed grassroots investigation – the study turn provide a comprehensive assessment of not only dwells into the different forms of child child protection within a specific environment. vulnerabilities existent amongst the urban poor To this end, the tools also contain a few within specific identified settlements; but also the sensitive items regarding illegal and sexual surrounding factors, range of circumstances, behavior. While Tool 1 poses questions nature of exclusion, interconnections, trends, regarding the chosen site as a whole, Tool gender-based differences, and the survival 2 puts forth questions that are personal and strategies used by children, families as well as pertaining to the respondent’s own household the community as a whole to overcome poverty- and interaction with the community. The two imposed struggles. This study is thereby likely tools include a combined total of 200 items. to provide a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics through which the different The SAFE Checklist (Tool 1) incorporates urban child vulnerabilities emerge and why the various aspects of the child security they persist. This will in turn help in creating domains discussed in the SAFE model. The more insightful solutions to counter the same. tool begins by putting forth 10 basic questions Moreover, in revealing the community’s existing regarding respondent demographic details. protective resources, social norms, resident It then attempts to reveal the experiences perspectives, and adaptive strategies, it is of children and families residing within a also likely to illuminate a wider pool of potential specific geographical setting through a five- solutions that could contribute towards the part question-set series. Altogether, the five bolstering of child protection in urban areas. sets comprise a total of 110 questions. The

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responses are to be obtained as percentage labour etc., so as to produce a more precise range slots (None: 0%, Few: 1-25%, Some: child vulnerability account. 26-50%, Most: 51-75% and Almost all/ All: 76- 100%) to indicate the estimated percentage of Revelations regarding strategy changes from children and/or families within the given setting one generation to another can provide an insight that are affected by a particular factor or issue. into whether a particular child vulnerability phenomenon is on a rise or decline. In order to The SAFE Adaptive Strategies Scale (Tool identify recent generational trends and common 2) questions the respondents on personal and adaptive strategies relevant to the present household strategies utilized by the respondents community situation, additional qualitative data themselves to cope with the various difficulties is obtained for a few Tool 2 items. These items and obstacles faced in their lifetime. It is thus relate to social/ occupational/ educational central to the SAFE model, as it is aimed at changes and dangerous/ illegal activities. identifying survival strategies undertaken For instance, in addition to giving strategy by individuals and families in response to responses pertaining to one’s own childhood adversity. Divided into six question categories, as required by the tool, respondents are it comprises a total of 80 strategy statements. requested to provide additional responses on Most statements have four response choices the same item statements to gather information (Never, Once, More than once and Not regarding respondent adaptive strategies used applicable) to indicate the frequency of having when pertaining to their own children (e.g., employed a particular adaptive strategy during items 3.19, 4.06 to 4.10, 5.04). Similarly, in one’s lifetime. addition to giving strategy responses pertaining to oneself as required by the tool, qualitative Quantitative and qualitative additions to the information regarding strategies used by other survey tools household members (including both adults and The present study is intended to have a strong children) is also gathered from the respondent qualitative focus so as to generate an in-depth on select item statements (e.g., items 3.03 to narrative of child vulnerability experiences 3.09, 5.09 to 5.13). and community dynamics. The respondent is therefore requested to support all survey item responses with qualitative descriptions and explanations; including instances and Study sample circumstances where applicable. Open- ended and non-leading questions are used The SAFE survey sample includes 30 inhabitants for obtaining this additional information. Such from each of the 5 survey locations, comprising qualitative interviewing will serve towards a total of 150 research respondents. The complementing the rigorous SAFE quantitative selection criteria require the respondent to be data collected. an adult parent residing in the given settlement for a minimum of two years.

Where applicable, gender and/or age Given the purpose of the present study, differentiated quantitative information is conducting SAFE survey interviews on local obtained for a few specific items in Tool 1 that residents has a few advantages over other would benefit from such discernment. These methods or data sources. Firstly, resident items relate to issues such as substance abuse, interviews reveal hidden attitudes, opinions, household chores, violence, education, child

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social norms and local perspectives on The head researcher and author of this study vulnerability issues that would otherwise not conducted one-on-one trainings with each of be revealed through interviews with non- the field researchers prior, during, and post residents such as administrative officials, NGO data collection. Prior to data collection, the representatives etc. Secondly, issues such trainings given covered the content of the as child abuse, child marriage etc. are rarely two SAFE research tools, quantitative and reported to the police or other authorities, qualitative interviewing techniques, probing and are therefore not accurately accounted techniques on sensitive tool items, raw data for in administrative records. Therefore, a entry, and ethical considerations. Specific care review of administrative records is unlikely was taken to ensure that all field researchers to serve the study’s purpose. Thirdly, due to have a uniform understanding of the tool items. social desirability bias and/or the fear of legal A set of qualitative interviewing guidelines implications, it is highly unlikely that households and the frameworks for raw data entry were will self-report child abuse and other instances also provided to the researchers. During the in the event of a door-to-door demographic data collection period, the head researcher survey. However, this fear and bias can be held regular survey update and data review reduced if the information being gathered sessions to address unexpected on-field pertains to the community as a whole, as obstacles and researcher queries. These has been done through tool 1 in the present sessions further served to ensure that the data study. Such an approach is likely to result in collected is consistent and of high-quality. Post more honest responses and numbers closest data collection, a final training was provided on to factual figures. In other words, percentage quantitative data coding and the assimilation of estimates on community prevalence obtained field observations. from urban slum residents i.e. those residing within the population under study, is likely to provide the most accurate prevalence data (percentage data ranges in the tool 1 Data collection and data analysis quantitative questionnaire) when compared to that obtained through other available data The field survey was conducted from October sources. 2014 to February 2015. Local Aangan staff provided the field researchers with access to the community and research respondents. Survey data across the five study locations was Field researcher profile and training collected under the supervision of the head process researcher.

Five field researchers were recruited for the All 150 interviews were conducted individually. specific purpose of collecting data for this Each respondent interview comprised SAFE study, with one researcher being assigned to tool 1, SAFE tool 2 and qualitative questioning. each of the five study locations. All five field Based on availability of space, privacy and researchers hold a post-graduate degree in convenience of the respondents, interviews the social sciences. Each is also well-versed were held either within respondent households in English as well as the local language of the or at Aangan centers. Before initiating each assigned study location. interview, respondents were explained the purpose of the study and assured of anonymity

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in the final report. Due to low literacy levels, the Study Limitations tools were administered verbally in the local colloquial language, with researchers noting The study acknowledges a few limitations. Firstly, down responses verbatim, and later translating a word of caution that the percentages noted in these into English. In some cases, the this report are the mean of majority estimates extensive and lengthy nature of the interview, provided by survey respondents rather than combined with the limited attention span door-to-door obtained demographic statistics. or time constraints of survey respondents, Secondly, while the chosen research methodology necessitated that the researcher conduct reduces the effect of social desirability bias, this a single interview across two-three shorter bias cannot be completely ruled out. Thirdly, even sessions spanning one-three days. Incomplete though the study includes a sizable number of tools or those with a high number of blank respondents from locations across five different responses in Tool 1 (over 10 blank items) were Indian states, the research results cannot be discarded and new respondents were identified considered representative of the country’s urban to achieve the sample target. In addition to the poor as a whole. Rather, the report sheds light on 150 core survey respondents, short informal or previously unresearched community phenomena, unstructured qualitative interviews were also emphasizes both the uniqueness as well as the held with a few children and other community similarities of urban slum circumstances, and adults such as local leaders, shopkeepers, provides a solid basis for understanding the eatery owners etc. to obtain a deeper insight nature and factors surrounding child vulnerability into community functioning. A number of within slum neighbourhoods. popular festivals such as Diwali, Dussehra, Chhath Puja, Muharram etc. celebrated during the year-end resulted in breaks and delays in data collection, as residents were unwilling to participate in the survey during these festival periods. Once the data collection and quantitative response coding were complete, the head researcher along with each of the field researchers, developed extensive qualitative field notes on each study location.

Qualitative data, including quotations from multiple respondents, was then categorized by the head researcher using a process of open coding followed by axial coding, after which location-specific data analysis was initiated. The final SAFE report of each survey location thus includes a combined analysis of both quantitative and qualitative coded data. Overall SAFE conclusions and intervention guidelines were further derived through an evaluation of the five analyzed survey reports.

THE AANGAN TRUST 20 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums DATA ANALYSIS URBAN POOR NEIGHBORHOODS

THE AANGAN TRUST 21 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

SONAGHAR, BHUBANESWAR

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Detailed location-specific quantitative and Sonaghar is informally demarcated into upper qualitative data analyses and findings are basti and lower basti based on caste and presented in the five chapters that follow.22 economic status. It opens up with the upper basti which is viewed by the locals as the superior area with a majority belonging to the i. Community location Maharana caste (SC but higher up in the social classification), gradually splitting into the lower The Sonaghar basti is located within basti dominated by a SC caste population Saheed nagar, an upscale residential area in of traditionally lower denominations (Sahoo, Bhubaneswar that has further transformed Raut, Nayak etc.), and the sub-lower basti - a into a high-street commercial area with several small settlement dominated by the OBC Guni offices and markets. A Saheed nagar address population. While those in the upper area are is amongst the costliest and most sought after into occupations such as carpenter, painter, in the city, dominated by prominent retired drivers, tailors, vegetable/ snack vendors bureaucrats, politicians and business families. etc., people in the lower area primarily work In stark contrast however, this upmarket as domestic maids, sweepers and daily wage area shares its space with a large slum labourers (rod binders, marble labourers, population who largely reside near the Vani construction work etc.). The household Vihar railway station. It comprises of different income typically ranges from Rs. 1500 to Rs. slum settlements identified with names such 12000 per month, depending on the chosen as Telugu basti, Hanuman basti, Birsa Munda occupation, job availability particularly for basti etc. One such basti amongst these is the daily wage labourers, and number of earning Sonaghar basti. members including the number of earning children in each household. People belonging to the Guni caste on the other hand have a very specific role to fulfil in the community. As described by the local residents, the children ii. Community structure, demographics of this caste do not go to school, nor do the and the unwritten code of functioning adults take up jobs, but instead are responsible for ritualistic haircuts post a death, a ritual Sonaghar is a settlement of about 1300 followed by families of certain Hindu sects. households occupied by around 5500- They are considered extremely unhygienic 6000 people and dominated by the Hindu by the locals and are discriminated against. Scheduled Caste. An average of 4-5 members Only a small proportion of the population has lives in each household. A majority of these migrated to Sonaghar over the past ten years. houses are ‘pukka’ i.e. made of bricks and A majority of the people have been residents of cement with an asbestos roof, though a sizable Sonaghar for over ten years, having migrated number are also ‘kacha’ houses made of mud, from various districts of Odisha in search of a providing little protection from extreme weather livelihood. A few are also migrants from Bihar. conditions or floods. The community is located near a railway crossing. A walk through the community reveals a number of very young children wandering aimlessly, unattended by adults, wearing little or no clothes, and covered in dirt. Hygiene of the surroundings is poor with heaps of garbage 22 Some community location names have been changed to protect identities and maintain confidentiality scattered in various places and uncovered

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drains running through the community providing an ideal breeding ground for mosquitoes and flies. The drainage system is extremely inadequate with roads getting flooded in knee-deep water and with water entering houses, particularly in the low-lying areas of the lower basti every year during the monsoon season. Even though there have been recent repairs, the area continues to remain water- logged for several days at a stretch.

Sonaghar in pictures

Open drain Homes and internal lane in Shantipalli

Open heaps of garbage Muncipal water tap

THE AANGAN TRUST 24 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

iii. Water, electricity, toilet and bathing While electricity supply is present in nearly all facilities houses, municipal water supply is limited. All upper basti residents of Sonaghar have access Toilet and bathing facilities are extremely to water through the common water tanks or limited within the community. Less than 1% municipal tap water supply located nearby for households have these facilities within their clusters of households. Residents consider this homes. Only three public toilets (of which one water safe to drink without boiling despite the is practically non-functioning) are available for presence of invisible pollutants. Some lower a population of over 5000, resulting in lengthy basti residents only have access to tube well queues. Moreover, these common toilets have water which is visibly cloudy and unclean. either no latches or broken latches. As a result, However, the residents seem to be unaware even though the public toilets are free to use, of the dangers as most of the respondents almost all residents - adults and children alike indicated that the water available to most practice open defecation by using the nearby children was safe to drink directly from the railway tracks, edges of open drains in the source. The practice of boiling or filtering of this community or the nearby roads in the less busy water is extremely rare in the community thus early morning hours. exposing children to a variety of water-borne illnesses. Bathing also takes place in the open at the Other basic facilities and services within or common municipal water supply taps or the nearby community community hand-pumps. For safety reasons, the community has informally allotted the • Aanganwadi centres: Three within early morning hours to women and girls. Saris Sonaghar and dupattas are draped around sticks in the bathing area every morning with the hope of • Government schools: Saheed Nagar availing at least a minimal level of privacy. In A upper primary school, Saheed the absence of such a makeshift cover, some Nagar B upper primary school, women are forced to take bath in the open Saheed Nagar Vidyalaya (high school) while wearing petticoats. and Debraj Vidyalaya (high school). All schools within a distance of 1 km. Women and girls feel particularly affected Private schools: Aurobindo by these arrangements. As several women Vidyapeeth and Navadisha school respondents shared, “We, married women are used to this, but for young adolescent • Commonly accessed vocational girls, it is extremely unsafe. The saris and courses: Tailoring and Computer dupattas don’t provide much cover. There courses is always a fear of peeping toms, sexual advances and videos taken on the phone. • Commonly accessed Government We are forced to take bath in a hurry hospitals: Anchalik hospital (small- because of this fear. We may belong to the sized regional health centre) and same community but you can never trust Capital hospital (about 1 km and over what goes on in the minds of these men” 5 kms from community respectively) Cases of sexual molestation in the form of exhibitionism by men/boys around public and • Police station: Saheed Nagar police school toilets have also been reported. station

THE AANGAN TRUST 25 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

• Prominent NGOs: World Vision, as well as increases exposure of Aangan Trust, Ruchika children to STDs and STIs.

• Within the community - a combination of substance addiction, dropping out iv. A snapshot of the Sonaghar SAFE of school, use of weapons, ruthless analysis violence, and exposure (as well as numerous opportunities) to engage *Several of the child vulnerability issues in illegal activities such as stealing mentioned below are cross-cutting and presents a dangerous situation for interdependent issues that do not fall under boys not only in terms of immediate one specific dimension. These and other risk but also with a high possibility of community vulnerability aspects are explored them being left with no choice but to in depth through the course of this chapter. enter a life-long path of crime.

Safety and protection Access to healthcare and basic physiological needs • The issues of child prostitution, • Extreme poverty leading to inability to child labour and child marriage that afford nutritious food, resulting in child are prevalent in the community are malnutrition. extremely exploitative of children, leading to a multitude of risks and • Unsafe drinking water, no washing of safety concerns across all four SAFE hands before meals or after urination, dimensions. open drains, scattered heaps of garbage and poor personal hygiene • Open defecation and lack of covered exposes children to a variety of bathing facilities leaves girls at risk of avoidable diseases. sexual harassment, and other forms of violence or exploitation. Management • Government hospitals provide of menstrual needs also becomes affordable but poor services and are problematic. at a distance. Private services and medication are mostly unaffordable, • Natural calamities such as cyclones reducing child access to adequate and floods combined with open health care. drains, poor drainage facilities and inferior household infrastructure often • Illegal abortions by untrained renders people homeless for days practitioners lead to serious health together exposing children to a variety complications and could be fatal. of protection and health risks.

• High levels of substance abuse • Sexual abuse and/or early exposure amongst children, particularly boys to witnessing sexual relations within leads to aggressive behaviour, mental homes leads to children experimenting and physical health risks; and could be with unsafe sex early on without fatal in high doses. adequate knowledge. This results in mental trauma, teenage pregnancies

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Family and connection to others substance dependence, further lowers the possibility of families breaking • Domestic violence, other forms of away from the vicious cycle of poverty. extreme violence against children and extra-marital affairs within homes and • Child prostitution as a form of the community exposes children to livelihood earning in order to bring in dangerous and irresponsible behaviour quick, high amounts of money puts that they learn to perceive as ‘normal’. children at very high risk of HIV and other STDs. • The community and its members as a whole is resilient, helpful, supportive and engaged in caring for vulnerable children. v. Key child vulnerabilities Education and economic security Substance abuse • Low school attendance due to household responsibilities, need to Drug, alcohol and tobacco use amongst assist parents in their occupation, children is a significant problem in Sonaghar. and community distractions, prevents Research reveals that most boys (60%) are children from focussing on study addicted to cannabis (‘ganja’, ‘bhang’) while activities and receiving the full benefits a fewer number are addicted to brown sugar of education. and inject drugs on a regular basis. About 65% boys consume alcohol (a local brand) that is • Early school dropout and child labour cheaply available in the community while about due to poverty, need to contribute 70% smoke bidis and cigarettes and chew to household income, and urge to tobacco. Girls too are addicted to substances fund dangerous learnt habits such as though at a far lower rate. About 10% girls are

Percentage of children who use substances

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addicted to ’khaini’, ‘gutka’ (chewing tobacco) turn a blind eye as they get their own share and ‘handia’ (homemade alcohol made through these rackets. from fermented rice, cheaply sold at several locations around the community). Beyond this mini-brothel that operates from within the community, a few minor girls and Cannabis (ganja, bhang) and tobacco housewives from Sonaghar are also known products are readily available for children to to visit Mali Sahi to engage in commercial purchase through the local ‘paan’ shops in sex work. Few girls and young women Sonaghar at nominal rates of Rs. 5-10, while heavily decked in make-up and jewellery also boys mainly source brown sugar and injectable occasionally operate from the railway crossing drugs through peddlers operating around the that runs adjacent to Sonaghar and doubles up area near the railway station. Boys engaged as a pick-up point. Locals believe that poverty in child labour almost always spend a part of and the lack of job opportunities for men is the their income on substance use. Those who key cause. When households run into debt, are not working often resort to stealing of prostitution is viewed as a source of quick wallets, petrol, footwear from temples, items money where one can earn anywhere from from shops etc. in order to fund these habits; Rs. 3000 to Rs. 8000 per month, an amount several of these substance-addicted boys are higher than that obtainable from most other either school dropouts or if enrolled, regularly occupations practiced by people in Sonaghar. skip school. Further, in addition to a few teenage boys Child prostitution visiting brothels, there is also an indication of boys engaging in sexual activities in return for Although only about 3% of the girls in the money. This information was shared by female community are currently victims of child respondents regarding their younger brothers prostitution, this appears to be a growing (and brothers’ friends) when speaking about trend that requires to be nipped in the bud. their own personal and family household As reported, there is a well-known prostitution strategies of dealing with poverty in Tool 2. racket being run by a middle-aged woman from within the community in her own home. Child labour Respondents state that she prefers to recruit minor girls in the age group of 13-16 years. Child labour is openly practiced in Sonaghar. On the pretext of being her domestic maids, Boys are mainly pushed into occupations such three-five minor girls from Sonaghar reside and as construction work, carpentry, marble labour, operate from her house. Parents of the girls rod binding, street selling, helpers in restaurants/ are given a share of the earnings. It is believed food stalls, as cooks, delivery boys etc., while that she recruits girls and women from outside girls are primarily sent in for domestic maid Sonaghar as well. The lady either arranges for work. Both boys and girls permanently drop out clients within her own house, or sends the girls of school and begin contributing towards the to Mali Sahi, a red light area about 2 kms from family income around the age of 12-13 years. Sonaghar. The clients are largely men from Until this age, many occasionally skip school outside Sonaghar. Young teenage girls from to assist their parents in work or to replace the outside Sonaghar also visit the lady’s house to parent when he/she falls sick –boys assist their attend to clients there. Research respondents fathers at the construction site, hotels etc.; girls stated that such agents or pimps are backed accompany their domestic maid mothers. This by influential people and the police choose to also forms part of their training for future work.

THE AANGAN TRUST 28 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

their earnings to their families in Shanipalli.

Children, particularly boys sometimes as young as 8 years old assist their families in selling items such as street food, newspapers, flowers etc. on the streets near the railway station or temples. In several instances though, boys skip school, steal items and sell them on the street without the knowledge of their parents. A few teenage boy gangs are engaged in pick- pocketing and stealing of petrol from vehicles. Some boys, again without the knowledge of parents, are involved in scavenging items such as bottles and plastic from the nearby alcohol bars or garbage areas, which they later sell to local recycling shops. The purpose of engaging in such activities is to earn a quick buck, so as to sponsor their drug, alcohol, tobacco needs or to purchase ‘luxury’ items such as mobile phones.

Girls working as domestic help in the surrounding posh locality have sometimes Around age 14-16 years, nearly a quarter of been victims of sexual abuse. They work in Sonaghar boys leave their homes mainly to 2-3 households on an average earning less work at construction sites or other labour work, than Rs. 1000 per month. They are expected with the aim of earning a higher salary. While to put in this entire money towards their family several work in Odisha itself in places such household expenses. In order to have some as Bhubaneswar, Puri or Cuttack; some also money of their own, a few girls steal from travel to states such as Chennai or Kolkata to the houses they work in. A few girls from the work as daily wage labourers. As shared by the community are also involved in commercial respondents, there are no agents involved in sex work. In addition to such work, girls also recruitment, nor are any of the children involved have to work within their own homes, spending in bonded labour. Rather, relatives or family an average of three-four hours on household friends scout and arrange for such jobs. Boys chores. Moreover, elder female siblings are are paid much lesser than adults and therefore expected to take care of younger siblings when find work easily. Those working in hotels in their parents are out on work. Thus, most girls and around Sonaghar earn a measly Rs. 500- are forced to drop out of school at a young age 800 per month. For labour work, boys earn due to added home responsibilities. Further, anywhere between Rs. 1000 to Rs. 2000 as a while there are several other reasons as to why beginner monthly salary within Odisha. Those children in Sonaghar drop out of school, about who work outside Odisha earn a higher salary 20% girls and 15% boys (i.e. every 1 in about 5 starting at around Rs. 3000 per month which children) who would have preferred to continue gradually increases with experience. Most studying are unable to do so due to the need boys living away from family send the bulk of to contribute to the family income.

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Sexual abuse of children within homes, streets school. The neighbours and other community and schools members have vehemently stated otherwise insisting that the eldest daughter had initially Sexual violence is rampant in the community, approached them for help and that the other particularly within the presumed safety of two daughters (aged 13 and 9 years) are also homes. Respondents shared that at least one in danger of being sold off by their own father. in ten girls are likely to have been sexually An FIR was registered by community members molested by their own fathers, brothers or against the father. The eldest daughter was relatives such as uncles, cousin brothers etc. called in for questioning but she denied any Moreover, it is quite common for drunken men wrongdoing on her father’s part and the case to barge into other people’s houses at night was closed. Locals believe that she was either and attempt to molest women and girls. under pressure or that she had already gotten accustomed to her new way of life. Interestingly, the adult respondents of Sonaghar were the only ones amongst the five During one of the interviews that was conducted SAFE locations to acknowledge that young within a home in the lower basti, the researcher boys are also victims of sexual abuse - one in observed two young siblings around the age of about fifty boys in the community is estimated 4-6 years fondling each other as though they to have been a victim of sexual molestation were playacting a sexually intimate scene. This by trusted individuals such as grandmothers, is possibly indicative of high sexual exposure aunts, cousins etc. within homes that could in turn trigger early sexual experimentation by children. Respondents reported a few cases of sexual abuse from within the community. A father Sexual harassment on the streets in the form molested his eldest daughter by fondling her of inappropriate sexual touching and other intimate areas several times over a period of behaviours such as snatching away of dupattas, time and in one instance attempted to rape leering, verbal molestation etc. is a common her. He later claimed that he had mistaken his phenomenon in the community. Exhibitionism daughter for his wife as he was drunk at the (display of private parts) and sexual molestation time. A very young girl was brutally raped by by men and boys near the public toilets as well her father’s friend in her own home. A 12 year as around school toilets have been reported. old girl was gang-raped and murdered by her One case of a male teacher sexually abusing brother’s drunken friends who were minors a 5th grade girl, and school guards, peons themselves. Young girls working as domestic etc. molesting very young girls have also been maids have also been victims of sexual reported. molestation. Domestic violence One of the fathers (also a research respondent - JKS) who repeatedly molested the eldest of As shared by respondents, nearly 80% his three daughters is believed to have sold households witness domestic violence in some off his eldest daughter aged 16 years toa form. The perpetrators are most frequently female pimp living within the community while fathers or husbands who are under the influence claiming that his daughter works as a live-in of drugs or alcohol. The violent beatings are domestic maid at this lady’s house. During the more often than not triggered without any research interview, JKS however claimed that specific cause. Sometimes though, the reason all three of his daughters are regularly attending is an extra-marital affair which is common within

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the community. In some cases, women are early age. also tortured and beaten by husbands and in- laws for dowry or for not bearing a male child. Child marriage and teenage pregnancies While women bear the brunt of this violence, About 20% girls and 5% boys from Sonaghar often children are not spared from substance- get married before age 18 years. A majority induced beatings either. of these are love marriages that take place around age 16-17 years. This often involves 5 of the 20 female respondents admitted to elopement due to the lack of parental consent. being victims of severe domestic violence. A Even though no specific cases were reported, twenty year old respondent, PG shares, “I was such elopement without informing families sixteen when I fell in love and eloped with of whereabouts puts girls at extreme risk of a boy from Sonaghar itself. After getting exploitation such as being sold off into the sex married, we came back here. But I have trade, forced remarriage, bonded labour etc. been miserable since. My husband abuses It is possible that respondents aren’t aware of me all the time. I get beaten if I step out what happens to the girls post-elopement and of my house, if there is less or more salt therefore, such cases have not come to the in the food...even if I smile! He forces my fore through the research. However, they did head down and rubs my nose on the floor share that often, girls who elope with older men whenever he gets angry with me. I am his return to their parent’s home in Sonaghar after wife, I have to accept and bear it. But I’m experiencing sexual and domestic violence in scared for my son. I cannot trust my own their marital lives. The most common age for husband being alone with my son.” (The arranged marriage is 18-19 years for females respondent has a permanent scar on her nose and 22-24 years for males. Adults in the due to the torture; she has attempted to take community are largely aware of laws regarding her life several times). Another respondent, TN, legal age of marriage. However, in the case 30yrs, states, “I was tired of all the torture. I of extremely poor households, arranged girl- even lay down on the railway track to die, child marriages do take place though this is but then thought about who will take care of rare. Such early marriages, whether love or my children and came back home.” arranged, more often than not result in early pregnancies as well. Unlike other SAFE-surveyed communities, a number of women in Sonaghar are active A few cases of pre-marital teenage pregnancies and supportive of other victims; and have have also been reported. In such cases, occasionally come together in recent years the solution usually opted for is an abortion to raise their voice against domestic violence. (often illegal and by an untrained practitioner/ However, the prevalence as well as severity of compounder) or else the girl’s parents or such violence is still high. Further, abandonment community members attempt to force a of spouse (mainly of wives) is relatively common marriage with the man who has gotten the girl resulting in several children growing up in single pregnant. A 14 year old girl MN shares, parent households. The frustrations of living in “A year ago, I got involved with my neighbour. extreme poverty and joblessness are viewed as He was 26 years old at the time and a rod the key triggers. Nearly all children in Sonaghar binder by profession. He used to visit me have witnessed or been a victim of domestic when I was alone at home and insisted on violence. This invariably gets internalised having a physical relationship. I protested with children viewing domestic violence and initially... but he was persistent. We had sex abandonment as normal behaviour from an

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four times and I got pregnant. I did not dare I couldn’t take it anymore. I am now back discuss this with my family but gradually I at my parent’s house. My parents are not started showing. Then, my family and the happy about this but my husband doesn’t community people started questioning me want me back and neither do I ever want to and I was forced to divulge the truth. The return to that hell.” community members got together and tried to force him to marry me. He refused Unfortunately, MN, just a typical 14 year old for a long time but eventually succumbed. Sonaghar resident, has already been through an As soon as we got married, the violence entire devious cycle of dropping out of school, began. I was beaten by my husband daily pre-marital sex, early pregnancy, forced child throughout the pregnancy and my mother- marriage, domestic violence, abandonment in-law constantly abused me verbally. I gave and now awaits an uncertain future devoid of birth to a girl child. The torture got worse. emotional or financial security.

S: Child is pressurised into premarital sex, resulting in teenage pregnancy, forced child marriage, domestic violence

A: Early child bearing, physical E: Child drops out and emotional abuse of school during pregnancy exposes child to increased health risk

F: Child along with baby is abandoned by husband: awaits future with no emotional or financial support

A 14 yr old Sonaghar child MN’s inter-related experiences through the lens of the SAFE model: a graphical representation of how insecurity in one dimension can affect all other dimensions

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vi. Experiences of children and families health conditions such as fever, throat or skin in the community infections etc., treatment is ignored due to the time and expenses involved. Few child deaths (SAFE Tool 1 - *For detailed quantitative data, due to water-borne illnesses e.g. jaundice, and please refer to Appendix 1A) chronic illnesses, either due to parent or doctor The SAFE results repeatedly emphasize negligence have been reported. the struggle for basic survival. Despite daily challenges, children and families persistently While the respondents denied the prevalence push through, often adopting negative of female foeticide within the community, strategies just to get by. many point out the practice of illegal abortions by untrained practitioners. Unqualified With regard to health of children, the compounders in hospitals and private clinics respondents feel that there are an adequate are often approached in the case of teenage number of health facilities that can be accessed or unwanted pregnancies, frequently leading to in the vicinity. Government schemes for health complications. expectant women and mothers are available and accessed. As a result, adequate pre and Extreme violence is commonplace in the post pregnancy medical care is practiced community, particularly within homes. by nearly all women. Moreover, almost all Respondents shared some particularly brutal children are given full immunization through the instances: an agitated father hacking his one Aanganwadi centres. However, poverty does year old into pieces; an angry mother slitting play a role in preventing some children from her child’s throat in retaliation after a heated gaining access to treatment. One of the reasons argument with her husband, though fortunately for this is that there are no government health the child survived; a mother who just discovered facilities within the community. The closest is that her seven-year old was taking drugs about 1 km away but services are extremely beat him up so mercilessly that he had to be poor while the next closest with slightly better hospitalised. Children are regularly beaten up facilities is over 5 kms away resulting in transport by their parents with brooms, belts and sticks costs even though treatment costs here are for reasons such as misbehaviour, stealing, negligible for those who hold a Below Poverty substance consumption etc. However, many Line (BPL) card. There are several private a times, children are callously abused, kicked clinics in the area which provide good service and beaten up by their alcohol and drug but the treatment costs are beyond the means -addicted fathers for no particular reason other of most households in the community. Thus, than parental frustration. Boys (about 50%) are children continue to access the government more vulnerable than girls (about 15%) with hospitals with inferior services. Malaria is one regard to physical violence at homes. Both of the most common illnesses contracted by boys and girls are equal victims of parental the Sonaghar children of which parents have verbal abuse. basic knowledge and often self-medicate their children without visiting a doctor. The practice Instances of ruthless community violence of washing hands after urinating or before a against children were also shared, for instance, meal is negligible exposing children and adults two children murdered by a local don as their to avoidable infections and diseases. In the father was unable to repay a loan; and of case of chronic health issues such as asthma, severe violence between children such as a TB, epilepsy etc. as also in the case of minor teenage boy stabbing and murdering another teenage boy over a petty issue. Nearly half

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the boys in Sonaghar use stones, knives or “I will not be sending my son to school. blades when engaging in fights, bullying and Education is important and it may robbery. Some boys loiter at the railway foot be free but what if I won’t be able to over-bridge and the platforms and indulge in afford the rest of it – pencils, erasers, activities such as drinking, group clashes, notebooks?...What if he starts going chain snatching and passing lewd remarks at to school and ends up doing well in women. Police frequently visit the community studies, and then later I will not be due to high violence, robbery and theft rates. able to afford his education. It’s best Rash bike riding by teenage boys as a form of then that he stays at home and starts gaining female attention, have resulted in a few earning in a few years. We need the accidents and deaths. money.” – Male respondent PG, 25 yrs, lower basti; talking about the plans he has A majority of respondents denied the presence for his 5yr old son of any form of discrimination. However, a few admitted that mild discrimination persists Overall, only about 51-55% children attend towards those lowest in the SC social order. school with most being girls (about 60% girls) Hindu school children often bully minority and fewer being boys (about 35% boys). Muslim students in schools. Subtle girl child Though a majority of children attend school in discrimination also exists within households the initial years, there is a high drop-out rate with families preferring the birth of a male child. from age 10-12 years onwards. A large number One of the female respondents, PN, from the of children who do attend school are not of the lower basti, for instance, attempted suicide appropriate age as many enrol late or else are when a third girl child was born to her. Many unable to complete grades as per the standard families continue to bear multiple children until age structure. Of those who are enrolled, there at least one son is born in the hope that he will are several who skip school either occasionally earn and take care of them in their old age. or on a regular basis.

Although several of the respondents were There are several reasons for low school themselves illiterate, they expressed a strong attendance in the Sonaghar basti. For boys, desire for their own children to be well-educated. the key reasons range from substance Interestingly, some men in the community have addiction, need to earn money to contribute been actively involved in promoting education to household income, need to earn money for children, the underlying reason being that to sponsor substance-related habits either many of them have been victims of child labour through child labour or through illegal activities, and deprived of an education themselves. scavenging, selling street items etc. For girls, Barring a few exceptions, most parents shared the key reasons include need to earn money that if they had a choice, they would not wish for for household expenses, and household their children to undergo the same challenges responsibilities such as daily chores (cooking, as they themselves did. Unfortunately, many cleaning, washing utensils, fetching water etc.) households in the community feel that they and taking care of younger siblings. To a lesser don’t have this choice extent, early love marriages have also been stated by a few respondents as the reason for children dropping out of school.

Since most children from Sonaghar attend government schools which are free, the issue

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SAFE Tool 1 Part 4 data results reveal the key reasons/triggers for children dropping out of school in Sonaghar of non-attendance due to inability to pay school treatment expenses over long time periods. fees usually does not arise. Mild corporal punishment by teachers in the form of beating These child coping strategies are largely with hand and verbal humiliation exists in modelled on adult behaviour that they witness schools, but these are not viewed as a problem on a daily basis at homes and in the community. by the parents. In government schools, only From the quantitative and qualitative data students in the upper grades have chairs or obtained from the SAFE Tool 1, it is clear that benches to sit on; students of grades I to V are the Sonaghar men deal with the frustration seated on the floor in classrooms. The current of poverty, joblessness and overwork by teacher : student ratio is relatively good at 1:35; being perpetrators of domestic violence, and this is primarily due to low student enrolment indulging in substance abuse and extra-marital and attendance. Few children (18% girls, 7% affairs. Women on the other hand deal with boys) who belong to families that are able to the same poverty and the domestic violence afford the fee expenses, attend vocational inflicted on them by displacing their anger on courses such as tailoring, computer classes, their own children; or by engaging in milder, mechanical and electrician courses. more socially acceptable forms of substance abuse. From a tender age, girls in the Sonaghar The above data reveals the cascading effects slums begin to take on gender-stereotyped of negligible resources and poverty. Insecurity adult roles of domestic labour, household in one dimension (economic insecurity) has a chores and child-rearing. Boys who are direct impact on the dimensions of education witness to severe violence at home deal with it and safety. For instance, due to the anxiety, by imitating this violence outside of their homes discomfort and unpredictable day-to-day - by becoming a member of violent boy gangs, challenges that poverty brings along with getting hooked on to alcohol and drugs, and it, children in Sonaghar drop out of school engaging in illegal activities such as stealing, either to contribute to the household income so as to fit in with what they see as ‘normal’, and responsibilities, or to engage in anxiety- ‘manly’ and acceptable in the community. alleviating or adrenalin pumping activities Slum circumstances can often push children such as substance abuse, violence, premarital to engage in dangerous adaptive strategies, teenage sex, and stealing. Further, it can have an which then sets off a cascade of further risks. impact on the health dimension as can be seen in this community where families access inferior The next section provides a further glimpse into treatment and untrained medical practitioner specific survival strategies adopted by research services leading to health complications; as respondents and their families to deal with day- well as ignore chronic diseases that require to-day household challenges.

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vii) Adaptive strategies used to cope A self-help group (SHG) formed of about with various difficulties and obstacles 20 women from the community who call themselves the SHG fund organization (SAFE Tool 2 - *For detailed quantitative contribute to a pool amount on a monthly data, please refer to Appendix 1B) basis, providing small loans to those in need, An endless struggle: expenditure and dietary which are to be paid back by the borrower coping strategies in instalments. Respondents have mostly accessed loans ranging from Rs. 5000 to Rs. Due to high poverty rates and frequent 20,000 from this SHG for medical and marriage joblessness, a few families in Sonaghar are expenses. unable to afford even basic needs such as food, water, shelter and clothing. Most “I can’t even think of spending on households are in the practice of borrowing anything else other than food for the money mainly from friends and neighbours family. For clothes, I rely on second- (small amounts ranging from Rs. 200 to Rs. hand handouts from my employers” 5000), the most common reasons being – Female respondent MM, 30yrs, upper medical, education-related, house-building/ basti, domestic maid rent, and grocery expenses. Many a times, the adaptive strategy used by households is to Natural calamities such as cyclones and floods, borrow from multiple people even though this health issues and periods of joblessness occasionally results in an inability to repay the have caused significant turmoil in nearly all loaned amount. 87% respondents have sold households interviewed. In such situations, the personal assets (primarily gold and furniture) most immediate effect is on the dietary aspect. either to pay back such loans or to procure Of the 30 respondents in Sonaghar, 25 have money for food, weddings and unexpected decreased the number of meals eaten per day, expenditures. However, from the data, it is clear 20 have spent entire days without eating, and that health and medical expenditure needs 28 have shifted to poorer quality food. Some have superseded all other expenses deeply households cut out all pulses and vegetables, affecting household functioning, including often surviving on plain rice for several days education and nutrition of children. Medical at a time. In many cases, parents, mainly expenses of most respondents have run into mothers, have reduced their own food intake thousands and where surgeries have been so that the children get to eat. However, many involved, respondents have spent up to Rs. shared that the neighbours and community 50,000. This has resulted in households going members in Sonaghar are supportive and there into debt despite cutting back on all expenses is a constant give and take of food depending including the number of meals eaten. on who is more in need. Occasionally, children are also sent to eat at the temples when free

No. of respondents who sold assets to procure food or money

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food is being provided by temple patrons. at the workplace during periods of parent ill- Although residents believe that the water they health, or to take care of their younger siblings drink is safe, in reality, the children and families and household chores. only have access to unfiltered tap water on a daily basis which is consumed directly without However, one significant difference that boiling. However, during heavy rains, even this distinguishes the current child generation from water becomes inaccessible for days together their parent’s generation is the value placed as it becomes impossible to walk through on education by parents. While a few of the the floods to the public tap. At such times, respondents are illiterate, nearly all children in the tube-well water which is visibly unclean is the community have attended early grades consumed by families. Further, respondents in school and have a basic level of literacy. shared that during strong cyclones, when their Respondents shared that unlike their own homes were blown away, many have walked parents, they were ready to sacrifice their all in long distances to obtain cyclone relief material; order to educate their children, that education they stayed in a nearby school and begged for was of utmost importance, but in certain food and money until they were able to rebuild circumstances and in debilitating poverty, their homes. education became practically impossible to pursue for many households. Generational trends: Strategies revolving around occupational / educational and With regard to dangerous activities, five of the dangerous / illegal activities male participants admitted to being part of a dangerous group or gang at some point in their “I have grown up in surroundings lives. Several of the women respondents also where good is bad and bad is good. stated that their husbands or brothers have We are too poor to think of what is right been part of gangs or illegal activities. Several of and what is wrong” – Male respondent the respondents and their spouses have stolen PG, 25 yrs, born and living in Sonaghar wallets from the railway station area, slippers from temples, petrol from bikes, or food from Several of the respondents, both male and shops etc, either during their childhood or female, were themselves engaged in child as an adult. A majority of the respondents, labour during their childhood years. Some both men and women, have used drugs or began working as early as age 8 years, with other substances to obtain relief from day- a few of them having migrated seasonally to to-day frustrations. Some male respondents other locations to engage in daily wage labour admitted to inflicting domestic violence on or farming; or sent to relative’s houses in their wives and children; and creating chaos other locations where more child labour work in the community post an alcohol binge. Many was available. During this time, a few of the women respondents and their family members respondents have also been victims of child have attempted or committed suicide. The sexual abuse at the hands of their employers, main reasons ranged from severe domestic neighbours, relatives (where they took shelter) violence, husband’s extra-marital affairs, forced or at construction sites. As a result, parents are marriage and poverty alert towards incidents of child sexual abuse within Sonaghar and also take action if and Where some of the female respondents shared when such a need arises. Similar to the current that they continued to stay in a physically or Sonaghar child situation, respondents too have sexually abusive household for shelter, a few skipped school and replaced their parents male respondents admitted to being sexually

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molested or manipulated in return for money Thus, while there appears to be the beginning or shelter. Respondents were either not aware of a slight positive reversal in terms of attitudes or outright denied that their own children were and trends towards education and child labour, involved in sex work or that they visited brothels. generational trends related to dangerous During times of joblessness, a couple of the and illegal activities continue unabated male respondents admitted to visiting brothels possibly presenting a worse scenario than to spend the night, as they did not have the that encountered or indulged in by parent courage to face their families. Relatives of respondents during their childhood. respondents such as sisters and aunts have been involved in commercial sex work in “I believe every dark cloud has a silver lining” Sonaghar, so as to earn a living; respondents – TN, 30 yrs : Self-healing strategies shared incidents of teenaged brothers visiting In contrast to the several suicide attempts that Mali Sahi - the nearest red light area along with take place in the community, respondents have friends, having sexual relations with widows also attempted to engage in some basic self- in the community, and of boys voluntarily healing strategies such as group meditation engaging in paid sex work for rich women in (through a community initiated ‘Om Shanti’ Kolkata. Further, it is clear from the quantitative group), praying or reflecting on their lives in and qualitative data obtained from Tool 1 that isolation, reading or listening to spiritual or children are indulging in dangerous and illegal mythological material, and listening to music. activities quite similar to those of their parents, All respondents believed that increasing time but at a younger, more frequent and larger spent with other community members helped scale. reduce stress. This further helped them in reassessing their own difficult situation, reaffirm “My husband and in-laws tortured that they were not the only ones suffering me physically, mentally, and sexually. and thus adjust better to the present life My husband wanted me to sleep with scenario. Festive gatherings too were viewed other men for money. When I refused, as extremely beneficial in uplifting their mental they used to torture me even more” state. - Female respondent SM, 32 yrs, from the lower basti, on staying in an abusive Despite the difficulties and challenges faced, relationship and why she left her marital most of the interviewed respondents were household. hopeful and positive about the future. They expressed a desire to provide their children “When I was about 16 or 17, I had a with a life different from their own. Some fight with my parents over money. In respondents however shared that in spite of anger, I left my house to stay with my all the strategies used, their struggle to survive aunt (father’s sister). She molested had worsened over time and that they found it me and said that I should keep sexual difficult to keep on with the struggle. relations with her if I needed the money and a roof over my head. So I agreed The basti as a protective sphere: Survival to this arrangement for a week.” - Male strategies of households within the community respondent JKS, 49 yrs, from the lower space basti, talking about his helplessness and When describing community resources, many survival strategies as a child. respondents noted that community members are supportive and engaged in caring about

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vulnerable children. This support ranged card, citizen ID card (Aadhar card) etc. Many from providing food and financial assistance, respondents, including both men and women, to looking out for neighbour’s children. For have participated in peaceful rallies related instance, community members have registered to water, drainage and electricity facilities; an FIR against a father who molested his education promotion and raising a voice daughter, group of women actively intervene against domestic violence. in households where severe women or child domestic violence takes place, neighbours The community is a close-knit one. When heavy have provided monetary assistance (small rains cause severe water-logging particularly amounts) without an expectation for money to in the lower basti, families in the community be returned etc. Several community members share a roof in one of the more sturdy houses including 8 respondents have approached for days at a stretch. Men who are carpenters the police to file a complaint against physical or labourers readily provide a free helping hand or sexual abuse of children within the to neighbours and other community members community. Despite extreme poverty, adults when it comes to roof binding, furniture have approached the municipal office or repairing etc. joined community movements advocating for rights such as better jobs and privileges for Women often drop their children off at a SC, ST and OBC groups; provision of voter ID neighbour or community member’s home as

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a form of alternate child care when leaving Contrary to what has been observed in other for work. Sometimes, neighbours extend communities, issues such as child abuse within this support for days or weeks together; homes or domestic violence are not considered for instance, when parents are travelling as internal personal matters in Sonaghar but out of Bhubaneswar for a medical or family are instead viewed as community issues by emergency. A 30 year old respondent TN the locals. The community members readily shared, “I was mentally very stressed and offer to help each other even when their own angry after separating from my husband. households are struggling. The community as At the time... in that mental state, I was a whole is resilient and supportive. This is a capable of physically and verbally abusing positive indication and an extremely rare quality my children. I requested my neighbours to in an urban slum that if explored and supported let my children stay with them for a week. in the right manner, could help bring about true They readily agreed.” Similarly, as revealed positive change for the children in Sonaghar. by 38 year old respondent AS, “Soon after delivery, my husband began beating me. I was scared that he would also harm my newborn baby. So I left the baby with a friend in the community for a few weeks till I felt more capable of protecting my child.” This kind of extended community support is practically unheard of in the other 4 SAFE researched locations.

Overall, a significant majority of the strategies utilized by respondents and their households are negative, pushing them deeper into poverty and making them more vulnerable. However, in the case of Sonaghar, the same surroundings that create the numerous vulnerabilities also provide its most resilient fighting force – the community members themselves; parents in the community are active and willing to put in time to fight out social evils. Women have come together to support each other and raise their voice against domestic violence. Some men on the other hand have shown an interest in promoting education and alleviating substance abuse amongst children.

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PRITAMPUR, BHOPAL

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i. Community location 2-3% belongs to the Hindu general category and the remaining 2-3% forms the Muslim The Pritampur slum is located close to the minority. Habibganj railway station in the western part of Bhopal. It is surrounded by several other slums There are two distinct parts to the community such as Indira Nagar, Mira Nagar, Laxman divided on the basis of occupation – the highly Nagar, Saraswati Nagar, Saibaba Nagar, vulnerable scavenger/ rag-picking side located Krishna Nagar and Ishwar Nagar slums, all of in a slightly raised landscape, and the labour which are within a distance of 1-2 kms forming worker side located at a lower level on a long a very large slum cluster. Amongst these slums, stretch closer to the railway tracks and a the largest is the Indira Nagar community which cluster of polluted ponds. On one end of the lies adjacent to Pritampur, as does the Mira labour worker stretch near one of the grounds Nagar slums with a population total similar to used for defecation are households where that of Pritampur. Since it is located about 2 km the majority have been settled in Pritampur from the arterial road, Pritampur is an isolated for over 15 years; while on the other end are community that rarely has any outside visitors. the more vulnerable households where the majority have migrated within the past 4-5 years. Amongst the Pritampur slums, there are a number of multi-storey buildings that ii. Community structure, demographics have been constructed over a year ago and and the unwritten code of functioning some continue to be constructed under the government’s slum rehabilitation programme. Allotment of these house flats has not yet Pritampur has a total population of about commenced though a few rag-picker families 1500 people. There are about 300 households (about 30-35 households) who have no other with an average of 5 members living in each dwelling illegally occupy some flats in a few of household. A majority of the households have the buildings closer to the scavenger side. The been inhabitants of Pritampur for over 20 years. construction quality is poor, and there is no Less than 20% have migrated over the past ten water or electricity supply that has been set up years. A large proportion of migrants are from yet, resulting in these largely vacant buildings villages in other districts of Madhya Pradesh being ‘unsafe’ spaces that are frequently used such as Khandwa, Satna, Hoshangabad, for sexual activities or as drug/ alcohol dens. Tikamgarh, Betul, Bundelkhand, Indore and On one side, the scavenger and labour worker Khargone. There are also migrants from other side are divided by these multi-storey buildings; states such as Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, while on the other side, the two parts are Chhattisgarh and Bihar. segregated by a government primary school. The settlement is dominated by the Hindu As the names suggest, those belonging to Scheduled Tribe (ST) and Scheduled Caste (SC) the scavenger side, including men, women which make up about 80% of the population. and children are engaged in rag-picking work. Residents originating from Madhya Pradesh A few of the rag-pickers additionally take on and migrants from Chhattisgarh mainly belong temporary contractual work with the Municipal to the Gond tribe (ST), while those who have Corporation for three months, six months etc. migrated from Maharashtra and Bihar are largely as garbage collectors and cleaners for the from the SC group. About 15% belong to the nearby colonies and buildings. A few men Other Backward Castes (OBC). Approximately and boys from the scavenger side are also

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involved in illegal activities such as robbery The slum houses in the community are and selling drugs as a side earning activity, in constructed side by side with narrow mud lanes addition to their daily scavenging work. The running through lengths of houses. While a few women and girls from the labour side on the of the houses are made of bricks and cement, other hand work mainly as domestic maids a majority of the houses are held together by and a few work as street vendors; while the sticks and made of makeshift material such men and boys are involved in daily wage work as a combination of tin, plastic, jute, cloth e.g. construction workers, painters, street such as bed sheets and saris, tarpaulin, and vendors, truck loaders; a few males also work mud. Some of the homes don’t have doors. in factories. The average household earnings The houses are unable to withstand extreme of the scavenger side is Rs. 2000-4000 while weather conditions and living here becomes that of the labour side is Rs. 2000-7000. While particularly problematic during the monsoon it is possible for the scavenger side to earn and winter months. Several stray dogs and more money through scavenging, they prefer pigs are seen around the community in the to work fewer hours. Those from the labour same space that children play in, as are snakes side stated that they would like to work longer during the monsoons. Open heaps of garbage hours and earn more money, but find it difficult lie in several places within the community. In to obtain work on a daily basis. A large portion some areas within and around the scavenger of the household earnings are spent on drugs side, there are garbage mounds created due and alcohol, particularly by the male members. to layers and layers of non-saleable garbage Though substance abuse is a problem in both material being dumped post segregation by the sides of the community, it is far more severe in rag-pickers. Particularly during the monsoons, the scavenger side. the entire community thus becomes a cesspool of diseases. The two sides are also vastly different in terms of hygiene and functioning. When compared The drainage and sewage system is to the labour work side, people from the inadequate with sewage water spilling out scavenger side maintain even poorer hygiene into the community streets and sometimes and rarely take bath; many of these households entering homes during the rainy season. The do not use soap to save on expenses. Parent uncovered sewage drains are extremely risky monitoring of children in the scavenger side and a few young children have lost their lives is also poor – young children are left behind falling into these open drains while playing. As at home without caretakers; children rarely a respondent shares, “Accidents are quite attend school even if enrolled. Food is often common here. A few months ago, a two not cooked at home and many children are year old boy fell into the sewage drain and therefore expected to fend for themselves, died. He was by himself because his parents either through food supplements/ mid-day were at work at the time. Then there was meals (provided by Aanganwadi centres and this family who were sleeping outside their government schools), or through daily rag- home at night. They had a small two-month picking work through which they can scavenge old baby. While they were sleeping, a dog... for or purchase their own meals. Children below or at least we think it’s a dog...dragged this six years who are unable to fend for themselves baby and dropped him into an open drain a are often the most affected. In the labour side, few meters away. When the parents woke however, households do attempt to cook food up in the morning, they found their dead at home when raw materials are available and baby there floating inside.” many send their children to school in the lower primary grades.

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Pritampur in pictures (Row - wise from left to right) a) Labour worker side of the community b) Labour worker side with vacant buildings alongside c) The inside of a typical labour side ‘kacha’ home with household items d) Scavenger side with heaps of non- saleable garbage e) A family of rag-pickers inside their home with very basic possessions

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iii. Water, electricity, toilet and bathing “Living here is a nightmare. We get our facilities water from the municipal water tank which comes in only once every day. Electricity is available in nearly all homes When the tank comes in, there is utter either legally or illegally, but individual homes chaos in the entire community with do not have a water supply connection. All everyone pushing one another and households are required to fetch water from fighting because the water available is the municipal water tanks that come into limited. Just the other day, a man beat the community once every day at a specific up a 12-13 year old girl with a bamboo time. Usually women or girls are assigned stick because she refused to let him the task of fetching water within households. move ahead of her in the queue. In Since the tanks are stationed in specific areas all this pushing and fighting, dust and within the community, many have to walk as mud enter the water. This water is far as 1km and wait in long queues in order not drinkable. But what choice do we to access the water, making water-fetching a have? This is what people here give very time-consuming task. Due to work and their children to drink. In an emergency time pressures, stress levels are high and there or when we are unable to fetch water are frequent physical as well as verbal fights from this tank, we have to go elsewhere that break out while waiting in such queues. looking for water or another community The fetched water is used for both drinking and which means a walk of at least 2 kms.” bathing. Even though the water is not fit for – Female respondent SM, 38 yrs, labour drinking, a majority of the households neither side; when responding to a question on filter nor boil the water before consumption. On access to clean drinking water for children days when it’s not possible to fetch the water for reasons such as illness, work etc., the entire Only about 3% homes belonging to the labour household has to make do without water or side within the community have their own bathing for that day. toilets. No public toilets have been constructed to date. Therefore, the only option for the large majority of the Pritampur population is open defecation for which three large areas within the community are typically used. On an average, people walk about ½ to 1 km to access these areas. In all of these defecation areas, one side is informally allocated to males and the other side to females. While males and children urinate in the open at any available space within the community, women and adolescent girls sometimes use the washing area adjacent to their homes for this purpose.

About 70% of homes have makeshift washing areas adjacent to their homes. These do not have doors and are usually made of jute, bed- sheets, tarpaulin or plastic sheets. This space is used by females for washing clothes as well as for bathing. Households which do not have

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washing areas adjust by using the kitchen sink iv. A snapshot of the Pritampur SAFE area or the storage space area behind their Analysis homes for this purpose (after covering the area each time before bathing with cloth available *Several of the child vulnerability issues at home). Men and boys, on the other hand, mentioned below are cross-cutting and take bath in the open outside their homes interdependent issues that do not fall under with undergarments on. In addition to creating one specific dimension. These and other severe unhygienic conditions in the community community vulnerability aspects are explored that promote diseases, the lack of toilets and in depth through the course of this chapter adequate bathing facilities also creates a sense of insecurity and the fear of sexual harassment Safety and protection particularly among women and girls. • Unsafe and unmonitored spaces Other basic facilities and services within or such as the numerous vacant nearby community multi-storey buildings, the railway tracks and the dumping ground • Aanganwadi centres: Three (2 provide children with a space for accessed by the labour worker side dangerous activities to thrive; enabling and 1 by the scavenger side) undercover gang meetings, early sexual experimentation, sexual abuse, • Government schools: Prathmik group drug and alcohol abuse, and Vidyalaya (primary school within gambling. community with no electricity, water or toilet provisions) and Raja Bhoj higher • Extreme levels of child labour much secondary school (about 2 kms from of which is hazardous and begins at the community) an extremely tender age of 6-7 years - at the cost of literacy, health safety • Commonly accessed vocational and basic levels of protection, makes courses: None Pritampur a dangerous place for children to grow up in. • Government hospitals: Jai Prakash hospital, Hamidia hospital and • Child marriage of over half the girl AIIMS (All three over 5 kms from population in the community makes it the community; accessed by public a prominent child protection issue as transport) it corresponds to other vulnerabilities such as dropping out of school, early • Private hospitals: Narmada hospital motherhood, domestic violence, (about 2-3 kms from community) increased household responsibilities etc. • Police station: Habibganj police station (about 3 kms from community) • The practice of bride purchasing by grooms from states with a skewed sex • Prominent NGOs: Bachpan, Saathiya, ratio exposes girls to a multitude of Parvarish, Aangan Trust, Eklavya, risks and exploitative situations. Aadhar, Saarthak, Sammaan, Sangini, FPAI (Family Planning Association of • A combination of substance abuse, India)

THE AANGAN TRUST 46 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

gang fights, use of sharp weapons, in Aanganwadi centers and schools and the lack of sensitive police provides some respite in terms of intervention puts the safety and lives access to food for the extreme poor of of boys at risk, with no reliable adult or this community. authority to turn to for help. • Lack of any form of health services • Open defecation and the lack of within the community and the absence adequately covered bathing facilities of affordable health care for over affects women and girls in particular. five kilometres from the community, In addition to snatching away their incapacitates the people and children privacy and dignity, it also generates of the community during times of an element of myriad fears by making medical need putting their lives in women vulnerable to sexual assault danger. and other forms of gender-based violence. Management of menstrual • The unhygienic and dangerous needs also becomes problematic. conditions that rag-picking children work in puts them at risk for a • Uncovered sewage drains combined number of serious health hazards with lack of any form of supervision such as exposure to toxic fumes, skin (parent or sibling) puts the lives of infections, respiratory problems and a young children at risk. range of other health issues.

• Poor household infrastructure and • A high percentage of teenage post- the lack of doors in many homes marital pregnancies could result in provides little protection against health complications for both mother extreme weather conditions, and only and newborn child. a minimal level of privacy with children often being an unwelcome witness to • High levels of substance abuse sexual activities. This, in addition to amongst children beginning at a very poor parental supervision and several young age of 6-7 years can lead to secluded spaces within the community developmental and neurological issues leads to early sexual experimentation that may be irreversible, other mental amongst children that increases and physical health risks, aggressive exposure of children to STDs, STIs behaviour, and could be fatal in high and the risk of early pregnancy. doses.

Access to healthcare and basic physiological • Poor personal hygiene - no washing of needs hands post rag-picking, before meals or after urination; irregular bathing • Extreme poverty leading to inability combined with occasional or no use of to afford nutritious food, results in soap; consumption of discarded food child malnutrition. This, combined and unclean drinking water; and poor with the lack of awareness regarding community/ environmental hygiene - immunization has resulted in a heaps of garbage strewn throughout high number of ‘Under 5 deaths’ in the community; the practice of open Pritampur. The government provision defecation; skin contact with sewage of food supplements or mid-day meals

THE AANGAN TRUST 47 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

water etc. exposes children to a • Boys engaged in illegal activities such variety of avoidable diseases. as house robberies, gambling and selling of drugs do this as a form of Family and connection to others livelihood earning in addition to their daily labour/ scavenger work - so as • Domestic violence, extra-marital to accumulate enough to purchase affairs and the witnessing of verbal food and other basic needs, as well as and physical violence on a daily to fund substance-abuse habits. basis exposes children to a model of dangerous and irresponsible behaviour • The absence of bank accounts and that they begin to view as acceptable. essential documents prevents people from accessing government schemes • The lack of a caring environment that are being provided in the within homes, and the deep-seated community. distrust between peers and amongst community members in general, creates an underlying vibe of wariness and a sense of ‘each to their own’ v. Key child vulnerabilities within the community that children learn to embrace. Child labour

• Poor community cohesion prevents The most rampant type of child exploitation people from utilizing community-based in Pritampur exists in the form of child labour. adaptive strategies. About 65% of the child population in this community are engaged in child labour, which Education and economic security includes around 70% of all boys and 60% of all girls. Many children in this community, • Poverty combined with the extremely particularly from the scavenger side, begin low value attached to education and working from the tender age of 6-7 years. the high importance placed on earning Boys mainly engage in scavenging or daily a livelihood in the community easily wages work such as construction labour; displaces literacy for child labour street vending of vegetables, food grains etc.; - resulting in only a quarter of the painting; shop assistance, factory work etc., children in the community attending while girls are involved in scavenging, domestic school. maid work and to a lesser extent street vending. Some children also earn money through illegal • Poor quality primary education activities – about 30% boys in the age-group reconfirms the belief that education is of 14-18 years sell drugs or steal, while 2-3% non-beneficial, discouraging the few girls aged 16-17 years occasionally engage in school-going children from pursuing sex work for additional income. further studies.

• Prostitution by minor girls as a form of contributing to household expenses puts these few girls at very high risk of HIV and other STDs.

THE AANGAN TRUST 48 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

Non-working 70% Boys 35% Working Boys 60% Girls 65%

Working Girls

Child labour in Pritampur

In the scavenger side, nearly all boys and girls visit a number of garbage areas, pick out the begin rag-picking at 6-7 years mainly because waste, sell it to scrap dealers and then often many are left to themselves to arrange for their immediately spend all of the money earned own food. Since cooked food is not provided on food, drugs and gambling. Of particular at home, very young children work for a few concern is that children also access the hours earning Rs. 5-10 which they spend on hospital dumping area for rag-picking work. snacks such as biscuits and crisps, as well They do not own gloves and therefore pick out as on inhalants (drugs) such as whitener and the trash with their bare hands. Rag-pickers bicycle repairing adhesive. As the children work in extremely unhygienic and dangerous grow older, they work for longer hours and earn conditions due to which they face a number higher amounts. On an average, rag-pickers of serious health hazards; they are exposed work for about 6-7 hours earning up to Rs. 60- to toxic fumes and suffer from skin infections, 100 per day. Sometimes, children scavenge for respiratory problems and a range of other and consume food found in the trash. About health issues. 10% children from the scavenger side are also sometimes sent by their parents to beg for food In the labour side of the community, children at nearby temples, markets, restaurants and drop out of school and begin full-time work sweet shops, particularly during festival days. around the age of 13-14 years. Boys working nearby within Bhopal earn roughly Rs. 50 -100 The vast Municipal dumping ground is over per day through daily wage work on the days 10 kms away from the community and is that they are able to find such jobs through therefore not accessed by the community their own contacts and network. Their wages members. Another unauthorised dumping and work timings are therefore not fixed. ground is about 5 kms from the community, Some boys over 14 years also work as daily but only few of the older children (14-18years) wage labourers at a factory (BHEL – Bharat and adults frequent this ground. A majority of Heavy Electricals Limited owned by the Govt. the children and adults access the numerous of India) which is about 10-12 kms from the garbage dumping areas of individual buildings, community. Girls from the labour side mainly colonies or markets, which are at a distance of work as domestic maids for approximately 6-8 within 2-3 kms from Pritampur. They randomly hours each day earning anywhere from Rs.

THE AANGAN TRUST 49 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

1000-2500 per month. A few boys and girls in another city. This kind of work is obtained from the labour side work as street vendors through the girl’s mother or word of mouth, either along with their family or individually for e.g., when a current employer’s friend or by themselves. As the boys grow older, the relative from a larger city requires a full-time earnings handed over to parents for household maid at a lower cost. These 3-4% girls in the expenses become lesser. A large number of community earn Rs. 3000-4000 per month the boys in the labour side who earn money which they send home; they are usually allowed through labour work spend either a portion or to visit home once a year. Rarely, families who at times, their entire earnings on themselves for have small pieces of agricultural land (or know drugs, alcohol and gambling. of people who own land) in their villages send their children to work in the fields seasonally for In addition to the paid work, girls 8 years and about 1-2 months. older are also expected to handle all chores within the household such as fetching water, A lack of awareness of occupational options cooking, cleaning, washing clothes and utensils along with a lack of ambition is noted in the for the entire family, and taking care of younger community children. When random children siblings. Girls often spend 5-7 hours per day in the community were asked as to what on such chores. Girls as young as 8 years profession they would like to be in as an adult, carry heavy buckets of water for over 1 km so children almost always mentioned their current their family has enough water to drink and if work or that of their parents e.g. rag-picking, any is remaining, bathe. Compared to girls, domestic maid, construction labourer etc. very few boys contribute to household work. When they do, it is on an occasional basis for Low school attendance, high dropout rate fetching water or caring for younger siblings in High incidence of child labour and low school the absence of elder female siblings. attendance almost always go hand-in-hand. But in the case of Pritampur, this is demonstrated With regard to migratory child labour, both in at an extreme with many children remaining and out migration is prevalent in Pritampur. A illiterate, unable to read or write. few boys (aged 16-17 years) have migrated into Pritampur from other MP districts such The community as a whole does not attach as Khandwa and Khargone, and the interior any tangible value to education. Respondents areas of Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. These believe that education is not beneficial and children, who have no adult guardians within therefore do not encourage or provide the push the community, are engaged in child labour that young children often need to go to school. work similar to that of the Pritampur boys. As a result, children too hold the same views About 8-10% boys in Pritampur temporarily as their parents and are largely disinterested migrate to other states such as Hyderabad, in attending school or pursuing education. Delhi, Mumbai for labour work, primarily at The household atmosphere is such that the construction sites. They are usually recruited focus is primarily on earning a livelihood and through ‘thekedars’ (agents) from outside the fending for oneself as soon as one is physically community. No money is exchanged between capable of doing so. Therefore, children begin the agent and the family. These boys earn Rs. working during school hours from the age 3000-5000, usually visit home every three-four of six onwards, and gaining an education is months, and often hand over a large portion consequently pushed back in terms of priority. of their earnings to their parents. In the case of girls (14-18 years), migratory work involves Only about a quarter of the children in being a full-time domestic maid at a household

THE AANGAN TRUST 50 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

6%

25%

94% 75% ATTEND

DON’T ATTEND

PRIMARY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE SECONDARY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

School attendance in Pritampur

Pritampur attend school. This includes about all children within the community. However, 30% of the boys and 20% of the girls in the the primary school built in a low-lying area community. A majority of those who attend currently has no provision for electricity, water school are from the labour side. These school- or functioning toilets, and the surroundings attending children also frequently skip school of the school are unhygienic with stagnant due to household chores, caring for younger water and strewn garbage, making it nearly siblings, drug abuse, temporary child labour unapproachable during the monsoon season. such as helping parents in their jobs, fear of A number of parents enrol their children in corporal punishment such as being physically the closest Aanganwadi center and in the disciplined by teachers etc. Moreover, there is primary school, the key reason for this being rarely any pressure from either the family or the the availability of mid-day meals. Thus, even teachers to attend classes regularly. Nearly all though children are enrolled, they do not attend of these children attend government school school. Instead, young children are sent by their as households in the community are unable parents to the Aanganwadi centres during meal to afford private school fees. Children from times to bring home the food served. Similarly, the labour side begin dropping out of school many children particularly from the scavenger around the age of 12-13 years, so as to get side who are enrolled in the primary school, into full-time informal work such as daily wages only go to school during the lunch break or to work or domestic labour jobs. The government attend school functions. Thus, even though it secondary school is about 2 kms from the community. Children in the community do not consider this school inaccessible as they are habituated to walking long distances, but completion of primary schooling itself is extremely rare in this community. As a result, only about 6% children from the community go on to attend secondary school.

Two Aanganwadi centers and a government primary school are located within the community and therefore these are easily accessible for Government primary school within the community

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has not helped improve school attendance in witnesses a lot of love marriages, the labour Pritampur, the government provision of mid- side sees predominantly arranged marriages. day meals has provided nutritious meals to Premarital teenage pregnancies are extremely many of these children who otherwise are likely rare though about 40% girls in the community to have gone without food or have had far less become mothers post-marriage before they nutritious food. attain age 18 years, putting them at risk for various health complications. Several of these No pre-school education activities takes place young girls also become victims of domestic within either of the Aanganwadi centers in the violence post-marriage. When respondents community. According to the respondents, the were asked the reason as to why they prefer to quality of teaching in the government schools marry off their daughters at such a young age, is extremely poor, even though the teachers are the common responses were that it was the qualified. The children in the lower grades of the most appropriate age and that the community government primary school do not have chairs was ‘not safe’ for unmarried adolescent girls. or benches to sit on, but instead are seated on mats. While most children in the government A few parents from the labour side (2-3%) get schools get free textbooks, some have to make their daughters married to grooms from other do without, when the stock available with the states such as Rajasthan, Haryana, Bihar and schools is run through. There are a few private Uttar Pradesh in exchange for money (Rs. schools within 5 km from the community. But 50,000-60,000). There are no agents involved parents prefer to enrol children in government and these marriages are usually fixed through schools. This is because in addition to school relatives or friends. Research respondents fees and the absence of a mid-day meal and describe this as a form of reverse dowry, other free provisions; some of the teachers in where grooms aged 25-35 years are willing the nearby private schools are unqualified and to pay money for a young wife (usually 16-18 the teaching quality too is not optimal. years) as they belong to areas that have a poor female: male ratio. However, well-researched Opportunities for vocational training currently studies have found that most brides purchased do not exist in the community. Research by grooms from states with poor sex ratios revealed that both parents and children are are imported from extreme poverty-ridden unaware of the potential of such facilities. This areas; the brides are then duplicated as maids, is possibly the reason why, on being asked, exploited, denied basic rights and eventually they did not express any eagerness for either abandoned. In few instances, such brides are free or fee-based vocational programs to be also resold after living a married life for a few years initiated within the community. or pushed into the flesh trade23. Respondents stated that some of the girls married through Child marriage and ‘purchasing of brides’ this ‘reverse dowry’ system have returned to their parent’s home in Pritampur after a year Child marriage is very common in the or two as they were unhappy in their marital community with a majority of the girls (50- homes. 55%) getting married below age 18 years. Girls are considered to be of marriageable age when they attain 14 years, and a majority get married by age 16 or 17 years. In the case of boys, only 10-15% are married below age 18 23 UNODC ((2013). India Country Assessment Report: Current years, with the majority getting married in the Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors on Anti Human Trafficking. 19-22 age group. While the scavenger side

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Substance abuse activities such as selling drugs or stealing at some point in their lives. Gangs of older Research data reveals that substance abuse scavenging boys (15-18 years) occasionally is rampant, with drugs easily accessible plan out house robberies to get quick money. and cheaply available in the community. It is The modus operandi used is to keep a tab of consumed by both children and adults; males families and houses in colonies where they and females. Adults consume marijuana, regularly visit for rag-picking and to rob locked alcohol and tobacco openly in the presence houses during the night when families are of children. Most parents are aware that their away. These and some other adolescent boys children are consuming substances but turn a who engage in pick-pocketing, gang fights etc. blind eye to it. often carry weapons such as knives, screw drivers, devices used for punching, sharp nail- The substances most commonly consumed cutters etc. that may come in handy during by children include whitener, a bicycle repairing such activities. Fights amongst boys that use fluid locally referred to as ‘sulochan’, ‘ganja’ such weapons to harm each other are common (marijuana), chewing tobacco, bidi, cigarettes, in the community. This has in rare cases, even and alcohol. Children buy these substances resulted in murder. Respondents have shared from the local shops all of which readily sell at least two incidents in which teenage gang these substances to children without any members were murdered, one of which was questioning. Drugs are sold at very low prices murdered in a fight between teenage gangs within the community. For instance, a packet and the other was a 17 year old boy who was of ganja costs only Rs. 20 which most young pushed to his death by adult gang members children can afford through their scavenging or from the terrace of a vacant newly constructed daily labour work. building. A few boys however, carry such weapons simply to protect themselves or as A majority of children in the community abuse status symbols. substances. Overall, about 60% children in the 0-18 age group are addicted to drugs. From age 14 onwards, several boys purchase Within this, about 70% girls and 90% boys large quantities of drugs through contacts in the age group of 7-13 years are addicted from within the community and sell it to to whitener, sulochan and chewing tobacco. people outside the community at higher costs. Rarely do boys or girls continue sniffing Occasionally, these boys also have visitors whitener or sulochan post 14 years. From age from outside the community such as the 13-14 onwards, boys shift to smoking ganja, nearby buildings and colonies who visit them bidis and cigarettes. Adolescent girls continue in Pritampur for the sole purpose of purchasing to chew tobacco but rarely get into the habit drugs on the sly. of smoking or drinking alcohol. About 60% boys in the 16-18 age-group consume alcohol, Gambling with playing cards is openly practiced mainly in groups. Both parents and children in in the community. Since children witness this the community are largely unaware of the long- on a regular basis, boys as young as 7 years term consequences of substance addiction. begin gambling with money they earn through scavenging with the hope of doubling their Illegal activities - stealing, gambling, and sale of drugs money. As the boys grow older, the stakes increase. According to the respondents, about 30% boys in Pritampur have been involved in illegal The police are aware of all the illegal activities

THE AANGAN TRUST 53 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

taking place in Pritampur but rarely visit the sexual health or counselling services. area partly because the community is located in the interior of the slum area. Respondents Supporting household through prostitution further shared that the males of Pritampur are A few girls (about 4-5%) in the community notorious and the police itself dread interacting aged 16-17 years (and a few adult women) with the people in the community and therefore are engaged in sex work as a form of earning keep away. To explain this point, a respondent quick money for household expenses. Girls shared, “The police have stopped interfering earn anywhere between Rs. 200-500 per client in the matters of this community. They are which is higher than what could be earned anyways corrupt and useless. They have through other short-period work available in to be bribed for everything. Just five-six the community. However, this is not a regular months ago, a policeman came here and activity with girls attending to clients only about tried to stop some men who were gambling 3-7 times a month. Girls often continue to do on the street. He shouldn’t have because their daily jobs such as domestic maid work or he was beaten up by all the men who were scavenger work along with prostitution. Further, around at the time. He hasn’t dared to return there are no agents or brothels involve. Rather, here.” clients are accessed through a phone network and through word of mouth. The clients are Early sexual activities usually adult men (occasionally adolescent Many of the houses in the community do not boys) within Pritampur or from nearby slum have doors and are made of makeshift material communities. They either visit the girl’s home such as jute, cloth and tarpaulin. Respondents to take her along or call up to set a meeting at stated that there is a high possibility of children a designated place such as their own home, a witnessing their parents or other adults in the secluded space in the community, or a cheap community engaging in sex. This, by itself, could hotel room nearby. lead to curiosity amongst children and early sexual experimentation. However, in the case Family members of the girls are usually aware of Pritampur, this is combined with extremely of these activities. Respondents revealed poor parental supervision. Children as young that these girls belong to extremely poor as 5-6 years old wander long distances away households, often with alcoholic fathers who from home unsupervised. As children begin to do not contribute to family expenses as well work as rag-pickers, they encounter numerous as snatch away earnings of other household opportunities to interact with older children members to fund their substance-intake and adults of both sexes from within as well habits. Girls from both the scavenger as well as as outside the community. This, combined labour side are engaged in this informal style of with drugs and the numerous secluded spots prostitution and the earnings are almost always available within the community (including used for food and other basic household needs. empty homes when parents are out at work, vacant buildings etc.) often leads to sexual experimentation or young love relationships that result in sex. Respondents stated that sex between children or teenagers in Pritampur is mostly consensual. These children are neither aware of the concept of sexually transmitted diseases, nor do they have any access to

THE AANGAN TRUST 54 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

vi. Experiences of children and families of death of such young children. A female in the community respondent GM, 25 yrs describes, “I have no idea what killed them. Something in the (SAFE Tool 1 - *For detailed quantitative data, air affected them. We didn’t really even please refer to Appendix 2A) consider taking them to a doctor. But on the The Pritampur SAFE data highlight the need same day, both my 2 year old and 8 month to move away from viewing child protection old daughters succumbed to whatever it issues as isolated child-focussed problems was and died. Just like that, they stopped and instead picture these issues from a holistic breathing. It must have been black magic.” viewpoint that embraces the community, With most male members spending their familial, health and economic context in which earnings on alcohol and drugs, women are children develop. often forced to be the primary breadwinners in their households. As a result, women are The health of children in Pritampur is severely unable to set aside time to look into their own debilitated due to the lack of affordable and health or that of their children, while fathers accessible health services; there are no health usually do not concern themselves with these centres, either government or private, within matters. Birth control pills and condoms are not the community. A secondary reason is also the popular in the community due to the recurring lack of awareness on basic health rights. While costs involved. Their financial condition is so two Aanganwadi centres are present within the critical that many women resume their normal community, their reach in creating awareness work routine in less than a week post-delivery. and mobilizing the community on child health issues is negligible. Several parents, particularly There are several reasons as to why people in in the scavenger side are unaware of the role the community are hesitant about accessing of these centres except as food distributing health services even during serious medical units for young children. Aanganwadi workers, emergencies. Firstly, the nearest government on the other hand, complain that women are hospital is at a distance of over 5 kms from the rarely at home during the day making it difficult community, thereby incurring transportation to do outreach work; even when parents are costs, which many community members are informed of services such as immunization, unable to afford. Moreover, the roads within appropriate antenatal and postnatal care for the community are ‘kaccha’ i.e. mud roads. women, care for newborn babies etc., they Therefore, people are required to walk 1-2 do not pay heed as they are busy in their daily kms before they are able to access public work and household chores. Some of the transportation. Secondly, though treatment mothers from the labour side, however, do avail services at government hospitals are negligible the medical benefits provided by the centres. or else free in the case of BPL card holders, the cost of medication is to be taken on Very few children in the community have by households, which again eat into basic received full immunization, with a majority household costs. Thirdly, accompanying of them from the scavenger side not being parents are required to wait in long queues immunized at all. Roughly about half of the at these hospitals sometimes taking an entire labour side children have been given at least a day just to be checked by a doctor. Follow- few vaccinations. Respondents indicated that up visits or hospital stays mean that parents the under-5 mortality rate in the community are either unable to earn on those days and is high, and in many cases, the community therefore unable to provide food for the family, members have been unaware of the cause or are at a risk of losing their jobs for being

THE AANGAN TRUST 55 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

on leave. Thus, if a child’s treatment period Due to these limitations, many parents simply or hospital stay gets prolonged, parents often purchase cheap medication from local shops stop treatment or insist on a discharge before to relieve symptoms rather than to cure treatment is completed. Fourthly, even though an illness. Children from both sides of the government hospitals are open 24*7, public community drink unfiltered water and rarely transportation is not available at nights, leaving wash their hands before meals. Therefore, people in the community helpless if someone diarrhoea is very common amongst children requires emergency treatment in the night. in the community. Similarly, due to the many Fifth, respondents stated that the services uncovered drains and puddles of stagnant provided by the government hospitals are of water, malaria is frequently encountered in poor quality and community members often Pritampur. Food poisoning is also common give up treatment midway when they do not as many children, particularly those involved in see results or when medicine costs mount. scavenging work, eat discarded food that they Lastly, private clinics and hospitals with better find in the trash. But only some of the children quality services are available 2-3 kms from the who suffer from these or other illnesses are community but the treatment fees here are too able to receive medical attention. Often times, high for the community members to access.“ parents are unaware of what their children are suffering from before giving them self- Life has been harsh. My husband is prescribed medication, leading to further health an alcoholic. He doesn’t contribute complications. to the household at all. He spends all his earnings on alcohol and beats me Respondents state that alcohol and drugs are up daily. We are seven people in the the biggest source of evil in the community house but I only have Rs. 2000-3000 because in addition to males spending all their to run the house every month. Just hard-earned money on these substances, these three days ago, my 6 year old daughter are also the main cause of violence within the got very sick. I took her by bus to the community. Drinking water and shops that sell closest government hospital but that basic household need items may be difficult to too is so far away and takes so long access but liquor stores are available within the to reach. By the time we got there, the community. Most adult males in Pritampur are doctor said she was serious and needs addicted to alcohol and marijuana, while some to be admitted. So I admitted her. But women in the scavenger side are addicted to even the next day, they said she is not alcohol and tobacco. Mothers frequently inflict ready to be discharged. Now you tell verbal and physical abuse on their children for me...if I am unable to work because I’m minor reasons, as they are constantly under at the hospital with her and if I spend all physical and mental stress. Women often my money on transport and medicines, become singularly responsible for financial, won’t the rest of my children and family child and other household responsibilities, starve? I decided then and there to even though they are not given the status of discharge her and got her home. She household head and are still dependent on their was and still is very ill but I had to make husbands in terms of decision-making. Extra- a choice. Of course, I’m worried about marital affairs and spouse abandonment is her; I’m a mother after all. Believe common in the community resulting in several me, these decisions are never easy to single-parent households. make” - Female respondent SM, 27 yrs

THE AANGAN TRUST 56 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

“If you look around, you will notice that gangs or are under the influence of substances my family really does not belong here. I often perpetuate such violence. Sometimes, am a B.Sc. Graduate with a respectable violence has no cause. For instance, during job. My wife has an MA degree even the period of data collection for this research, a though she is a housewife. We moved violent drunken man brutally beat a 16 year old here from MP Nagar a little over two boy who was walking in one of the community years ago. Our home was demolished lanes despite no provocation. He then threw and we were evacuated due to a mall a stone on the boy’s head severely injuring being built there. Since I hold a full- his ear. Even though several bystanders were time job and do not have a BPL card, present, none intervened. The boy was later we were not provided any rehabilitation admitted in the government hospital. options. Due to our difficult financial circumstances, we moved here and The most common form of physical violence built a house. But I have regretted witnessed by children, however, is domestic this every day for the past two years. violence which occurs in about 85% Our health has deteriorated since we households in the community. In both sides of moved here; we’re always unwell. Had the community, adult males consume alcohol, I known how horrible this community drugs etc. and regularly beat their wives in is, I would have never got my family the presence of children, often including the here. The people here only know children in such violence. Often times, these alcohol, drugs and violence. Every beatings take place outside the homes in full nook and corner of this community is view of other community members. Community unsafe and dirty. There’s no water, no members do not usually intervene even when facilities. The people of this community the domestic violence is excessive as these cannot be trusted; they are all filthy and are considered personal home matters. dangerous, and are capable of even Several women, including four of the female killing another person. Children here respondents in the study have attempted don’t go to school; they go through the suicide due to severe domestic abuse. Roughly garbage and eat the food that has been 75% children are victims of verbal and physical thrown away. It’s disgusting! I don’t abuse within homes. About 5% adolescent want my 3 year old son to grow up boys have left their homes due to this violence, here. We will move out as soon as we though some return back home after a few get the chance to do so.” - PN, 33yrs, days. correspondent with a national newspaper, living in the labour side Serious forms of sexual violence such as rape take place in the community, though such Children witness verbal and physical violence incidents are rare. Respondents shared an on a regular basis both within as well as outside incident that took place about 2 years ago their homes. Use of abusive and degrading when a 21 year old male raped a 3 year old language by parents, children and teachers girl, and then hid her body after murdering her. is common in the community. Assaults and As shared by a respondent regarding one of gang fights are also fairly commonplace in the the more recent rape cases, “Two months community. In the past six months, around 15- ago in September 2014, a 16 year old girl 20% boys have been physically assaulted by was gang-raped by four boys, one of who adults or other children when outside of their is a 17 year old boy from Pritampur itself. homes. Boys who are members of robbery This boy belongs to a notorious gang and

THE AANGAN TRUST 57 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

he threatened to harm the girl’s family during meals, male members including men if they filed an FIR. An NGO tried to offer and boys are first served food by the females support to the girl for filing the FIR. But out in the family. Only after they finish eating do of fear and the humiliation that the family the mothers and daughters eat. Since the had to go through, the family has left the food cooked is often inadequate for the entire community and now live with a relative family, females often eat lesser and remain in another area of Bhopal. The boy, who hungry. In schools, teachers instruct only girls is the main culprit from the four, however for classroom cleaning activities. Respondents continues to live here and go about his daily denied the prevalence of more serious forms of routine without any fear.” Less serious forms gender discrimination such as female foeticide of sexual violence such as sexual harassment or dowry deaths. This is partly because there is of girls on the streets and in secluded areas no tradition of dowry seeking particularly in the (inappropriate touching, lewd comments etc.) scavenger side. However, some of the women is common, with it being unsafe for girls to are still tormented by husbands and in-laws walk on the community lanes in the evenings for a male child as was the case with one of or nights. Regarding sexual molestation within the female respondents in this study. Children homes, a few respondents shared that girls with disabilities also undergo discrimination in are occasionally victims; with step-fathers, the form of name-calling, teasing and verbal uncles or cousins being the perpetrators. All humiliation. respondents stated that such incidents of molestation were limited only to girls and when The respondents stated that children are not taking place within homes, never escalated to respectful of parents. Parents and children share rape. a formal relationship, rarely communicating with one another. Particularly with adolescent Half of the respondents indicated the presence children, communication is often restricted to of caste, gender and disability discrimination superficial need-based talk or verbal abuse. amongst community members while the Respondents further stated that children as other half denied it. This could be because for well as adults do not have trusting relationships some, the discrimination is so ingrained into even within their own peer groups, with ‘each daily life that it ceases to be noticeable. Caste to their own’ being the community norm. discrimination exists only in the labour side Community gatherings for functions such of the community wherein a sub-caste of the as Ganesh Chaturthi or Dussehra take place Scheduled caste population whose traditional annually and some of the children partake in occupation is to clean toilets is discriminated this. However, these functions are organized against. Some of the households from the only in the labour side. Very few children labour side do not allow the people of this currently access the social and child welfare caste entry into their homes. Children from services offered by the few non-governmental the lower castes are also sometimes verbally organizations working in the community. Of humiliated by teachers and other children in those who do, they mainly belong to the labour schools. Subtle gender discrimination is also side. There is a strong need for organizations to prevalent in schools and within homes. Girl focus on incorporating the children belonging children are expected to handle all household to the scavenger side as well in their programs, chores and take care of younger siblings. Boys though these children may be far more difficult are rarely expected to do so, and usually take to access due to their circumstances, habits on only a few of the chores e.g. fetching water and irregular daily routine. in the absence of female siblings. Further,

THE AANGAN TRUST 58 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

The following section dwells into specific financially managing household and food survival strategies adopted by the Pritampur needs, while most fathers spend their earnings residents and their families to deal with various on substance-abuse needs. Daily earnings of day-to-day household difficulties. parents and children are therefore spent by the end of the day on alcohol, drugs and food. Thus, saving as an adaptive strategy was considered impractical by most respondents. Rather, they vii. Adaptive strategies used to cope believed that their only realistic options were to with various difficulties and obstacles go to bed hungry; reduce the amount or quality (SAFE Tool 2 - *For detailed quantitative data, of food eaten; reduce the amount of food eaten please refer to Appendix 2B) by female members in the household; chew tobacco to ease hunger (children and parents); “I often wonder...will my children eat today?” ask relatives for food; send children to beg for - DG, f, 25 yrs: expenditure and dietary coping food at temples, markets etc.; send children strategies to collect and bring back Aanganwadi food supplements or school mid-day meals; borrow The poverty in the community is so intense money from relatives; buy groceries and other that the majority of households are unable essential items on credit; sell household assets to provide three basic meals a day. With and relieve hunger through substance abuse. high levels of substance abuse, poor health and irregular daily wage earnings, rarely are In most households, food is only cooked once community members able to even consider in the evening. This too depends on whether keeping aside money for savings. A number money is available to purchase groceries. 28 of female respondents shared that during of the 30 respondents have spent entire days particularly difficult times, they have increased without eating a single morsel of food. All 30 their workload and time spent working in respondents have decreased the number of order to procure a larger income. However, meals eaten each day. Household members mothers are often singularly responsible for often leave for work in the mornings on an

0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Tool 1 majority response to expenditure-related questions in Part 5 “Income and Economic Stability”

THE AANGAN TRUST 59 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

ONCE MORE THAN ONCE

No. of respondents who decreased the number of meals eaten each day empty stomach. Many of them, particularly obtain loans from banks. Due to widespread mothers, are habituated to not eating anything poverty, most people within the community during the day as they are busy at work and do not have sufficient money to give out as attempt to save money to feed their families. loans, nor is there a guarantee of such loans The staple food of several families in the being returned. Hence, only small amounts community, particularly in the scavenger side, of Rs. 5 to 100 are borrowed or lent amongst includes only ‘chappati’ (flat wheat bread) with community members, usually for grocery or salt and green chilly. On good days, households small household items. For medical needs, consume rice/ chappati with a vegetable dish, households often borrow from multiple people, eggs or pulses. During prolonged periods amounting to a total of Rs. 1000-2000, but of joblessness or health concerns, mothers they find it extremely difficult to return this frequently approach relatives in order to borrow money, therefore going into debt. A very small food. percentage of households from the labour side access microfinance loans of Rs. 5000- Basic health care in the community is 20000 provided via organizations/ banks, considered a luxury. Families are particularly through women self-help groups formed in the affected when one or more members in the community. These loans are taken for medical household are unwell and require medical emergencies, starting a small business, building attention. Since households rarely have any a home, weddings or for repaying previous savings, borrowing money or selling jewellery, loans. But accessing such heavy loans often household items etc. to fund for transportation gets households into an unending loop of costs to the government hospital and for borrowing as more often than not, they are medication becomes the only option. During unable to save and return this money through such days, they are also unable to work their daily earnings. resulting in no incoming money further pushing households into poverty. Often times, medical Further, due to poor documentation practices, treatment is stopped mid-way due to mounting some families particularly in the extremely poor costs resulting in more sick days, thereby scavenger side do not have BPL or ration entering into a vicious loop. cards. This reduces their access to affordable food and health services. Further, some women With respect to borrowing money, households receive cheques under the Janani Shishu mainly borrow from relatives, and in a few Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) government cases from friends. They are usually unable to scheme post child delivery, but are unable to

THE AANGAN TRUST 60 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

cash these cheques because they do not have bank accounts.

Community-based and self-healing strategies or the lack thereof

Bonding amongst community members is negligible. Households rarely offer support to one another unless they are related by blood. Respondents state that given that the circumstances of each household is submerged in poverty and the struggle to move from one day to the next, most are unable to think about the well-being of their own children, let alone that of the neighbours or the community. The SAFE Tool 2 data results highlight this lack of involvement in social or community issues.

“Here, the people of this community take joy in other people’s suffering. My husband died three months ago. I have of these union members has also been active 3 very young children. I don’t have time in gender and child issues as she works as to grieve because I have to work day a community worker for two NGOs (Sangini and night just to get by. No one, not and Bachpan) within the community through even my neighbours have offered to which she obtains an additional income. The help in any way. Forget helping, they go police or local leaders are rarely approached out of the way to make my life worse. by community members even for very serious When I come home from work late at child exploitation cases as respondents feel night, people pass lewd comments. that they are insensitive to gender and child I’ve heard them speak amongst issues, take bribes, refuse to file an FIR and themselves that I’m involved in dirty do not take any action. Community members (sex work) activities” – MK, 25yrs, living too do not intervene in situations of severe in scavenger side of community child abuse or domestic violence as these are considered personal matters of households Respondents are largely unaware of the and also because they do not wish to spend presence or work of existing social and child their time embroiled in other people’s problems. welfare organizations, indicating the need for more intense outreach for awareness Neighbours or other community members building particularly in the scavenger side of are rarely approached for alternate child care, the community. Barring a few exceptions, a except for instance, when a child is very ill. In significant majority of respondents have never such cases, older children in the vicinity are engaged in social advocacy, rallies or citizen requested to keep an eye on the child because movements. The few who have almost always within most households, adults are busy at belong to the labour side. For instance, two work during the day. In the labour side, young respondents working as domestic maids are children are usually left in the care of older members of the domestic worker union. One siblings. In the scavenger side, children as

THE AANGAN TRUST 61 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

young as 2-3 years old are left to take care of itself or in the communities that they had themselves, and usually play by themselves or migrated from. Five of the respondents had with other young children unsupervised in the also worked as migratory child labour around community lanes. age 15-16 years, two of who lived in their place of work - one in a sweetmeat shop in Agra and Respondents found the idea of self-care the other as a live-in domestic maid in Delhi. and self-healing as a luxury of the rich. They However, most denied that they dropped out repeatedly emphasized that in the struggle of school due to this reason. Several stated to obtain the most basic human needs that the reason they had not attended school such as food and water, their only source of or stopped going to school was due to a lack tension release was drugs, tobacco, alcohol of interest in pursuing studies, wherein their or gambling. A few mentioned that they own parents too did not consider education felt at peace when they visited temples or as an important asset to have. Similarly, many prayed at home. 27 of the 30 respondents of the female respondents as children had denied engaging in any hobby or activity that the responsibility of looking after siblings and brought them personal joy, with the remaining household chores though this was not the 3 respondents stating that they occasionally sole reason for skipping school. Only one enjoyed listening to music. 4 female domestic respondent who moved into Pritampur a little violence victims admitted to spending time in over two years ago and who is amongst the isolation in order to reflect on the torture, but highest educated in the community with a BSc stated that this rarely made them feel better degree, has completed a vocational course since it often brought on suicidal thoughts. in computers while in college. The rest of Beyond a few such activities, the vast majority the respondents were largely unaware about does not proactively practice any self-healing vocational courses. strategy, be it positive or negative. A majority of the interviewed respondents are Generational trends: Strategies revolving addicted to alcohol, drugs and/or tobacco. around occupational/ educational and Several of the male respondents also gamble. dangerous/ illegal activities One male respondent, JG, 29 years, admitted More than half the respondents of this to having been engaged in illegal activities in Pritampur study have never been to school Pritampur as a child from his late teens onwards and most do not regret it as they feel that their up to early adulthood. He revealed that he was situation would not have been much different part of a notorious gang, involved in selling even if they had obtained a primary level of drugs and stealing at the time. However, it is education. They point out that the lives of those possible that other respondents who may be in the community who have attended school engaged in such activities haven’t admitted to and can read or write are not much different the same due to fear of getting into trouble with from their own. They believe that they as well the law (despite assurance to the contrary by as their children are destined to do the same the researcher) or due to the urge to provide menial jobs. From the Tool 1 data, it is clear socially desirable responses. that this pessimistic belief has been imbibed by the children as well.

21 of the 30 respondents were themselves engaged in child labour either in Pritampur

THE AANGAN TRUST 62 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

“I was born and brought up in a village near Indore. Education was not considered important in my family, so I like my other siblings dropped out of school in Grade V. For a few years, I did nothing. My parents were not so bothered; they were too busy and preoccupied with money issues to worry about me. When I was about 15 years, I left home and the village life to come to Bhopal so I can make a life for myself. When I got here, I was all by myself with no place to live. A gang in Pritampur took me under their wing. I joined in readily because I got friends, food, a place to stay, as well as a certain status and respect. It was different and exciting and scary all at the same time. We would sell drugs and sometimes also take on assignments such as beating up a person in exchange for money. I became an alcoholic and a drug addict. But after a few years of doing this, I realised that I was very lonely. I couldn’t trust my own gang members. Even in a group I was alone. I got depressed and also attempted suicide once. I eventually left the gang and took up a job as a painter. I fell in love with a rag-picking girl, married her, and now have a 4 year old son. I still drink but not as much as before. Three years ago, I too became a rag-picker as it is more steady income than daily wages work. During the marriage season, I also take up waiter jobs. I earn about Rs.3000 a month. Life is still a struggle and I cannot say I’m happy living in such circumstances, but I am able to sleep better at night now” – JG, 29yrs, scavenger, on being able

S: As a 15 yr old migrant, repondent joins a gang engaged in illegal activities for food, protection & shelter

A: As part of E: Respondent the gang, the drops out of child becomes an school in Grade V alcohol and drug addict exposing himself to health risks F: As a child, runs away from home and migrates to Pritampur. As a gang member, becomes suicidal due to absence of trustworthy relationships

A Pritampur respondent JG’s inter-related childhood experiences through the lens of the SAFE model: a pictorial interpretation of how insecurity in one dimension can affect all other dimensions THE AANGAN TRUST 63 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

A few of the migrated respondents who had resignation to their current circumstances. spent their childhood elsewhere in another The people in the community severely village or community stated that Pritampur was lack an awareness of basic rights and an a particularly disturbed community with such understanding of the practical means to obtain high levels of violence and substance use that the same. Having spent several years or their anyone who lived there was forced to indulge in entire lives in Pritampur, most respondents feel the same in order to belong. Thus, even though that their lives have only gotten worse over some of the migrants had never consumed a period of time. In the absence of tangible substances or gambled in their previous future ambitions or goals, and no positives to place of stay, they were unable to resist these look forward to; every waking day in Pritampur temptations for long when in Pritampur. becomes a routine struggle for survival and an end in itself for those living here. There is It is interesting to note that all the above therefore a strong need for action-based social educational and occupational livelihood and child welfare organizations to begin at the strategies that were practiced by parents when most basic level of participatory and rights- they were children correspond almost perfectly based awareness building that raises hope with those practiced by their own children. and community involvement before setting up Similar to the childhood experiences of their specific issue-based community projects. parents, children in Pritampur are disinterested in education or vocational courses, are lacking in ambition, take on household chores and get into child labour at a tender age, occasionally shifting into migratory child labour in their late teens. The qualitative and quantitative information in Tool 2 clearly reveals that parents in this community who had dropped out of school early (or had never been to school) and who engaged in child labour themselves were more likely to have children who are school dropouts and child labour victims at a tender age. Similar to their parents, children too are addicted to substances and gambling; they are engaged in similar illegal activities as their parents such as membership in gangs, selling drugs and house robberies. The only likely difference between parents and children in the space of dangerous and illegal activities is that the children are now engaging in these activities in larger numbers and at a far more tender age than their parents did. This appears to be a direct result of the increasing exposure to violence, poverty, and adult apathy in the community.

Overall, the residents of Pritampur inclusive of both children and adults exude a passive

THE AANGAN TRUST 64 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

AMALGANJ, PATNA

THE AANGAN TRUST 65 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

i. Community location by the Hindu Scheduled Caste (SC) forming about 50-55% of the population followed by The Amalganj slum is centrally located near the Other Backward Castes (OBCs) at 30-35%, Patna junction railway station. Situated close to Hindu General category at around 10-12% a commercial cum residential neighbourhood, and Muslims at about 0.5%. Sub-sects in the it is surrounded by posh buildings and SC category primarily include Dom, Mehtar colonies. The nearby streets such as Frazer Mahar, Dusad and Dhobi. Less than 1% of road, Exhibition road, Boring road etc. are well- the community population belongs to the known locations for popular hotels, restaurants, SC Mushar sub-sect. Sub-sects in the OBC bars, and high-street stores in the capital city. category are mainly composed of Yadav, Kurmi, and Mallah.

The average household earnings in Amalganj ii. Community structure, demographics lies in the range of Rs. 5000 - 8000 per month. and the unwritten code of functioning A few households with men who have regular employment (e.g. drivers) or an established business (e.g. laundry/ tailoring shop) earn up to Amalganj has a large slum population of Rs. 9000 - 14000 per month. But several men about 3000 people living in approximately 600 are into daily wage or seasonal work resulting households. On an average, each household in lower or irregular earnings. Men from the accommodates about 5 family members. Most community work as drivers, sweepers, toilet/ of the houses are ‘kacha’ made of materials sewage cleaners, shop assistants, barbers, such as bamboo, wood sticks, straw, tin sheets peons, restaurant helpers, or are into daily wage and tarpaulin, and requiring touch-ups every work such as rickshaw pulling, cart pulling, three-four months. Very few houses have brick street vending, etc. During particular periods walls. These slum houses are typically small in such as marriage season or festival time, size measuring around 10x10 to 10x15 sq. ft., some men either shift to or take up additional and resemble blocks that have been placed seasonal jobs such as cooks, waiters, event/ adjacent to each other. Being an illegal slum, party assistants etc. A few men are also residents shared that they prefer not to invest a known to migrate to middle-eastern countries lot of money in building their houses due to the such as Saudi Arabia through agents to work possibility of demolition. as electricians, plumbers etc., after paying a sum of Rs. 50,000-80,000 to the agents for The Amalganj slum is an old settlement with air tickets, visa fee and consultancy charges. most of the people having migrated into the The primary occupation of the women in the community from other parts of Bihar during community is domestic maid work. A typical 1965-1975. The slum dwellers prefer to stay domestic maid works in 3-4 households earning on in Amalganj post-marriage/ adulthood due Rs. 800-1100 per household per month. There to its central location which provides more are plenty of opportunities for such work due easy access to daily wage jobs and services, to the concentration of the upper middle class as compared to other slum settlements. and the rich residing in nearby colonies. Therefore, several of the families have been living in Amalganj for over forty years forming A large sewer flows across the community close bonds amongst themselves. Second and physically bifurcating the slum into two third generation households are common in sections. Locals often refer to the people on the community. The community is dominated the opposite side as “oo patti ke log” (people of

THE AANGAN TRUST 66 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

the other side). The community structure and well-connected with corrupt politicians and rich geographical division is largely occupation- businessmen in Patna. He runs an illegal alcohol based. For instance, located within the business within Amalganj by regularly bribing community is a driver’s colony of about 60 the police; and until about three years ago, households occupied by those working as also headed an illegal adult prostitution racket drivers. The sweeper’s/ cleaner’s colony located from within the community. He has a number of in a corner of the slum is occupied by sweepers, adult associates with different crime expertise, toilet cleaners, sewage tank cleaners etc. living owns a ‘desi katta’ (locally made pistol) and is within a total of about 100 households; these particularly active during the election period households mainly belong to people of the working on illegal assignments contracted Dom or Mehtar caste. Several men from this by ministers, politicians and local leaders. He section engage in private free-lance cleaning has several police cases filed against him on work in the nearby posh colonies or shops, in charges such as murder, kidnapping etc., is addition to contractual work as sweepers for frequently picked up by the police, and spends the Patna Municipal Corporation (PMC). short periods in jail. While he is in jail, his relatives and associates manage his criminal and The community as a whole maintains poor community activities. Community members, hygiene with garbage-lined lanes and the open including adults and children, who do not follow gutter emanating a strong stench of sewage his orders are beaten up. Children who wish to and toilet waste. During the monsoons, water- engage in NGO-run community activities such logging is a serious health and safety concern as distribution of essential material require his because the rain water combines with the sewer permission, else may get beaten up by his water to create an unhealthy environment. This associates. The entire community therefore unclean water also enters homes severely runs as per his wishes. While some follow his affecting the living conditions of slum dwellers instructions out of fear, others support him and and creating a breeding ground for innumerable look up to him. He is often viewed by the locals diseases. Homes often have to be rebuilt post as generous as he provides loans as well as the monsoon season due to irreparable damage. jobs to people in need. While he is known to crave prestige and publicity, demanding that “C don is the boss of Amalganj. all community activities be associated with Not even a leaf can stir without his his name, community members state that he permission. Anyone who wants to get is approachable and spends time and money anything done here has to first meet on the community and its people. He therefore, with C don. If you can convince him, has a large following within the community. then it’s good...he may even help you. If he says no, then don’t even think about it” – Male respondent MP, 32 yrs iii. Water, electricity, toilet and bathing An important point to note regarding Adalaganj facilities is that the entire slum community is unofficially presided over by a local mafia don and his The community has only one public toilet associates. Respondents state that this man (‘Sulabh Sauchalaya’) which costs Rs. 3 - 5 is very powerful and no community activities - per use. Community members have built an including NGO or other social welfare activities, additional single toilet having brick walls and a can take place without his explicit consent. Born tin door, with an Indian-style toilet seat within and brought up in Amalganj, he is extremely

THE AANGAN TRUST 67 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

Amalganj in pictures:

Open sewer running through the community

Hand pump for community use Single brick toilet for community use

for free collective usage. However, since only there are about 12-18 such makeshift toilets in a negligible number of households in the the community at any given point in time. Both community have their own personal toilets adults and adolescents mainly use these three or bathrooms, these options are clearly not different types of toilets, while young children viable for an entire community. Thus, clusters largely practice open defecation along the of six-ten households often get together to sewer’s edge. A few adults and adolescents, build makeshift community toilets for their own inclusive of both males and females, also collective usage. These are mostly built along practice open defecation along the sewer rim the length of the open sewer so as to allow during early morning hours. The absence of human waste to flow directly into the gutter. household toilets, insufficient collective-usage The temporary toilets are made at a very low toilets, and the lack of an adequate covered cost using bamboo sticks as a frame, which is sewage system not only causes inconvenience; then covered with cloth or tarpaulin. The doors but also pollutes the surrounding environment are also made of bamboo with a cloth piece and water sources. This can further lead to fixed over it; these doors typically have crude malnourishment and stunted growth in children locks such as tying the door shut with wire or caused by excreta-related diseases. rope. The makeshift toilet within is a simple mud pit that is smoothened with cement, and Bathing and washing of clothes or utensils has a pipe attached to it that carries waste either takes place at the community hand material into the open sewer. The rudimentary pumps itself or outside homes using water nature of its construction results in frequent that has been fetched from these hand demolishing and re-building of these toilets; pumps or the water supply taps. Children take

THE AANGAN TRUST 68 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

bath without any clothes on; men take bath Only about one-third of the households with undergarments on; while women and filter the water prior to drinking. These are adolescent girls take bath with most of their the households that were provided with clothes on. Women change their clothes once water filters free of cost by the organization they go back to their homes. Men usually bathe World Vision nearly a decade ago. Of the 30 in the mornings while women and children respondents, 18 had received these water mostly bathe in the afternoons. Respondents filters. But 8 households stopped using these have stated that though embarrassing and once it stopped working. Thus, from the 18, inconvenient for women, the community men only 10 continue to use these filters after are relatively well-behaved and there haven’t having repaired it several times. These 10 been any known cases of sexual harassment households have stated that their health is around these public bathing spaces. This open significantly improved when consuming filtered bathing causes daily water logging in some of water. Households that do not own filters drink the community lanes. the water directly, without boiling or using any other form of water purification, thus leaving Electricity is available in nearly all households, them vulnerable to water-related diseases such though a majority of the connections are illegal. as cholera, jaundice, typhoid etc. Water supply connections, on the other hand, have been established only in a few households Other basic facilities and services within or (about 10-15%) which are located in the slum’s nearby community outer periphery. The majority of households • Aanganwadi centres: Two within access water sources that have been set up Amalganj (one on either side of the for collective community use. Two such forms sewer) of water sources are available – community hand pumps which require frequent repairing • Government schools: Amalganj and the Municipal water supply taps. The hand Prathamik Vidyalaya – primary school, pump water is visibly contaminated due to the Rajkiya Kanya Madhya Vidyalaya – drainage water seeping into the ground water; middle school, Rajkiya Balak Madhya this water is pale yellow in colour and emits a bad Vidyalaya – middle school, Miller High odour. The supply water appears reasonably School – higher secondary school (all clean albeit containing invisible impurities and within ½ km from the community) occasionally some visible impurities as well. Women and girls fetch water either from the • Commonly accessed vocational Municipal supply tap or the hand pumps on courses: Tailoring and beautician a daily basis for household use. While the courses for girls (accessed through community is aware that the supply tap water NGOs) is the preferred choice for drinking water, it’s water availability timings are sometimes erratic, • Commonly accessed Government and the fetching of this water is time-consuming hospitals: New Gardiner Road as the queues are at times lengthy. Therefore, Hospital (about 100 meters from some households prefer to occasionally collect the community) and Bihar’s largest the hand pump water for drinking as well when government hospital, Patna Medical they are short on time, or when they have been College and Hospital (PMCH, about 5 unable to fetch the supply tap water for some kms from the community) other reason. • Police station: Kotwali police

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station (about 500 meters from the in the community, leaves young community) impressionable minds with a glorified vision of the underworld and the • Prominent Organizations: World possibilities therein. This consequently Vision, Aangan Trust, Bandhan (not- results in an excess of substance use, for-profit MFI), Arohan (for-profit MFI) gambling and gang violence amongst the community boys, putting their lives at risk. iv. A snapshot of the Amalganj SAFE • Inferior household infrastructure Analysis provides little protection against extreme weather conditions. *Several of the child vulnerability issues mentioned below are cross-cutting and • Open defecation, lack of separate interdependent issues that do not fall under community toilets for males and one specific dimension. These and other females, , and the absence of covered community vulnerability aspects are explored bathing facilities leaves girls at risk of in depth through the course of this chapter. sexual harassment, and other forms of violence or exploitation. Safety and protection Access to healthcare and basic physiological • The prevalence of child labour is not needs only extremely exploitative of children leading to a number of risks and • Access to quality affordable health safety concerns, but early financial care and free medical camps provides independence without appropriate a strong community advantage. guidance also exposes children to a multitude of negative opportunities • Consumption of impure drinking water, such as substance abuse, gambling no washing of hands before meals or and the purchase of commercial sex after urination, open sewer, scattered worker services. garbage heaps and poor personal hygiene exposes children to a number • Child marriage that is often hidden of avoidable diseases. along with the traditional practice of dowry-giving puts girls in a • High levels of substance abuse highly vulnerable situation, as it amongst boys beginning at a corresponds to other vulnerabilities young age of ten years can lead such as dropping out of school, early to developmental and neurological motherhood, domestic violence, issues, other mental and physical dowry torture, increased household health risks, aggressive behaviour, and responsibilities etc. could be fatal in high doses.

• The presence of an influential • Teenage post-marital pregnancies local mafia don who engages in could result in health complications for a number of illegal activities as both mother and newborn child. the most prominent role model

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• Easy accessibility to female sex • Low school attendance and lengthy workers exposes teenaged boys to gaps in education due to household health risks such as HIV, STDs and chores, taking care of younger STIs. siblings, the need to occasionally assist parents in their occupation, the Family and connection to others low priority attributed to education in the community and the several • The cultural acceptance of dowry- community distractions; prevents related torture and domestic violence children from focussing on education within families discourages girls and women from seeking familial, societal • Early school dropout and child labour or police intervention. due to poverty, need to contribute to household income, the urge to fund • Domestic violence, extra-marital personal expenses or habits such as affairs and the witnessing of verbal substance dependence and gambling; and physical violence on a daily basis prevents children from pursuing exposes children to dangerous and education beyond the basic primary irresponsible behaviour that they learn levels leading to a lack of constructive to perceive as acceptable. career ambitions. • The parental and teacher view that physical violence and verbal humiliation is essential for child disciplining may prove detrimental v. Key child vulnerabilities - preventing the formation of close or trusting bonds within child-adult Early school drop-out and child labour relationships and leading children to Early school dropout and child labour are two seek unhealthy peer support. of the most prominent interconnected issues in Amalganj. A significant number of both boys Education and economic security and girls (50-55% boys; 35-40% girls) begin • Irregular employment within working at the age of about 10-12 years, largely households leads to desperate due to household financial instability, handling measures such as cost-cutting on of household chores, as well as the need to earn basic and essential needs e.g. food, for personal expenses. Due to the surrounding health maintenance. busy high-end market and residential streets, boys are most often absorbed into the service • Dependence on loans from industry as hotel helpers, waiters, dish washers, moneylenders and microfinance cook assistants etc. in restaurants, dhabas or in institutions creates a cycle of debt for private marriage functions, festive celebrations, several households. birthdays and household parties. A number of boys work as shop attendants or office helpers. • Several government school options Several boys also set up stalls or carts in the in the vicinity; adequate school nearby popular lanes for a few hours during the infrastructure, teacher strength evenings, and sell street food such as ‘chaat’, and teaching quality provide a ‘chola’, ‘golgappa’ (snacks), eggs, sweet corn, favourable education possibility for the tobacco sachets, Chinese food etc. Boys community children.

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also sell other non-perishable items such private apartment building, I am sometimes as fashion accessories, gas balloons etc. on told to do extra cleaning work. During such these streets. A few of the community boys are times or when I’m unwell, I make my 10 year engaged in cleaning cars at signals, shopping old skip school so he can help me out with mall car parks, garages etc.; or in scavenging this work.” Occasionally, young school-going of bottles, metal pieces etc. which they sell children work after school hours at dhabas and earn money from. A few boys in the 15 – and hotels. After they drop out of school, 17 years age group (roughly 10-12%) are also children aged 12-14 years often begin to work engaged in migratory child labour wherein they independently and take on full-time, daily wage move to relative’s houses in other districts or or temporary contractual jobs. to metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, to work in eateries, shops, hotels etc. There The surrounding up-market locality results are no recruitment agents involved in obtaining in earnings (including child earnings) that are such work. Rather, relatives and friends arrange relatively higher compared to the other SAFE for and finalise the employment. These boys researched locations. Children are paid monthly salaries, per hour wages, or duty-specific wages. Boys typically earn between Rs. 1500 – 5000 per month, depending on number of hours worked, type of work, and years of experience. Those who are engaged in duty- specific and part-time daily wage jobs such as dish washing post lunch hours, vegetable- cutting during mornings etc. earn Rs. 30-50 per day. Girls working as domestic maids earn Rs. 800 – 1000 per household and work on an average in 3-4 households, thereby earning Rs. 3000 – 4000 per month. In most cases, part of the money earned is given by the children to their parents for household expenses, while Child labour in Amalganj the remaining is used up in personal expenses send a portion of their earnings back home and such as clothes, accessories, hotel/ street periodically visit their families in Amalganj once food, mobiles, drugs etc. A number of working or twice a year. Girls, on the other hand, are girls, however, are expected by parents to put primarily involved in local domestic maid work. in their entire earnings towards household expenses. Prior to beginning full-time work, children often accompany their parents around age In recent years, there has been an increase in 10-12 years either to learn while on the job, police monitoring with frequent raids particularly or to help them when they are unwell or when in dhabas and hotels to keep a check on child there is a heavy work load. Children therefore labour. As a result, there are occasional drops occasionally skip school during the initial years. in child labour instances. However, rather than This is even more so in the case of children who preventing or stopping child labour, these raids have mothers working as domestic maids or have tended to push child labour into a hidden fathers engaged in roadside eateries, sweeper/ phenomenon. During times of strict vigilance, cleaning jobs. Respondent DR, 35 years, says, children often temporarily shift to another job “As a garbage collector and cleaner of a or resume these jobs at a later date when

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police surveillance has calmed down. Thus, with education in the community and the child labour continues but those who employ absence of parental or school pressure. While such labour have become more careful about the majority of children drop out of school in keeping it concealed. order to earn money, respondents state that this is sometimes prompted by a combination In addition to child labour, children in the of peer pressure, lack of interest in studies, and community also have to undertake a number the need to earn for personal expenses, drug of household responsibilities. Girls in particular use etc. rather than contribution to household are expected to perform all household chores expenses particularly in the case of boys. such as cooking, cleaning, washing dishes, washing clothes, fetching water etc. Boys are occasionally expected to fetch water and wash utensils, particularly in the absence of elder female siblings. On an average, girls spend three to five hours daily in household chores during or post school hours. About 12% girls and 2% boys either frequently skip school or stop going to school altogether due to these responsibilities. On a similar vein, 30- 35% girls and about 3% boys are unable to attend school either occasionally or for lengthy periods due to the need to look after infant siblings when parents are out on work. Girls as young as seven - eight years are made to take on complete responsibility of taking care of younger siblings. A 10 year old girl, KD, daughter of a respondent shares, “A few months after my baby brother was born two years ago, I had no choice but to drop out of school. I was in grade two then. My mother told me that I need to take care of him because he is too small and she has to go out to earn money. But as soon as he is three years old, my mother has promised that I can go back to school again.” In rare The SAFE Tool 1 data results show that nearly cases, 1-2% children are expected to stay back all children (about 80%) in Amalganj are enrolled home from school to take care of their unwell and attend school during the initial years of grandparents or other adults. A few children schooling at the Aanganwadi centers and the drop out of school due to early marriage. A lower primary level. However, attendance is few others occasionally skip school due to highly irregular and most drop out between substance abuse within peer groups or due grades V – VIII, with only a few children attending to severe domestic violence at home caused (grades IX, X: about 25%; XI, XII: 5-8%) or by parental substance use leading to sleepless completing secondary school. A larger number nights, and difficulty in staying awake to go to of girls, as compared to boys are enrolled in school. Another major reason for poor school secondary school, partially due to a government attendance is the lack of importance associated scheme wherein scholarship money is provided

THE AANGAN TRUST 73 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

School Attendance - How many children of appropriate age currently...

COMPLETE FEW FEW 1- 25% SECONDARY SCHOOL SOME 26-50%

ATTEND FEW MOST 51-75% SECONDARY SCHOOL ALMOST ALL / ALL 76-100%

COMPLETE SOME PRIMARY SCHOOL

ATTEND MOST PRIMARY SCHOOL

ATTEND ALMOST ALL AANGANWADI / ALL

020406080 100 to secondary school-attending girl children; together frequently. Some of the gangs take albeit their attendance levels being extremely over a small area within the community which poor. While some children are enrolled in they view as an area that they need to protect school at age 7 or 8 years i.e. with a delay of based on their own gang rules. The existence 1 – 2 years, a few girls skip school for 1 - 3 of these gangs results in frequent violence years in order to take care of younger siblings between gangs, often over petty issues and household responsibilities before resuming such as encroachment over playing space, school again. As a result, several children are verbal abuse/ name-calling that provokes an older than the appropriate age for the given aggressive reaction, issues related to girls/ grade. Despite the availability of numerous girlfriends, disagreement over wins/ losses adequately functioning government schools in during gambling or outdoor games etc. the slum vicinity, school dropout rates continue Occasionally, some of these gangs also take to remain high in Amalganj. This points to the orders from the local don such as being part presence of other urban slum factors such as of a political rally, beating up a peer age boy, poverty, easy availability of substances, peer threatening boys/ other gangs who go against pressure, absence of inspiring role models, lack what the don considers as permissible etc. of parental supervision and guidance etc. as the primary causes of low school attendance Fights between gangs within Amalganj are of a and high child labour. milder nature than those that take place with a gang from another community. Intra-community Gang violence gang fights mainly result in fist fights and verbal threats. During inter-community fights however, Nearly all boys in Amalganj over the age of weapons such as cycle chains, metal punching 12 years are affiliated with a gang. There are hand tools, sticks, rods, bats, stones etc. are several such gangs. These gangs usually sometimes used. While a few boys have been have between ten to twenty members and get

THE AANGAN TRUST 74 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

severely injured during such fights requiring consumption is also very common, with boys medical attention and in certain rare cases beginning to consume alcohol - primarily ‘desi hospitalization, as per the respondents, no sharaab’ (local alcohol) available in pouches of child has ever been killed due to such violence. Rs. 25 each, from age 12 years onwards. As This excessive gang violence culture amongst the boys grow older, the rate of tobacco and boys could be at least to a certain extent alcohol consumption increases. A few boys are attributed to having grown up in a community reported to consume alcohol and tobacco on that is presided over by a gang with a powerful a daily basis. leader, one that is not only feared but also often revered by community members. Boys purchase these substances from the money they earn through child labour; many Illegal activities: Substance abuse, gambling, of who begin intoxicating themselves as soon prostitution (on a decline) as they begin earning. Respondents have In Amalganj, only males from age 10 years reported that a negligible number of boys who onwards are reported to indulge in substance indulge in substance abuse have also been abuse, while the use of any form of substances involved in stealing household items such as amongst females is extremely rare. mats, utensils, fans etc. from their own or other households which they sell in the market to In the category of drugs, the most commonly fund their habits. Both men and boys are well abused drugs are inhalant drugs which include aware of where to source the drugs and other solvents such as whitener, bicycle tyre adhesive, substances from within the community itself. petrol etc. A few boys also consume nasal de- Alcohol is also readily available as the local blocking balms and pain relief balms such as don runs an illegal ‘sharab ka theka’ (alcohol vicks and iodex by using it as a sandwich spread shop) from within the community where cheap (similar to the use of butter on bread) to get local alcohol is sold. Though he usually hires into an intoxicated state. A few older teenaged only adult employees, boys are sometimes boys smoke marijuana, heroin; and consume temporarily recruited in emergencies to assist cannabis in the form of a drink, or by mixing at the shop such as for alcohol delivery, small cannabis balls available in sachets with carrying shop material etc. In return for such ice cream, sweets etc. before consumption. favours, boys are given food, chocolates or Though easily available, the consumption small amounts of money. of cannabis-based food products is low as it is not considered to be a fashionable drug Gambling (with playing cards) is another amongst the local boys. Drug use was extreme social evil prevalent among the males in the and openly consumed in the community a few community. This takes place in various addas years ago. However, it has significantly declined (meeting spots) around the community. Men in recent years for reasons that are mentioned and children gamble in separate groups. below. Currently, only about 10-12% boys are The gambling sessions begin late evening stated to surreptitiously consume these drugs that sometimes stretches into early morning. in secluded spots. Currently, about 25-30% children over the age of 12 years gamble within their own peer age However, tobacco-based substance abuse groups. The frequency of gambling varies; continues to be extremely common with a while a few boys gamble on a daily basis, majority of the boys from age 10-12 years others do so on a bi-weekly, weekly basis onwards (80%) smoking cigarettes, bidis etc. With the reduction in drug use, there has and/or chewing tobacco (gutkha). Alcohol also been a reduction in gambling instances.

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Day-time and open gambling by boys that “I once tried to stop a group of young was prevalent in the community a few years boys, all about 12-13 years old, from ago is now no longer visible. While adult men smoking by telling them that they continue to gamble openly, boys now gamble should throw away their cigarettes. only in hidden spots or addas. You know what they told me?... ‘Why? Is your father paying for these?’ So I Respondents state that the availability of drugs, just turned away and left. Sometimes, use of drugs and the frequency of gambling there’s no point telling these boys amongst boys have noticeably reduced over anything, they will just continue to do the past few years due to efforts made by as they please” – Female respondent NGOs and the community people themselves. LD, 26 yrs As revealed by the respondents, a few years ago, a number of drug-addicted children from Until about three years ago, the local don had other slum communities would regularly hang run a prostitution racket from within Adalatdanj out with the local Amalganj boys leading several during the festival season extending from of them to take on the habit as well. Drug Dussehra to Diwali every year for about four- abuse and gambling had become excessive. five years. The commercial sex workers were About two years ago, some of the community largely sourced from Nepal and West Bengal members approached the local don regarding and were usually accommodated during this problem. C don then began beating up the festival period within the community. these ‘outsider’ boys and warned them against They mainly attended to well-to-do clients entering the community again. Similarly, young within Patna such as politicians and rich local boys openly indulging in substance use businessmen. Respondents stated that none or gambling are also occasionally beaten up of the commercial sex workers appeared to and reprimanded by C don and his associates. be minors and that none were from within the Well-established NGOs in the area such as Amalganj community. Regular police raids, World Vision have been engaged in creating however, eventually forced C don to close addiction awareness over the past few years down this business. For the past three years, and have also facilitated treatment processes there has been no such prostitution activity by admitting a few severely addicted children within the community. into a drug rehabilitation centre. More recently, Aangan Trust has also been engaged in creating Currently, the closest red-light area is the railway awareness and facilitating open discussion tracks in Kamala Nehru area, which is about ten groups on the issue of drugs and gambling minutes walking distance from Amalganj. While through its Chauraha program. Respondents respondents were unable to confirm whether believe that a combination of these efforts is teenaged boys visited sex workers in Kamala beginning to pay off. However, despite the Nehru, some stated that this was a possibility decline, substance abuse is still prevalent in due to easy access to the sex workers as well the community and continues to be a visible as access to money through child labour. problem. Though there has been a definite decline in child drug abuse and gambling; and a wipe out of the prostitution racket in Amalganj since the past 2-3 years, it may possibly be too soon to evaluate whether this is a temporary lull or a permanent, persistent decline. The problem of

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child substance abuse, gambling, and possibly 50,000 to Rs. 1,00,000 or more, in addition to unsafe sexual exposure remains, and continues paying for the wedding expenses. As stated to be issues that require to be tackled in the by the respondents, parents of potential brides community. However, it is also clear that the therefore often begin their search for a groom combination of community, police and NGO when their daughter is 13-15 years old. While efforts has had a tangible positive impact on respondents continued to deny that arranged alleviating such child vulnerability issues. child marriage was a common phenomenon in the community, they stated that most marriages Child marriage and the culture of dowry-giving get fixed within a year or two of beginning such a search, with a wedding that takes place Research responses related to child marriage almost immediately after. Another point to note is complex requiring more depth in analysis is that fifteen of the sixteen female respondents, beyond what was merely stated by the including all respondents below age 30 years, respondents. As per the respondents, about were married as minors between the age of 9 20-22% girls and about 4-5% boys get married to 15 years. One of the respondents stated that below the age of 18 years. Nearly all boy child arranged child marriages were extremely rare marriages and a number of girl child marriages in the community; however, when her married are stated to be cases of elopement or love daughter who was visiting was later asked by marriage, while only about 12-15% are stated the researcher as to what age she had gotten to be cases of arranged girl child marriage. Four married, her reply was that she had had an of the thirty respondents outright denied the arranged marriage at the age of 14 years with occurrence of child marriage in the community. her mother having explained at the time, “It’s However, the percentage estimates provided better for girls to go to their ‘real’ house as by respondents are likely to be conservative soon as possible.” and veering towards socially desirable as further qualitative probing revealed contradictory Teenage marriages often result in post marital information. Moreover, most respondents teenage pregnancy as well. Dowry-related were aware that child marriage is illegal and a torture by the husband and in-laws is common punishable offence, thereby possibly wishing though such cases, even if severe are rarely to present to the researcher a more socially reported to the police, as the locals feel that acceptable scenario. this is an acceptable part of their culture and concerns personal family matters not to be On further probing, it was revealed that the divulged to the public. Other community ingrained culture of dowry-giving is a significant members too do not intervene in such matters. concern particularly amongst those families The age difference in child love marriages are that have more daughters than sons. Parents usually 0-3 years. However, in the case of of girls in the age group of 14-16 years in arranged marriage, this age difference is higher Amalganj can often get away by paying usually falling in the range of 5-8 years; as minimal dowry amounts and in the case of parents of grooms (typically in the age group very young girls or love marriages, no dowry of 21 to 25 years) prefer to have younger at all. As the age of the girl increases, dowry daughter-in-laws who can be more easily demands increase exponentially. Parents of moulded into the marital family routine and those over eighteen years are often expected lifestyle. Minor girls and boys from within the to hand over dowry money or items (e.g. community who elope and marry were stated motorbike, house furniture, TV, refrigerator, to often return back to the community after a gold chains etc.) amounting between Rs. few days or weeks, with most being eventually

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accepted into the groom’s families; in certain to affordable health care and education. Yet, cases after a small token dowry gift is received. during periods of deficiency as well as in day- The inter-connected issues of child marriage, to-day living, there appears to be a tendency to post-marital teenage pregnancies and dowry- engage in negative coping strategies that have related torture that appear to be prevalent at a an impact in the long term. The unquestioned higher rate than what the locals seem willing to culture and social practices followed within the admit, present a highly vulnerable situation for community play a strong role in this. teenaged girls in the community. Most respondents in Amalganj stated that they Domestic violence were satisfied with health care accessibility, quality and affordability. All health facilities such Research reveals that about 60% households as ambulance services, low-cost treatment face domestic violence. As in the other SAFE (Rs. 5 per consultation at govt. hospitals), researched slum communities, the main low-cost medicines, qualified doctors and perpetrator of domestic violence are alcohol- nurses, 24*7 emergency services etc. are addicted married males with the primary victims available to the people within the community being wives and secondary victims being through the nearby government hospitals. children. One of the female respondents, SD, 35 One government hospital, the New Gardiner years states, “There is no worse combination Road hospital, lies adjacent to Amalganj and than alcohol mixed with poverty. First of is most frequented by the locals. However, all, my husband hardly earns anything. for emergencies or critical medical cases, Whatever he earns, he spends on alcohol. the largest state government hospital, PMCH If I try to talk to him about his alcoholism which is about 5 kms from the community is or about any household expenses, there’s preferred due to better quality services. Several a fight. Then he beats me, and if my private clinics and hospitals are also located children are around, he won’t spare them close to Amalganj. Respondents stated that either. For any petty reason, he will begin those who are able to afford private medical to slap or kick them.” Domestic violence is care sometimes prefer to visit private clinics invariably considered a personal family matter for quicker and more efficient service. Small- in Amalganj. Therefore, other community scale medical camps by government hospitals, members rarely intervene even when the abuse private clinics and NGOs are occasionally held is visible and severe. Extra-marital affairs are within the community. also very common in the community though abandonment of spouse and children due to Family planning and sexual health services are such affairs is rare. also available and contraceptive use is popular within the community. In addition to the free distribution of contraceptives by the government hospitals and Aanganwadi centers; the Surya vi. Experiences of children and families Clinic located close to the community and in the community associated with a not-for-profit organization, (SAFE Tool 1 - *For detailed quantitative data, ensures provision of contraceptives such as please refer to Appendix 3A) condoms, oral contraceptive pills, emergency contraceptive pills, Intra-uterine devices (IUDs), The information obtained through the SAFE and services such as medical abortion. This data point to a community that has a few clinic has also conducted medical camps things going for itself such as easy access for women and adolescent girls within the

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community providing sexual, STDs, HIV, are easily obtainable around the Amalganj gynaecological and family planning awareness. area, the uptake of vocational courses by boys even if made available however, is unlikely to The two Aanganwadi centres within the be high in the present scenario. A few parents community are well-functioning and provide though have expressed an interest in their sons adequate basic health care for pregnant attending computer training courses. women, nursing mothers, newborns and young children. Nearly all children in the community In addition to domestic violence, mild – (over 85%) have received complete routine moderate physical and verbal violence for child immunization either through the Aanganwadi disciplining is extremely common within homes centres or through government hospitals. Other and schools, as is the witnessing of moderate Aanganwadi activities such as supplementary – severe violence within the community set- nutrition is also provided on a regular basis, as up. Both these forms of violence, physical as are pre-school learning activities for 3-5 years well as verbal, are more frequent and severe old children. when meted out to boys in the community as compared to girls. Parents in Amalganj believe The accessibility status of affordable educational that a certain level of violence is essential for facilities in Amalganj is similar to that of health the purpose of disciplining, and therefore often facilities. Several nearby government as well resort to kicking or beating their children with as private school options are available to the sticks, belts or by hand. Corporal punishment children at walking distance for both primary too exists within the government schools with as well as secondary education. Nearly all teachers physically disciplining children for school-going children in the community attend disobedience, not completing homework etc. government schools due to the numerous The most common form of corporal punishment free provisions that have been made available used by teachers is striking children with a ruler, through government schemes. Only the stick or by hand. Humiliation by singling out of extreme poor do not enrol their children in a child or a group of children is also commonly primary schools due to fear of miscellaneous practiced by teachers. Parent respondents costs such as stationary costs, and teacher’s however consider these school disciplining day or other festival celebration funds collected strategies as acceptable methods of correcting by schools. As per the respondents, the school a child; they state that no child in Amalganj has infrastructure, qualified teacher strength and been severely injured due to such disciplining quality of teaching in the government schools either within homes or in schools. Further, are adequate. Despite this, poor school respondents claim that not a single child in attendance and early school dropout is a Amalganj has left their home permanently due significant community problem. to violence, though occasional storming out of the home by boys for a few hours or days is While some children attending government common. schools have exposure to basic computer training, vocational training opportunities within The SAFE Tool 1 data results show a complete and around Amalganj are scarce. A few girls absence of sexual violence (sexual molestation, within the community have undergone free rape) within homes, schools or in the community. tailoring, handicraft and beautician courses It is unclear whether this is the true scenario through NGOs, though respondents stated that or the result of an attempt to provide culturally no vocational courses have been made available desirable interview responses by respondents for boys. With unskilled job opportunities that who consider sex and associated violence

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a highly sensitive and taboo topic. Moreover, accepting bribes rather than fairly sorting out respondents flatly denied even the presence of a situation. Thus, children tend to seek peer milder forms of sexual violence such as sexual or gang support during times of need which harassment of girls in the community lanes, keeping in mind the community dynamics may stating that girls are able to freely move around not be the most suitable option. in the community during the day. They shared that post 6 pm, however, girls are not allowed The SAFE data therefore presents a complex to step out of the house as it is considered picture wherein despite the presence of unsafe not only by the people of Amalganj, existing cushioning factors in the ‘health’ and but in the state of Bihar as a whole. Girls who ‘education’ dimensions, severe deficits in the were questioned on this too stated that they ‘safety/ protection’ and ‘family/ community felt relatively safe when out in the community connections’ dimensions causes a spill-over, during daytime; though once they stepped with the consequence being that negative outside the community onto the busy streets, adaptive strategies are implemented across all they were often victims of sexual harassment four dimensions. For instance, the presence by boys or men in the form of lewd comments, of a disruptive community role model in the touching, pinching etc. form of an influential local don or alcoholic violent fathers (F dimension) encourages While no cases of female foeticide or children boys to seek power early on by forming peer being killed due to violence have come to the gangs and leading a risky lifestyle consumed fore, two cases of accidental child deaths by drugs, alcohol, gambling and violence (S were shared. One case involved the death of and A dimensions); one of the first steps for a minor boy due to electrocution by a live wire. achieving such a lifestyle is dropping out of The second is a case of parental negligence. school and earning money to fund these habits A single mother working as a domestic maid through child labour (E dimension). Thus, due had left her three young children at home while to the community background and experiences she went out to work. She had left the cooking therein, the slum children of Amalganj learn to furnace (clay stove) burning, so she wouldn’t engage in adaptive strategies that often prove have to restart it in the evening. But the flame detrimental in the long run. Below is a graphical spread and engulfed the hut. Two of her representation of the experiences of a typical children managed to escape but a four-year old teenage boy living within the Amalganj slum, daughter remained trapped inside. Her charred which emphasizes the interrelated nature of body was later pulled out by fire officials. child protection threats.

During times of difficulty, need or violence, children in the community, particularly teenaged boys, prefer to rely on and reach out to their same-aged peers or older peer mentors (aged 18-22 years), rather than their own parents or police authorities. Children are often physically disciplined and are rarely encouraged by parents to share their personal experiences or issues with them, thus preventing the formation of close or trusting child-adult bonds. The police on the other hand are viewed as corrupt and opportunistic prone to demanding/

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S: Is a victim of child labour, engages in substance abuse, gambling and gang violence as is the community norm

E: Drops out of A: Excessive primary school substance abuse and engages in and physical child labour to violence puts child fund household at risk for injuries and personal and mental health expenses issues F: Is witness to parental domestic violence and extramarital affairs. Relies primarily on peer support. A violent local mafia don is the community role model

A typical Amalganj boy’s inter-related vulnerability issues (based on Tool 1 qualitative data) through the lens of the SAFE model: a graphical interpretation of how insecurity in one dimension can affect all other dimensions

The next section looks at a combination of both of the respondents interviewed have at some positive and negative survival strategies adopted point during their lifetimes reduced overall by Amalganj respondents and their families spending within their households, not spending to deal with individual household challenges. money on any items other than essentials such as food, medical, housing items etc. As per the respondents, about 12% households i.e. about 1 in 8 households in the overall community vii. Adaptive strategies used to cope are periodically unable to afford basic needs with various difficulties and obstacles such as food, clothing etc. These are largely single mother households or households with (SAFE Tool 2 - *For detailed quantitative severely alcohol-addicted fathers who do data, please refer to Appendix 3B) not contribute to household expenses. A few “Scarcity occurs every once in a while, but we low-earning families who are dependent on learn to adjust”- GD, f, 50 yrs: expenditure and seasonal or daily wage work also fall into this dietary coping strategies category. Further, around 50-55% i.e. about half of the community households are unable The Tool 2 data results show that over 75%

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to save money. Other than the extreme poor, the number of meals eaten daily from three to these include some families who are in the two or one (21 respondents); and shifting to process of paying off large debts or loans. cheaper, poorer quality food (25 respondents). Though the financial condition of this slum Respondents usually avoid asking others for community is relatively better off than some food during times of need as many shared of the other SAFE researched locations, the belief that asking friends or community community members have no choice but to members for food was tantamount to begging, engage in adaptive survival strategies during thereby affecting their social reputation and difficult periods. status in the community. The give and take of food usually occurred only amongst relatives The two most common dietary coping within Amalganj, and in rare cases, amongst strategies utilized by the respondents during neighbours who have lived alongside for a periods of economic paucity include decreasing number of years.

ASKED FRIENDS, RELATIVES & COMMUNITY MEMBERS FOR FOOD

ASKED PEOPLE YOU DIDNT KNOW FOR FOOD

REDUCED THE QUALITY OF FOOD CONSUMED NEVER ONCE

DECREASED THE MORE THAN ONCE NUMBER OF MEALS EATEN EACH DAY

0510 15 20 25 30

Dietary coping strategies

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Below are a few specific dietary coping strategies shared by the respondents of Amalganj.

“When we’re running out of money, we cut down the number of times we eat in a day. During such times, we eat a late breakfast around 11 am and then have a small dinner, skipping lunch and tea. There have also been several times when we’ve survived on just one meal the entire day. To forget about the hunger, we try to go to bed early on such days.” – Male respondent RAR, 65 years

“Once every six months or so, I find that I have no money to buy groceries. On such days, I either bring home some food from my sister who lives nearby in Amalganj itself or send my children to eat at her place. I make sure that my children never go hungry for an entire day.” – Female respondent GS, 30 years

“A few years ago, my work had become extremely irregular. My wife had just had a difficult delivery so she wasn’t working at the time, and my children were too young to work - the eldest being just 7 years old. We cut down to having just one meal a day. Then I got unwell and couldn’t work at all. There came a point when for two days, my wife, children and I had no food. Then I somehow got a temporary job and things got better. No matter what, even if we starve to death, I will never ask for food or money from others to feed my family. I will never put my family’s reputation at stake” – Male respondent DR, 35 years

“Whenever I hear of a birthday party or a marriage party...or during festival celebrations, I go there after the festivities to collect some of the leftover food to bring back home” – Female respondent LD, 26 years

“Our household income barely reaches Rs. 5000 per month. This is just about enough to manage a family of five. If ever there is a medical crisis and money needs to be spent on medication, then there’s a food crunch. At such times, I purchase the last lot of leftover slightly rotten vegetables and items that have crossed the expiry date because these are sold at a cheaper rate.” – Female respondent UD, 30 years

“During times of food scarcity, my children and I have smaller food portions. My husband works as a cart puller, so he needs to eat more in order to have the energy to work. I make sure he has enough to eat even if the rest of us have to go to sleep a little hungry. Only then will he be able to work properly the next day and bring in more money.” – Female respondent RK, 26 years

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On a similar note, selling personal or family moneylender’s interest rate varies depending assets in the market place to procure food or on amount borrowed and the economic money is considered a social embarrassment status of the borrower. People within Amalganj by most locals. Therefore, despite extremely frequently obtain such informal loans from difficult times faced by several of the moneylenders despite high interest rates as respondents at particular points in their lives, these loans require minimal paperwork and are only three of the thirty respondents resorted easiest to obtain. to selling household assets such as bed, fan, chair, utensils etc. in order to procure money Microfinance loans through MFIs such as for food. Several of the respondents shared Bandhan and Arohan that work within the the belief, “It’s better to go hungry than lose community is another popular choice amongst face in the community.” the locals due to their low monthly interest rate of about 2%. The microcredit availed in Amalganj is usually below Rs. 25000. Both Bandhan and Arohan utilise the joint-liability group (JLG) model wherein loans are extended to and recovered from each member of the group (as opposed to the self-help group – SHG model wherein the loan is extended to the group as a whole). However, since these loans are only provided to women groups and specifically for the purpose of initiating small businesses, some of the community members choose to provide false information regarding the actual reason for availing such NEVER MORE THAN ONCE loans. Hence, while a woman might claim Respondents who sold assets to procure food or that she is obtaining microcredit for starting a money new vegetable vending business, she may in Borrowing money with an assurance of reality be taking the loan for the purpose of a returning it however is considered as socially daughter’s wedding, medical need, household acceptable within the community. A few of the expenses etc., or for closing off previous loans community members occasionally borrow small obtained from moneylenders at higher interest amounts of money e.g. Rs. 50 – Rs. 250 from rates.“ friends or neighbours, or purchase items on credit from the local shops. Some community members are however uncomfortable making such requests as it isn’t uncommon for such requests to be politely turned down. Thus, the most common form of lending involves moneylenders and microfinance institutions; banks are almost never approached for loans.

There are several moneylenders functioning within the community including C don. These moneylenders charge high monthly interest rates ranging from 8-15%. Often, a

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Those who work as sweepers with the by profession would take on the additional Patna Municipal Corporation don’t job of working as a waiter for a marriage party get their salaries on time. Sometimes, late in the evening, a driver would additionally they get it only after every three-four engage in the business of purchasing and months. So to manage the household renting out utensils and crockery for small and alcohol expenses, many of the men festival celebrations or parties etc. During the have to take loans from moneylenders non-season period, most respondents found it at high interest rates. Then, if they difficult to increase the number of work hours find it difficult to repay the loan and during a household economic crisis, as they felt there’s pressure put on them by the that they were already working long hours or moneylenders, they force their wives were engaged in heavy manual labour e.g. cart to join microfinance organizations to pulling, rickshaw pulling that prevented them avail loans at minimal interest rates. from having the energy to work longer hours. From this loan, they pay back the A few adult community members have also moneylenders, and also save some attempted to increase earnings by migrating money by avoiding the high interest to the Middle East on blue collar work, or by rate debt.” – Male respondent AP, 43 migrating to metropolitan cities or neighbouring years. countries to work as live-in-maids. For some, these migratory arrangements have worked “My mother is part of a group of women out well wherein money is sent back home on under Bandhan. A few years ago, she a regular basis. Some others have returned had taken a Rs. 20,000 loan for opening home after a few months due to unfair working her own tea shop. She has already hours or other forms of exploitation. As shared repaid the loan and the shop is doing by a female respondent PD, 40 years, born quite well now.” – Male respondent MP, and living in Amalganj with her husband and 32 years. two daughters, “Twice, my relatives have arranged for live-in domestic maid work for A large number of community members me – once in Delhi and once in Kathmandu. are dependent on such loans. Some of the But both these experiences have been respondents who were in the process of bad. In Delhi, I was made to work hard the repaying one loan had already made plans entire day but only given 2 rotis for lunch for obtaining the next loan of a higher amount and dinner - sometimes with just pickle after repayment of the existing loan. Most on the side; and no breakfast at all. The households which avail of loans from either Kathmandu family was also not good – moneylenders or MFIs have been able to repay made me work too hard and would not give the loan amounts. my salary on time. Also I could not adjust to the place and their way of life. So I left both Generational trends: Strategies revolving jobs within a matter of months and came around occupational/ educational and back to Amalganj. Now I have decided to dangerous/ illegal activities work from within Amalganj only.”

Many respondents stated that they take With regard to education and child labour, advantage of the wedding and festival seasons the Tool 2 data reveals that the majority of to take on additional work, or shift to more respondents have themselves worked as child profitable daily wage and contractual work. For labourers, with many beginning work at the instance, during such periods, a fruit vendor age of about 10 - 12 years. These respondents

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stated that nearly all money earned by them as frequency of such marriages though still in a child labourer was given to their parents for existence in Amalganj, is estimated to have household expenses. 20 of the 30 respondents dropped significantly. had never been to school indicative of the lack of importance given to education by their own A look at the quantitative data of Tool 2 – section parents. Of those who have been to school, only 5 on ‘Dangerous or illegal activity’ shows that three have completed upper primary education the respondents have either never engaged in while none have completed secondary any such activities (e.g. membership in gangs, education; all 10 school-going respondents stealing) or have been overly cautious in their have skipped school several times for reasons interview replies attempting to provide socially such as temporary jobs, helping parents at the desirable and safe responses. While a few work place, household chores or taking care of male respondents have admitted to engaging younger siblings. A few respondents also stated in substance abuse and gambling, none have that as children they had been left unattended acknowledged the use of alcohol, drugs or for long periods at home when their parents gambling during their childhood days. This is went to work, a state of affairs that continues in stark contrast to the present day Amalganj to this date wherein children as young as 7-8 scenario with high rates of child substance years who themselves need to be attended abuse, gambling and gang violence. to are given complete responsibility of caring for their younger siblings. Thus, it is clear that In terms of overall generational trends therefore, the present Amalganj scenario imitates the a slight increase in educational attainment education and child labour situation of the and a moderate decrease in child marriage previous generation with low beneficial value presents a brighter picture. Unfortunately, attached to education and high importance child labour continues unabated while the given to earning money from an early age. As a prevalence of dangerous and illegal activities male respondent DR, 35 years, states, “In our amongst children has risen when compared to case, obtaining an education does not make the previous generation. much of a difference. At some point during the teenage years if not earlier, you have to “Sorrows are easier to forget when you laugh start working.” Two generational differences and cry with others” – SK, m, 48 yrs: Self- are however noted. Firstly, while education healing strategies and career planning continues to be a relatively The most common self-healing strategy opted low priority in Amalganj, nearly all children for by the respondents was increased time have attained a basic level of education and spent with others. Respondents shared that are able to read and write, unlike those from regular interactions and festive celebrations help their parents’ or grandparents’ generation. maintain good bonding amongst community Secondly, the majority of children (particularly members and creates a sense of togetherness. boys) who are engaged in child labour no While men preferred to get together in large peer longer hand over their entire earnings to their groups, alcohol/ gambling groups etc., women parents, but instead utilise at least a part of it preferred to have long chats with neighbours for personal expenses. or community friends. Other Tool 2 self-healing strategies such as meditation, other reflective Child marriage cases on the other hand, have practices, music, art etc. were considered a clearly dipped over the years. While a majority of waste of time by most respondents. respondents (including a few male respondents) have been victims of child marriage, the

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financial help from other community households for fear of being insulted or turned down. For instance, many locals refrain from asking for help with food, money or temporary child care even during periods of dire need, unless they have relatives staying within the community. Moreover, issues such as domestic violence, child abuse etc. are viewed as personal family matters not to be intervened with when it takes place in other households. On the other hand, neighbours and friends have often been helpful when such helping does not involve NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE any monetary or prolonged social commitment e.g. accompanying a severely ill person to the hospital or providing advice on a personal Increased time spent by respondents with others as a self-healing strategy family situation, work problems etc. With regard to hygiene practice and health The Tool 2 data results show that three maintenance, a majority of respondents and respondents had approached C don (the their family members have repeatedly evaded local leader) to report child-related issues. adequate or timely care. Many felt that a daily These instances referred to excessive child bath was unnecessary and rarely practiced substance abuse, gambling and violent in the community; while wounds and certain clashes for which C don was requested to minor illnesses such as flu, cough, fever etc. intervene. Community members almost never are better left to heal by itself or through self- voluntarily approach the police as the police medication unless it worsens over time. are perceived as corrupt and willing to support the party that pays the highest bribe. While Limited community cohesion: Adaptive strategies within the community set-up none of the respondents have participated in social or citizen’s movements, many have been Since a majority of the community members part of political rallies either in genuine support have lived in close proximity to one another or to take advantage of freebies distributed. over several years, there is a sense of familiarity, Such political participation is also partly due comfort and security within the community to C don’s political connections wherein he space. During the festival season (Dussehra, sometimes arranges for community members Chhath puja etc.), households pool in money so as to celebrate together as a community. During this festive period, the community members also contribute time and effort in sprucing up the community and in helping build makeshift infrastructure. Even during non-festive periods, there are high levels of interaction amongst community members and neighbours. However, this camaraderie NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE could to a certain extent also be described as superficial. Several respondents shared that Respondents who enlisted the support of local they are often hesitant to ask for personal or leaders or police to report child-related issues

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to attend rallies during the election period. “During my childhood, everything was In return, community members occasionally so different here. Fetching water itself receive a meal, small token gift etc. was such a big problem. But now we have a few hand pumps and supply Most respondents shared that the sustained water taps for community use. At that presence of social organizations in the time, our only focus was to work and community has proved to be a boon, greatly earn money to get by. But now there benefiting the community and its people. are so many amenities, government Community members particularly appreciated schemes, mid-day meals, improved the free distribution of useful items such as health services, social work services, water filters, tarpaulin, selling carts, medicines loans at low interest rates...which etc. In addition to this, many felt that services makes life much easier. Of course, such as microcredit, medical camps, child there are many new problems now behavioural and addiction counselling, like alcoholism and gambling but facilitation of admission to rehabilitation centres, there’s also been a lot of progress arrangement of child community events such as within this community in terms of dance, sports etc. were beneficial and helped facilities being provided over the in the long run. Due to periodic government years.” – Male respondent AK, 26 years, and NGO awareness drives within Amalganj, born in Amalganj and presently living with people in the community are well-aware of his wife and three children. several government schemes and charitable services. Respondents also stated that most “I was born in Raghopur Diyara which households in the community are particular is not too far from Patna. In the 1975 about gathering important documents so as to flood, I lost my house and everything avail the relevant government schemes. that I ever owned, so I moved to Patna with my family and settled down here in Amalganj. But in 1999, my house here was demolished by the government. For seven years, we stayed in another place. But it was difficult. Amalganj is centrally located and there are many more job opportunities around here. Transportation, schools, health services...everything is better here. In 2006, we moved back to Amalganj. Now our household earnings have again improved. But we are always fearful of the possibility of losing our home again.” – Male respondent RJR, 61 years, living in Amalganj with his wife, 2 sons and their spouses, 1 daughter and 5 grandchildren

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As is evident from the overall SAFE data rights and services is high with many community analysis, community members currently utilize members being proactive about availing of a combination of both positive and negative benefits, particularly those associated with survival strategies across the four SAFE monetary schemes or handouts. Poverty levels dimensions. Within the ‘economic security’ are therefore relatively lower than other SAFE dimension for instance; while many are able researched locations. However, a number of to benefit through microfinance loans which negative social factors continue to plague the help them in setting up small businesses community, particularly in the area of child and thus earn a livelihood (positive adaptive safety and protection. Parental and community strategy), others game the system by using traditions and practices have a role to play in such loans to pay off other loans which were this, as does subtle third party manipulation in obtained for wedding, household or alcohol the form of a negative influential local leader expenses, thereby entering into an endless who doubles up as a child mentor. These chain of debt (negative adaptive strategy). community factors in turn result in the adoption Within the ‘safety and protection’ dimension of risky survival options by children such as and in the absence of household toilets; dropping out of school, child labour, substance some community households get together to abuse, gambling, and gang violence. A possible build makeshift toilets for free collective usage way forward is to provide alternative lifestyle (positive adaptive strategy), while some others engagement choices, increase exposure to continue to practice open defecation (negative more positive role models and child mentors, adaptive strategy). and gradually reverse third party manipulation towards more constructive survival strategies Amalganj is an ideally located slum with several that support and build on already existing constructive processes and support structures adaptive ones within the community. already in place. Awareness on basic human

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DARUKHANA, MUMBAI

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i. Community location ii. Community structure, demographics and the unwritten code of functioning Darukhana is a large illegal slum cluster that falls in the E-ward and is located along the The Darukhana slum community has been eastern waterfront of Mumbai city. An aerial in existence for over 70 years, with several view reveals three densely populated finger-like migrants being second or third generation protrusions dipping into the Arabian sea and inhabitants. The average family size of the functioning as wharfs. Darukhana (meaning 30 survey respondents is five. In addition to “gunpowder factory”) derives its name from covering a large land expanse, several of the the gunpowder industry that once existed shanties are two-storied and tightly packed here. It is now popular for its ship-breaking, together. Added to this is a steady migration of metal recycling and ironworks industries, and new families into the area over the years. Today, is commonly referred to as Mumbai’s ship- as estimated by the locals, Darukhana has breaking yard. It is well-connected to the rest about 25,000 households with a population of of the city by road as well as rail. Darukhana is over 1.2 lakh. situated close to the Reay road railway station at a distance of about ½ km from where it The settlement is dominated by Scheduled- stretches out towards the sea. caste Dalit Tamilians (about 45%) and Muslims who are primarily from Bihar, Uttar Pradesh The land which has been encroached upon and Bangladesh (about 40%). Hindus, many belongs to the Mumbai port trust (MbPT). of who belong to the traditionally lower Large portions comprising about a third of the castes and mainly originating from Bihar, UP, overall MbPT 730-hectare docklands have Maharashtra, as well as a few from other states been rented out to corporate giants such as form approximately 12-13% of the population. Hindustan Unilever and Reliance as well as The remaining 2-3% belong to the Scheduled hundreds of small commercial enterprises – tribe Pardhi population which live in the many on 99 or 999 year leases. In addition, the Pardhiwada slums on the outer landward edge MbPT also leases out small portions of the land of Darukhana. A small transgender population in Darukhana to ship breaking companies for is also settled within Darukhana. Amongst the very short tenures which has thereby resulted survey respondents who were first generation in fluctuating plot boundaries. With companies migrants, their reasons for moving into the hiring people from the shanties for the various community included marriage, a search for a ship breaking and repairing activities, the better livelihood (including as runaway children settlement has gradually consolidated over a or sent by family from the villages to be period of time. It now comprises of numerous engaged in child labour), and a forced search long parallel stretches of slum pockets identified for livelihood due to homelessness or the death by names such as Kaula bunder, Reti Bunder, of spouse. New Tank Bunder road, Kolsa Bunder, Lakdi Bunder and Powder Bunder. Amongst these, There is a strong linguistic, caste and religious Kaula Bunder and New Tank Bunder road are identity within Darukhana, with most mingling the most populated slum pockets. Other slum only amongst their own lingual or religious settlements such as the Jai Bheem Nagar and groups. For instance, there is minimal interaction Pardhiwada slums are situated on the periphery between the small Pardhi population and the of Darukhana. rest of the community, or between the Dalit Tamilians and the Bihari Muslims. While the

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Pardhi tribe was branded as a criminal tribe in The bunders in Darukhana are crowded parallel the nineteenth century, it was de-notified in 1952 strips of land (each with its own main street and renamed as a nomadic tribe. However, branching out into narrow bylanes) that stretch they largely live as outcasts and continue to out from the landward side towards the sea. be perceived as indulging in criminal activities Ships and other sea vessels are docked in the such as stealing. This perception is applicable sea between the bunders. The numerous lanes to the Darukhana Pardhi community as well. As and bylanes within Darukhana including the exemplified by a female survey respondent AM, sea-facing land edge, are densely occupied 29yrs, “Pardhiwada is a very backward and with compact slum households, which are in dangerous area. ‘Chori’, ‘nasha’ and ‘juaa’ turn interspersed with shops, small industries (robbing, drugs and gambling) – these are a (“karkhanas”) and run-down dingy warehouses must for the Pardhis. Everything else in their that store steel, iron and other material. Nearly lives revolve around these three things.” all shanties store personal belongings such as Due to such stigmatization, many from the tribe cots, cooking utensils, large water-filled drums are unable to obtain jobs and are often left with etc. outside their homes, further congesting no choice but to engage in illegal activities so the area. as to earn a living, thus creating a vicious cycle. Further, though no clear physical divisions exist A few of the residents live in illegal shanties that (barring the Pardhi population), a significant they themselves own. But the majority stay in number of Tamilians are noted to live closer informally rented illegal slum houses paying a to the sea (seaward side). They are generally lease amount that ranges from Rs. 2000 to Rs. viewed by the rest of the community as 10,000 per month. Sometimes, extensions to unclean, violent and unruly (frequently referred houses are also rented out by the locals. A small to as “junglee log” – ‘wild people’). A majority number of people live within the karkhanas or of Muslims, on the other hand, live further warehouses that they work in as well. While a away from the sea closer to the other end or few of the slum dwellings are made of bricks entrance side of Darukhana (landward side). and cement, most houses are makeshift While caste and language based discrimination structures that have been put together with exists only at a subtle verbal level, small-scale metal sheets, plywood, sticks, cloth, polythene physical brawls between Hindu and Muslim and tarpaulin, providing little protection during groups owing to petty issues are a frequent the heavy seasonal rains. Roofs are usually occurrence particularly during festivals. made of tin sheets and covered with tarpaulin. The seaward water-front facing households are “Those wild people (Dalit Tamilians)… typically one-storied and often built on wooden they are filthy, aggressive, loud! All stilts, while those towards the landward side of them are drunkards, gamblers and are usually two-storied. For the two-storied drug addicts. Their only capability is households, the upper room is accessed via in doing the dirty work (sewage, toilet externally placed wooden or steel ladders. cleaning etc.). Even the BMC is aware Further, most karkhanas (with a small workforce that only these people will be ready of 4 to 10 people) are indistinguishable from the to do the dirty work. That’s why they slum households, thereby neatly camouflaging recruit them for the cleaning jobs.” – these illegal enterprises within the swathe of Male Hindu immigrant from Uttar Pradesh shanties. SSP, 50yrs, taxi driver, living in Kaula Bunder for the past 30yrs displaying a The surrounding environment is not only discriminatory attitude towards a particular crowded, but also polluted and unhygienic. language and caste group.

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of which are owned and operated by Muslim migrants from the north. These produce, assemble and store marketable sub-products such as iron rods, metal sheets, chains, thick rope, firewood, metal belt buckles, metal rings for handbags/ footwear, zips etc. A large proportion of the population is thus engaged in daily wage work. In addition to these, the community men also work as construction labourer, boat or house painter, taxi driver, watchman, plumber, loader, fisherman, street vendor, shop assistant, waiter etc. A few have also set up medical stores, salons, and shops Children bathing in the polluted sea selling mobiles, household items, clothes etc. The presence of gigantic coal stacks and within the community. The most common hazardous activities such as ship-breaking, occupations for the women of Darukhana, on recycling of metal scrap, and the handling of the other hand, is domestic maid work, though rock phosphate have resulted in high toxicity a few also work in factories, selling of fish, levels in the soil, water and air. The sea is metal polishing etc. Keeping to their traditional strewn with household garbage, plastic caste-based occupation, a large number of the bottles and other waste material including Tamil Dalit population are absorbed into waste bits of metal scrap discarded during the ship disposal, sewage or toilet cleaning services; breaking activities. Open defecation is also some among them are also BMC short-term practiced along the waterfront edge. Despite contract workers. The survey reveals that this highly visible water pollution, children the average household income within the and adults regularly bathe in these waters, community is Rs. 5000 - 8000. particularly during peak summers. Litter can be seen scattered all around the community. With choked drains and no adequate sewage system in place, waste water from the homes flow freely into the streets. These poor hygiene conditions worsen during the rainy season.

There are plenty of jobs available within the community itself. By virtue of its status as docklands, the entire slum is dominated by activities that emerge from ship-breaking and repairing. This has not only given rise to a steady stream of opportunities for informal daily wage work but has also resulted in the emergence of numerous small home-based factories and warehouses that specialize in the processing, recycling, and selling of scrap material from dismantled ships. Today, there are approximately 200 factories and 100 warehouses within the community, most

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Darukhana in pictures: (Row -wise from left to right) a) Dock b) One-storied shanties c) Two-storied shanties d) Shanties on stilts e) Community main street f) Bylane g) Ship docked for repairs iii. Water, electricity, toilet and bathing exist in every lane, control the water supply by facilities illegally connecting water motors to the existing BMC pipelines and then pumping water through Since the land is owned by the port trust, the connector pipes into households; respondents slum community has to do without the most allege that this is operated in conjunction basic of government amenities. There is a with the police and BMC officials who receive complete absence of municipal water supply bribes on a regular basis to allow for such an and a sewage disposal system. Despite illicit arrangement. A supplier usually owns 2-3 vehicular traffic within the community lanes motors; a single illegal pipeline distributes water including heavily loaded trucks, no street lights to about hundred homes. Households are have been provided making it difficult as well charged a monthly sum which is based on the as dangerous to access the public toilets (built distance of the house from the motor and the by political parties/ leaders), particularly during frequency of supply. On average, households the night and early morning hours. receive water only once a week for which they pay a monthly rent of about Rs. 500, thereby The lack of government facilities has also given making this a highly profitable and exploitative rise to a thriving water and electricity mafia business. within the community. Respondents claim that local politically well-connected goons which During the allotted time of water supply, the pipeline is passed from household to

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household until the entire stretch is covered. Similar to the water racket, the supply of Water is filled in large blue or black drums and electricity too is under the control of local thugs. in as many utensils as possible, since families Only about 30% of the slum population have a have to make do with the stored water for an legal metered connection. However, nearly all entire week. If this water falls short or for those households have an illegal electricity connection who are unable to afford the monthly amount, provided by their respective area suppliers at a the illegally acquired water can be purchased pre-fixed monthly amount which usually ranges in drums from several points within the between Rs. 200 to Rs. 400 for households. The community. Households pay Rs. 40-60 to fill a payable amount depends on the number and 200 litre drum. However, during the occasional type of electrical appliances or socket points BMC (Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation) per household. A number of households that raids, motors are seized resulting in short have a legal connection also take an additional periods of water scarcity before business once illegal connection for actual usage so as to again resumes as normal; at such times, the cut down the metered bill costs. As a result, water rates are hiked to often twice or thrice during BEST (government electricity provider the prevailing rate. Only about 0.2% relatively in Mumbai) raids, most families lock up their well-to-do and influential households have homes from the outside so as to avoid getting their own illegal water motor system which caught and fined. However, due to the recent have been purchased and set up at a cost increase in frequency of raids owing to forced of about Rs. 20-25000, in addition to the eviction plans, the BEST has been successful periodical payment of bribes. Water is thus a in terminating many illegal connections, and highly precious commodity within Darukhana several households have been compelled to that some are unable to afford. As shared by live without electricity for lengthy periods of a mother SN, 39 years, in response to a SAFE time running into weeks. Locals share that at Tool 2 dietary-related question, “When my such times, in addition to the karkhanas, many husband lost his job, we could no longer of which depend on electricity to function; very afford the water. For nearly three months young children are the ones most affected until he got another job, my family survived particularly during summers as without the use only on polluted sea water which we boiled of fans, they are unable to handle the extreme before drinking.” heat conditions causing several of them to fall ill. Resident respondents, on the other hand Several illegal rubber and plastic pipelines complain that they are in a no-win situation as can be seen running through the polluted the BEST refuses to provide registered meters sea, over trees as well as through sewage without a set list of documents that many in water. External impurities therefore sometimes the community do not possess, forcing them enter these flimsy and occasionally damaged to seek out illegal means. pipelines, especially during the monsoons, resulting in contaminated water being supplied Toilets too are a scarcity within Darukhana. to households. The survey respondents shared Some of the households on the seaside edge that the supplied water is neither filtered nor as well as a few households on the main road boiled prior to drinking. It is therefore not at the outer edge of Darukhana have crude surprising that water-borne diseases such as toilets built within homes wherein the waste cholera, dysentery and typhoid were stated to is drained directly into the sea or into gutters, be extremely common within the community, but this barely accounts for about 3-5% of the including amongst children. population. Over the years, different political parties and leaders have built a few paid toilets

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for public use that are scattered throughout the men and children bathe in the open outside community. However, with the ratio of toilets: their homes or in the sea. Activities such as residents being roughly 1:3000, extremely cooking and washing of utensils, clothes etc. lengthy lines especially during the morning also typically take place outside the homes. hours, and a payment of Rs. 3 per use, a Survey respondents repeatedly stated that the majority of the residents prefer open defecation. lack of appropriate water and sanitary facilities Nearly all boys, young girls and men practice were the most debilitating factors affecting open defecation near the seaside edge. Some both children and adults in the community on women and adolescent girls access the public a daily basis. toilets during the daytime; while between 11pm to 5am, they too practice open defecation. This Other basic facilities and services within or creates an extremely risky scenario for women nearby community and girls as open defecation combined with • Aanganwadi centres: None. 3 the lack of street lights exposes them to sexual balwadis within Darukhana run by and other violent attacks. NGOs – Door Step School, Prem Daan, and Community Outreach Programme (CORP)

• Commonly accessed Government schools: Byculla (East) Municipal School – several language mediums including English, Hindi, Marathi, Telugu, Urdu and Tamil; Nawab Tank Municipal School (both about 2 km from the community)

• Commonly accessed Private schools: Rosary High School,

Typical washing area within Darukhana homes Gloria Convent High School, Antonio D’Souza High School, St. Mary’s High School, Regina Pacis Convent High Less than 1% households have a fully covered School, Ahilya Vidya Mandir School, bathing space with doors. Instead, nearly all Abhyudaya Education Society High households have a small multipurpose ‘mori’ or School (all about 2-3 km from the washing area built into a corner of their homes. community) These have a small water outlet on the floor and are used for urination, washing clothes and • Vocational courses: Tailoring (within utensils, as well as for bathing. Since the moris community), beautician, mehendi, have walls only on two sides, a curtain of cloth nursing courses for girls; electrician, or plastic is often used to temporarily cover the welding courses for boys; computer space during baths or urination. In some cases, and English-speaking courses for both the remaining members of the household boys and girls are made to wait outside the homes when a woman or teenaged girl is bathing within. While • Government hospitals: Sir J.J. women and adolescent girls typically use the (Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy) Hospital mori for urination and bathing, the majority of

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at over 3 km from the community etc. in addition to the power wielded is the closest and most commonly by local thugs within the community, accessed. Other Government breeds an unsafe environment that hospitals that are commonly accessed boosts social vices. This translates into include Nair, G.T. (Gokuldas Tejpal), high rates of gang violence, substance Cama & Albless, Kasturba, KEM (King abuse, gambling, drug selling and Edward Memorial) and St. George’s. stealing by children, particularly boys Devi Ahilyabai Holkar Municipal in the community. Not only does this Maternity Home at about 1 km from present an immediate safety risk, but Darukhana is the closest maternity in the absence of timely intervention, it hospital accessed by the community also paves the way for a future of adult women. organized crime.

• Police station: Sewri police station • The prevalence of child marriage while being a vulnerability issue in • Prominent NGOs: Magic Bus, itself, additionally accelerates the Aangan, World Vision, Pratham, emergence of other vulnerabilities Door Step School, Prem Daan, such as domestic violence, CORP, YMCA, Reliance Foundation, increased household work and early Pukar, Justice and Care, Vision motherhood. Rescue, Pragati Mahila Mandal • Parental pressures that force children to engage in hazardous occupational activities and in certain brutal cases, iv. A snapshot of the Darukhana SAFE sex work, so as to earn and contribute Analysis to the family income, is highly exploitative exposing children to a *Several of the child vulnerability issues number of health and safety concerns. mentioned below are cross-cutting and interdependent issues that do not fall under • Open defecation, inadequately one specific dimension. These and other covered bathing areas, and the community vulnerability aspects are explored absence of street lights leaves children in depth through the course of this chapter. vulnerable to sexual assault and other forms of violence. Safety and protection • Sexual violence and harassment • Trafficking of children into Darukhana creates an insecure environment for for child labour not only separates girls that is dominated by fear and them from their immediate families, but distrust. their inhumane exploitation through extensive work hours, minimal food • Lack of adult supervision puts the lives and restricted freedom strips these of young children at risk, particularly children of the most basic of rights. when young children bathe in the sea, or loiter in unlit community streets that • Exposure to mafia-run illegal ply heavily loaded trucks and other businesses, violence, murders, bribery vehicles.

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• Poor household infrastructure • Sex work by minors and early sexual provides little protection from the experimentation puts children at high characteristically heavy Mumbai risk of contracting HIV and other monsoons. STDs, particularly due to the absence of appropriate precautionary guidance. Access to healthcare and basic physiological needs • Early sexual activities lead to pre- marital teenage pregnancies, • A complete absence of essential increasing the likelihood of health government-provided facilities forces complications due to hushed-up illegal people to adjust to unsafe, unclean abortions by untrained practitioners. surroundings, and to be at the mercy of local goons for illegally providing a • Excessive substance abuse including few of these amenities (e.g., water) at the use of synthetic drugs leads to often unaffordable costs. aggressive behaviour, prolonged mental and physical health risks; and • Frequent government raids result in a could be fatal in high doses. temporary shutdown of illegal water and electricity supply, depriving several Family and connection to others residents of these vital amenities for lengthy periods. • Parental abandonment, extra-marital affairs, and domestic violence creates • High toxicity levels due to hazardous an unhealthy home environment, occupational activities such as ship- promoting a prototype of disrespect breaking, storage and handling of and irresponsibility towards family coal, recycling of metal scrap etc. bonds - an attitude that children are within the community; scattered piles likely to imbibe and carry forward in of garbage; choked drains; crammed their lives. living conditions; consumption of contaminated water; open defecation • Bigotry in the form of mild into the sea; no washing of hands discrimination towards certain before meals; and bathing in polluted language, caste and amongst religious sea water, exposes children to a groups exists within Darukhana, number of water, food and air-borne thereby reducing the level of social diseases including chronic ailments cohesion within the community. and skin infections. This, in turn, prevents people from optimizing community-based adaptive • Though basic child health care and strategies. first aid services are available through NGOs, community health workers Education and economic security and private dispensaries within the • Absence of schools in the vicinity community; government hospitals are is the primary reason for illiteracy at a distance consequently resulting and low educational attainment. in fatalities particularly in accident and Additionally, dropping out of school emergency cases. to engage in household work, child labour or illegal means to obtain

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money (for various reasons including from the villages of UP and Bihar who have the need to fund dangerous habits been trafficked into the community by relatives such as drug use) - prevents children and family friends with the promise of better from pursuing education beyond the work opportunities and a higher standard of basic upper primary levels. living. They live within the factories and their wages are based either on per piece rate or a • In the absence of government-run monthly salary of around Rs. 3000 in addition Aanganwadis that provide early to food and shelter. The child’s earnings are childhood education, education NGOs usually sent home to their families in the villages have successfully taken on this role by while the boys themselves are only given a providing balwadi services within the token amount of Rs. 100-200 per month from community. their earnings for expenditure. Some of these children are allowed to visit their families once • The community area i.e. docklands every one or two years. provides ample opportunities for daily wage and other low paid work, as Due to increased police vigilance over the past well as the setting up of small-scale decade and the active presence of many child- enterprises, providing a means of rights NGOs within the community, the factory livelihood to many. owners are well aware that child labour is a punishable crime, as a result of which there has • The inability to save money and the been a decrease in this phenomenon over the dependence on loans from multiple years. However, the downside is that factory sources at high interest rates, creates owners now go to great lengths to conceal a circle of debt that pushes many any existing child labour within their karkhanas. households further into poverty. Respondents state that several of the trafficked children are not permitted to leave the • Demolition notices and forced workshops except for short durations once or eviction without providing alternative twice a week, or to have any contact with the accommodation not only renders community people outside of the work place. people homeless, but also snatches Many children are made to work inhumane away their livelihood and economic hours such as 14-16 hours daily, while being security. Viewed as illegal entities provided with only one or two meals a day. obstructing proposed development, Respondents state that it is difficult to estimate people residing in the community for the number of trafficked child labourers in the decades live in fear and uncertainty. community due to the secrecy surrounding it, but speculate that this number is likely to be around 200-250. v. Key child vulnerabilities Child labour by community children A few children in Darukhana begin working at Destination point for trafficked child labour the age of 10-12 years onwards, often initiating About 25% of the population that work in their occupational life by helping parents post the numerous small-scale factories within the school hours at food, fish and grocery stalls, community are children in the age group of 12 construction sites, shops, domestic maid work to 17 years. A majority of these are Muslim boys etc. Several young children earn money by

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10-13 YEAR OLDS 14-17 YEAR OLDS According to the respondents, approximately 10% children in the 10-13 years age-group 10% and 30% children in the 14-17 years age group are child labourers. Earnings from daily wage 30% work vary considerably from Rs. 30 to Rs. 350 per day depending on type of work and time

90% input. The average monthly salary of full-time 70% working children is Rs. 2500-3500.

Early school drop-out WORKING NON-WORKING Education awareness is high in the community

Child labourers in Darukhana as is the initial intent of several parents who scavenging for coal, or metal scrap in the ship- desire to see their children complete schooling. breaking zones. Teenaged boys occasionally Despite relatively steep school fees ranging engage in daily wage cleaning or other odd from Rs. 4000 to 12000 annually and a heavy jobs within the ships docked in the area; some deposit amount; a high percentage i.e. nearly also take on work such as welding, loading and 35% children are admitted by parents into off-loading. Some of this work such as welding, private primary schools due to better quality scavenging etc. are hazardous in nature. Only a teaching, infrastructure and facilities. Children small proportion of the boys working in the belt, from private schools are further expected footwear, zip etc. karkhanas belong to families to purchase their own uniform, books, bag, living within the community; these are usually shoes, stationery etc. unlike their counterparts children from extremely poor households. in government schools. This clearly reveals that The remaining working children have jobs many parents in the community are willing to either within or outside the community (nearby invest a large portion of their meagre economic areas such as Cotton Green, Dockyard road, resources into their children’s education in Mazgaon) in food stalls, catering companies, the hope of a better future for their children. garages, construction sites, offices, hotels, Approximately 55% of the children whose shops, BMC etc. as peons, delivery boys, parents are unable to afford private schooling, sweepers, electricians, canteen waiters, car are admitted into government primary schools. cleaners, shop/ stall assistants, catering assistants etc.

Teenaged girls, on the other hand, are 10% typically involved in domestic maid work, embroidery such as jari/ zardosi work, tailoring, NO SCHOOLING shop assisting, beauty parlours; or work in PRIVATE SCHOOLING companies (e.g. rubber stamp making, utensil 35% 55% GOVERNMENT SCHOOLING polishing; label-sticking) and packing units (e.g. dried green peas) located within the community. Girls also spend an average of two-three hours daily in doing household chores. Additionally, many girls from age 6-8 years onwards spend several hours caring for their younger siblings. Schooling in Darukhana

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About 10% children have never been to are again over 2 kms from the community) are school; respondents state that a majority of in some cases, unable to continue paying the these belong to extremely poor or single parent high school fees and transportation costs, and families, as well as to families from the Pardhi therefore opt to withdraw their children mid- community. way from these schools. Fourth, some children are either forced by their families or themselves Unfortunately, despite strong attendance in the choose to drop out of school so as to begin early grades, children begin to drop-out from working full-time. Children earn money in order Grade V. Drop-out levels are high between to contribute to the family income or to fund grades VI to VIII and peaks on the completion their own lifestyle or both. Post dropping out of grade VII, with nearly 70-75% of the school- and prior to beginning work, a small number going children dropping out during this upper of children (about 3% girls and 1% boys) enrol primary stage. Only about 12-15% of the in private vocational courses such as tailoring, community children go on to complete grade beautician, electrician or computer courses. X. A higher number of girls than boys register for such courses, which are largely located The SAFE Tool 1 responses reveal several outside Darukhana in neighbouring areas. reasons for the high drop-out rate. The A few boys (about 1%) also become part of primary reason is the absence of government informal apprenticeship programs such as schools in the vicinity. Though there are several garage work, carpentry etc. government schools within a 5 km radius, the closest is about 2 km away. This incurs travel costs which some are unable to afford. Further, travelling to the schools is considered dangerous as most children travel without adult supervision. Respondents share that a number of children from Darukhana have been victims of train accidents, including a daughter of one of the survey participants. A few boys have also died in the midst of performing dangerous train stunts. Hence, some parents are reluctant to send their children to schools due to concerns regarding distance and travelling. Secondly, even though the government school most commonly accessed teaches in several different language mediums; all language mediums Young girls engaged in household work during school hours except for the Marathi and Urdu mediums, have classes only up to grade VII. As a result, nearly In addition to the above, a few other key all the Tamil medium children drop out after reasons for boys dropping out of school or grade VII as the nearest Tamil secondary school for their irregular attendance include peer is over 7 km from the community. Moreover, pressure, substance abuse and being involved many children from the Hindi and English in illegal activities such as stealing, selling mediums also drop out post grade VII as they drugs, gambling etc. Several teenaged boys are required to shift schools, which many feel leave home on the pretext of going to school is cumbersome. Thirdly, families who send their and instead loiter within the community, in children to the numerous private schools (which nearby areas, or around the Reay Road railway

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station. Thus, a majority of the teenaged boys the available drugs. This comprises inhalants, in the community neither work, nor study, but marijuana, alcohol, bidi and cigarettes, although instead can be found loitering. Specific key gutkha is the most popular during the pre- reasons for irregularity or girls dropping out of teen stage. Occasionally, the previous night’s school, on the other hand, include increased marijuana cigarettes or alcohol that is leftover household work responsibilities, taking care by fathers at home have also been covertly of younger siblings and early marriage. A few consumed by such young children. By the age parents in the community also stop educating of 13 years, one in four boys are likely to have their daughters once they begin menstruating consumed two-three different substances or due to the fear that their daughters will get at least once; this increases to 3 in 4 boys in involved in love affairs if they continue to spend the 15-17 years age-group. About 40% boys time outside the house. over the age of 13 years are addicted to some form of strongly addictive substance such as Substance abuse marijuana, hashish, other illegal drugs and/ or alcohol; and consume it on a regular basis. The research data points out that there is Most of these are working boys or those who widespread use of substances amongst have resorted to activities such as stealing or the community boys. Several different scavenging to support their drug habits. Many forms of addictive substances are easily are further noted to be Tamilian and Pardhi boys. available within the community. These include The number of girls addicted to substances is ‘ganja’(marijuana), ‘charas’ (hashish), brown very few, as compared to the boys. About 5% sugar, alcohol, bidi, cigarettes, chewing teenaged girls in the community are addicted tobacco products such as ‘gutkha’ and ‘paan to tobacco chewing products, while less than masala’, and inhalants such as whitener and 1% consume alcohol or other drugs; these are paint thinner. Respondents claim that marijuana mainly working girls or girls from the Pardhi and hashish are the most commonly abused community. substances within the community. Prescription drugs such as opioid analgesics and synthetic Survey respondents attribute the high drug drugs such as ecstasy and crystal meth that abuse rate to easy availability, peer pressure produce intense feelings of euphoria and and children growing up in families with adult in certain cases aggression, are also easily addicts as role models. Tool 1 data results obtained and consumed. show that nearly all households have at least one family member - mainly fathers or other The main access point for the purchase of illegal male members, who abuse alcohol and about drugs is the Reay road railway station area, as 50% households where at least one member well as numerous households and points within abuses illegal drugs. Due to the presence the community. During late evenings and nights, of several teenage boys with a severe drug peer groups of boys typically gather around the addiction problem, many parent respondents railway station area or in one of several spots believe that a de-addiction centre within or within the community in order to drink alcohol near the community is an essential requirement or abuse drugs. Many instances of individual that is as yet unfulfilled by the social sector. and group violence post drug consumption were reported by respondents. Illegal activities – violent peer gangs, stealing, gambling, and sale of drugs Respondents further share that a few boys as young as 8-10 years experiment with some of Darukhana is a community where adult local

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dons and organised criminal mobs can be and blades. ‘Aruval’, a long sickle-like knife is found aplenty. Physical and verbal violence is typically used by Tamilian boys during the more witnessed by most on a daily basis. Murders intense conflicts. Gang fights, thus often result too are considered fairly commonplace within in injuries that require medical attention and in the community. Thus, children grow up in a certain cases, hospitalization as well. highly unsafe environment that is attuned to dangerous and illegal practices. Forming their “It takes no time for a small fight own peer group gangs is often the first step between two boys to become a war taken by most boys for assimilating into this between two groups. At such times, volatile environment. the boys go crazy. Many are high on alcohol and drugs. They cannot think Boys begin to become part of peer gangs at the straight. They will pick up anything age of around 8 years onwards, but normally they can find…stones, bamboo sticks, do not indulge in violent gang activities until iron rods…just about anything. They around age 14-15 years. Boy gangs typically will break heads, they will break identify themselves with symbols and names bones. It becomes a warzone.” – Male such as the ‘cool boys’, ‘money-tree gang’ etc, Respondent, RH, 49yrs, responding to and often carry sharp objects such as blades Tool 1 Q 3.7 regarding the use of weapons on themselves. A single boy is sometimes a by children to hurt others member of more than one gang and may also be a minion to an adult gang. Often, boys over Looting of factories, warehouses, shops and 15 years are active members of gangs that also households by both men and boys is extremely have adult youth members aged up to 25-27 common. While a few of these thefts, particularly years. Several different types of gangs exist household thefts, are done at an individual level; such as ‘galli’ (lane) gangs, ‘chori’ (robbery) a majority are planned and executed by groups gangs, as well as religion/ language based or ‘chori’ gangs. Respondents state that boys gangs, and groups that are temporarily formed engaging in such robberies are mainly drug when a matter of dispute arises. Clashes addicts, or children from the Bangladeshi or between peer gangs are frequent; common Pardhi families. Stealing from loaded trucks reasons include verbally abusing a member that ply the community roads is also a daily of another gang, sexually harassing another occurrence. Boys typically jump into heavily gang member’s girlfriend, losing a game of loaded slow-moving trucks, and throw or pull cricket or football to another team, and petty out whatever material (e.g. metal rods, crates issues that erupt when gambling or under the etc.) they can lay their hands on. Children influence of drugs. Festivals are particularly also scavenge and steal coal or metal scrap sensitive periods when the number of such from storage or active working sites within clashes drastically increase. For instance, fights the community, which they later sell and earn may occur between gangs during ganpati money from. Respondents further reveal that celebrations over which group has better several boys from the community pickpocket decorations, fights between Hindu and Muslim items such as wallets and mobile phones from gangs during Diwali over noise disturbance at passengers in local trains or at the railway namaz time etc. Many such conflicts include station. Some teenaged boys are also known the use of objects that can cause harm such as to gather in groups at certain specific points stones, sticks, cricket bats, bricks etc. that are close to the community where they threaten available in the vicinity at the time that a fight passersby with knives or blades, and snatch erupts. A few pre-planned attacks, however, away gold chains, money, cell phones etc. also include the use of weapons such as knives

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Gambling is another illegal activity that many In addition to the above illegal activities, boys in Darukhana regularly participate in. The organized crime in the form of drug selling and most popular forms of gambling within the drug distribution rackets is also highly prevalent community include playing cards and carrom; in the community. Due to the guarded nature of with the majority of gamblers belonging to the such rackets, none of the interviewed residents Tamil and Pardhi groups. Hidden gambling were aware of details on the modus operandi clubs for these two activities also exist within used. However, it was shared that children the community. Gambling stakes usually range including girls, are sometimes used as drug from Rs. 20 to Rs. 500, with the stakes typically mules to procure or transport large quantities increasing along with the age of the players. of illegal drugs from one location to another or Both adults and children of both sexes, from across state borders via trains or buses. The age 14 years onwards gamble with playing key reason for using children, especially girls, cards; though the number of women and girls is that they are less likely to be picked up by are far fewer mainly belonging to the Pardhi the police. Apart from these organised drug community. Gambling through carrom games syndicates, the sale of small quantities of drugs however, is usually the refuge of teenaged boys is also widely practiced by individual community and male youth alone. A few other minor forms adults and children, as well as by entire families of gambling are also available to play within operating through their own households. the community. These include games referred Children, particularly boys from age 11-12 to by the locals as ‘housie’ (involving stickers years onwards sell drugs both within as well on a sheet), ‘goti’ (involving marbles), ‘cowrie’ as outside the community in nearby areas. (involving shells) and ‘chakri’ (involving a small Many of these boys are themselves addicted to wheel to be rotated by hand) which children drugs. The Reay road railway station area is a begin playing at the age of about 7-8 years. primary drug-selling spot. Overall, respondents There are several ‘addas’ or meeting points estimate that at least 70% of the boys in the within the community such as docked boats, community engage in some form of illicit activity small empty grounds, karkhanas which have either as a single instance, occasionally, or on a been shut for the day, area around the coal regular basis before they attain adulthood. stacks or warehouses etc., where boys convene in the late evenings or nights to gamble, drink Child marriage alcohol, consume drugs or plan out burglaries. The overall practice of child marriage has Occasionally, gambling and alcohol drinking dipped over the past decade due to increased groups also gather in the narrow residential awareness and active NGO intervention. lanes and by-lanes of the community. However, about 30% girls continue to get

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married below age 18 years through both onwards. Sexual relations are largely with mutual love and arranged marriage. The percentage consent and in some cases, involve the use of for boys is lower at about 2-3% with nearly all contraceptives as well. Both same-age group such cases being love marriage. The common as well as teenage girl-adult male relations are age for marriage within the community is common, with some teenaged girls also being 15-19 years for females and 20-24 years for sexually involved with married men. Some males. However, locals share that many girls respondents feel that this premarital sexual in Pardhiwada are married and pregnant much activity is a consequence of many factors such earlier by age 12-14 years. as poor parental supervision, high exposure to extra-marital sexual relations of parents at There has been a shift in marriage trends in home, and easy access to porn videos through recent years. Arranged child marriages have cell phones. The survey data further reveals reduced, but incidents of child elopement and that there are a few known cases of pre-marital love marriages have increased. In the case of pregnancies within the community despite arranged marriages, the primary reason cited attempts by these families to keep such by parents for choosing early marriage for their incidents hidden. The respondents believe children is the fear of a tarnished family image that about 1% teenaged girls in Darukhana get if a daughter elopes and the fear of losing pregnant before marriage, though not all such dowry if a son elopes. The majority of arranged cases are likely to come to the fore. Most girls marriages take place in the family’s native village who get pregnant before marriage abort with rather than in Mumbai, with dowry amounts or without parental knowledge, while some ranging from Rs. 50,000 to Rs. 5,00,000. are married off to the as yet unborn baby’s Occasionally, there is a large age difference father. There are also a few rare cases where between the bride and the groom particularly marriage between the baby’s parents takes amongst the Tamil population, with the groom place post the birth of the child. Some of those being 8-15 years older than the bride. In the who are unable to marry and/or abort within case of child love marriages, both the bride the legal timeframe, however, attempt to get rid and groom often belong to Darukhana itself. of the unborn or newborn baby through illegal Thus, even though many elope to marry, some means. As shared by RS, f, 38yrs “Until about return back to the community post marriage. a few years ago, every once in a while, we A number of teenaged girls are also reported would come across newborn dead babies to have eloped with married men. Further, as or plastic bags that had foetuses within observed by a few respondents, there is a which were a few months old floating in the marked rise in instances of child elopement sea. Nowadays, unmarried women might immediately post the Navratri festival due be getting rid of their babies in other ways to increased interaction between males and to avoid a police investigation.” 24 females during the celebrations. Post-marital early pregnancies and domestic violence is common in child marriages, putting the health and lives of many girls at risk.

Early sexual activities and pre-marital teenage pregnancies 24 Though all 30 respondents denied the practice of female foeticide (due to preference for male child) in the community, Many children in Darukhana are sexually this possibility cannot be completely ruled out due to the hidden nature and concealment of such practices, in addition to the active at an early age from about 14-15 years emergence of discarded foetuses and dead newborn babies within the community.

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Early sexual activity without sufficient “When the family’s illegal oil business knowledge and protective measures exposes went kaput and there was less money children to a multitude of sexually transmitted in the house, my mother-in-law forced diseases and infections. Similarly, teenage her own two daughters to cater to pregnancy in Darukhana is also a serious child men as prostitutes. Sometimes, these health vulnerability issue. Due to the stigma men even come over to the house. My attached to premarital pregnancy, it exposes elder sister-in-law is already dead from children to illegal and unsafe abortion methods, AIDS while the younger one is now HIV often without adequate medical expertise or positive. Thankfully, I have never been supervision. made to do any such thing. There are at least a few other similar households Sexual exploitation and sexual violence in this basti where daughters and other women in the family are being forced A few girls and women in Darukhana are being to earn money in this manner.” – Female exploited by their own families by being pushed respondent, HP, 40yrs into prostitution. Child sex workers constitute less than 1% of the girls in the community. Recent stray cases of grave sexual violence in However, with a population of over 1 lakh, the the form of rapes or gang-rapes of very young actual numbers are still high; and it represents girls below age 10 years, and rape of teenaged an extremely severe form of exploitation leaving girls by both familiar people (e.g. stepfathers, young girls vulnerable and unprotected within neighbours, cousins, boyfriends) as well as their own households. A frequently quoted strangers have been shared by respondents. case during interviews is that of two Nepali About one-two cases of rape come to the fore sisters aged about 14-16 years living in Kaula every year; the rest, such as rape of boys or Bunder with their parents; these two girls are rape of girls by relatives, remain hidden. Sexual made to engage in sex work from within their abuse of girls is considered to be fairly common own household, while the area immediately within homes. Moreover, nearly all the girls and outside their household is a hot spot for drug women in Darukhana are subjected to daily and alcohol abuse. Respondents state that sexual harassment on the community streets sex workers were more prominent and visible such as vulgar comments, inappropriate in the community prior to 2005. They reveal touching, leching etc. The Pardhiwada area is that sex workers, typically older teenaged girls considered to be particularly risky. Incidents or single women, now operate on the sly more of girls being sexually harassed by karkhana at an individual household level wherein several workers, being sent pornographic videos or different men are seen to enter and exit particular sexually explicit messages via cell phones, or households; or else in rare cases, work through being pulled by men into secluded spots in and beer bars or brothels outside the community. A around other parts of the community have also few from the transgender community however, been reported, particularly during late evenings are known to openly solicit passersby near the further aggravated by the absence of street Reay road railway station or solicit truck drivers lights. For instance, one of the respondents in the neighbouring Cotton Green area. shared that she had raised an alarm when she witnessed a minor girl who was sleeping on the lane outside her house being forcefully taken away into the bushes by a drunk man late in the night. With the community people gathering and giving chase, the man ran away

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but the girl said that he had sexually molested Children sometimes leave home in anger her before running away. Despite several such during or post such fights but nearly always incidents, the residents feel that there has been return back home within a few hours. a reduction in the severity and frequency of rape cases when compared to over a decade In several cases of domestic violence, however, ago when women were frequently raped by children become innocent victims of physical goons sometimes in the presence of their and verbal abuse for no apparent reason. For husbands, a balwadi teacher was gang-raped instance, a respondent shared an incident of etc. Here again, this reduction was attributed to a young boy in her immediate locality who increased police vigilance and NGO presence, was severely beaten up by both his father and which has in turn also resulted in an increase in stepmother, as he happened to be present at the number of women themselves approaching the time that his parents were fighting over an the police to file FIRs related to sexual violence. extra-marital affair that his stepmother was The downside however, is that very young girls allegedly involved in. The most common marital have now become the prime target of vicious issues that lead to violence within households sexual acts such as gang-rape and other include unemployment and extra-marital affairs sexual assaults. of either husband or wife. A majority of severe domestic violence cases involve alcoholic or drug addicted fathers, and in some cases in- laws. Though women are usually the prime vi. Experiences of children and families target of such violence, children often become in the community secondary targets. Respondents state that SAFE Tool 1 - *For detailed quantitative severe or daily domestic violence is present in data, please refer to Appendix 4A) about 40% homes while mild irregular physical violence exists in almost all homes within The SAFE data regarding the experiences of the community. Moreover, nearly all of these children and families in Darukhana reveals a household fights are open for public viewing daily fight for survival. In the absence of basic due to limited space and poor household amenities and rights, families tend to opt for infrastructure. Women and children are also short-term rather than long-term pay-offs, often sometimes dragged by their hair or clothes out through negative or illegal adaptive strategies. of their homes and beaten up on the streets by family members. Thus, household violence is Violence, in its various forms, is a predominant witnessed daily within the community. feature of Darukhana. This not only includes violence on the community streets as While most domestic violence victims in the discussed earlier, but also within families and community use negative adaptive strategies homes. Children are regularly beaten with such as accepting the abuse as an inevitable metal rods, sticks, brooms, belts etc. and part of life or attempting suicide, a few others verbally abused by both mothers and fathers have opted for more constructive choices such for reasons such as misbehaviour, backchat, as approaching the police or seeking help from stealing from home, having a boyfriend, getting relatives and neighbours. A strongly positive involved in physical brawls etc. Occasionally, adaptive strategy however was the forming fights between parents and children involve the of a support group of about twenty women throwing of utensils at each other or children members, ‘Pragati Mahila Mandal’, to work being burnt with items such as heated spoons. on women and child-centric issues such as early education and domestic violence. It was

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initiated by one of the survey respondents, SRH, in 1991 (registered as an NGO in 2003), without any external help when she was a victim of domestic violence herself. The group took it upon themselves to increase awareness within the community on laws related to domestic violence, as well as counsel and support victims in filing police complaints. There has since been an increase in the number of domestic violence FIRs filed by women from the community. This group continues to occasionally meet to discuss and resolve community issues affecting their lives.

“Life has been unbearable since I got pregnant with my fifth and youngest child last year. My husband refuses to accept him as his son because he says he had used condoms throughout. I have been abused and beaten up by him several times. After one such fight, I couldn’t bear it anymore and tried to hurt myself by banging my head against the wall” – Respondent HS, 30yrs, using a negative adaptive behaviour to cope with domestic violence

“The more I was beaten by him (alcoholic husband), the stronger I became. I knew I had to stop this. Not just for myself, but for other suffering women as well. I did absolutely everything to ensure that the work of Pragati Mahila Mandal would carry on. It’s been ten years now since he has laid a hand on me. Today, he respects and believes in me. He supports me in all the well-meaning community work that I do” – Respondent SRH, 39yrs, utilizing a constructive community-based adaptive strategy to deal with domestic violence, resulting in a permanent satisfactory solution

“I shifted to Darukhana after my marriage around the age of about 13 years. My husband was a rich influential businessman running an illegal business. Life was easy-going for a few years and I had three children. Then suddenly things changed. My husband’s family business fell apart; he had several extra-marital affairs; he and my mother-in-law began beating and verbally abusing me and my children almost on a regular basis. Then one day, several years ago, he got one of his women home along with her two children; and just like that, my children and I were thrown out of the house. We lived on the streets for many days, and my children and I had to beg for food. I eventually filed a police complaint and fought a court case with the help of an NGO. The court ruled in my favour and my husband was ordered to give us a one room shanty and a monthly sum of Rs. 1000. But I was naïve; I agreed when my mother-in-law pleaded with me to forgo the separate house provision saying that they would accept me back into the family. How much I regret this decision now! They took me in but after a few months, they stopped giving me the monthly money as well. Today, even though my children (now young adults) and I live in the same house, they don’t give us water; they destroy our clothes; the other woman and her children still live here and are treated as his family, while my children have been made to suffer since the time they were so little. They repeatedly throw us out of the house and many nights, we sleep on the streets. And the beatings and abuse…it’s become worse! I have approached the police many times since but they don’t do anything because he bribes them and is well-connected. In all this, my children have suffered the most…their entire childhood was destroyed.” – Respondent HP, 40yrs, victim of domestic violence, lacking police support and unable to achieve a satisfactory solution despite using a mix of negative and positive survival strategies. *During the survey interview, HP’s husband dragged her daughter onto the street and began violently beating her. HP immediately went to the police station to file an FIR. But the police refused to do so stating that it was a personal household matter.

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Survey respondents complain that the police FS, 45yrs) son - an unemployed alcoholic and is corrupt and disrespectful to the poor, siding drug abuser involved in illegal activities, is in jail; only those who are politically well-connected or his wife has left abandoning their two children who are able to pay huge amounts of money as aged 4 and 7 years. The grandmother feels tense bribe. Moreover, residents who approach the and incapable of handling this responsibility police to file FIRs are often turned away without that has been forced upon her; she has their complaints being filed. Several locals are attempted to kill herself twice. In the second also wary of opening small businesses such case, the daughter-in-law abandoned her two as egg shops, grocery stalls etc. due to the children aged 8 and 12 years leaving them in constant police harassment and weekly bribes. the care of the grandmother (respondent SM, 53yrs) after her son’s death due to tuberculosis. Parental neglect and abandonment is also Unable to provide for both, the respondent has a serious concern. The daily frustrations and admitted one child into a government children’s struggles faced by community members has home. In a third similar case, the grandmother given rise to an unhealthy home environment (respondent RM, 55yrs) is responsible for her that is lacking in warmth or trust, and wherein two pre-teen grandchildren as her daughter-in- relationships are given little value or respect. law has committed suicide by setting herself The survey data reveals that only about 10% on fire while her son is unemployed. With her children enjoy a relationship of trust with a family own husband too having committed suicide by member, while over 50% rely on friends rather setting himself on fire and no earning members than family members to provide protection. in the family, RM is emotionally disturbed. After Young children are often left unattended at borrowing from neighbours and relatives, she home or in the care of elder siblings who are is barely able to provide one meal a day for themselves below age 10 years. Many parents her grandchildren. In the fourth case, a mother are unaware of their son’s whereabouts when (respondent, SJ, 42yrs) shares, “My life has they stay out late in the night or return home always been a tragedy. When I was a child, only in the mornings. Several of the survey my mother was mentally ill and my father respondents are themselves victims of domestic abandoned us. After marriage, my husband violence, extra-marital affairs of spouse, illegal is an alcoholic and regularly beats me. second marriage of spouse etc. Respondents Early marriage and three children one after inform that those involved in extra-marital the other have left me weak with a lot of affairs inclusive of both mothers and fathers, ailments. Poverty and ill health prevents me often abandon their spouse and children when from caring for my children. My son stays moving on to the next relationship. In a few with me but I have left both my daughters in such instances, particularly in the absence the care of my sister.” of both parents, caregivers attempt to admit children into government/ madrasa/ private Parental abandonment and consequent neglect non-profit children’s homes typically referred to can leave a deep impression on children, as ‘boarding schools’. rendering them emotionally scarred for life and unwilling to trust again. The life story of a sixteen There are many cases of children being left to year old Nepali boy SS, is a case in point. After stay with grandparents or other relatives due his mother’s death, SS was abandoned by his to parental abandonment or inability to take father at a small roadside restaurant in Mumbai care of the children, as was also the household at the age of five years. His father had promised situation with four of the survey respondents. In that he would pick him up in the evening after the first case, the grandmother’s (respondent work, but never returned. SS was later informed

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that his father had arranged for the restaurant daily wage jobs and a short-term contract job owner to use him for work in whichever way as a sweeper with the BMC, earning Rs. 3500 as he pleased. SS’s uncle however, rescued per month. He occasionally stays at his friend’s him from the restaurant a few days later and elder brother’s house within the community. dropped him off to live with a Nepali family However, most nights he sleeps on the street known to him in Kaula Bunder, Darukhana. along with his peer group (which includes A few months on, citing financial and other young adults) who regularly indulge in reckless difficulties, the Nepali family handed over SS to alcohol and drug abuse. He does not have any another foster family in the neighbourhood, this legal identification documents and is constantly time a Tamilian family who agreed to accept worried about earning a living in the absence him into their home. SS lived with his Tamilian of any support or backing. When asked more foster family for nearly a decade. However, he detailed questions related to his original or felt that he was never treated as one of their foster families during the interview, SS brushed own, was made to do household work and off such questions. He later admitted that it still other odd jobs, and was never sent to school angers and upsets him to talk about his family. unlike his foster siblings. At about fifteen years, He however shared that he will never forgive he decided to move away on his own and fend and has no wish to see his father again, that for himself. He has since taken up low-paid he trusts no one, and that he knows that he

S: Child is without shelter and sleeps on the street with his peer group in an unsafe neighbourhood

E: No schooling. A: Peer pressure Has no choice results in alcohol but to engage and drug abuse in low-paid putting child at risk exploitative child for a number of labour to earn a health issues living F: Child is abandoned by parent. Is mistreated and passed on from one unofficial foster family to another. Opts to live on his own

A 16 yr old boy from Darukhana SS’s inter-related experiences through the lens of the SAFE model: a graphical representation of how insecurity in one dimension can affect all other dimensions

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has only himself to depend on. When asked A fair number of children and adults are HIV as to what his biggest dream or wish was, he +ve, for whom free government services instantly responded, “Today, I don’t have a through the Shakti clinic mobile van have been family that I can call my own. But even if made available on a monthly basis within the I’m granted just one wish, I would choose to community. Government and NGO efforts to marry and have my own family - one that is increase AIDS awareness along with easier happy, loved, and always protected.” access to free HIV treatment services have begun to help reduce the incidence of mother- In the absence of government provided to-child transmission as exemplified by an Aanganwadis, NGOs functioning within the HIV +ve pregnant respondent SKS, 30yrs community have now successfully taken on who shares, “It was only during my second the role of delivering early education through pregnancy that I was tested for HIV and the balwadis and to a certain extent, child result was positive. After that, we discovered healthcare as well. In addition to regular health that my husband and eldest daughter were services and one-off health camps provided by HIV +ve as well. The doctors say that my a few NGOs, government health programmes (late) husband has passed on this disease are also implemented within the community. to me. I was counselled at JJ hospital Community health workers visit the community and given the necessary medication and at regular intervals to provide free basic treatment during pregnancy and delivery. health services particularly for women and My second daughter was thankfully born children such as immunization and provision of HIV –ve. I’m following the same treatment medicines, vitamin pills, birth control etc. this time, so hopefully this child too will be born HIV free. But I wish someone had told As per the survey respondents, the community me earlier. I could have prevented my first has a high immunization rate of over 95%. born from contracting this lethal lifelong Nearly all births take place at government disease from me.” hospitals with a high majority accessing the available pre-natal and post-natal services. There are several large government hospitals There is a moderate level of awareness that are accessed by the community people regarding the use of birth control, with the most but all of these are at a distance of over 3 kms popular forms being condoms and copper-T. from the community. A trip to the hospital is Illnesses commonly affecting the children often a half-day affair due to numerous long include diarrhoea, malaria, dengue, cholera, queues and waiting time, with many having to typhoid, jaundice, tuberculosis (TB), respiratory forgo a day’s wage. It is also expensive and disorders and skin infections. Common causes inconvenient due to the time and cost spent on for the occasional deaths that occur among travel. Moreover, prescribed medication is often children in Darukhana include dengue, AIDS, unavailable at the government pharmacies, drugs, and high fever; in addition to deaths forcing people to either spend money on caused by accidents such as train mishaps, purchasing these medicines elsewhere or being hit by trucks and rash bike riding. In skipping it altogether. Further, cases of medical the case of young and middle-aged adults, negligence at government hospitals have been on the other hand, the key causes of death reported. For instance, respondent JK, who include TB, AIDS, cancer, drugs, liver damage became a mother at the age of 15 years to twin due to alcohol, and suicide; with respondents prematurely born daughters both of who are specifying that TB, cancer and suicide cases blind, believes that hers was a case of hospital have been on a rise over the past two decades. negligence. She says, “Both my daughters

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were born weak and premature but were and other daily expenses such as medical, declared normal with no disabilities. They education, travel, alcohol etc. is often utilised were placed by the doctors under a very to pay back loans taken in times of need. A bright light for long periods of time without few households, particularly single parent or their eyes being covered. I know that that’s grandparent-headed households are unable how they became blind. The doctors didn’t to afford basic needs such as food, water, even offer an explanation. Who could I have shelter and clothing. All 30 respondents have complained to? When you’re poor, nobody undergone either prolonged or else repeated cares.” For these reasons, community short periods of extreme hardship wherein residents avoid going to the hospitals as far expenses were reduced to the extent of as possible. Instead, they use home remedies; spending only on food and water, while ignoring self-medicate through over-the-counter drugs; medical, education and other expenses. With access free NGO medical services/ health most respondents having faced such hardships camps when offered within the community; or from childhood, many believe that they are else in the case of prolonged illness, rely on stuck in a rut of poverty that is near impossible the few private health clinics available within to disengage from. Darukhana as the first stop, despite these having poorly qualified doctors and charging The most common adaptive strategy opted a consultancy fee. Residents are however for during times of extreme financial difficulty most deeply inconvenienced and troubled is the selling of assets followed by taking during times of severe illness, emergencies multiple loans. A high number of respondents or accidents as they have no option but to have either sold or mortgaged gold ornaments approach government hospitals which are far at least once in their lifetime. Over 75% causing fatalities that could have otherwise households in the community borrow money been avoided. from friends, neighbours or relatives; usually for food, water, transport, or festival celebration The next section attempts to provide a brief expenses. Sometimes, small amounts ranging glimpse into some other specific adaptive from Rs. 500 to 10,000 are borrowed from strategies used by resident survey respondents multiple people. As shared by SH, 35yrs, and their families to meet their basic survival “After my husband’s death, I struggle to needs. keep my three children alive. Even though we sometimes eat just plain chapati or rice, and I only spend on the most essential things, I have a cumulative loan of Rs. vii. Adaptive strategies used to cope 40,000. I have borrowed this over the years with various difficulties and obstacles from my brother and other people in the (SAFE Tool 2 - *For detailed quantitative community for running of the house. I work data, please refer to Appendix 4B) as a maid and it scares me to even think about how I’m going to be able to pay “Poverty refuses to leave me” – RMH, f, 60yrs: these people back.” Some also occasionally expenditure and dietary coping strategies purchase on credit from shopkeepers known to them within the community. A few relatively The large majority of families in Darukhana are well-off or influential people in the community unable to save money due to rising inflation offer loans to needy community members at and frequent loss of wages on account of poor high interest rates of up to 20%. These loan health. Any money kept aside post household amounts normally range from Rs. 10,000

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to 2,00,000. Common reasons for availing their faces was beyond anything I have such loans include weddings of daughters, ever seen. It was as if they had won the medical emergencies, education expenses, lottery. They had never seen so much house rent deposit or repairing costs. In fewer food before. While earlier, we would cases, constructive loans have been taken by all share and eat from a single boiled respondents for the set-up of businesses such egg, that day each one of them got an as snack stall, cyber café, purchase of a taxi entire egg to eat.”- Female respondent etc. SRH, 39yrs

Group savings schemes such as ‘mahila Only a few people who are in possession of bachat gats’ (self-help women’s savings group ration cards are able to avail themselves of the via a common bank account) and informal chit government PDS facilities by purchasing low- funds have been utilized by a few community quality rice, wheat, kerosene etc. at subsidized members, though this practice is extremely rates. Corruption levels are high at these rare. MFIs have largely avoided venturing into stores within the community, with commodities Darukhana in the past. Recently though, a such as sugar and edible-quality rice, wheat for-profit MFI, Suryoday Microfinance Ltd. has etc. either being unavailable or being sold in begun forming fifteen member women groups the black market at retail price. While many and providing beginner loans of Rs. 15000 fathers spend their earnings on alcohol, drugs at a low interest rate for the set-up of small- and gambling, providing little or none of their scale businesses. Respondents however state income for household expenses; several that some women are wrongly attempting to access such microfinance loans for household expenditure and other purposes by providing false business plans. Another common strategy repeatedly shared by respondents is the taking of new loans to pay off earlier loans, thus creating a cycle of debt; but unfortunately, such loans tend to put a further strain on long-term household expenditure rather than alleviating poverty. Rare cases of suicide have also been reported as a result of extreme unpayable debt and poverty.

“Many years ago, my husband was NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE an alcoholic and for most days unemployed. There was absolutely No. of Respondents who spent an entire day without eating nothing in the house to eat at the time. My entire family was surviving on black mother respondents have either reduced their tea and bread. I still remember the day food intake or skipped meals so as to be able when I started working and got my to feed their children. During times of food or first salary of Rs. 200…the first thing economic paucity, respondent families have I did was to buy twenty-one different survived purely on diets such as bread and small food items and pack each one tea, raw vegetables with salt, plain rice etc. of it separately. Then I placed all of it for several days; have requested food from in front of my four children. The joy on community members; or else have arranged for

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their children to occasionally eat at relative’s or Even though a few respondent parents are friend’s houses. Other expenditure and dietary themselves illiterate, their awareness regarding cutting strategies include the recycling of the benefits of education, and the willingness discarded material from dismantled ships into to invest into their children’s education is high. house building and furniture material; purchase Children of all respondents have attended of poor quality food grains and slightly rotten grade levels higher than that of their parents. vegetables at cheaper rates; chewing tobacco Many parents, including migrant respondents to evade hunger, and cutting down the number were made to drop-out or skip school during of meals to just once a day. Over 90% have their childhood years for reasons such as reduced the number of meals consumed each household work, sibling care, assisting parents day, while over 80% respondents have spent in their occupational work, and engaging in an entire day without eating. In a few desperate part-time or full-time work to contribute to the instances, respondents or their children have household income; a trend that continues to also resorted to begging or stealing food from this day, albeit at a slightly older age. the neighbouring houses and shops. A majority of respondents, along with their Generational trends: Strategies revolving siblings have been victims of child labour, many around occupational/ educational and as young as 9-11 years old. A few respondents dangerous/ illegal activities have also lived away from home as child Despite a high school drop-out rate currently labourers. For example, while they were young prevalent in the community, a distinct positive children, two of the respondents had been sent generational trend in education is noted. to their relative’s homes in Darukhana by their

Worked as a child labourer for shelter

Went to work for a family other than your own

Stayed home from school for sibling care or domestic work

Stopped/alternated the days you go to school

NEVER Stopped going to school in ONCE order to work MORE THAN ONCE

0510 15 20 25 30

Respondent occupational/ educational strategies

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extremely poor families in the villages to earn in existence; instances of rapes and murders as housemaids and send money back home. were more frequent. In the 1990’s, one of In another instance, a respondent ran away as the respondents, a volunteer balwadi teacher a boy from his village home in Tamil Nadu to was repeatedly beaten up (resulting in severe come to Mumbai, so as to earn a living better wounds on the head) and sexually harassed than what he feels would have been possible in (including rape threats) by the local dons in the his village. He lived on the streets and worked area for daring to bring in education for girls as a child labourer in many places before within the community. But respondents share eventually settling down in Darukhana. All three that while criminal gang violence, murders respondents have married and stayed on in and rapes have decreased; there has been a Darukhana. Further, though trafficked child noticeable increase in child and youth violence, labour into factories in Darukhana still exists, the use and sale of drugs by children, as respondents state that there are fewer such also an increase in instances of extra-marital instances today as compared to about two affairs, and suicide rates within the community. decades ago due to increased police and NGO Moreover, children have begun to engage in vigilance. Similarly, a large number of parents violent or illegal activities at a younger age than have been victims of child marriage; but the their parents or the previous generation. current rate of child marriage in the community is comparatively lower. Self-healing versus self-harm There is a stark absence of constructive self- Some of the respondents are from single or no- healing strategies utilised by the residents and parent households on account of abandonment respondents of Darukhana. The strategy most or death due to suicide or illness, similar to commonly opted for by respondents during the current situation of several households stressful periods such as extreme economic within Darukhana. In one case, due to death scarcity, high financial debt, elevated levels of mother and abandonment of father, a female of domestic violence, severe illness, death of respondent moved in to her uncle’s house in Darukhana at the age of about 5 years along with her siblings. Here, she was forced to beg or steal so as to be allowed stay in his house. As young children aged 7 years and younger, respondents have been left unsupervised for lengthy periods of time. Similarly, even today, in some homes, very young children are left NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE without any adult supervision, and in certain cases in the absence of elder sibling supervision Respondents who spent increased time in isolation as as well. Most feel that this is practical and a self-healing strategy acceptable in the given circumstances and do not consider it to be an issue of concern.

Though violence is still high in the community, respondents who have lived in Darukhana for decades are unanimous in their opinion that it was a far more dangerous community NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE about 25-30 years ago. At the time, a larger number of adult organized crime gangs were Respondents who attempted self-harm or suicide

THE AANGAN TRUST 115 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

family member etc. is to increase time spent in Having recently commenced it’s programmes isolation. Consequently, suicide is a common in the community, Aangan in collaboration course of action followed by several men and with community members, has additionally women. Amongst the 30 respondents itself, initiated some much-needed regular sessions one had deliberately injured herself, two had and activities that work across a range of child considered suicide many times, while seven protection issues including drug addiction, had attempted suicide either once or several violence, sexual harassment, child labour, child times. Numerous cases of family members of marriage etc. respondents e.g. husband, nephew, daughter- in-law etc committing suicide were reported as Community members who attend NGO well. Those who had attempted suicide mainly trainings or meetings have largely found these included victims of domestic violence and the to be helpful. A small number of community key methods tried were laying on the railway women, including a few of the respondents, are track, pouring kerosene on oneself and lighting a also associated with NGOs either as volunteers matchstick, hanging, and drinking rat poison or or as paid community workers; and have phenyl. One female respondent had attempted therefore been part of welfare committees or suicide thrice due to domestic violence and are actively involved in helping file police FIRs. accusations of extra-marital affairs; the third An interesting point to note here is that the time she lay on the railway tracks along with community initiated women’s group, ‘Pragati her children but the police intervened and let Mahila Mandal’, was itself instrumental in her go with a warning. Respondents share that approaching and supporting NGOs in the set- a few teenagers below eighteen years have up of balwadis in the 1990s. Considering that also committed suicide within the community this was in the midst of strong opposition from in recent years. These have almost always local goons (which was later converted into been a result of love affairs gone wrong or a active support by the group) and at a time when lack of reciprocation from love interests. In the NGOs rarely ventured into the community, the past year, two such cases of teenage suicide resilience and possibilities displayed by this were reported by respondents. small group of community women is inspiring and commendable. An uncertain haven in an apathetic city: survival strategies within the community Further, during the survey interviews, space neighbours and other community members In the absence of government provided and were stated to be moderately helpful especially other essential services, many community during times of extreme economic difficulty adults and children are happy to utilize the NGO or high levels of violence. 18 of the 30 services that have been made available within respondents have accepted financial support Darukhana. The majority of NGOs that function in the form of small amounts of money ranging within the community mainly focuses on from Rs. 10 to Rs. 100 for food, medicines, education and health issues related to women school or hospital travel costs etc. without an and children. Periodic sports tournaments expectation for the money to be returned. A and other celebratory programs for children few community members have offered food, are also organized by NGOs with reasonably water or shelter to those in need, particularly high child participation, as is the distribution to those who belong to their own language or of essential material for children such as religious group. Neighbours are also reported to school bags, bed sheets, tiffin boxes etc. physically intervene, including accompaniment to the police station, when violence against

THE AANGAN TRUST 116 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

women or children reach dangerous levels. between groups. On the other hand, it is clear When requested and if practically possible, that the community has the potential to gather neighbours usually agree to care for or keep a together, irrespective of language and religious lookout for other’s children. differences, as it has done so for campaigns and advocacy related to community needs One of the distinguishing features of the such as the construction of toilets, the provision Darukhana community is the high frequency of water etc. Most recently, the strength and and scale of celebrations, which include not determination of such community efforts, only numerous festivals but also celebrations however, have shifted to focus primarily on the associated with Tamil movie releases and issue of demolition. certain film star anniversaries. Even in the midst of monetary problems, the Tamil population is In June 2014, the government announced that the port land is largely underutilised and therefore needs to be reclaimed for redevelopment in a space-starved city. The MbPT plans to streamline port operations and terminate some of the polluting and loss- making port activities. A similar situation had erupted in 2002 with talks of potential dockland redevelopment, but this had eventually gotten buried in political and bureaucratic hassles.

Since mid-2014, the community has been living in constant fear of eviction. Though the MbPT has razed several small pockets of shanties NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE in the distant past, the residents had almost always instantaneously rebuilt their homes over Respondents who participated in peaceful rallies or citizen’s movement the next few weeks while living in crude plastic sheet tents in the interim. However, the recent known to get together and spend lavishly on large-scale demolition in Powder Bunder where such celebrations. During popular film star hundreds of shanties were mowed down in birthdays, wedding anniversaries etc., large January 2015, have had a more permanent banners are put up, cakes are cut, film posters and ruthless tone invoking dread and distress are bathed in milk, film star photographs are across settlements. Areas were cordoned adorned with a chain made of money etc. off and the stationed guards prevented the along with celebrations that often include food, recently homeless from building basic tents for loud music, and dance. Different pockets of temporary stay. To add to the despair, the state households also pool in money to celebrate a Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA) scheme large number of festivals together, but these are does not apply to the MbPT, thereby legally usually demarcated as Tamil, Hindu and Muslim allowing the Port Trust to demolish shanties festivals and not celebrated by the community irrespective of how long they have existed sans as a whole. Thus, these celebrations are providing any alternative accommodation. As the embodiment of both constructive and a result, the displaced residents, many of who destructive adaptive strategies that bring had been living there for decades, were forced together sects of people but at the same time, to give up their livelihood and move back to their also breeds differences, grudges and violence villages, or find accommodation elsewhere. A

THE AANGAN TRUST 117 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

few who had legal documents such as ration cards, voter IDs and electricity bills chose to stay back by temporarily storing belongings in nearby warehouses, while themselves cooking and living on the streets. A few hutments in Kaula Bunder have also been demolished since and several demolition notices have been handed out in other areas as well.

The slum dwellers are currently being viewed as ‘coming in the way’ of proposed developments. But for those whose families have been living in Darukhana for generations, the prospect of being forcefully evicted out of Darukhana is daunting. Several are unable to understand the apathy of the central government claiming that they possess legal documents that should suffice to thwart an eviction. A female respondent SRH, 39 years, states, “My children are now the fourth generation living here. We have a ration card, Aadhar cards and a registered electricity meter. We have toiled day and night to build a house and make it our home. Yet, they (MbPT) say that we do not belong…they wish to simply erase us out of here”. Being an industrial activity area with scores of workshops and small industrial units, such an eviction not only snatches away their home, but also their source of livelihood. Many in the community, however, continue to live in the hope that the land redevelopment issue will once again be muted due to corporate leaseholder legalities and political pressure.

THE AANGAN TRUST 118 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

SULTANKOT, VARANASI

THE AANGAN TRUST 119 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

i. Community location such as Pasi Dalit, Khatik Sonkar, Rajbhar and Chamar. The community has been in existence Kazzakpura is a large impoverished slum for over 60 years and the majority of the block located in the south-eastern holy city of people settled in the community are ‘Banarasi’ Varanasi (also known as Banaras or Kashi) in i.e. they originate from Varanasi itself. The the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh (UP). migrated population of less than 20% is mainly Situated within a lower middle-class area, this composed of families from Bihar, West Bengal slum block stretches for nearly four kilometres, (WB), Bangladesh, and other districts or rural has a high population density of over thirty parts of UP. A small number of migrant families thousand, and comprises of several different also belong to neighbouring states such as ‘mohallas’ (neighbourhoods) which have been Chattisgarh, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh. illegally formed over the years. The SAFE Thus, though a large majority of the community research area includes the entire Dhamnagar people have been residents for over thirty years; Mawa, Dhamnagar Bargawa and Bengali Tola some of the non-UP migrants rent homes and mohallas, as well as small adjoining portions of reside in the community for short periods such the Naginaghat and Shahpura mohallas. For as a few months or one-three years before ease of reference, this whole research stretch moving on to another location. There has been when viewed as a complete unit, is referred to a rise in such in-migration and subsequent within this study as the Sultankot area within out-migration over the past decade, with the Kazzakpura. Sultankot is bounded by the Varuna primary reason quoted by respondents as river (a minor tributary of the river Ganga) on being a search for livelihood. one side, and the Varanasi City railway station and tracks on the other side. Railway tracks Unlike most makeshift slums, the majority also run through the community. Varanasi’s of houses in Sultankot are ‘pucca’ having largest municipal dumpsite extending for over unplastered brick and mortar walls, with ‘patra’ a kilometre adjoins the research area and is i.e. corrugated tin sheets as roofs. The doors situated within Kazzakpura. Kazzakpura is are typically made of tin or wood, while the well-connected through road and rail. floors within are often formed of plain mud. Such basic concrete enclosed shelters are high in number mainly because these are essential for protecting the powerlooms or ii. Community structure, demographics handlooms that are housed within most Muslim and the unwritten code of functioning households. Moreover, many of these shelters house extended families that have separate Sultankot is a densely populated neighbourhood nuclear family establishments under the same comprising over 1000 households with a roof. Though fewer in number, some of the population of nearly 10000. The average houses within the community are also crude number of family members per household is tents or structures built mainly with patra, cloth nine. The community is dominated by Muslims and/or tarpaulin. For instance, all houses of who constitute roughly 75% of the population. the small but highly vulnerable Bengali Tola Within this, the predominant Muslim group community are largely made of such makeshift is the Ansari Muslim community who are material; this mohalla comprises less than fifty associated with the art of weaving by tradition. households at any given time and is occupied by The remaining 25% are mainly Scheduled migrant Bangladeshi and WB Muslims. Houses Caste (SC) Hindus belonging to caste groups throughout the community are compactly arranged in clusters next to one another.

THE AANGAN TRUST 120 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

Often, though no visible demarcation or overt occasionally result in floods that submerge discrimination exists, Hindus and Muslims are homes rendering many families homeless noted to reside in house clusters dominated by for short periods. High noise pollution due to their own religious group, for e.g. a cluster of the heavy and constant use of powerlooms SC Hindu households is located close to the is also a matter of concern. Prolonged and river bank of the Dhamnagar Mawa mohalla. A continuous exposure to high decibel levels can significant proportion of the population – about not only cause hearing impairments, but can 30% - are tenant families living in or working also trigger lifestyle-associated disorders such out of rented houses; this includes a few long- as migraines, elevated blood pressure and term UP residents as well as nearly all non-UP other cardiovascular diseases. migrant families. Livelihood choice in Sultankot is largely There are several shops within the community influenced by religious group identity and itself such as general stores, mobile recharge state-origin. The main occupations within the and accessory stores, barber shops, meat community are silk-weaving, rickshaw/ trolley shops, vegetable-selling carts etc. providing pulling, ragpicking, and cart-selling amongst easy access to basic household goods and men and boys, while the primary occupations for services. However, being an unauthorized women include ‘tikli chipkana’ (sticking sequins settlement, most community residents do not on saris), domestic maid work, and ragpicking possess valid identity documents such as amongst women and girls. Weaving and Weaver identity cards, Ration cards, Aadhar sequins work has been traditionally practiced cards etc., thereby preventing many from by the Ansari Muslims within the community availing the relevant government schemes. for generations. It continues to remain the Further, even though most households today predominant occupation, though over 90% struggle to make ends meet and can barely of the handlooms have now been replaced arrange for one-three meals a day, many by the more efficient powerlooms. About 75% families have ironically been denied a BPL card Banarasi Muslim households are stated to have since they reside in concrete houses. looms set up within their own homes. Many males from the remaining 25% engage in daily The community surroundings are extremely wage loom work in other loom households or polluted and unhygienic. The banks of the loom factories within the community; these river Varuna and the railway tracks are used mainly belong to women or child-headed for open defecation, as are several other spots families, or are the extreme poor who have had within the community. Garbage is thrown into no land, ancestral property or other assets to the river, as well as on the streets and other sell in order to purchase powerlooms, each of open areas throughout the neighbourhood. which costs about Rs. 1 lakh. The Banarasi The large Kazzakpura municipal dumpsite Muslim women and girls are typically involved where 600-800 metric tons of household in embroidery or ‘tikli chipkana’ i.e. sequins and other waste is dumped everyday, exudes work on saris, as well as the preparatory dangerous toxic fumes giving rise to respiratory tasks involved in weaving such as rolling the problems and other long-term ailments. bobbins, spinning, separating the yarn etc. During the rainy season, the polluted and Silk-weaving, embroidery and sequins sticking foul-smelling river water as well as rain water wages are always piece-rate ranging from Rs. mixed with waste and toxic chemicals from the 8 to 15 per meter depending on design. The dumping ground enters into homes, posing a migrant Bangladeshi and WB Muslims, on the serious health threat. Moreover, heavy rains other hand, are primarily engaged in ragpicking

THE AANGAN TRUST 121 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

and rickshaw-pulling, with a few also resorting better than nothing.” Handloom weaving is no to begging. The Hindu population, inclusive of longer practically viable, while earnings through both children and adults, is noted to usually powerloom or sari embellishment labour is engage in street vending i.e. the setting up of usually inadequate to meet daily expenses. The ‘thelas’ or carts that sell vegetables, fruits, tea effects of these changes in the Banarasi sari or snack items such as ‘golgappas’, ‘jalebi’, industry are evident in the community wherein ‘kachori’, ice cream, candy floss; rickshaw/ families owning looms and concrete homes trolley-pulling; tailoring (machine work as are living a life of extreme penury; children opposed to hand work) and domestic maid have begun to join the workforce at an earlier work. Only a miniscule proportion of the Hindu age so as to augment the diminishing family SC population are weavers or ragpickers. A income; and a few weaver families are even small number of adults and children from the turning to unskilled livelihood options such community also take up daily wage jobs such as construction labour, domestic work, shop as construction, plumbing, catering, garage assisting etc. as a survival strategy. work; manage small-scale businesses; or work as shop/ restaurant assistants. Respondents Sultankot is a highly patriarchal community further shared that a few adult Muslim men where women have little or no say in family from the community are manual labourers in or financial matters. In many households, Saudi Arabia. The average monthly income of boys are prioritised over girls with regard to households in Sultankot is Rs. 3000. This tiny quantity of food served, clothing and education amount often includes the combined earnings expenditure. From a young age of about of all family members, including both adults ten years, girls are expected to conform to and children. certain behavioral norms such as decreased mobility, increased speech restrictions, and The period between the 1970s and 1990s minimal social interaction especially with males is known as the golden era of the Banarasi outside the family home. These restrictions are sari industry, when the industry thrived as did particularly severe within Muslim households the vast majority of households in Sultankot. as is exemplified in the response of a Muslim However, technological advancements in female respondent who was asked as to textile machinery and a series of changes what kind of family-related decisions she has in government policies resulted in a severe been responsible for to date. Perplexed, she economic crisis hitting the UP handloom and responded, “How can I as a married woman powerloom sectors since the early 2000s. take any decisions when my husband is The key consequences of these policies and still alive? Family decisions are a man’s advancements have been a shortage of raw responsibility”. Female respondents further materials compounded with an increase in yarn shared that far from decision-making, many prices, while the demand and cost of finished women are not even allowed to go grocery- products have lowered. A female respondent N, shopping unless accompanied by a male family 45 years, who earns through embroidery work member. With such extremely limited exposure on saris laments, “Our work is just not valued to the outside world, it is not surprising then anymore. Earlier, years ago, if we got Rs. that most female respondents were unable to 450 for the work done…now, for the same provide community-related information that amount of work, we only get Rs. 300. How is extended beyond their own mohalla. that fair? But we take what we get because we have no choice. After all, our children The community is situated within a politically too need to be fed and some money is sensitive area. Though all respondents

THE AANGAN TRUST 122 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

fervently denied the presence of any form of the community was also noted. In spite of communal tension, and the two major religious clearly explaining the purpose of the research, groups – Hindus and Muslims – live in close respondent fears that the research has political proximity and are fairly amicable to each or religious motivation was palpable. These other, there is a pervasive sense of underlying fears were alleviated by providing clear and wariness and lack of trust between the two occasionally detailed explanations to questions groups that permeates through. A fear of asked by the community residents regarding sharing information with people external to the researcher or research.

Sultankot in pictures: (Row-wise from left to right)

a) A typical house in the community b) Rag pickers sorting out recyclable waste c) Houses along the Varuna river bank, also a site for open defecation d) A child being bathed outside his home e) Garbage strewn in open areas within the community f) Kazzakpura dumping site

THE AANGAN TRUST 123 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

iii. Water, electricity, toilet and bathing a daily basis, electricity consumption is high. facilities Moreover, electricity is an extremely important commodity in this community as the daily wage A majority of households in Sultankot (about earnings of powerloom weavers are largely 80%) have constructed crude toilets and dependent on it. However, it’s availability is washing areas within homes. These are unpredictable with households having to typically makeshift structures built into house go without electricity for at least a few hours corners that rarely include doors and locks. everyday. Instead, most use curtains of jute, sari cloth or plastic to provide cover or as door substitutes. Households that do not have a direct water In the absence of public toilets, households supply connection normally fetch water from without toilets (e.g. several houses near the the general-use municipal water supply taps Varuna river bank, Bengali Tola mohalla) or set up at different points across the community. those with temporarily jammed non-functioning A number of hand pumps and tube wells also toilets practice open defecation at the river exist within the community although many are in bank, railway tracks, empty grounds etc. The non-working condition. Research indicates that household washing areas are multipurpose, the surface and ground water in the Kazzakpura used for washing clothes or utensils, as well area is highly contaminated due to the leachate as for bathing. But bathing (particularly men generated from the Kazzakpura dumping 25 and boys) and washing activities also take site . Additionally, unhygienic surroundings as place outside homes, near the hand pumps, a result of open defecation, littering of kitchen community-use municipal water taps, grounds waste etc. further contaminate the surface and etc. While bathing in the open, teenaged ground water. Yet, when supply water to houses and adult males are typically dressed in is temporarily cut off or is unavailable due to undergarments, while females are usually fully other reasons, residents have no choice but to clothed. consume this visibly polluted and foul-smelling ground water obtained from the hand pumps Open defecation and inadequate cover during or tube wells. Occasionally, the supply water bathing are particularly risky for teenaged girls too contains visible impurities. However, even and young women who are the chief targets if the water is noticeably unclean, community for sexual molestation or violence. Two minor members do not boil or filter the water. Instead, teenaged sisters aged 14 and 16 years, H and the water is simply drained through a piece of S, residing in the Bengali Tola mohalla shared cloth before consumption. Such drinking water that the jute curtains at the bathing area used that is unfit for consumption exposes children by them provided little cover, as they have to a number of water-borne diseases such as been frequent victims of sexual harassment by jaundice, cholera, dysentry etc., putting the the passing mohalla boys who enter into their lives of many at risk. ‘jhopdi’ (slum house) uninvited and attempt to peep into the washing area when either of them are bathing.

Nearly all houses in Sultankot receive municipal water supply and have legal electricity connections. With the vast number of 25 Pandey, J., Kaushik, P. & Tripathi, S. (2014). Assessment of Leachate Pollution Index and Greenhouse Gas Emission at powerlooms functioning in the community on MSW Dumpsites along Ganga River at Varanasi, India. British Journal of Environment & Climate Change, 4(3), 292-311.

THE AANGAN TRUST 124 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

Other basic facilities and services within or Foundation, Amar Jyoti Society, nearby community Pratham, Population Foundation of India (PFI), Dr. Shambhunath Singh • Aanganwadi centres: Four within the Research Foundation (SRF), Human community research area Welfare Association (HWA), not-for- profit MFIs such as Cashpor Micro • Commonly accessed Government Credit, Bandhan, for-profit MFIs such schools: Two lower primary schools as SKS Microfinance Ltd., Spandana within a distance of 1 km (Grades I to Sphoorthy Financial Ltd. V). One upper primary government

school at a distance of over 2 kms. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya, a government residential upper primary girls’ school in Sarnath (over 5 kms iv. A snapshot of the Sultankot SAFE from the community). No secondary Analysis government schools within the community or its vicinity. *Several of the child vulnerability issues mentioned below are cross-cutting and • Other commonly accessed schools: interdependent issues that do not fall under Few private schools, and private as one specific dimension. These and other well as government-aided madrasas community vulnerability aspects are explored within the community in depth through the course of this chapter

• Commonly accessed vocational Safety and protection courses: None • Widespread hazardous child labour and extensive work hours from a • Government hospitals: Shri Shiv tender age is a prominent child Prasad Gupta Divisional Hospital also protection concern in itself, and it also known as Kabir Chaura Hospital; comes at the cost of basic education Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya and recreational activities that all Government Hospital (over 3 and 5 children are entitled to. kms from the community respectively) • High rates of girl-child marriage, • Private medical centres: Several that in turn fast-track the possible small clinics within the community; emergence of other child vulnerabilities few private hospitals such as Jamia such as domestic violence, increased hospital, Maulana Azad Bunker household responsibilities and early hospital, Ayushman hospital and motherhood, puts girls in a highly trauma centre, Gurudev hospital and susceptible position. New Sahara hospital within 3 kms from the community • The concealed practice of selling brides via marriage to grooms • Police station: Jaitpura police station belonging to other states, exposes (Sultankot police chowki) girls to the risk of further exploitation that includes physical torture, sex • Prominent Organizations: Vision slavery, or being resold into another

THE AANGAN TRUST 125 MINOR ISSUES IN MAJOR CITIES Child Vulnerabilities in Urban Slums

marriage, the commercial sex trade or serious health threat. into bonded labour. • Inferior services, travel distance and • Early financial independence amongst the high rates of corruption existent boys in the absence of adult guidance, at government hospitals; in addition combined with high stress levels, to the high medical expenses often lead to gambling behaviour, low attributed to private hospitals, force anger thresholds, and the seeking out many to access the local unqualified of substances to alleviate stress and practitioners available at more anxiety. affordable rates, putting the health of many at risk. • The relentless harassment of disabled children force many to stay indoors so • Lack of awareness along with as to avoid humiliation. circumspection regarding government- run community health programs, have • Inadequately covered crude bathing led to a lukewarm response towards areas and open defecation are pre-natal post-natal, and immunization particularly risky for teenaged girls services; in turn resulting in poor and young women who are the chief maternal health, low birth weight targets for sexual harassment and babies and high mortality rates. violence. • High rates of teenage pregnancies • Occasional floods due to heavy rains (post-marital) combined with non- submerge homes rendering many institutional deliveries by untrained families temporarily homeless, and traditional midwives often result consequently leave children vulnerable in fatalities, or serious medical to a number of health and protection complications for mother or newborn risks. child.

Access to healthcare and basic physiological • One prominent consequence of the needs dismal functioning of Aanganwadi centres in the community is the • The presence of a dumping site near-absence of food supplement within the community, in addition provisions to young children, to a polluted river, open defecation, contributing to the high malnutrition and piles of garbage strewn on the rate. streets not only creates an unhygienic environment that promotes a range of • Substance abuse amongst boys avoidable diseases, but also severely can lead to physical or mental health contaminates ground water making it issues when taken in high doses or for unfit for consumption. prolonged periods of time. • During heavy rains, polluted river water • The hazardous nature of child labour along with rain water mixed with waste e.g. powerloom weaving, ragpicking and toxic chemicals from the dumping etc. puts children at daily risk of ground enters into homes, posing a injuries and long-term health disorders.

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• Prolonged and continuous noise many households into penury and pollution caused by the heavy and forcing children to begin working at an constant use of powerlooms exposes earlier age than previous generations children to high decibel levels that can so as to augment the diminishing cause hearing impairments and trigger family income. disorders such as migraines and elevated blood pressure. • High dependence on loans from multiple sources creates a situation of Family and connection to others perpetual debt for many families, with harassment and torture of household • Being a religious and politically members being common in the event sensitive area, an underlying wariness of loan defaultment. and distrust of outsiders as well as between the two major religious • Extreme poverty and the need to groups exists within the community. feed one’s children has resulted in the recent emergence of prostitution, • Sultankot is a highly patriarchal mainly practiced by deserted or community that infringes on women’s widowed mothers who have no other rights – girls and women have little form of livelihood sustenance. or no say in self, family or financial matters; and extremely limited • The presence of child-headed exposure to the world outside their households largely due to no-parent homes or immediate locality. or severely ill single-parent family circumstances, forces these children • Adulterous relationships, multiple to shoulder enormous financial and marriages, marital rape, domestic other responsibilities. violence, incestuous sexual advances, and parental abandonment create • The absence of identity cards and unhealthy home environments wherein other essential documents prevents external help-seeking is discouraged. residents from availing the relevant Children gradually begin to perceive government schemes. such actions as ‘normal’, thereby implicitly encouraging another • Low educational attainment or the generation to exhibit despicable and complete absence of schooling in irresponsible behaviour towards family order to earn a livelihood, prevents bonds. children from pursuing an education that could potentially break the vicious • Weak community cohesion prevents cycle of household poverty currently optimization of community-based existing in the neighbourhood. adaptive strategies.

Education and economic security

• The ancestral art of sari-weaving amongst traditional weaver families is no longer financially viable leading

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v. Key child vulnerabilities live with non-working grandparents, in a few rare cases siblings are noted to live together Hazardous child labour and child-headed without any adult members. households

Child labour is the most extensive and visible child protection issue within Sultankot. The overall decrease in family earnings and the increase in family debts mean that more women and children are entering the work space with the age of entry having decreased to the lowest possible. Children as young as six-seven years old are often expected to assist in labour and contribute to the family income. By the age of about 10 years, a large majority are forced into full-time work, with most working an average of 10-12 hours each day. With an increase in the number of people engaging in the same forms of labour, supply exceeds demand. This has resulted in a plummeting of labour wages thereby creating a vicious cycle where family conditions further deteriorate and more children enter the market to supplement the family income. The work sectors that children engage % of working children over age 10 years in are largely based on the originating state and religious group they belong to, similar to that of adults in the community as has been discussed earlier. Parents, relatives, neighbours and peers are the key source points for information on job availability and for arrangement of jobs. According to the respondents, the extent of child labour is relatively lower amongst the Hindu population (about 35% children over age 10 years) as compared to the Muslim population (about 90%).

A fair number of child-headed families live within the community. In such households, children are either the only or else the main earning members responsible for all household, health and other expenses. The structure of child- headed households within the community vary with the children being from families where either or both parents have died, abandoned them, or are too ill to continue working; while some of these children with absent parents

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Following are the narratives of two children from child-headed households who were interviewed as part of the SAFE survey:

“My family moved here from West Bengal about fifteen years ago and I was born here. My mother expired two months after I was born and my father died just two years ago. We are seven siblings, five of who are married. Being the youngest two sisters, we have now been left to fend for ourselves. All we have are a few basic utensils that we use to cook and eat in, and a ‘jhopdi’ (slum house) that’s made of plastic and jute. But this jhopdi is not safe for girls at night…, the boys here trouble us. So most nights, we try to spend the night at our married sister’s house for which we give her some money. Most days, my sister gets very severe chest pain. When it gets very bad and if we have made enough money that day, she buys medicines to reduce the pain. Otherwise, she just bears with it and continues to work. On a normal day, we manage to earn enough money for food and night shelter, even up to Rs. 130 a day. Though all of it gets spent the same day itself, money is not our biggest problem. The work is dirty and tiring and I hate it, but it’s not difficult to do. All of us siblings began ragpicking at the age of about 7 years or so. So I’m used to working, that is not the problem either. The problem is in the lack of dignity, in the lack of security, and in the nothingness of it all. The problem is that there is no one to ask after us, no one to care if we are dead or alive. The problem is that my life has no worth and no meaning” – as shared by a 14 year old orphan ragpicker girl, H, living in the Bengali Tola mohalla along with her 16 year old sister

“I work in my uncle’s powerloom but I cannot afford to skip a single day of work. My entire family’s responsibility lies on my shoulders. I have my father and two younger sisters to take care of. My mother died two months ago due to kidney failure and my father is too weak to work. He has liver problems and he’s been like this for the past three years. We are unable to afford his medication, so he takes it for a day or two only when the pain has become absolutely unbearable. This is exactly how my mother died. Her medicines cost Rs. 1200 a week. Even with my three uncles occasionally contributing some money towards her treatment, it was never enough and she eventually succumbed. Now my fourteen year old sister too has a heart problem because of which she is very weak and cannot work. Her medication too costs over Rs. 1000 a week which we obviously cannot afford on a regular basis. Without medicines, she gets weaker and weaker as time goes by. Whenever there is money or if she is too weak to move, I buy her medicines. I usually earn Rs. 150 a day while my youngest 13 year old sister who does tikli work on saris is only able to earn Rs. 40 a day. With our combined earnings, we are able to manage the most basic household and food expenses, but the medical expenses are beyond my reach. I work really hard. I know that my family’s medical treatment is dependent on me. There have been many days when I’ve worked non-stop for 15-16 hours. At such times, my body breaks down but I carry on. I try not to think about the future or of a better job. What’s the point of thinking about things that are not possible?” – as shared by AJ, a 16 year old powerloom worker, living in the Dhamnagar Mawa mohalla

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While most occupational tasks within the During the peak market or wedding season, community are segregated between boys however, many even work 17-18 hour shifts, and girls, children of both sexes engage in only breaking for meals or when electricity is ragpicking to earn a livelihood. Children can be unavailable. Paid on a piece-rate per meter seen rummaging through discarded waste not basis, the earnings of a full-time child powerloom only at the primary site which is the dumping weaver in the community is Rs. 80-150 a day, ground, but also on the streets, at the railway while handloom child workers (wherein a single station, railway tracks, outside restaurants, sari takes a week to ten days to complete) residential colonies etc. Ragpicker children who earn even lower. Street-selling is a prominent are mainly Bangladeshi and WB Muslims (and a occupation amongst low-caste Hindu families, few low-caste Hindus) usually work from 8 am where boys either sell grocery, snacks, or other to 5 pm earning approximately Rs. 100 - 150 items single-handedly at the railway station, a day by selling about 15-20 kg of recyclable market, streets etc or accompany their fathers waste. A few young children below age 8 years to assist in the selling on a regular basis. Often from this group are also additionally compelled entire families, including girl children are involved to beg on the streets. The majority of children in the preparatory activities that take place at in the community however are Banarasi home from early morning onwards e.g. tying Muslims who are engaged in sari weaving and up vegetable bundles, preparing ‘chola’ for the embroidery work. golgappas etc. Further, establishments around the community often prefer to hire minor boys to work in garages, construction, restaurants, hotels and shops as they can be taken on at lower wages than their adult counterparts. Respondents stated that a few boys also migrate to more prosperous cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Surat etc. where they work in ‘karkhanas’ (small factories), shops, hotels etc. so as to obtain wages that are several times higher than would be possible staying within the community.

Girls, on the other hand, typically work within their own homes. Weaving-related tasks by girls (and women) is limited to those households that have looms set up within. Otherwise, many girls from age 6 years onwards spend entire Child weavers working on handloom (girl) and powerloom (boy) days in sequins/ stone sticking, and zari work on saris. A few are also involved in other skilled The primary occupations that boys engage labour such as machine stitching of handbags, in are weaving, street-selling, hotel and shop making bead necklaces and designer stone assisting. A small number of boys are also bindis. Earnings are extremely low with a 12- engaged in construction, garage work and 16 hour workday resulting in earnings of only rickshaw-pulling. Boys learn to operate looms about Rs. 40 a day. A few girls, mainly from low- by the age of about 8-9 years. Boys who are caste Hindu families work as domestic maids into full-time weaving work for a minimum of 10 earning paltry monthly salaries of Rs. 250-500 hours, often extending into 13-14 hours shifts. per household. In addition to such income-

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generating work, girls are also responsible for No schooling and early school drop-out daily household activities (cooking, cleaning, Sultankot is a community that places very little washing clothes, utensils etc.) and younger value on education. Community adults believe sibling care. that time spent studying is time wasted and earnings lost. As per respondent estimates, Thus, most children are engaged in work that only about 15% children in the 3-18 years age is hazardous in nature. Powerloom accidents group currently attend schools or Aanganwadi causing mild as well as serious injuries are a centers. Lack or minimal schooling is the common occurrence, with one respondent culturally accepted norm wherein even those sharing an incident of a child losing his finger parents who enrol their children into schools due to a powerloom accident in the past. believe that the purpose of education is served Several respondents and children complained once their children are able to read and write of lowered hearing capacity (even when outside basic words. of the community setting) due to continued exposure to high noise levels. Eye pain and We are so poor that we have to figure blurred vision are a frequent complaint due to out how to feed ourselves at least one the intricate patterns and prolonged eye-hand meal a day before we can think of coordination work involved in embroidery, anything else. What will my children sequins work, and weaving. Severe body pain, get after going to school? Just being particularly arm, leg, neck or back pain has able to read and write is not going been consistently reported by child labourers to give my sons an office job; they including loom and sari embellishment workers will continue to work in looms here. as well as ragpickers. SP, a 17 year old female My daughters have to eventually get ragpicker states, “Most days, I carry sacks married, do housework or work from filled with recyclable waste that weigh up to home. I’m glad I never sent any of them 20-25 kilos. I’m also always bending while to school. At least now they will have at work. I now have a constant back pain some occupational skills and can bring that refuses to go.” Respiratory problems in some money” respondent JB, 30 revealed through symptoms such as chest pain - yrs, an embroidery worker, a widow and and wheezing is also frequently encountered, mother to four girls and three boys, the particularly amongst ragpicker children. eldest of who is 14 years, when asked as to why her children have never been to Child earnings, particularly in the case of girls, school. are given entirely to parents. But teenaged boys are occasionally permitted by parents Within the Muslim population, about 25% have to keep a small portion of their wages for never been to school. Of the remaining 75% - personal expenses. In many cases though, roughly 60% enrol in Madrasas, 30% in private even boys who are expected to hand over schools and 10% in government schools. But their entire earnings keep aside a small amount dropout rates are extremely high in the lower for themselves on the sly. Normally, boys who primary level itself with a large majority dropping migrate to other cities too send home a large out in Grade II or III, and over 90% dropping out part of their earnings. by Grade V. Further, the attendance rates are extremely poor even amongst those registered in school, with some children attending school for as few as 20-30 days in one academic year.

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School-going rates amongst Hindus though, is the travel distance which includes crossing much higher than that amongst Muslims, with busy roads or railway tracks. Moreover, about 85% being enrolled in school. Of these, although government teachers are adequately roughly 70% are admitted into private schools qualified, they are assigned a number of non- and 30% into government schools. Drop-out teaching responsibilities such as managing rates for Hindu boys and girls first peak after the mid-day meals, election duty, census completion of Grade V, (with nearly all girls duty etc. that contributes to a poor focus on dropping out at this stage), and again after teaching activities. Most children attending completion of Grade VIII. Less than 3% children government schools lack basic reading, writing go on to complete secondary schooling. The and arithmetic skills, even post completion of foremost reasons for low school registration Grade V. and attendance are the need to earn (both girls and boys) and housework responsibilities (only Madrasas are preferred over government girls). schools by Muslim families not only so their children can obtain ‘deeni taleem’ (Islamic education), but also due to increased disciplining, more teaching activities, medium 70% of instruction, occasional distribution of 85% blankets or clothes, and easier access due have been to 15% school to presence within the community. Private 30% schools located within the community charge a monthly fee that ranges from Rs. 50 – Rs. 500 Never been to school and appoint poorly qualified teachers, some of Private school who have only completed primary schooling. Govt. school Yet, parents who are able to afford the fees School-going Hindu children prefer to send their children to private rather than government schools due to easy access, marginally better quality teaching, grade levels beyond class V, and improved infrastructural facilities. Many parents are however unwilling 75% 60% to pay fees beyond the lower primary grades, 25% have been to particularly in the case of girls. school 30% 10% The status of early childhood education and Aanganwadi functioning within the community Never been to school too is deplorable. Learning activities are sorely Madrasa missing with centers having no fixed schedule, Private school Govt. school seldom remaining open and rarely providing mid-day meals. Only one of the four centers School-going Muslim children within the community space remains open daily Parents rarely opt to send their children to during morning hours with at least one staff government schools. The key reasons for member. But here again, core Aanganwadi this are extremely poor teaching quality, activities are lacking or are irregular at best. teacher absenteeism, low quality mid-day Respondents state that only those who reside meals, poor infrastructural facilities such as in the immediate vicinity of the centers benefit mattresses instead of chairs and desks, and from its supplementary nutrition and health-

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S: Child is a victim of exploitative child labour and domestic abuse

E: Child has A: Basic food needs never been to remain unfulfilled. school, so she Several health issues can work from due to physical an early age and abuse and prolonged contribute to the working hours family income F: Abusive mother, deceased father. No close family or peer bonds. Restrictions on freedom resulting in minimal community interaction

A 14 yr old Sultankot girl SA’s inter-related experiences through the lens of the SAFE model: a pictorial interpretation of how insecurity in one dimension can affect all other dimensions care programmes, since Aanganwadi workers over the past two years become progressively do not visit homes that are at a distance from weaker and eventually bedridden due to the centers. Moreover, some have alleged that the family’s inability to afford the prescribed items provided to the centers for mid-day meals medication that costs over Rs. 500 a month. are sold in the black market to shopkeepers All other sisters and the mother are engaged and milkmen by Aanganwadi workers, on the in ‘tikli’ work i.e. the sticking of sequins on behest of their seniors who later collect this saris from 8am to 10pm, only taking breaks money from them. for meals or household work. Their combined wage adds up to about Rs. 1200 a month. Her SA, a 14 year old Muslim girl, residing in adult brother is a powerloom worker earning Dhamnagar Bargawa, is a victim of both child roughly Rs. 3000 a month, about half which labour and absence of any form of schooling. he keeps with himself for personal expenses. SA lives in extreme poverty along with her Despite all earnings being strictly used up in mother, five sisters and one brother. Her father food expenses, the family is often unable to expired a year ago due to a heart ailment while arrange for three basic meals a day, particularly one of the total of seven sisters is married and during periods of low market demand. During stays elsewhere. SA describes all her sisters as such times or during festive and religious malnourished with stunted growth, and two as days, other Muslim families within the mohalla disabled with twisted arms and legs. One of occasionally provide them with food and old the disabled sisters is in constant pain and has clothes. They are however, unable to access

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even small informal loans in times of extreme difference between brides and grooms is 5-10 need or purchase household items on credit as years with the brides always being younger. the community is aware that the family is not The average age of marriage for boys however in a financial position to be able to pay back is noted to be 20-23 years. With regard to borrowed money. In describing her plight, SA boys, marriage below 18 years is stated to take explains, “When I come across a newspaper place only in the case of elopement. The survey or magazine, I can only look at the pictures. further reveals that a number of child marriage I feel terrible because I cannot even identify cases amongst girls are also love marriage and a single alphabet. I have been wanting to go elopement cases wherein teenaged minor girls to school for a long time, but my mother just typically run away with adult men, a few of who won’t allow it. She won’t even allow me to are double their age or already married. step out of the house. I cannot share any of these feelings or problems with her because The culture of dowry demands persists in the we only discuss things related to work. Hindu community with it being one of the key From morning to night, I’m only working. I reasons for avoiding ‘delayed’ weddings as hate this tikli work because it’s boring and minor brides command lower dowry amounts. tiring. My eyes hurt and everything that’s The dowry amount varies vastly depending at a distance appears blurred. I get severe on family financial status and occupation of headaches almost every day. My back and the groom but on an average ranges from neck hurt from having to look down all the Rs. 40000 to 2 lakhs and also includes items time. But I have to continue working even such as scooter, bed, fan etc. Additionally, when I’m in pain. If I slow down, my mother wedding expenses to be taken on by the beats me with a stick or punches me on girl’s family usually cross Rs. 1 lakh. A male my face. I get beaten every single day. On survey respondent, AA, 40 years, shares, “If days when I’m badly hurt, she feels bad the marriage proposal is from a vegetable and sometimes gives me a balm to apply seller, his family will ask for a dowry of at night.” about Rs. 60,000. But for a groom who is on a permanent service contract, the amount Child marriage and post-marital teenage always runs into lakhs. For instance, my pregnancies neighbour’s daughter is over 18 years. They received a marriage proposal from a railway According to respondents, there has been a flagman who demanded Rs. 8 lakhs as decrease in the incidence of child marriages in dowry in addition to an elaborate wedding. the community over the past two decades. The Maybe if she was a minor, the amount would perceived ideal age of marriage for girls too has have been a bit lower.” Amongst both Hindu risen over the years from 11-14 years to 15- and Muslim families, poverty, following social 16 years. Many respondents were extremely norms, and the burden of keeping adolescent reluctant to discuss the issue of child marriage girls safe from sexual abuse were frequently due to its illegal status. But on building rapport quoted as reasons for marrying off daughters at and further probing, it was revealed that over a tender age. Once married, girls are expected 50% girls in the community continue to be to get pregnant within the first year irrespective married below age 18 years with most of these of their age at the time of marriage, in order girls belonging to the 15-17 years age group. to maintain social standing. As a result, while Respondents state that around age 12-14 pre-marital pregnancies are rare, post-marital years or soon after a girl attains puberty, the teenage pregnancies are extremely common search for a groom begins. The typical age

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Bride-selling they realised that she’s unable to do it well, she was tortured and beaten up regularly. During the survey, a few unfortunate cases of Then hardly two months after the wedding, bride-selling have come to the fore. ‘Dalals’ her husband did the unthinkable. He forced or agents from within the community seek her to sleep with two other men. She ran out potential young teenaged brides from no- away and came back home but her mother parent, single-parent or many-daughter families refused to believe her story. Even though or those living in extreme poverty, for grooms she cried and pleaded when her husband who hail from other states such as Haryana, arrived to take her back, her mother forced Rajasthan, Bihar and Delhi. Sometimes, the her to go along with him. As soon as she grooms are widowers, divorcees or much older was back in Itawa, the situation repeated middle-aged men. Depending on factors such itself until one day she saw her husband as financial condition, beauty, and age of the accepting Rs. 50000 from someone. Afraid potential bride, a marriage deal is brokered by that she would be sold off, she ran away the agent with the girl’s parents or guardians. and returned to her mother’s house once Such a deal typically includes a payment that again. This time, her mother believed her ranges between Rs. 15000 to 50000 to the girl’s and did not send her back.” ASC reveals guardians in addition to the groom taking on all that 10-12 such weddings take place every expenses related to the wedding. The agent year within the community where brides are himself receives a pre-determined commission surreptitiously ‘sold off’ by their own parents, for each marriage deal finalised. The impending often with the understanding that they will never marriage is only announced in the community see or contact her again. Deep poverty and about 2-3 days before the wedding day. To keep unaffordable wedding expenses along with the it as secretive as possible, the wedding itself perceived social burden of having unmarried is held in a temple or village several kilometres daughters of ‘marriageable age’, are the key away and is always a low-key affair with very reasons that parents are willing to marry off their few invitees. Once married, the girls are taken daughters to unsuitable or unreliable grooms in away and are often ill-treated, beaten up, and exchange for money. used as housemaids, work slaves or sex slaves in their marital homes; they are also normally Gambling, substance use and street violence prevented from keeping any contact with their amongst boys premarital families. In a few rare cases, the girls are resold and such brokered marriages are in There are several secluded ‘addas’ or meeting reality a facade for sex trafficking. spots within the community where boys (or men) gather at various times during the day or A female respondent, ASC, 32 years, from night to gamble and abuse substances. Boys Dhamnagar Bargawa, in sharing the story usually gather together whenever they are of a girl from a poor single-parent (no father) free from work activities, during late evenings, household within her own mohalla states, “A or when there is an electricity cut. Gambling 15 year old girl was married off to a boy from usually takes place with playing cards, while Itawa, Rajasthan in exchange of Rs. 20,000. the substances that are easily accessed and The wedding took place in another village used by the community boys include alcohol, about 8-10 kms away. It was a very simple beedi, cigarettes, and non-synthetic drugs wedding with only 25 people in attendance. such as cannabis (‘ganja’, ‘charas’, ‘bhang’) After the girl went to Itawa, she was made and opium (‘afeem’). Respondents state that to do hard labour in agricultural fields. When about 30% earning boys in the 12-17 years

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age group indulge in these activities. Tobacco vi. Experiences of children and families consumption in the form of ‘gutkha’, ‘surti’ or in the community ‘paan’ however, is extremely common (over (SAFE Tool 1 - *For detailed quantitative data, 60%) amongst boys over age 8 years, as most please refer to Appendix 5A) boys start chewing tobacco soon after they begin working. Cannabis and opium abuse The Sultankot SAFE results reveal the daily amongst teenagers, on the other hand, is experiences and struggles faced by poverty relatively low at less than 10%. Gambling and stricken children and families within the substance abuse amongst girls is practically community, along with the coping strategies non-existent though a small number of girls typically used by them during times of crisis were stated to occasionally consume gutkha or extreme scarcity. Most of these adaptive or paan. strategies used by the residents, however, are harmful and damaging in the long-term rather A majority of children (over 60%, mainly boys) than life-improving, as is evident from the either witness or become victim to assaults/ response data.Poor access to affordable and physical violence on the community streets at quality health care is one of the most prominent some point during their childhood. Violence, and debilitating concerns affecting entire when it does occur amongst boys are usually families in Sultankot. In times of need, residents unplanned and does not involve the use of typically visit the local private health clinics that weapons, other than those which are readily are run by unqualified or formally untrained available in the immediate vicinity such as doctors, due to their low consultation fees (Rs. sticks, stones, bricks etc. Respondents state 20-30) and easy access within the community. that most boys are too busy working to be Often, families also rely on home remedies, or able to find the time to form gangs or plan self-medicate by purchasing over-the counter out attacks. However, fights between peers drugs on the advice of store pharmacists or minor assaults are common, and are often for illnesses such as malaria, diarrhoea, flu, triggered by petty issues or incidents. A 16 bronchitis etc. In cases of severe illness, year old boy, RF, narrates an incident that took medical complications or where hospitalization place two months before the survey interview, is required, residents prefer to approach private “I was walking down the lane minding my rather than government hospitals, if they are own business when I accidently brushed able to afford or else arrange for the treatment against a boy’s parked cycle. The boy costs via loans or the selling of assets. who owned the cycle was standing nearby along with four of his friends. All five of There are several reasons as to why ‘free them began beating me up mercilessly. One services’ at government hospitals are boy punched me on my mouth so hard that considered the last resort even by the extreme the impact split my lips.” Hazardous labour poor in Sultankot. Firstly, as expressed by and extreme working hours combined with the respondents, the attitude of the staff and unhealthy home environments, often lead to the medical services offered at government high frustration levels, low anger thresholds and hospitals are deplorable, with the health of the seeking out of substances to alleviate stress. some patients being worse off post-treatment. Secondly, treatment costs are high and unpredictable due to the numerous bribes that the staff at various levels, from the hospital pharmacist and peons to the nurses and doctors, demand at various stages of treatment.

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For instance, respondents have shared Those suffering from long-term diseases such experiences of being told mid-hospitalization as tuberculosis, heart problems and high blood to pay up huge bribe amounts, or else be pressure are the ones most affected; nearly provided inferior or potentially damaging all such patients living in the community either medical services. The prescribed medication completely avoid or repeatedly skip medication and medical tests too, are often unavailable at during times of economic scarcity. As a result, the government hospitals, requiring patients death rates are relatively high amongst both to spend their own money to purchase these children and young/ middle-aged adults. As medicines or services externally, further raising per respondents, the common causes of death the treatment costs. Thirdly, seeking treatment in adults include tuberculosis, asthma, heart at government hospitals is time-consuming. and liver problems. Child deaths, on the other The nearest government hospital is over 3 kms hand, are often times stated to occur due to away, thus extending travel time in addition to unexplained causes such as after exhibiting increasing transport costs. Moreover, waiting symptoms of severe headache, stomach-ache, time and queues such as at the OPD and breathlessness or high fever. Child deaths were medical pharmacy are lengthy, thereby often also stated to be particularly common within the compelling patients and accompanying family first year after birth due to diarrhoea or sudden members to skip the day’s work. A combination unexplained causes. Along with hazardous of the above three factors prevents children labour-related health problems, common and their families from availing government health complaints amongst children include hospital services. flu, malaria, cholera and pneumonia. Child malnutrition too is extremely common and a “I have gone to the government hospital highly visible condition across the community. twice but I won’t go there or take my children there anymore. The staff is Immunization programs within the community condescending and they speak rudely; have been largely unsuccessful despite repeated they want to make you feel small just interventions by both Government and NGO because you’re poor and have no other workers. Nearly 35% of the child population treatment choice. The last I had been is estimated to have received no vaccinations, there was for the woman sterilization while only about 20% is believed to have (‘nasbandi’) operation. Every single received full immunization. A number of reasons staff who I interacted with asked for a have contributed to this lukewarm response bribe. Even the hospital compounder to immunization programs. The foremost told me to pay up Rs. 100 as bribe for reasons are the lack of general immunization the post-operative medication. When I awareness and the lack of trust in government- told him that I have no money left, he run health programs, resulting in the creation told me that that’s not his problem. He of myths and fear associated with the vaccines said arrange for the money and take provided. For instance, some Muslim parents the medication or bear up with the continue to believe that polio drops can cause pain and complications.” – S, f, 40 yrs, impotency, and is in reality, a devious method mother to five girls and three boys to control the Muslim population. Some fear that the vaccinations (particularly the BCG Due to poor finances, parents are frequently vaccine that is frequently followed by fever) can unable to purchase the required medication, cause illness, disability, or death. As shared by consequently delaying treatment until the a respondent Aanganwadi worker, K, Hindu, illness is fatal or too severe to be ignored. 36 years, “Parents, especially Muslim

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Immunisation rates within the community parents, lie to prevent their children from their baby’s health at risk. being vaccinated. When we go knocking door-to-door, they say that their children Survey respondents reveal that a majority i.e. are unwell. Some even hide their children over 50% women opt to deliver babies within inside toilets and cupboards. That is the their own homes through the services of a ‘dai’ level of their fear! We try to explain the real (traditional midwife). The key reasons for this purpose, but I don’t know why, we haven’t high rate of non-institutional deliveries are the yet been able to convince them all.” Some familiarity with the dai, the comfort of home respondents complain that families are unable and the relatively lower costs involved in such a to visit Aanganwadis as these have no fixed delivery. Hospitals are usually accessed only in dates or daily schedule for remaining open, the event of complications or on the suggestion and neither do Aanganwadi workers visit their of the dai during labor. Nevertheless, several homes, except in a few cases for administering instances of non-institutional delivery-related polio drops. Aanganwadi workers on the other deaths of both mother and baby were reported. hand, state that it is not possible for one or two Each mohalla has 3-5 unqualified midwives, workers to visit each one of the hundreds of although a few are stated to have undergone households that fall within their jurisdiction. trainings through NGOs. The fees charged by midwives are different for girls and boys Pregnant women too are wary of medicines born. Depending on the economic status of and services provided by the government. households, the fees for a girl child born varies Many women discard the free iron and vitamin between Rs. 500 -1200, whereas that for a boy tablets provided by Aanganwadi workers for child varies between Rs. 2000 – 3500. In the fear that they are of low quality and will make case of a boy child, one is also expected to them ill or cause harm to the foetus. This is gift the midwife with new clothes and a box of particularly harmful for the community women sweets. as many are likely to be anaemic and deficient in vitamins due to multiple child births and short Contraceptive usage in the community is time gaps between pregnancies. Possibly as extremely low but after five-seven children a direct result of this, many babies born in or once they consider their families to be Sultankot are stated to be of low birth weight. complete, a few families opt for the female Additionally, women in Sultankot rarely access sterilization operation. In the case of unwanted pre or post-partum care due to work pressures pregnancies, abortions are typically done and lack of time, putting their own as well as through the use of pills obtained from medical

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pharmacies (often without a prescription) married women face oppression and torture or else through the services of a dai. When within their marital homes. As per respondent questioned about female foeticide, however, estimates, nearly 30% households in the most respondents denied that this is widely community face severe forms of domestic practiced in the community, though all were violence that goes beyond restrictive freedom, aware that such a practice exists and is illegal verbal assaults and mild physical abuse. Respondents blame a large part of this violence “Female foeticide is a practice of the on excessive alcohol use by male family rich, of the ones who live in buildings members such as husbands, fathers, brothers, and bungalows. Where do poor people uncles etc. Drug or alcohol induced violence like us have the money? To know the is stated to be particularly prominent amongst sex of the foetus, one would have to the SC Hindu and ragpicker communities. shell out at least Rs. 3000-4000. Most Forced sex within marriages also appears to of the people here don’t have that kind be a relatively common feature with 10% of the of money. I have heard of hardly two female survey respondents admitting to being or three families here who have utilised victims of marital rape. this option. For the rest of us, we just pray each time that the baby is a boy.” – Female respondent N, 29 yrs, from Naginaghat

Violence is widespread within community homes that often double up as work places. Besides unprovoked alcohol inebriated thrashings by adult male family members, a significant proportion of the violence that is aimed towards children relates to work and money matters. In an urge to increase work productivity and thereby earnings generated, working children are often beaten up, threatened or verbally berated if they slow down or commit even minor errors. Thus, child physical and verbal abuse by both parents and employers is extremely common. A few children, particularly boys, walk out of homes in the midst or post a violent episode, although they normally return back within a few hours. But in cases where violence is extreme or where household circumstances are intolerable, children have left home for days together, spending nights at the railway station or with peers. As per respondent data, however, while there have been instances of children running away from home to never return back, such instances are extremely rare. Several minor girls in child marriages and

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“I was married off at the age of 17 “I am very scared of my husband. He years. I don’t know my husband’s age is an alcohol addict. After drinking, but he is much older than me and has a he beats the children and me nearly fifteen year old daughter from his first every other day. He’s very suspicious marriage. My husband is not a good by nature. Even after giving him four person – he drinks, beats, is abusive, children, he still doesn’t trust me, nor doesn’t go to work regularly, and is does he care about the children or always into one extramarital affair after their needs. He keeps me as a prisoner another. Most of our fights are due in my own home. He doesn’t let me to this. His first wife had also left him step out of the house, not even during because of all this. She had abandoned Eid. He doesn’t let me interact with the daughter too. But I stay on with him the neighbours or admit the children for the sake of our two children and into school. He has chosen to work at honestly because I have no choice. a loom nearby so he can check in on Once, he banged my head on the wall me every few hours just to make sure so hard that my entire face got swollen. that I’m following his orders. At times, Along with his mother, he tortures me I feel that the only way to get out of a lot mentally. They always taunt and this predicament is to kill myself.” - belittle me. Even though I work long SK, 24yrs, married at age 15 years and hours and earn more money than him, a domestic abuse victim, explaining her I was not given money to take our child plight and the reason for requesting the to the doctor when he fell severely ill researcher (male) to speed up the survey last week. But he won’t think twice interview held in her house before spending on himself or his other women. Despite his relations with other In addition to domestic violence and abuse, the women, he still forces himself on me at problem of disrupted family structures is also nights. It doesn’t matter to him that I’m evident within Sultankot. Parental abandonment in pain when he does this. If I protest, as a result of adulterous relationships and he says what’s the point of marrying multiple marriages are fairly common, as are you if you won’t even do this.” - FK, early deaths amongst middle-aged adults 26yrs; living in Dhamnagar Bargawa since due to prolonged or acute illnesses; this has birth, married as a minor and is a victim of resulted in a number of single or no-parent domestic abuse households within the community. Further, due to occupational and financial pressures, constructive parental input or guidance is reduced to a bare minimum. As a result, most existing parent-child relationships within the community are weak and lacking in emotional support, with interactions often restricted to work and practical matters.

Sexual harassment by boys and men on the community streets is stated to be relatively lower than that encountered outside the community, on the city streets. A few cases of rape and gangrape have been reported,

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but respondents claim that these are few businesses. Over 90% respondents admitted and far between. Though most respondents to facing periods of extreme shortage wherein either denied or were hesitant to discuss all money earned was spent solely on food; inappropriate touch and sexual violence within 70% admitted to having experienced such a homes, a few asserted that incidents of sexual situation multiple times. As a result, households molestation and incestuous sexual violence by are rarely able to save money for emergencies fathers, uncles, cousins, neighbours etc. are or future expenses, even though some attempt widespread, albeit hidden. They additionally to do so prior to major events such as festivals stated that even where adult family members or weddings of daughters. During times of of child victims are in the know, such incidents illness or scarcity, when drastically reducing are usually hushed up and police cases are expenditure too becomes ineffective, residents not registered so as to maintain the family periodically borrow money from relatives, dignity and prevent social ostracization. friends, employers, moneylenders or MFIs, Some respondents, including the mother leading several families to be in perpetual debt. of a disabled child, further spoke about the relentless harassment of disabled children in the form of name-calling, verbal and physical intimidation. This, they believe, has prompted many disabled children into staying indoors in order to avoid the incessant humiliation.

The following section reveals specific survival strategies utilised by respondent households in combating day-to-day challenges.

vii. Adaptive strategies used to cope No. of respondents who decided not to spend money with various difficulties and obstacles on any items other than food or water (SAFE Tool 2 - *For detailed quantitative data, Money borrowed from individuals are usually please refer to Appendix 5B) small amounts ranging from Rs. 50 – 1000. For amounts of Rs. 15,000 – 30,000, MFIs Living in penury: expenditure and dietary that charge a low interest rate of about 2% coping strategies along with a weekly loan recovery schedule Cutting of household expenses and food are usually approached. For larger amounts, intake is a regular feature of most Sultankot residents normally have no option but to seek households as is evident from the Tool 2 out either moneylenders at high interest rates or survey data. The foremost reasons for massive multiple MFIs. Selling of gold and other assets cost-cutting includes serious illness in family, e.g., bicycle; as well as mortgage loans against or death of an earning family member. Other gold, property etc. are common. Occasionally, reasons include increasing family sizes with when the opportunity arises, people also more mouths to feed (average of about 6-8 participate in political rallies and programs in children in each household) and increased exchange for money and/or food. periods of poverty during phases of low market demand for saris or other small-scale Respondents claim that taking informal loans

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from individual moneylenders is risky, as there “I’m scared of taking an MFI loan have been cases where moneylenders have because I’ve seen what happens to changed the terms under which such loans those who are unable to repay their are taken mid-way, at times even raising the loans. The torture and humiliation interest rates. Moreover, if unable to pay on is just too much! There are so many time, household members including women frightening incidents taking place. and children are often harassed and beaten; One of the most recent is of a 24 and family-owned property or assets are year old woman who has taken loans sometimes forcefully taken away. Despite altogether running into lakhs of rupees this, when in need such as during emergency from a total of 8 MFIs. For the past two medical situations or for wedding expenses, months since she started defaulting, when large amounts of money such as over Rs. people have been saying horrible 50,000 are urgently required, many families feel things about her, and have made her forced to approach moneylenders rather than life a living hell to the point that she MFIs or banks. MFIs do not provide large loan stopped stepping out of her house. amounts. Banks, on the other hand, require But last week, she was hunted down specific documents that most community by a group of about 25 women from her residents do not possess, as well as several MFI groups, and their family members. other criteria fulfilled in order to process loans. They ransacked her house, threw out her furniture, then dragged her out of Survey responses reveal that microfinance the house onto a ground nearby where loans are frequently obtained by providing false they verbally threatened and abused information regarding its future use. Though the her, and then beat her up. Her three stated need is typically a small-scale business young children, all below 8 years old investment (e.g. setting up a golgappa cart), just looked on helplessly. She was most households utilize such loans for basic pleading with them saying that her household and medical expenses. For this husband has abandoned her and run reason, MFIs are stated to be popular in every away with the money, but the people mohalla within the community. Women group didn’t care what her reason was. You sizes often exceed twenty members but can’t really blame them. Everyone here respondents state that MFI representatives is struggling to pay back their own within the community choose to ignore loan. They just don’t have the means to these and other discrepancies so as to meet pay up other people’s loans too. But if numbers or make larger profits. Consequently, they don’t and the entire group amount defaulters are common with nearly every is not repaid, then even those who group having at least one or two women who have been sincerely repaying their own are unable to pay up the weekly instalments, share are not given loans in the future. thereby inconveniencing the remaining group So its natural to feel angry. Even though members each of who are then forced to pay I’ve taken as well as repaid such loans up a portion of the defaulter’s share as well. twice, I want to avoid taking another Defaulting women, many of who take loans loan as far as possible because I think on the insistence of their husbands, are often what if one day even I am unable to tracked down and tormented by the remaining repay and am humiliated in a similar group members. manner? – Female respondent MD, 26 yrs

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Owing to difficult circumstances (and excluding mother to three children below age six years religious reasons), 25 of the 30 respondents and wife to an alcoholic unemployed husband, have eaten less than three meals a day either shares, “As it is, we only eat one meal a day. once or several times over, while 16 have spent I don’t sit still for a single moment. Any time entire days without eating. Nearly all households I get beyond housework and child-rearing purchase raw materials that are low in quality as is spent on doing embroidery. Despite this, if I’m unable to complete one entire sari by the third day for which I get paid around Rs. 100, it’s quite likely that my family will have to go without food that day.”

Of the few households that possess ration and BPL cards, many are unable to avail the government PDS provisions due to high levels of corruption at these stores within the community. The ration shops are kept open for the selling of subsidized items only one- three days a month. When sold, the quantities provided are usually lower than standard household eligibility, and the price is often slightly Respondents who decreased the number of meals higher than government rates. Moreover, with eaten each day the commodities being provided only on select days, queues are extremely lengthy resulting in several hours of waiting time. In spite of these problems, most eligible households continue to queue up outside PDS shops in the hope of trimming down household expenditure.

Generational trends: Strategies revolving around occupational/ educational and dangerous/ illegal activities

The survey data shows that nearly all respondents were child labourers themselves, similar to the present scenario. Significant differences, however lie in the age of work Respondents who spent an entire day without eating initiation and the extent of parental pressure put on children to earn money. While parents well as price. Moreover, in some households, began earning around the age of 11-14 when provisions are scarce, mothers and years, their children are currently expected daughters consume lower quantity or inferior to augment the family income from an even quality food, so others can eat better. Most younger age, occasionally as young as 6-8 respondents emphasized that requests for food years. Respondents share that about two or meals were made only when in dire need; decades ago, children below eleven years these requests were usually directed only to were rarely pressured by parents to bring in relatives and in rare cases, neighbours or close earnings. When young children did engage in friends. A female respondent, A, 21 years,

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work for short time periods, it was largely for “These women are very poor. They the purpose of skill-building rather than income choose to indulge in this shameful generation. An older male respondent, MM, activity (sex work) only so they can 50 years, reminisces, “In our time, young feed their children. It’s all very hidden. boys would be seen laughing and playing No woman will own up to it. But it does carefree in groups all around on the streets. take place. Two-three different men But that’s a thing of the past! Nowadays, from outside the community are seen even eight year old children are beaten up entering these women’s homes daily. by their parents and sent to work for long Soon after they enter, the children are hours.” sent out. The men stay inside for about an hour or so before they quietly leave. Parents too (26 of 30 respondents) have When we casually ask these women adapted to increased poverty by expanding as to who these men are, they say that their workload and extending the number they are distant relatives. But we know of hours worked in order to procure larger better.” – Female respondent AB, 35 yrs incomes. Viewed as a positive survival strategy, it however also results in a majority of parents “The media and certain people have having little or no time to constructively been trying to twist these instances of engage with their children, leaving children sex work into a religious, communal both physically unsupervised and emotionally issue, by saying that its women who unsupported. Moreover, in cases of acute are from weaver families that are economic crisis, starkly negative adaptive involved. But the truth is that its not strategies are frequently encountered. A just the Muslims. I know of some Hindu particularly unsettling phenomenon is the women too who engage in sex work emergence of undercover sex work as a form here.” – Male respondent AA, 40 yrs of livelihood amongst adult women. These are stated to be mainly practiced by deserted or A larger number of children are being admitted widowed women aged 20-40 years who have into Grade I by parents in the current generation no financial or social support, and a number as compared to the previous one, even though of children to feed. The few respondents who most drop out in the initial grades itself. Over 55% were open to discussing this issue believe that parent respondents have never been to school, the sex work is self-promoted, with no pimps while the Tool 1 data shows that the current or agents involved. They further estimate an estimate of never been to school children is earning of Rs. 100-200 per session, which about 25%, thereby revealing an improvement eventually amounts to higher earnings than that in school enrolment. Though exceptions exist, obtained through other occupations typically higher education is an extreme rarity in the practiced within the community. parent generation and continues to be so in the present date. A majority of parents, including some of those who have attended school, are unable to read or write, although some have learnt to write their name for signatures. Many children who are currently going to school or completed Grade V too, are barely able to read or write basic sentences due to poor quality teaching. However, overall literacy rates in the community can still be stated to have improved

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over the past few decades. possibly due to a lowering of the earning age which gives children earlier access to money. Respondents largely denied their hand in Overall, it appears that trends in child labour illegal activities. One male respondent, G, 43 and illegal activities have worsened, while years, who has been residing in the community education has been on a slight upward growth. since birth, admitted to murdering a man at the age of 38 years along with two other “In struggling mohallas such as ours, there’s accomplices. He however, refused to divulge no such thing as true friendship or genuine the motive for the murder or other details, favours” – KK, m, 50yrs: A dearth of positive but shared that he had spent a total of four community-based and self-healing strategies months in jail. A few respondents shared that With most of their waking time spent on income in times of desperation, they have stolen food, generation or household responsibilities, household items or small amounts of money respondents stated that they rarely found the from the neighbouring houses and shops, or time or energy to reflect on their own lives from domestic maid employers. For instance, or care for themselves. During particularly a female respondent whose daughter was stressful periods such as prolonged illness, very ill admitted to stealing salt packets from domestic torture, or increased poverty; a few respondents admitted to contemplating suicide. Some others stated that they turn towards prayer or increase the number of visits made to places of worship such as mosques or temples. A few male respondents shared that gathering together in groups post work

NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE

No of respondents who have stolen food, property, or other items just to make do NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE a neighbourhood shop which she later sold Respondents who increased time spent with off to another shop at a lower cost so asto others as a self-healing strategy be able to pay for her daughter’s medicines. Additionally, in terms of illegal activities, a few men are known to gamble and consume illegal substances such as cannabis or opium products. Similar to adults, children too are noted to engage in gambling and substance abuse, as well as the occasional unplanned minor thefts. Respondents however specify that gambling and substance abuse are NEVER ONCE MORE THAN ONCE beginning to occur at a younger age and at a Respondents who increased time spent in higher intensity than in previous generations, isolation as a self-healing strategy

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hours, drinking alcohol, listening to music, and the researcher observed that neighbours and dancing during festivals often helped them other community people repeatedly barged to mentally de-stress. Women, on the other in uninvited, demanding to know the purpose hand, felt that their only option when stressed and content of the ongoing conversations or depressed was to sit in isolation, due to particularly in the case of male researcher - the numerous restrictions on movement and female respondent interviews. socializing imposed on them. Overall, both men and women preferred to isolate themselves In addition to such inquisitiveness combined rather than reach out to others during times with a general sense of caution and of difficulty. Most residents, especially women guardedness, interpersonal relations within the were unaware of the presence of social service community set-up are often inconsistent and organizations or their specific purpose within undependable. Most mothers prefer to leave Sultankot, with the result that most parents their young children unattended or in the care and their children rarely access or receive NGO of elder siblings, rather than request neighbours services. In terms of self-care, the responses or other community members for help if such a show that lowered hygiene practice (such as need arises. As a result, in certain households the occasional skipping of soaps or detergents) where caregiver help of close relatives is not and poor health maintenance are primarily an option, siblings below ten years have been a consequence of low economic resources left unattended without adult supervision for rather than an absence of awareness. days at a stretch, by parents who have had to leave on short notice for reasons such In Sultankot, there are several elements that as medical emergencies or family conflicts. contribute to reduced community cohesion, Religious festivals hold high relevance within which in turn prevent the emergence of the community mohallas and are frequently supportive community-based strategies. In the celebrated together in neighbourhood groups. rare instances that residents discuss family and However, Hindu residents do not contribute household-related problems with others; these or partake in Muslim festivals and vice versa. are often restricted to close relatives rather For instance, money contributions which are than neighbours or community members, pooled in to build the tazia during Muharram and usually centre around economic rather are collected only from Muslim households. than emotional concerns. The key reason Additionally, women and girls from several for this is the fear of feeding gossip as word households are not permitted to join in on easily gets around within the community. A certain community gatherings or festivities, number of respondents shared that they had thereby denying them opportunities to interact been brought up to understand that family with other community members. Further, all 30 problems are to stay within the four walls of respondents stated that even if a household the house so as to protect the family name. is impoverished and penniless, any monetary Issues such as domestic violence, child help including small amounts taken by the negligence and sexual abuse are considered impoverished family from other community to be strictly personal household affairs that members is expected to be duly returned within outsiders are not to interfere with, no matter a reasonable time period. If they are unable how appalling a household situation may be. In to pay back on time, any future requests for contrast, community members can be overtly borrowing money are likely to be shot down. intrusive and overbearing in certain other For these reasons, most respondents consider circumstances. For instance, when conducting the community at large to be unhelpful and survey interviews within respondent homes, unsupportive.

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On the whole, Sultankot residents typically The SAFE analysis reveal that the child utilize short-term survival strategies that help protection issues within Sultankot are severe them get by on a day-to-day basis, even though and deeply rooted, requiring persistent these may prove to be detrimental in the long interventions in order to bring about gradual term. Due to high levels of deprivation in the changes towards ensuring child rights. In such community combined with large family sizes, a scenario, the community is most likely to exploitation begins at an early age through benefit from child-based social projects that widespread child labour and the absence of are long-standing, have no political or religious schooling. Traditional and other occupational motivations, encourage community harmony skills learnt early on often serve as a trap and participation, and that are willing to blend rather than a gateway to a better future, as in and work within the rich social fabric of the some children tend to internalize that they community. are incapable of more advanced occupational pursuits. In the absence of aspirations, role models and an inherently supportive environment, children often suffer the most as they grow up without hope or guidance.

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CONCLUSION THE BIG PICTURE

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The research findings reveal the presence Life in an urban slum: Low access of unique slum colonies, each with its own to services, in high demand for distinctive socio-economic culture, in-built exploitation resources, norms, communal practices, religious and moral boundaries. Through an Due to the secluded nature of certain slum in-depth analysis of the survey data inclusive settlements, distance is sometimes a major of both quantitative and qualitative information, constraint to accessing vital services as this study has enumerated the numerous day- it involves significant transport and time to-day struggles and vulnerabilities embodied costs. The survey analysis however reveals by children and their families in five sprawling that mere physical proximity to essential slum locales set in major cities across five affordable services also does not necessitate different states. It has covered issues as access. A common misperception is that it diverse as demographic divisions, sanitation is the prerogative of slum residents to claim facilities, parental abuse, forms of child labour, the services that have been made physically drug use patterns, modus operandi in the sale accessible and economically viable to them. of child brides, intergenerational occupational This includes for instance, free basic health-care trends, household expenditure strategies, and and pre-school activities at Anganwadi centres, differing levels of community cohesiveness. free primary education at government schools, Based on daily experiences and an exhaustive subsidized or free treatment at government evaluation of the various adaptive mechanisms hospitals, subsidized food distribution through embraced by the urban poor, the study PDS, numerous government cash transfer further illuminates the complex dynamics and schemes etc. However, this view fails to take interlinked web of factors that lead to choices into account the level of awareness required made and consequences faced by those living not only regarding the benefits, but also the an urban impoverished life. Illustrative and procedures and resources involved to avail emotive quotes of respondent slum dwellers such facilities. It completely disregards the presented within each of the location analysis existing dismal quality of such services, based additionally reflect the perceived injustices, in part on the miniscule government funding fear, discriminatory practices, and atrocities allotted. More importantly, it fails to recognize borne by the urban poor, merely by virtue of that disadvantaged people often lack a sense of their disadvantaged socio-economic status entitlement that is a prerequisite for demanding and chosen site of dwelling equal and quality services from establishments

usually considered to be a privilege of the more The current chapter focuses on the overall key affluent. Added to this, the weak accountability themes and strategies emerging from the data mechanisms, patronage in the distribution of analysis presented in the previous location- services, and the endemic corruption existent specific chapters. Based on this overall analysis within each of these government provisions that is presented below, the next final chapter further distances the urban poor from their then outlines the potential guidelines and entitlements. solutions aimed at alleviating child vulnerability amongst the urban poor. The urban poor are forever fighting a losing battle. Regardless of the discrimination meted out to them due to their low socio- economic status, slum residents - including both adults and children, are sought after

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for their willingness to provide cheap and in India. undocumented labour. Low paid domestic maid work, for instance, is a predominantly Furthermore, disadvantaged living conditions urban manifestation originating from the city’s such as inferior household infrastructure, slums, where an increasing number of young overcrowding, open defecation, unsafe girls are being routinely subjected to overwork drinking water, poor drainage facilities etc. and abuse by employers. Increasing poverty are also found to be common across slum and rapidly rising living costs typically give rise communities. These have a direct impact to an excess supply of labour in the informal on the health and well-being of the urban sector, which in turn results in a relative poor child. Of added concern are frequently lowering of wages. This creates a dangerous emerging inter-relational factors such as loop that sets the stage for a life of servitude weak parent-child bonds; intra-slum division and exploitation by the better off. practices or social hierarchy based on religion, caste, gender, language, and occupation; and the conspicuous presence of young male cliques that are prone towards illegal or violent Child vulnerabilities across urban activities. Lastly, an overall lowered level of slums: similarities, differences, trends, ambition amongst children, disillusionment patterns and spillovers with rights-based government provisions, fear arising from the constant threat of eviction, loss The experience of urban poverty is noted to of faith in a corrupt law and order system, and vary significantly from one slum neighbourhood an overriding sense of futility, are starkly evident to another. Identifying the intrinsic influences, in responses obtained across the surveyed barriers, and bottlenecks specific to each slum slums. Not surprisingly then, the presence of settlement, as has been done in this study, is these numerous and near-universal urban poor essential for designing targeted solutions and insecurities leave an indelible scar on young community-based programmes. Yet, though minds, often lasting through an entire lifetime. the surrounding factors and circumstances may differ vastly, certain broad categories of On the other hand, a number of child-focus child protection vulnerabilities are noted to issues such as drug peddling, severe forms persist across all the urban slums under study. of peer gang violence, robbery, early unsafe These include early school drop-out, child sexual activities, bride-selling, commercial labour, girl child marriage, prolific substance sex work etc., are found to be inconsistent in use by boys, and domestic violence. Minor their appearance within slum neighbourhoods. girls across communities are also noted to This implies that several of the vulnerability enter into a demanding routine of child-care factors confronted within slums are influenced and housework early on, often becoming and maintained by elements beyond simple full-time housekeepers at a very young age. urban poverty. Moreover, even when similar The pervasive manifestation of a few select vulnerabilities exist across slums, the details child susceptibilities across slums that are usually differ in terms of form, intensity and geographically, demographically, and culturally motivating factors. An example is substance varied, provides a strong indication that these use that is prevalent in all five surveyed slums. are the critical vulnerabilities most strongly However, dependent on location, this factor influenced by the mere precondition of a child varies immensely with regard to types of being raised within a poor urban neighbourhood substances abused; ease of access; age, quantity, frequency and purpose of usage. The

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existing community composition, traditions extreme working hours, and a higher financial and accepted socio-cultural practices clearly burden on children residing in impoverished have a significant role to play. For instance, the urban slums. These combine to produce high presence of an influential local don or several levels of stress and frustration that children powerful mafia gangs operating from within the find increasingly difficult to contain at sucha community, is noted to sharply raise the number tender age. In the absence of appropriate of violent child and youth peer gangs, the use guidance, healthy recreational spaces, or other of weapons and indulgence in other illegal constructive opportunities, the outcome is an activities by resident boys. An individualized and increasing number of children with low anger nuanced approach to identifying slum-specific thresholds who lean towards easily accessible child vulnerability influencers and maintenance short-term measures such as gambling and factors is therefore vital when planning or substance abuse to alleviate stress. developing appropriate interventions. Keeping with the SAFE model of child A review of the generational trends across protection, vulnerabilities across all surveyed locations reveals a gradual positive movement locations typically appear in the form of over the past few decades in the areas of interconnected and interdependent patterns. child education and marriage. Overall patterns Common patterns for instance include, depict an increase in the level of educational erratic employment – diminishing household attainment amongst the current school- income – parental alcoholism – domestic age children; and an increase in the parental violence; household consumption constraints preferred age of marriage for daughters, which – boys dropping out of school – hazardous appears to have shifted from the early teens child labour – substance abuse; increased to the mid-late teens. A mixed trend in child household responsibilities – girls dropping labour is noted wherein the situation has out of school – girl child marriage – domestic variously improved, plateaued or deteriorated violence – post-marital teenage pregnancy over the years, depending on the specific slum – weakness and other health complications. location under study. Despite the differing trend Therefore, at any given point in time, many slum patterns however, child labour is rampant and households experience multiple interlinked continues to be a prominent child rights issue vulnerability factors, forcing families to lead a across slums. Moreover, due to heightened highly precarious existence devoid of livelihood vigilance in recent years, the employment security or dignity. of children is now better concealed by both employers and parents. Further, the results of the study clearly demonstrate that the presence of child A particularly worrisome trend is observed in vulnerabilities in any one of the four core SAFE the sphere of dangerous and illegal activities domains substantially increases the subsequent within slum settlements. An increased and possibility of vulnerabilities creeping into the more intense indulgence in substance abuse, remaining domains. In other words, insecurity gambling, and violent activities, along with a in one dimension typically impacts other SAFE corresponding decrease in the age of initiation, dimensions, either directly or indirectly. This is evident amongst the present-day children, spillover often transpires because existing as compared to the childhood scenario of the untoward circumstances sets into motion a parent generation. This can be attributed to the series of risky survival strategies. For instance, elevated levels of urban inequality, worsening parental neglect and domestic violence in a living conditions, lowered communal support, dysfunctional family e.g. violent alcoholic father,

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abusive mother involved in an extra-marital affair to gain power and control in the midst of (primary vulnerability in the family dimension - a volatile environment, several hundreds F) can impel children to seek solace in alluring of gangs routinely spring up in slum areas. and power-wielding peer groups that engage in These are made up either partially or entirely early sexual experimentation, drugs, and other of minor boys and adolescents, some as illegal activities (safety and health dimensions young as eight - ten years old. They engage in – S, A). Peer pressure to truly belong may also activities that range from minor scuffles, petty persuade the child to drop out of school; and thefts, low stakes gambling, sexual and drug engage in stealing, ragpicking or occasional experimentation to, in rarer cases, hardened daily wage labour so as to fund the newly criminal undertakings such as armed robbery, discovered lifestyle (education and economic looting of factories, extortion, or drug peddling. security dimension - E). The real-life graphical Participation in a gang provides children with representations of the SAFE model provided a sense of harmony, protection and belonging for each of the study locations exemplifies the that is sorely lacking within their homes. In interrelated and cascading nature of children’s the absence of better alternatives, these self- vulnerability issues within urban slums. The fortification and ego-enhancing benefits make accompanying case studies further depict how ill-gotten money and violent power through these vulnerability combinations arise from a gang formations even more enticing to young complex interplay of risk factors, eventually minds. The belief that joining a gang will fill the undermining well-being in all core domains of void that is under normal circumstances fulfilled child security. by healthy family bonding, in itself signifies how convoluted and deep the problems run in urban slum communities.

Coping strategies of the urban poor: During periods of severe adversity, children adapting for survival and families in deprived communities prioritize their vital needs by evaluating their existing From the data results, it is clear that urban circumstances. They then adopt strategies poverty is especially difficult for children to within their means to meet those needs that they wade through as they have little authority or believe are the most crucial. These adaptive control over their surroundings and existing strategies while meeting immediate needs, circumstances. Children in urban slums are need not necessarily be beneficial in the long largely functioning on survival mode. Enduring run. The survey findings reveal that in a majority daily hardships while living in squalor takes a of cases, households are able to satisfy their toll on both the physical and psychological immediate short-term requirements, but these well-being of children. They become easy typically come at a grave cost often pushing prey for exploitation not only by authorities households further into poverty and exposing and employers, but also by their own families members to exploitative conditions for a long and loved ones. In dealing with vulnerabilities, time to come. children engage in negative survival behaviors as a result of having adopted inappropriate Households are noted to repeatedly utilize a coping strategies. range of maladaptive survival strategies, leading to undesirable and sometimes devastating Membership into gangs, for instance, is one consequences. For instance, households such harmful coping strategy. In an attempt that have recently experienced death, abandonment or prolonged unemployment

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of the primary adult earning member may opt or else chronic health problems stand out as for desperate measures such as obtaining the foremost circumstance prodding vulnerable informal loans at high interest rates, skipping households to adopt a series of drastic survival life-saving medication prescribed for chronic strategies. The research findings imply that a illnesses, pushing child household members physically healthy family is extremely crucial; to drop out of school and join the workforce this is because a primary disruption within the for paltry wages, forcing the household’s health domain can instantly and drastically women and girls to engage in informal home- upset functioning in all other security domains. based prostitution etc. to stride through the Ill health results in loss of daily wages, while overwhelming financial strain and meet their at the same time increasing expenditure on immediate survival needs of food, water medication, treatment-related transport etc. and shelter. In order to manage basic living For a large majority of the urban poor, ill health expenses, extremely poor households may also denotes the payment of bribes for inferior engage children in begging, ragpicking, or services at a government clinic; or else exposure migratory labour; cut out hygiene-related of household members to risky treatment expenses such as soap and toothpaste, lower through low-fee appointments with private the quantity and nutritious quality of food intake unqualified medical practitioners. Poor health causing malnutrition; or repeatedly take on thus instantly wipes out a household’s income new loans to pay off previous loans resulting in and severely disrupts household functioning an endless cycle of debt. As another instance, in all areas including school attendance and an impoverished family with several teenaged dietary expenditure. Unfortunately, due to poor minor daughters may feel forced to ‘sell’ their nutrition, squalid surroundings and hazardous eldest to the highest bidding prospective living conditions, disease outbreaks and chronic groom, so as to gather money towards ailments are practically unavoidable within slum the payment of dowries for the remaining settings. Sadly, even where parents are the daughters. The choice of this particular child ones inflicted with a debilitating disease or else marriage strategy is likely to be borne out of this have succumbed due to inadequate medical household’s priority need to maintain status and treatment, children often bear the brunt of the ‘family respect’ within the slum community by resultant emotional and financial disruption. ensuring the weddings of all minor daughters In several such cases, children prematurely at the socially accepted age. This strategy assume the role of head of household and choice is made even though it may come at are held responsible for making important the cost of knowingly or unknowingly exposing family decisions. Responses obtained during the ‘purchased’ daughter to the possibility of the survey repeatedly emphasize how low physical and sexual torture, forced re-marriage, access to affordable quality health services bonded labour, or prostitution. These are invariably shove urban poor families including examples of negative strategies and reasoning children into a long-running downward spiral of typically used in the researched communities, increasing vulnerability. which nearly always result in irreversible and detrimental consequences in the long-term. Though fewer and far between, certain Unfortunately, children are often the ones who households are observed to occasionally suffer the most within urban poor households engage in constructive strategies when even though they are rarely consulted during combatting sudden difficult circumstances or the making of such choices. life-changing household disturbances. Positive strategies are occasionally challenging to Across all slum locations, sudden unexpected execute as it may require planning along with

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high levels of determination and persistence. together in a sturdy house for several days For instance, a recently widowed mother during an environmental calamity, groups of may decide to join a women’s collective so as households coming together to construct to avail a microfinance loan at a low interest makeshift toilets for collective usage in the rate. Rather than using up this money for absence of adequate public toilets, women immediately incurring household expenses, forming collectives to intervene in cases of she could use this money to set up a small- severe domestic violence etc. are examples of scale business such as tailoring, vegetable effective community-based strategies evolved vending cart etc., so as to ensure long-term by the slum inhabitants themselves. These income security. This may in certain cases stray initiatives indicate that despite individual require an additional cutting back on expenses household struggles and difficulties, slum or the selling of assets to sustain in the short- inhabitants have the potential to band together term until the business stabilizes. Yet, in the and develop innovative solutions that are long-term, this strategy is beneficial as it would beneficial to the community as a whole. allow her children to pursue higher studies and recreational activities, rather than force However, it is important to point out that while her to eventually withdraw them from school in some locations (e.g. Sonaghar) community and engage them in the work sector in order members have been relatively forthcoming to supplement the family income. A domestic and supportive of vulnerable children and violence victim may in rare cases, choose to households; in some other locations (e.g. approach the police or seek intervention from Pritampur, Sultankot), community residents an NGO, neighbour or relative, as a positive have routinely turned a blind eye to unseemly self-help strategy; rather than the more incidents and violence taking place in other frequently observed maladaptive response of households. The weak community cohesion quietly accepting the abuse or contemplating that contributes to such nonchalance observed suicide. Constructive strategies may no in select slum localities appears to be driven at doubt create household disturbance and least in part, by the underlying societal attitude inconvenience in the immediate short-term. that issues such as child abuse and negligence But it opens up opportunities and substantial are strictly personal household matters long-standing benefits for entire households, that are not to be interfered with no matter especially children made vulnerable by the how grave the situation. Excessive poverty- given circumstances. induced deprivation; regressive community- specific social norms; and entrenched Community-related positive strategies can also prejudices regarding particular caste, be found. These mainly include the provision religious, or language groups; can prevent of food or financial assistance in times of the emergence of supportive community- need; caring for neighbourhood children in based strategies within urban poor clusters. the absence of parents; organizing collective movements, campaigns or peaceful rallies that advocate for basic rights and better living conditions etc. Occasionally, neighbours have also registered FIRs on behalf of vulnerable children or women whose rights have been violated. In certain dire situations, community residents have even come together to solve critical problems. Unrelated families huddling

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The numerous vulnerabilities and obstacles stacked up against children growing up in urban slums affects their outlook on life. Poverty by its very definition is compounded by feelings of powerlessness and exclusion. Early observations and experiences of blatant injustice and impoverishment, combined with the absence of viable prospects are often sufficient to dampen aspiration and extinguish the hope for a better future. Any assurance in the form of realistic role models, constructive guidance or a supportive home environment, is also glaring in its absence. For the vast majority therefore, life is viewed as a series of hardships and punishing incidents with very little promise of reward; and many eventually resign to accepting their lot unquestioningly. But there are also some who face the most adverse of circumstances with ingenuity and courage. The study analysis shows several glimpses of disadvantaged children, their families, and their neighbourhoods as determined and resourceful, doing everything within their capacity to improve their situation; suggesting that the greatest source of strength, hope, and motivation for change lies within these very neighbourhoods and its resilient inhabitants.

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THE WAY FORWARD TOWARDS A SECURE URBAN FUTURE

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Solutions for alleviating child vulnerability can Unique communities warrant unique take on different forms. At the most general solutions level, responses can be classified into four categories – a) those that are geared towards A setting-specific assessment of individual humanizing the quality of slum life e.g. sanitation, urban poor settlements is a prerequisite for housing, health care etc., and thereby the identifying and detailing key vulnerabilities and health and well-being of children as well, b) resources. The study repeatedly emphasizes those that enhance the family’s capacity to the distinctive nature of each urban poor provide for its own needs e.g. microcredit, and settlement, which consequently leads to varying therefore directly impact children’s access to types and degrees of child vulnerabilities within basic rights such as nutritious food, education the different slums. This insight serves asa etc., c) those that are child-focused addressing warning against the tendency to generalize specific issue areas such as educational, slum circumstances when planning community- vocational, psycho-social or recreational gaps based interventions. in the lives of slum children and d) those that are child-focused addressing the needs of The research findings further suggest that a specific at-risk child groups such as working broad universal framework for an urban poor children, street children, minor commercial intervention strategy is both necessary and sex workers, children diagnosed with HIV useful. However, in view of the differential etc. Thus, there are multiple perspectives and vulnerabilities – be it subtle or pronounced found methods to reducing child vulnerability. But the across slums, the on-ground implementation of existence of these varied methodologies is not this strategy framework would require carefully problematic; neither do they contradict each planned discerning adjustments that are other. Rather, each can benefit by drawing on setting-specific along with being periodically the activities and services of the other. The reviewed. The different planned interventions primary challenge however remains in designing would need to be tailored or tweaked to suit the the most locally appropriate and efficient unique child vulnerability context and complex interventions, and in aligning the efforts of the dynamics presented by each individual slum numerous community-based programs that community. target the different populations and problem areas of the urban poor. Yet, this is of utmost importance if the aim is to optimize the benefits accrued by vulnerable children residing within Build on existing positive survival impoverished settlements. strategies A few broad intervention guidelines aimed at It is important to identify the prevailing supporting children and their families in urban constructive strategies and child protective slum neighbourhoods have been derived from resources inherently present within any the survey findings and are recommended given slum community. Where community- below. strengthening or adaptive coping exists (e.g. women’s collectives for fighting domestic violence, informal community-initiated balwadis), these need to be encouraged, buttressed and further developed by external on-ground agencies; rather than initiating

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completely new responses. survival strategies by providing healthier child- protective alternatives and viable opportunities. Similarly, where non-standard or innovative strategies present themselves, these need Depending on the key vulnerabilities and to be thoroughly evaluated using a cost- surrounding factors identified for any given benefit analysis before being written off as an slum settlement, a range of healthy intervention aberration that needs to be phased out or options can be designed. In slum settlements reversed by policy or programmatic action. For with high rates of child substance abuse or instance, consider the strategy of the Amalganj gambling, alternative activity choices such slum inhabitants to build makeshift collective as introducing high-engagement recreational usage toilets for small clusters of households, spaces, group-oriented sports or theatre as a solution for open defecation. Individual clubs with time-related targets and events etc. household toilets no doubt provide a more could go a long way in preventing as well as apt response to open defecation. But the alleviating these environment-induced learnt makeshift group toilets provide a degree albeit negative habits. Additionally, establishing child- limited, of privacy, dignity and safety particularly friendly drug rehabilitation centers within or for girls. Under the given circumstances of near the slum locality could be of considerable poverty and insecurity of tenure, this may be benefit to those children who are already the quickest and most efficient solution for this severely addicted. Where illiteracy and out-of- particular community. External support could school children of differing age groups are high, perhaps focus on supporting improved waste within-community non-formal education and management and hygiene within these toilets, accelerated learning programs can provide in addition to encouraging the use of separate immediate practical solutions along with ease makeshift toilet facilities for women and girls to of access. These education alternatives not further lower the risk of sexual harassment and only offer children the opportunity to study and abuse. interact in a constructive environment without previous grade or age-related restrictions, but The efforts of community members to solve it also increases the scope for lateral entry into their own problems need to be acknowledged a formal education system. In the interim and in and worked with. When local strengths and order to ensure long-standing benefits, multiple capacities are recognized and built on, it is causative factors affecting the local school likely to result in more community-relevant and enrolment such as parental attitude towards sustained solutions. education; need for child household members to earn money; distance of schools; student- teacher ratio; quality of teaching, mid-day meals, infrastructural facilities etc. would also Offer alternatives for negative survival need to be identified and gradually worked with strategies through participative planning and persistent community-led advocacy. Where government As discussed earlier, maladaptive survival hospitals are at a distance, alternative access strategies by children and households can set to free and quality medical services through into motion a string of negative consequences mobile health clinics can be a cost-effective that can prove to be severely detrimental to the method that significantly reduces the need to well-being of children in the long-run. Therefore, undertake risky health-care strategies for a it becomes critical to identify and prevent risky sizable number of slum households.

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Considering the excessive use of maladaptive cohesiveness are pivotal to the emergence of strategies by the urban poor across multiple positive community-based adaptive strategies. domains, the list of possible intervention When using the participatory approach, alternatives is correspondingly vast and however, care needs to be taken that this complex, while at the same time being participation is not tokenistic by ensuring that highly dependent on the community’s socio- children and families from urban slum localities economic culture and existing circumstances. are adequately represented and genuinely engaged.

Since local women are considered to have Use an inclusive participatory easier access to community households approach for community-based and a better appreciation of the needs and solutions problems of their children, a significant number of successful grassroots groups around the A community-based participatory approach world are formed of women. Commendable is one in which everyone who has a stake intra-slum changes accomplished in the areas in the intervention inclusive of the program of early education and domestic violence by beneficiaries are given a voice and an active the self-formed women’s group in Dharukhana, role to play, either in person or by representation ‘Pragati Mahila Mandal’, is one such example. of all concerned community segments. This But with effective guidance, children too can bottom-up inclusive approach necessitates play an active and prominent role in shaping regular extensive discussions and decision- their own lives by being agents of positive making along with the target population change within slum communities. When through every single program stage including children who are engaged in participatory child planning and implementation. It is thus more protection programs begin investing in their attuned to local needs. own development, they acquire a sense of positive self-identity vis-à-vis drawing energy In supporting urban slum inhabitants to and confidence from the growing collective monitor child vulnerability issues and by strength. The possible gamut of urban poor encouraging them to be fully involved actors, initiatives using a child participatory approach the participatory approach doubles up as a wherein children can have a strong say in preventive measure that has several additional programmatic or policy decisions that affect advantages. It ensures feelings of ownership, them, is vast. Such initiatives could range from in turn considerably increasing the program’s participatory budgeting (e.g., slum children potential for sustainability and success. It provide inputs in determining how a certain empowers the community by building hope and portion of the urban poor municipal budget confidence - elements that are sorely lacking in is spent) and community mapping (e.g., slum settlements as evidenced in the survey. children painstakingly document their own It further enhances social capital by breaking surroundings to generate useful information on down invisible barriers, enabling trust, and child deprivations and resources within their establishing stronger ties amongst community slum neighbourhood for advocacy purpose) to members. This is especially important as the forming semi-formal child networks that meet present data analysis clearly reveals the lack of periodically to work on specific community- adequate social capital, while demonstrating related issues that affect them (e.g. child that efforts to strengthen community protection council, slum hygiene maintenance task force, community recreational area design

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committee, Anganwadi early learning activities or well-tested interventions through networking monitoring body etc.) and close partnerships with existing on-ground actors, inclusive of government officials and Civil society organizations need to be local leaders. especially vigilant that their activities enhance rather than supplant community-originating From a practical standpoint, this would mean support systems. In addition to helping that when a given organization does not have manage and scale up effective on-ground the technical capacity or the resources to participatory programs, the external assistance tackle all aspects of a child victim’s vulnerability that social organizations can provide in the status, an attempt should nevertheless be form of technical and development expertise made to pool in resources and provide all can often go a long way in mobilizing locally required services through a robust referral formed groups to influence policy and urban and monitoring system. For instance, if an governance. NGO with a child education focus identifies an illiterate twelve year old ragpicker boy who is a victim of domestic violence, regularly engages in unsafe sex and is severely addicted to Integrate all urban poor services that drugs; it will most likely endeavor to provide contribute towards alleviating child the child with security in the education domain vulnerability by engaging the child in it’s ongoing non- formal education program held within the The survey results demonstrate the interrelated slum community. However, it may be beyond nature of child vulnerabilities in urban poor this NGO’s mandate as well as capacity to settings. In doing so, it confirms the SAFE address the child’s existing insecurities in the theory of interdependence amongst child remaining domains of safety, health and family security needs. This key insight has important connections through services such as child implications for both policy and programmatic therapy, family violence mediation, provision of intervention by indicating a strong requirement ragpicking safety gear, medical testing, drug for shifting towards integrated child rights and rehabilitation, sexual health awareness etc. In child protection services within urban slums. such a scenario, it is incumbent upon this NGO to monitor and ensure that the identified child’s Moving towards an integrated approach remaining basic rights too are met through however, does not imply that child-oriented other means or sources such as referrals and civil society organizations working in urban partnerships with like-minded community poor areas need to gain expertise in all organizations, agencies or volunteers providing areas affecting slum children. Such a holistic the needed services within the given settlement, comprehensive program is highly unlikely to be connecting the child with existing government sustainable, as it is neither feasible nor cost- programs or schemes etc. If however a effective. On the contrary, the focus should particular service need e.g. child sexual health ideally be on maximizing the already available awareness counseling, is unavailable within or disparate interventions operating across near the community, an effort must be made to multiple urban poor sectors for varied child- link the child to this service through extended related issues, through improved cooperation networks by first highlighting and detailing out and coordination. Where gaps exist, these this need, and thereafter encouraging and need to be filled by introducing either innovative supporting organizations with a focus on sexual health to operate in the area. Where relevant,

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community-led advocacy at the municipal/ in child policy to be truly effective, there is an state/national level, should also be collectively urgent need to improve intra and inter-sectoral undertaken to affect long-term change. coordination within and across administrative Effective solution-focused collaborations and departments. Moreover, the Government of combined efforts could thus help uphold this India needs to ensure adequate resourcing child’s basic security rights. of its relatively progressive policy framework if it is serious about fulfilling its constitutional When viewed from a policy-making perspective, and other national policy commitments attempts at integrated methods to child policy towards children. This would mean making have been in existence in India for some time concerted efforts aimed at more realistic now. This is witnessed through the launch of budgetary disbursements to match the insightful umbrella programs and schemes proposed policy plans and targets, in addition such as the Integrated Child Development to better implemented initiatives through strong Services (ICDS) in 1975 and the Integrated accountability mechanisms, comprehensive Child Protection Scheme (ICPS) in 2009 service delivery, and improved management bringing more focused attention to these efficacy at all program levels. sectors as well as dramatically increasing the scope for holistic planning and service To conclude, an isolated and uncoordinated implementation for children. Unfortunately, response to child vulnerability usually results though such integrated responses appear in duplication of efforts by multiple actors, to be theoretically well-rooted, on-ground consequently leading to a wasteful depletion programmatic gaps and operational issues of limited resources. It additionally contributes abound. A majority of these services suffer to maintaining significant gaps in overall child from extremely poor coordination, low protection. On the other hand, an integrated budgetary allocation, weak administrative and and concerted approach that addresses monitoring systems, inappropriate utilization child vulnerability in a well-coordinated of funds, inadequate personnel and material comprehensive manner would not only resources, and other major pitfalls throughout strengthen the functional effectiveness of the implementation process; many a times existing intervention systems, but it would also rendering such services practically non-existent ensure that investments made in one SAFE for the targeted beneficiaries or lowering their child security domain, is not destabilized by efficacy at best. Far from being child-friendly, insecurities in other aspects of the child’s life. many of the existing on-ground governmental procedures and systems thus frequently overlook or sometimes even re-traumatize the very children it is meant to protect.

In short, despite the introduction of integrated programs by the government, there continues to be no holistic, comprehensive or collaborative approach to addressing child issues in practice, and the efforts are at best piecemeal with different issues being mandated to different poorly coordinated government departments that rarely engage constructively with one another. For an integrated approach

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Big cities can present big opportunities, but they can also nurture and feed the conditions under which poverty and it’s resultant child vulnerabilities thrive. The urban poor child who is rarely viewed as an equal rights- holder, is then left with no choice other than to singularly face the severe pressures and socio-economic deprivations that are associated with slum life within an insecure urban environment. This absence of guidance and constructive support more often than not, leads to negative repercussions not only for the child but also for society as a whole. However, if all urban poor stakeholders ranging from the slum dwellers themselves, community leaders and the NGOs, to the private sector, the government and the international community, were to pool in efforts and work together in a well- informed, inclusive and collaborative manner; it is possible to envisage and create a different reality – one in which the rights of all urban children are safeguarded, not just on paper but also in actual practice.

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APPENDICES SAFE TOOL QUANTITATIVE DATA

THE AANGAN TRUST 163 APPENDIX 1: SAFE TOOL QUANTITATIVE DATA

SONAGHAR, BHUBANESWAR

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

1. Total number of Research Participants interviewed 31 2. Number of Research interviews discarded due to incomplete data 1 3. Total number of completed SAFE Interviews (inclusive of both parts 1 & 2) 30 4. Total number of Male Research Subjects (Completed) 10

5. Total number of Female Research Subjects (Completed) 20

1A) SAFE TOOL 1 - Experiences of children and families in the community

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

6. Age range of Research Subjects (e.g. 25 – 48 years) 20-62 7. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location during their 26 (of which 25 are from lifetime (inclusive of those who migrated within the past ten years) Odisha itself - Nayagarh, Jatni, Bhadrak, Mendinapur, Berhampur, Ganjam, Khurda, Cuttack, Narsinghpur, Paradip, Baushara, Fathegarh, Hatabasta, Dhanchangada, Maniktiapur, Sagarguan); Bihar 8. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 3 (Narsinghpur, Hatabasta, ten years (inclusive of those who migrated within the past two years) Cuttack) 9. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 0 two years 10. Average number of people who live in each household 4-5

11. Number of Research Subjects who have ever attended school 24 12. Education range of Research Subjects (e.g. Grade II to Graduation; No schooling No Schooling to Grade XII to Grade VIII etc.)

THE AANGAN TRUST I 164 PART 1: Health of Children

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Question (along with brief response comments - highlighted) None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

1.1 How many of the children currently have access to: 1 9 15 5 Clean drinking water? 1.2 Hospitals and/or health clinics? 6 22 2 1.3 Doctors, nurses, community health workers, and/or 2 12 14 2 health volunteers? 1.4 Free health services? 3 8 9 10

1.5 Health services that can be reached by accessible 9 21 roads? 1.6 Health services that can be reached by public 15 15 transportation (bus, auto rickshaw)? 1.7 Health services that are open 24 hours a day and 7 2 5 13 10 days per week? 1.8 Sexual health services such as testing, counseling, 7 5 3 11 4 and treatment for HIV and/or other sexually transmitted infections? 1.9 Medical treatment for diarrhea? 4 25 1

1.10 Medical treatment for dengue? 4 25 1 1.11 Medical treatment for malaria? 3 22 5 1.12 Medical treatment for having coughs and/or 25 5 difficulty breathing? 1.13 How many of the girls and/or women currently have 9 21 access to: Medical care before having a baby and/or medical care after having a baby? 1.14 Birth control methods such as condoms and/or 9 21 birth control pills?

1.15 Abortion services such as having trained medical 10 18 2 workers end a pregnancy? 1.16 How many of the children currently: 4 14 8 4 Use drugs or other substances such as whitener, iodex, puncture tube fluid, smack, or solvent? 10% Few girls (mainly khaini, tobacco paan); 60% Most boys (ganja, bhang, brown sugar, drug injections) 1.17 Smoke cigarettes? 10% Few girls; 70% Most boys 21 5 4 - bidis, homemade cigars, cigarettes 1.18 Use alcohol? 5% Few girls (handia – homemade 18 9 3 alcohol from fermented rice water); 65% Most boys – ‘Naveen’ brand alcohol: very cheap alcohol 1.19 Have enough to eat? 8 18 4

1.20 Eat discarded and/or spoiled food? 30

THE AANGAN TRUST I 165 1.21 Have problems sleeping? Due to drugs 11 18 1 1.22 Feel tired throughout the day? 4 25 1 1.23 Have received complete routine immunization? 30

1.24 Need medical care but do not receive it because 5 25 they cannot afford it?

1.25 Need medication but do not receive it because 5 25 they cannot afford it? 1.26 Have died from health-related problems? 9 21

PART 2: Children and their relationships with family, friends and community

Q. No. Question (along with brief response comments - highlighted) None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

2.1 How many of the children currently: 16 14

Have to care for younger children without the help of an adult? 35% Some girls; 2% Few boys 2.2 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or 10 20 beaten in the home? 15% Few girls; 50% Some boys

2.3 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name- 9 20 1 called, accused, and/or humiliated in the home?

2.4 Are inappropriately touched in the home? 10% 13 17 Some girls – molested by fathers and uncles; 2% Few boys – molested by grandmothers, aunts, cousin sisters etc 2.5 Are raped in the home? 5% Few girls by fathers 16 14 and uncles 2.6 Witness community violence such as assault, use 1 18 4 7 of weapons, muggings, gang violence, and/or police brutality?

2.7 Are treated badly by others because of race, 22 8 ethnicity, gender, caste, illness, disability, and/or religion? 2.8 Have at least one family member who abuses 2 15 8 5 drugs? 2.9 Have at least one family member who abuses 2 15 8 5 alcohol? 2.10 Have a relationship with a trusted individual who 6 19 1 4 provides them with care? 2.11 How many of the children currently have access to: 5 25

Social service and/or child welfare organizations?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 166 2.12 Religious, spiritual, dance, arts, and/or sports 9 15 6 programs? 2.13 Services that reunite separated children to their 30 families? 2.14 How many of the young girls (ages 0-18) at the site 1 29 are married? 16-17 years most common (mainly love marriage); 18-19 years most common age for arranged marriage. About 20% get married before age 18yrs. 2.15 How many of the young boys (ages 0-18) at the 10 20 site are married Roughly 5% before age 18 - Mainly love marriages (16-17yrs); never arranged marriage. Most common age for marriage: 22-24 years

PART 3: Children and their exposure to harm, violence, and physical and emotional safety

Q. No. Question (along with brief response comments - highlighted) None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

3.1 In the past 6 months, how many of the children 11 15 3 1 were: Burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, or beaten at the site? 3% Few girls; 22% Few boys

3.2 Inappropriately touched at the site? 25% Few 10 20 girls; None boys 3.3 Raped at the site? 30 3.4 Threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name- 6 22 2 called, accused, and/or humiliated at the site? 3.5 Killed by violence at the site? 25 5 3.6 Killed by accidents at the site? Mainly bike 20 10 accidents – rash driving – death of teenage drivers, pillions. Boys

3.7 Using weapons such as guns, knives, and/or 2 26 2 sharp objects to hurt others? 2% Few girls; 48% Some boys 3.8 Living without a parent or another adult who 19 11 takes care of them at the site? 3.9 Exposed to unsafe chemicals in the air, water, 8 19 2 1 and/or home environment at the site? 3.10 Living in a space that is not protected from cold, 17 13 damp, heat, rain, and/or wind? 3.11 How many of the children left their homes to 9 21 make money for their families? 2% Few girls; 23% Few boys

3.12 How many of the children left their homes due to 18 12 violence and/or abuse? 1% Few girls; 5% Few boys

THE AANGAN TRUST I 167 3.13 How many of the children currently have access 21 9 to: Toilets? 3.14 Separate toilets for girls and boys? 25 5 3.15 Washing facilities? 27 3 3.16 Separate washing facilities for girls and boys? 27 3

3.17 Answer Yes or No: There are toilets with locks Yes:3 No:27 - - - inside the door 3.18 There are washing facilities with locks inside the Yes:0 No:30 - - - door 3.19 How many of the children have access to: 6 20 4 Police whom they trust to provide protection? 3.20 Friends and/or peers whom they trust to provide 4 16 9 1 protection? 3.21 Weapons such as knives, guns, and/or sharp 7 19 3 1 objects? 2% Few girls; 48% Some boys

PART 4: Education for children; economic security for children and their families

Q. No. Question (along with brief response comments - highlighted) None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

4.1 How many of the children currently: 5 24 1 Attend school? Overall, about 51-55% children attend school (60% Most girls; 35% Some boys) 4.2 Of appropriate age attend an early education 16 14 learning program such as Aanganwadi Centers?

4.3 Of appropriate age attend primary school? 26 4 4.4 Of appropriate age complete primary school? 26 4

4.5 Of appropriate age attend secondary school? 29 1 4.6 Of appropriate age complete secondary school? 29 1 4.7 Attend a non-formal and/or informal learning 27 3 program such as skill building, vocational training, tailoring, IT courses, computer literacy, and/or informal apprenticeship programs? 18% Few girls; 7% Few boys 4.8 Are on the street, at the market, at the railways, 8 22 and/or at the worksite during school hours? 1% Few girls; 24% Few boys

4.9 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or 8 20 2 beaten by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? 1% Few girls; 24% Few boys 4.10 Are inappropriately touched by students, 18 12 teachers, and/or other people in school? 25% Few girls; None boys 4.11 Are raped by students, teachers, and/or other 29 1 people in school?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 168 4.12 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, 6 20 4 name-called, accused, and/or humiliated by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? 4.13 Are treated badly because of race, ethnicity, 25 5 gender, caste, illness, disability, and/or religion by students, teachers, and/or other people? 4.14 Attend schools that have teachers who are 28 2 frequently changing? 4.15 Attend schools that provide a mid-day meal? 7 19 4

4.16 Cannot attend school because of the travel time 30 and/or distance between [NAME OF SITE] and the school? 4.17 Attend schools that employ teachers who have 7 22 1 adequate years of schooling? 4.18 Have their own chair or bench to sit on at school? 17 12 1 4.19 Have their own textbooks at school? 2 21 7 4.20 How many of the children currently cannot attend 17 13 school due to: School fees?

4.21 Need to earn money for household? 20% Few 8 20 2 boys and girls 4.22 Transportation costs? 30 4.23 Cost of clothing such as uniforms and/or shoes? 23 7 4.24 Need to look after other children? 24% Few girls; 17 13 1% Few boys

4.25 Need to look after an adult? 30 4.26 No schools in the area? 30 4.27 Not enough teachers? 26 4 4.28 Language spoken at school? 30 4.29 Lack of space in school for more students? 30

4.30 Pregnancy? 1-2% mostly after marriage. Rare 29 1 cases of teen pregnancy before marriage. 4.31 Marriage? 5% Few girls; 1% Few boys 23 7 4.32 How many of the children currently cannot attend 4 26 school due to: Household chores within the family home? 25% Few girls; 1% Few boys 4.33 Domestic labour such as cooking and/or cleaning 3 27 outside the family home? 20% Few girls; 5% Few boys 4.34 Selling things on the street? 5% Few girls; 20% 13 17 Few boys

4.35 Working in the fields? 28 2

THE AANGAN TRUST I 169 4.36 Sex work such as prostitution? 3% Few girls; 5 25 None boys 4.37 Illegal activities such as selling drugs or stealing? 6 24 Less than 1% girls; 5% Few boys 4.38 Scavenging for bottles and/or trash? Less than 4 26 1% Few girls; 24% Few boys 4.39 Hazardous work that harms health and/or safety? 28 2

4.40 Drug abuse? None girls; 25% boys 11 19 4.41 Corporal punishment in schools? 21 9 4.42 Lack of proper documentation from previous 19 11 schools?

PART 5: Income and economic stability for children and their families

Q. No. Question (along with brief response comments - highlighted) None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

5.1 In the last 6 months, how many of the children and/ 1 27 2 or families have been: Unable to afford basic needs (food, water, shelter, clothing)? 5.2 Unable to save money? 19 8 3

5.3 Borrowing money from the bank, friends, and/or 7 8 15 other individuals? 5.4 Owe money to others? 30 5.5 How many of the children and/or families have 28 2 access to: Vocational training opportunities? 5.6 Informal micro-lending schemes such as 22 8 community loans?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 170 1B) SAFE TOOL 2 - Adaptive strategies used to cope with various difficulties and obstacles

1.0 Expenditure Changes

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once 1.01 Reduced overall spending 2 8 20 1.02 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 19 4 7 food/water 1.03 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 21 6 3 essentials (other than food/water), such as medical, educational, housing items, etc 1.04 Sold assets to procure food or money (legal sale of 4 17 9 personal/family assets)

1.05 Made purchases on credit/borrowed money 1 8 21 1.06 Gone into debt due to credit purchases 21 6 5 1.07 Reached out to others for assistance with credit and debt 15 9 6 organization

2.0 Dietary Changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once 2.01 Decreased the number of meals eaten each day 5 2 23

2.02 Spent an entire day without eating 10 4 16

2.03 Reduced the amount of food that some people in the 2 3 25 family ate so that others could eat 2.04 Changed the type of food you consumed (e.g. shift to 2 2 26 poorer quality or cheaper food) 2.05 Stopped consuming or procuring filtered, clean water 20 6 4 2.06 Asked people you didn’t know for food 28 2 2.07 Asked relatives, friends, or other community members to 5 3 22 give you food

2.08 Sent members of the household elsewhere to eat or to 19 4 7 beg for food 2.09 Travelled long distances to acquire food/water 14 5 11

3.0 Social/ Community-related changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once 3.01 Started or joined an advocacy group or community 10 14 6 organization to deal with needed services or advocate for rights

THE AANGAN TRUST I 171 3.02 Obtained services (mental, physical, and emotional) or 17 11 2 entitlements for yourself or your family (from NGO, school, hospital, clinic, government office, etc.) 3.03 Started or joined a social welfare and protection 14 15 1 committee 3.04 Started or joined a child welfare and protection committee 14 15 1 3.05 Participated in peaceful rallies or citizen’s movements 6 13 11

3.06 Enlisted the support of local leaders or police to report 22 5 3 child abuse or neglect 3.07 Consulted a family or community member to talk about 8 11 11 problems 3.08 Enlisted the help of family or community to stop a situation 18 9 3 of abuse or neglect 3.09 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 13 8 9 community members for financial needs (free/not borrowed) 3.10 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 12 8 10 community members for childcare needs (alternative caregivers for children)

3.11 Helped with rebuilding the community infrastructure (like 18 11 1 construction, supplies, feeding workers, etc.) 3.12 Started or engaged in more community-initiated projects, 26 4 including celebratory activities and community empowerment programs (e.g. sports, clubs, etc.) 3.13 Started or engaged in more school-based projects, 21 6 3 including celebratory activities and programs promoting education 3.14 Combined your immediate family with extended family 12 10 8 under one household/roof

3.15 Combined your family with others (not related) under one 12 10 8 household/roof 3.16 Changed the head-of-household to adapt to other 28 2 changes (e.g. oldest children or grandparents/extended relatives became new head of the house) 3.17 Left household to live with a family other than your own 25 4 1 3.18 Left household to live with relatives in a faraway place 22 7 1 3.19 Left to live in an orphanage because your caregiver could 30 not take care of you at home

3.20 Sought spiritual or religious organization for financial, 3 6 21 social, or psychological support

4.0 Occupational/ Educational changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

4.01 Taken on a new job (you) 6 12 12

THE AANGAN TRUST I 172 4.02 Taken on a new job (other members of your family or 2 19 9 household) 4.02.1 Which members (check all that apply) Men/ Women/ Children:3 NA:2 Fathers:17 Mothers: 10 4.02.2 If women/mothers, what type of work (check all that Domestic/ Business Health care: Manufact apply): child care: / 0 uring:2 8 Finance: (Tailoring) (Domestic 0 maid work) Other:0

4.02.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: - - - -

4.03 Started a small business making or growing things to sell 25 5 to get by 4.04 Increased work load and time spent working to procure 10 20 greater income 4.05 Joined a vocational or technical school 25 5 4.06 Stopped going to school in order to work 18 12 4.07 Stopped going to school or alternated the days you go to 26 2 2 school

4.08 Stayed home from school to look after siblings and/or 26 1 3 help with domestic work 4.09 Went to work for a family other than your own 19 7 4 4.10 Worked as a child laborer for shelter, either with another 20 7 3 family or institution 4.11 Had to leave household, alone, to travel and find work 25 5 (migration)

4.12 Had to leave home and move family away to find work 25 5 (migration) 4.13 Taken a job or done work that made you unsafe (such as 20 10 physical harm or physical/sexual abuse)? 4.13.1 What kind of work? (Describe) - - - - 4.13.2 Did this work put you at risk for (select all that apply): Physical Psych Physical Sexual injury: 6 ological abuse: 7 abuse: 1 harm: 1 (Domestic maid abused by male in hh)

Other: 3 (Verbal abuse) 4.13.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: - - - -

4.13.4 Are you still doing this work? Yes: 2 No: 8

THE AANGAN TRUST I 173 5.0 Dangerous or illegal activity

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once 5.01 Joined or helped a gang or other dangerous groups in 25 2 3 exchange for protection, food, or shelter

5.02 Stolen food, property, or other items just to make do 26 2 2 5.03 Used substances to ease pain, anxiety, or hunger (glue, 13 5 12 paint, tobacco, alcohol, etc.) 5.04 Been left unattended for long periods (an hour or more) 26 4 because your caregiver couldn’t arrange childcare 5.05 Stayed in an unsafe place just to have shelter 25 5 5.06 Stayed in an abusive or dangerous relationship just to 20 8 2 have somebody to take care of you

5.07 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities for 27 2 1 food, money, protection, or shelter with someone you did know (neighbor, family, friends, etc.) 5.08 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities for 29 1 food, money, protection, or shelter with a stranger 5.09 Participated in violent protests, rallies or movements 30 5.10 Physically hurt or threatened someone for food or shelter 27 1 2

5.11 Behaved in a way that would cause the community to 27 2 1 treat you badly/ostracize you 5.12 Sold illegal substances, such as drugs or sold stolen 27 1 2 foods/gasoline/other items that are in shortage 5.13 Engaged in self-harm, including purposely injuring oneself 20 7 3 or attempted suicide

6.0 Self-care and self-healing changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once 6.01 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or other 21 4 5 mindfulness/reflective practices in groups

6.02 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or other 23 1 6 mindfulness/reflective practices alone, including journaling 6.03 Engaged (or increased engagement) in physical or athletic 23 3 4 activity, including dance or sports 6.04 Engaged (or increased engagement) in intellectual or 12 1 17 educational activity, including reading or enriching your knowledge base 6.05 Engaged (or increased engagement) in hobbies or 8 1 21 activities that bring you personal joy, including music, art, etc. 6.06 Decreased hygiene practice, such as bathing/cleaning self 18 2 10 and clothes less often OR Stopped hygiene practice

THE AANGAN TRUST I 174 6.07 Decreased health maintenance, such as not taking care of 16 8 6 wounds/injuries or using medical treatments (medications, and related products) less often OR Stopped health maintenance 6.08 Increased time spent in isolation 9 7 14 6.09 Increased time spent with others 30 6.10 Engaged in another activity to improve your personal Yes: 5 No: 25 livelihood that was not mentioned previously (e.g. any other coping mechanisms that helped you to take care of your body/physical needs and your mind/psychosocial well-being)

6.10.1 If yes, please describe: - - - -

THE AANGAN TRUST I 175 APPENDIX 2: SAFE TOOL QUANTITATIVE DATA

PRITAMPUR, BHOPAL

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

1. Total number of Research Participants interviewed 31 2. Number of Research interviews discarded due to incomplete data 1 3. Total number of completed SAFE Interviews (inclusive of both parts 1 & 2) 30 4. Total number of Male Research Subjects (Completed) 14

5. Total number of Female Research Subjects (Completed) 16

2A) SAFE TOOL 1 - Experiences of children and families in the community

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

6. Age range of Research Subjects (e.g. 25 – 48 years) 25-40

7. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within their 15 {Participants migrated lifetime (inclusive of those who migrated within the past ten years) from Agra (U.P ), Jhansi (U.P), Jalgaon (Maharashtra), Bihar, Khandwa (M.P. District), Satna (M.P), Hoshangabad (M.P), Indore district (M.P), Tikamgard (M.P), Bundelkhand (M.P., UP), Khargone (M.P. District)} 8. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 5 {Participants migrated ten years (inclusive of those who migrated within the past two years) from Jalgaon (Maharastra), Khandwa, Tikamgard, Hoshangabad, Satna} 9. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 0 two years 10. Average number of people who live in each household 5

11. Number of Research Subjects who have ever attended school 14 12. Education range of Research Subjects (e.g. Grade II to Graduation; No schooling No Schooling to B.Sc. to Grade VIII etc.)

THE AANGAN TRUST I 176 PART 1: Health of Children

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75 All/ All % 76-100%

1.1 How many of the children currently have access to: 9 20 1 Clean drinking water? 1.2 Hospitals and/or health clinics? 9 21 1.3 Doctors, nurses, community health workers, and/or 8 22 health volunteers? 1.4 Free health services? 3 20 7

1.5 Health services that can be reached by accessible 2 26 2 roads? 1.6 Health services that can be reached by public 6 24 transportation (bus, auto rickshaw)? Some parts of community – narrow ‘kaccha’ road – 1-2kms away from public transportation access; Government hospitals accessed by public transport. 1.7 Health services that are open 24 hours a day and 7 22 8 days per week? 1.8 Sexual health services such as testing, counselling, and 26 4 treatment for HIV and/or other sexually transmitted infections? 1.9 Medical treatment for diarrhea? 25 5

1.10 Medical treatment for dengue? 11 19 1.11 Medical treatment for malaria? 8 20 2 1.12 Medical treatment for having coughs and/or difficulty 28 1 1 breathing? 1.13 How many of the girls and/or women currently have 9 21 access to: Medical care before having a baby and/or medical care after having a baby? 1.14 Birth control methods such as condoms and/or birth 29 1 control pills?

1.15 Abortion services such as having trained medical 9 20 1 workers end a pregnancy? 1.16 How many of the children currently: 6 24 Use drugs or other substances such as whitener, iodex, puncture tube fluid, smack, or solvent? 60% children overall in 0-18 yrs; Girls (Mainly 7 to 13 years – sulochan, whitener, chewing tobacco – about 70% of this age group are into drugs); Boys (mainly sulochan, whitener from 7-13yrs, marijuana from 13-14 ys onwards: about 90% boys in this age group are into drugs) Marijuana and sulochan are very popular in the community.

THE AANGAN TRUST I 177 1.17 Smoke cigarettes? 0% None Girls; Boys: 70%. Most 24 5 1 boys in 13-15 yrs age group. Almost all 90% boys in the 16-18 yrs age group (Boys: bidis and cigarettes. Girls only chew tobacco, don’t smoke) 1.18 Use alcohol? 0% None Girls; Boys Most 60% in the 23 6 1 15-18 years age group 1.19 Have enough to eat? 1 18 10 1 1.20 Eat discarded and/or spoiled food? 2 19 9

1.21 Have problems sleeping? 28 2 1.22 Feel tired throughout the day? 13 12 5 1.23 Have received complete routine immunization? Roughly 25 5 10% scavenger side; 50% labour side given vaccinations. Very few of these children given complete immunization

1.24 Need medical care but do not receive it because they 27 3 cannot afford it?

1.25 Need medication but do not receive it because they 29 1 cannot afford it? 1.26 Have died from health-related problems? 28 2

PART 2: Children and their relationships with family, friends and community

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost All/ Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75 All % 76-100%

2.1 How many of the children currently: 26 4

Have to care for younger children without the help of an adult? 45% Some girls; 3-4% Few boys esp. those who don’t have elder female siblings 2.2 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or 8 22 beaten in the home? 70-75% Most children: both girls and boys equally 2.3 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name- 5 25 called, accused, and/or humiliated in the home? 75% children: both girls and boys equally 2.4 Are inappropriately touched in the home? 5% children 26 4 i.e. 9-10% Few Girls; 0% None Boys

2.5 Are raped in the home? 30 2.6 Witness community violence such as assault, use of 2 28 weapons, muggings, gang violence, and/or police brutality? 2.7 Are treated badly by others because of race, ethnicity, 15 13 2 gender, caste, illness, disability, and/or religion? Gender, caste (mild discrimination) and disability 2.8 Have at least one family member who abuses drugs? 3 27 2.9 Have at least one family member who abuses alcohol? 2 27 1

THE AANGAN TRUST I 178 2.10 Have a relationship with a trusted individual who 2 25 3 provides them with care? 2.11 How many of the children currently have access to: 20 10

Social service and/or child welfare organizations? 2.12 Religious, spiritual, dance, arts, and/or sports 18 12 programs?

2.13 Services that reunite separated children to their families? 29 1 2.14 How many of the young girls (ages 0-18) at the site are 1 20 9 married? 50-55% girls get married before age 18years. Most common age of marriage: 16-18 years; girls begin to get married from age 14 years onwards. Scavenger side community: love marriages more common; labour side community: arranged marriages more common. 2.15 How many of the young boys (ages 0-18) at the site are 28 2 married 10-15% boys get married before age 18yrs (mostly 16-17yrs) – mostly love marriages. Most common age of marriage for boys: 19-22 years. Scavenger side community: love marriages more common; labour side community: arranged marriage more common.

PART 3: Children and their exposure to harm, violence, and physical and emotional safety

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

3.1 In the past 6 months, how many of the children were: 26 4 Burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, or beaten at the site? 15-20% Few boys - hit, punched, shaken, kicked, or beaten by both adults and children; 0% None girls 3.2 Inappropriately touched at the site? 0% None boys; 2 27 1 20-22% Few girls (Mainly 11-18yrs age group) – sexual harassment on the streets 3.3 Raped at the site? 0% None boys; less than 1% Few 24 6 girls Well-known incidents: gang rape – within 6 months; rape and murder of a 3 year old. 3.4 Threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name-called, 2 9 9 10 accused, and/or humiliated at the site? 65-70% children. 80% Almost All boys; 60% Most girls 3.5 Killed by violence at the site? 29 1

3.6 Killed by accidents at the site? 2 28 3.7 Using weapons such as guns, knives, and/or sharp 30 objects to hurt others? 15% Few boys – knives, screw drivers, devices used for punching, sharp nail-cutters: for fights, to protect oneself. Fewer 6-7% boys: using for house robberies, pick-pocketing etc; 0% None girls 3.8 Living without a parent or another adult who takes care 12 18 of them at the site? 2-3% Few boys (migrated into community for livelihood); 0% None girls

THE AANGAN TRUST I 179 3.9 Exposed to unsafe chemicals in the air, water, and/or 2 28 home environment at the site? 3.10 Living in a space that is not protected from cold, damp, 1 29 heat, rain, and/or wind? 3.11 How many of the children left their homes to make 28 2 money for their families? 6-7% children; 8-10% boys (Mainly 16-18 yrs age group – construction work: Hyderabad, Mumbai, Delhi etc.) – usually visit home every 3-4 months; 3-4% girls (14-18 yrs age group – domestic maid work) – usually visit home annually. Money earned is mostly sent to family 3.12 How many of the children left their homes due to 10 20 violence and/or abuse? 5% Few boys (from 13yrs onwards); 0% None girls

3.13 How many of the children currently have access to: 28 2 Toilets? About 3% homes in the community have toilets. None of the respondent homes have toilets 3.14 Separate toilets for girls and boys? 30 3.15 Washing facilities? 1 18 11 3.16 Separate washing facilities for girls and boys? 30 3.17 Answer Yes or No: There are toilets with locks inside the Yes:0 No:30 - - - door

3.18 There are washing facilities with locks inside the door Yes:0 No:30 - - - 3.19 How many of the children have access to: 24 6 Police whom they trust to provide protection? 3.20 Friends and/or peers whom they trust to provide 25 5 protection? 3.21 Weapons such as knives, guns, and/or sharp objects? 1 29 20-22% Few Boys (mainly 14-18 yrs age group); 0% None girls. A few boys also carry weapons as a status symbol

PART 4: Education for children; economic security for children and their families

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

4.1 How many of the children currently: 18 12 Attend school? Roughly 25% children: 30% Some boys; 20% Few girls Nearly all the children who attend school attend government school. Scavenger side: children enrolled but rarely attend school, except for functions and mid- day meals; labour side: usually children start dropping out from age 12yrs because they begin working from around 13 years (scavenging begins age 6yrs)

4.2 Of appropriate age attend an early education learning 26 4 program such as Aanganwadi Centers?

4.3 Of appropriate age attend primary school? 21 9 4.4 Of appropriate age complete primary school? 22 8

THE AANGAN TRUST I 180 4.5 Of appropriate age attend secondary school? About 25 5 6%

4.6 Of appropriate age complete secondary school? 28 2 4.7 Attend a non-formal and/or informal learning program 29 1 such as skill building, vocational training, tailoring, IT courses, computer literacy, and/or informal apprenticeship programs?

4.8 Are on the street, at the market, at the railways, and/or 1 28 1 at the worksite during school hours? 4.9 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or 1 29 beaten by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? (Few from the few children who attend school). 10% Few boys; 5% Few girls 4.10 Are inappropriately touched by students, teachers, and/ 29 1 or other people in school? 4.11 Are raped by students, teachers, and/or other people in 29 1 school? 4.12 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name- 1 12 12 5 called, accused, and/or humiliated by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? (Some from the few children who attend school)

4.13 Are treated badly because of race, ethnicity, gender, 19 10 1 caste, illness, disability, and/or religion by students, teachers, and/or other people? Gender and caste discrimination: verbal humiliation by teachers and students. 10-12% children 4.14 Attend schools that have teachers who are frequently 30 changing? 4.15 Attend schools that provide a mid-day meal? (Most from 2 2 26 the few children who attend school) 4.16 Cannot attend school because of the travel time and/or 28 2 distance between [NAME OF SITE] and the school? 4.17 Attend schools that employ teachers who have 1 5 24 adequate years of schooling?

4.18 Have their own chair or bench to sit on at school? 22 8 (Some from the few children who attend school). Younger children especially grades 1 and 2 are seated on mats 4.19 Have their own textbooks at school? 1 28 1 4.20 How many of the children currently cannot attend 27 2 1 school due to: School fees?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 181 4.21 Need to earn money for household? 20-22 % children; 2 27 1 16-17% Few boys (mainly 14-18yrs); 25% Few girls (mainly 13-18yrs). A large number of the working boys not attending school is earning money for personal and substance expenses, not household expenses. *Overall, about 65% children work in the community: 70% boys (scavenger, daily wages, street vendors); 60% girls (domestic maid, scavenger, rarely street vendors) Girls and boys start working from 6-7 years – mainly scavenger work 4.22 Transportation costs? 29 1 4.23 Cost of clothing such as uniforms and/or shoes? 29 1 4.24 Need to look after other children? 2 28

4.25 Need to look after an adult? 28 2 4.26 No schools in the area? 30 4.27 Not enough teachers? 30 4.28 Language spoken at school? 30 4.29 Lack of space in school for more students? 29 1

4.30 Pregnancy? Post-marriage about 40% girls get pregnant 1 29 before age 18yrs; mainly scavenger side community. (But most of these girls stop education much before marriage/ pregnancy due to other reasons) 4.31 Marriage? 15% Few girls; 5% Few boys don’t attend 28 2 schools due to marriage. Most stop education before marriage due to other reasons. 4.32 How many of the children currently cannot attend 26 4 school due to: Household chores within the family home? 25% Few Girls (from 8 yrs onwards- fetch water, cooking, cleaning, washing clothes etc. – 5-6hrs daily; 3-4% Few boys (mainly 8-14yrs – e.g. fetch water–2-3hrs in a day) 4.33 Domestic labour such as cooking and/or cleaning 28 2 outside the family home? 0% None boys; 25% Few girls – domestic maid (mainly 13-18yrs)

4.34 Selling things on the street? 12-5% Few boys; 6-7% 1 29 Few girls 4.35 Working in the fields? About 2-3 boys go to their village 28 2 for agriculture work seasonally 4.36 Sex work such as prostitution? Informal prostitution; 24 6 4-5% Few girls; 0% None boys 4.37 Illegal activities such as selling drugs or stealing? Overall 1 29 15%. 30% Some boys (mainly 14-18yrs); 0% None girls 4.38 Scavenging for bottles and/or trash? About 50% overall 11 18 1 in entire community. In scavenger side - Almost all children from age 6-7 onwards

4.39 Hazardous work that harms health and/or safety? 18 3 8 1 (Scavenging work ) 4.40 Drug abuse? 25% children not attending school due to 1 24 4 1 drug abuse. 35% Some boys; 15% Few girls

THE AANGAN TRUST I 182 4.41 Corporal punishment in schools? 5% children (beatings 14 15 1 by rulers/ hand for not completing homework, misbehaviour) 4.42 Lack of proper documentation from previous schools? 24 6

PART 5: Income and economic stability for children and their families

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

5.1 In the last 6 months, how many of the children and/or 4 26 families have been: Unable to afford basic needs (food, water, shelter, clothing)? 5.2 Unable to save money? 1 29

5.3 Borrowing money from the bank, friends, and/or other 1 18 11 individuals? 5.4 Owe money to others? 4 21 5 5.5 How many of the children and/or families have access 30 to: Vocational training opportunities? 5.6 Informal micro-lending schemes such as community 30 loans?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 183 2B) SAFE TOOL 2 - Adaptive strategies used to cope with various difficulties and obstacles

1.0 Expenditure Changes

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than once NA (Question)

1.01 Reduced overall spending 30

1.02 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 1 2 27 food/water 1.03 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 1 2 27 essentials (other than food/water), such as medical, educational, housing items, etc 1.04 Sold assets to procure food or money (legal sale of 1 1 28 personal/family assets) 1.05 Made purchases on credit/borrowed money 1 1 28

1.06 Gone into debt due to credit purchases 3 1 26 1.07 Reached out to others for assistance with credit and 29 1 debt organization

2.0 Dietary Changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than once NA (Question)

2.01 Decreased the number of meals eaten each day 2 28 2.02 Spent an entire day without eating 2 28 2.03 Reduced the amount of food that some people in the 1 1 28 family ate so that others could eat (Usually mothers and daughters because they largely eat after serving male members and when all of them have finished eating their food) 2.04 Changed the type of food you consumed (e.g. shift to 1 1 28 poorer quality or cheaper food)

2.05 Stopped consuming or procuring filtered, clean water 1 29 2.06 Asked people you didn’t know for food 30 2.07 Asked relatives, friends, or other community members 3 1 26 to give you food 2.08 Sent members of the household elsewhere to eat or to 28 2 beg for food 2.09 Travelled long distances to acquire food/water 2 28

THE AANGAN TRUST I 184 3.0 Social/ Community-related changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than once NA (Question)

3.01 Started or joined an advocacy group or community 28 1 1 organization to deal with needed services or advocate for rights 3.02 Obtained services (mental, physical, and emotional) or 2 28 entitlements for yourself or your family (from NGO, school, hospital, clinic, government office, etc.)

3.03 Started or joined a social welfare and protection 29 1 committee 3.04 Started or joined a child welfare and protection 29 1 committee 3.05 Participated in peaceful rallies or citizen’s movements 27 2 1 3.06 Enlisted the support of local leaders or police to report 28 1 1 child abuse or neglect 3.07 Consulted a family or community member to talk 5 25 about problems

3.08 Enlisted the help of family or community to stop a 29 1 situation of abuse or neglect 3.09 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 26 2 2 community members for financial needs (free/not borrowed) 3.10 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 16 6 8 community members for childcare needs (alternative caregivers for children) 3.11 Helped with rebuilding the community infrastructure 30 (like construction, supplies, feeding workers, etc.) 3.12 Started or engaged in more community-initiated 26 1 3 projects, including celebratory activities and community empowerment programs (e.g. sports, clubs, etc.)

3.13 Started or engaged in more school-based projects, 28 1 1 including celebratory activities and programs promoting education 3.14 Combined your immediate family with extended family 26 4 under one household/roof When migrating, moved into relative’s homes for few days/ months before setting up own home 3.15 Combined your family with others (not related) under 30 one household/roof 3.16 Changed the head-of-household to adapt to other 20 10 changes (e.g. oldest children or grandparents/ extended relatives became new head of the house) 2 F participants became head of family due to death/ husband alcoholism; Other 8 participants: due to death of head/ moving away from extended family

THE AANGAN TRUST I 185 3.17 Left household to live with a family other than your 28 2 own 3.18 Left household to live with relatives in a faraway place 29 1 3.19 Left to live in an orphanage because your caregiver 30 could not take care of you at home 3.20 Sought spiritual or religious organization for financial, 30 social, or psychological support

4.0 Occupational/ Educational changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

4.01 Taken on a new job (you) 19 3 8 4.02 Taken on a new job (other members of your family or 5 20 5 household)

4.02.1 Which members (check all that apply) Men/ Women/ Children: NA:5 Fathers:7 Mothers:6 12 4.02.2 If women/mothers, what type of work (check all that Domestic/ Business/ Health Manufactu apply): child care: Finance:0 care:0 ring:0 4 Other:2 4.02.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: Scavenging - - - 4.03 Started a small business making or growing things to 30 sell to get by 4.04 Increased work load and time spent working to 20 10 procure greater income

4.05 Joined a vocational or technical school 29 1 4.06 Stopped going to school in order to work 26 1 3 4.07 Stopped going to school or alternated the days you 26 4 go to school 4.08 Stayed home from school to look after siblings and/or 26 4 help with domestic work 4.09 Went to work for a family other than your own (as live- 28 1 1 in child domestic maid; as child labourer working in a sweetmeat shop)

4.10 Worked as a child laborer for shelter, either with 28 2 another family or institution 4.11 Had to leave household, alone, to travel and find work 27 2 1 (migration) 4.12 Had to leave home and move family away to find work 17 13 (migration) 4.13 Taken a job or done work that made you unsafe (such 28 1 1 as physical harm or physical/sexual abuse)?

4.13.1 What kind of work? (Describe) - - - -

THE AANGAN TRUST I 186 4.13.2 Did this work put you at risk for (select all that apply): Physical Psychological Physical Sexual injury: 1 harm: 0 abuse: 0 abuse: 0 (Construct ion work) Other: 1 (Illegal activities) 4.13.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: Possible - - - police arrest 4.13.4 Are you still doing this work? Yes: 1 No: 1

5.0 Dangerous or illegal activity

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than once NA (Question)

5.01 Joined or helped a gang or other dangerous groups in 29 1 exchange for protection, food, or shelter 5.02 Stolen food, property, or other items just to make do 29 1 5.03 Used substances to ease pain, anxiety, or hunger 10 2 18 (glue, paint, tobacco, alcohol, etc.)

5.04 Been left unattended for long periods (an hour or 12 1 17 more) because your caregiver couldn’t arrange childcare 5.05 Stayed in an unsafe place just to have shelter (2 28 2 participants who were involved in child labour work) 5.06 Stayed in an abusive or dangerous relationship just to 30 have somebody to take care of you 5.07 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities 30 for food, money, protection, or shelter with someone you did know (neighbor, family, friends, etc.) 5.08 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities 30 for food, money, protection, or shelter with a stranger

5.09 Participated in violent protests, rallies, or movements 30 5.10 Physically hurt or threatened someone for food or 30 shelter 5.11 Behaved in a way that would cause the community to 28 2 treat you badly/ostracize you (Due to inappropriate and aggressive behaviour post frequent alcohol binge – both male participants) 5.12 Sold illegal substances, such as drugs or sold stolen 29 1 foods/gasoline/other items that are in shortage (1 male participant who was involved in a gang selling drugs from age 16 – 19yrs – now a scavenger)

5.13 Engaged in self-harm, including purposely injuring 21 6 3 oneself or attempted suicide Mainly female. Due to husband’s alcoholic addiction (2), poverty (1), husband’s ill-treatment due to absence of male child (1), domestic violence and abuse (4), loss of hope for the future (1)

THE AANGAN TRUST I 187 6.0 Self-care and self-healing changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

6.01 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or 30 other mindfulness/reflective practices in groups 6.02 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or 25 1 4 other mindfulness/reflective practices alone, including journaling

6.03 Engaged (or increased engagement) in physical or 30 athletic activity, including dance or sports 6.04 Engaged (or increased engagement) in intellectual or 23 5 2 educational activity, including reading or enriching your knowledge base 6.05 Engaged (or increased engagement) in hobbies or 27 1 2 activities that bring you personal joy, including music, art, etc. 6.06 Decreased hygiene practice, such as bathing/cleaning 13 2 15 self and clothes less often OR Stopped hygiene practice 6.07 Decreased health maintenance, such as not taking 2 28 care of wounds/injuries or using medical treatments (medications, and related products) less often OR Stopped health maintenance

6.08 Increased time spent in isolation 26 3 1 6.09 Increased time spent with others 27 1 2 6.10 Engaged in another activity to improve your personal Yes: 2 No: 28 livelihood that was not mentioned previously (e.g. any other coping mechanisms that helped you to take care of your body/physical needs and your mind/ psychosocial well-being) 6.10.1 If yes, please describe: - - - -

THE AANGAN TRUST I 188 APPENDIX 3: SAFE TOOL QUANTITATIVE DATA

AMALGANJ, PATNA

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

1. Total number of Research Participants interviewed 32 2. Number of Research interviews discarded due to incomplete data 2 3. Total number of completed SAFE Interviews (inclusive of both parts 1 & 2) 30 4. Total number of Male Research Subjects (Completed) 14

5. Total number of Female Research Subjects (Completed) 16

3A) SAFE TOOL 1 - Experiences of children and families in the community

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

6. Age range of Research Subjects (e.g. 25 – 48 years) 26-82 7. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location during their 20 (Most have migrated lifetime (inclusive of those who migrated within the past ten years) from the other side of river Ganga. Sitamarhi (5), , Muzaffarpur(5), Masaurhi (2), Vaishali, Dharbhanga, Madhbani, Motihari, Barauni, Raghopur, Dhanbad and Fatehpur) 8. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 0 ten years (inclusive of those who migrated within the past two years) 9. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 0 two years 10. Average number of people who live in each household 5

11. Number of Research Subjects who have ever attended school 20 12. Education range of Research Subjects (e.g. Grade II to Graduation; No schooling No schooling to Grade IX to Grade VIII etc.)

THE AANGAN TRUST I 189 PART 1: Health of Children

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50 51-75 All/ All % % 76-100%

1.1 How many of the children currently have access to: 2 1 10 10 7 Clean drinking water? Respondents consider tap water as clean 1.2 Hospitals and/or health clinics? 5 25 1.3 Doctors, nurses, community health workers, and/or health 1 1 7 21 volunteers? 1.4 Free health services? 2 4 24

1.5 Health services that can be reached by accessible roads? 1 29 1.6 Health services that can be reached by public 1 29 transportation (bus, auto rickshaw)? 1.7 Health services that are open 24 hours a day and 7 days 2 3 10 15 per week? 1.8 Sexual health services such as testing, counseling, and 1 3 15 9 2 treatment for HIV and/or other sexually transmitted infections? 1.9 Medical treatment for diarrhea? 1 4 25

1.10 Medical treatment for dengue? 1 4 25 1.11 Medical treatment for malaria? 1 4 25 1.12 Medical treatment for having coughs and/or difficulty 1 4 25 breathing? 1.13 How many of the girls and/or women currently have 5 25 access to: Medical care before having a baby and/or medical care after having a baby? 1.14 Birth control methods such as condoms and/or birth 30 control pills?

1.15 Abortion services such as having trained medical workers 5 2 6 14 3 end a pregnancy? 1.16 How many of the children currently: 11 14 1 3 1 Use drugs or other substances such as whitener, iodex, puncture tube fluid, smack, or solvent? Few 10-12% boys - from age 10 yrs; None 0% girls 1.17 Smoke cigarettes? None 0% girls; Some 45% boys 2 2 18 8 overall i.e. 0-18yrs. However, from age 10 -12 years, Almost all 80% boys smoke and/or chew tobacco 1.18 Use alcohol? None 0% girls; Few 20% boys overall i.e. 3 24 3 0-18 yrs (Age 12-15 yrs: 15-20%; Age 16-18 yrs: 60-70%). 1.19 Have enough to eat? 1 5 24

1.20 Eat discarded and/or spoiled food? 26 2 2

THE AANGAN TRUST I 190 1.21 Have problems sleeping? None 0% girls; Few 2-3% boys 21 7 2 - Due to drugs, alcohol 1.22 Feel tired throughout the day? 21 7 1 1 1.23 Have received complete routine immunization? Over 85% 2 28

1.24 Need medical care but do not receive it because they 21 6 3 cannot afford it?

1.25 Need medication but do not receive it because they 22 5 3 cannot afford it? 1.26 Have died from health-related problems? 28 2

PART 2: Children and their relationships with family, friends and community

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50 51-75% All/ All % 76-100%

2.1 How many of the children currently: 2 6 9 8 5

Have to care for younger children without the help of an adult? Most 60% girls; Few 20% boys 2.2 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or beaten 2 2 12 14 in the home? Some 60% girls; Almost all 90% boys 2.3 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name-called, 1 2 11 16 accused, and/or humiliated in the home? 70% Most girls; 90% Almost all boys 2.4 Are inappropriately touched in the home? 30 2.5 Are raped in the home? 30

2.6 Witness community violence such as assault, use of 1 12 13 4 weapons, muggings, gang violence, and/or police brutality? 10% Few girls; 80% Almost all boys 2.7 Are treated badly by others because of race, ethnicity, 21 9 gender, caste, illness, disability, and/or religion? Gender Discrimination - household work responsibilities, handling younger siblings 2.8 Have at least one family member who abuses drugs? 11 14 4 1 2.9 Have at least one family member who abuses alcohol? 2 7 6 6 9 2.10 Have a relationship with a trusted individual who provides 2 14 3 1 9 1 them with care? 2.11 How many of the children currently have access to: 2 2 5 8 13

Social service and/or child welfare organizations? 2.12 Religious, spiritual, dance, arts, and/or sports programs? 3 3 4 9 11

2.13 Services that reunite separated children to their families? 24 6

2.14 How many of the young girls (ages 0-18) at the site are 4 24 2 married? 20-22% Few girls - Mostly love marriages.

THE AANGAN TRUST I 191 2.15 How many of the young boys (ages 0-18) at the site are 6 22 1 1 married 4-5% Few boys - mostly love marriage. Arranged marriage- mostly in the age group 21-25yrs

PART 3: Children and their exposure to harm, violence, and physical and emotional safety

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100% 3.1 In the past 6 months, how many of the children were: 6 24 Burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, or beaten at the site? Few 2% girls; Few 8-10% boys

3.2 Inappropriately touched at the site? 30 3.3 Raped at the site? 30 3.4 Threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name-called, 3 13 8 6 accused, and/or humiliated at the site? Few 7-8% girls; Few 17-18% boys 3.5 Killed by violence at the site? 30 3.6 Killed by accidents at the site? Two accidents (less than 21 9 1%)

3.7 Using weapons such as guns, knives, and/or sharp 14 16 objects to hurt others? Few 10-15% boys, None 0% girls 3.8 Living without a parent or another adult who takes care of 28 1 1 them at the site? 3.9 Exposed to unsafe chemicals in the air, water, and/or 2 1 12 15 home environment at the site? 3.10 Living in a space that is not protected from cold, damp, 1 3 17 9 heat, rain, and/or wind?

3.11 How many of the children left their homes to make money 1 14 4 10 1 for their families? Few boys (10-12% in 15-17 age group), None 0% girls 3.12 How many of the children left their homes due to violence 30 and/or abuse? 3.13 How many of the children currently have access to: 1 7 19 2 1 Toilets? 3.14 Separate toilets for girls and boys? 30 3.15 Washing facilities? 1 14 13 2

3.16 Separate washing facilities for girls and boys? 30 3.17 Answer Yes or No: There are toilets with locks inside the Yes: No:0 - - - - door Crude locks 30 3.18 There are washing facilities with locks inside the door Yes:0 No:30 - - - - Most people take bath at open spaces with some clothes on; hence no locks 3.19 How many of the children have access to: 16 1 3 6 4 Police whom they trust to provide protection? 3.20 Friends and/or peers whom they trust to provide 1 5 24 protection?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 192 3.21 Weapons such as knives, guns, and/or sharp objects? 7 14 7 2 None 0% girls; Few 20% boys

PART 4: Education for children; economic security for children and their families

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

4.1 How many of the children currently: 3 4 23 Attend school? 80% mainly 6-12 yrs. Almost all children (Refer begin attending school but highly irregular attendance and to note) early dropout. Almost all school-going children attend government school. Usually children study up to the age of 12-14 years i.e. until they complete up to grade 5th- 8th. 4.2 Of appropriate age attend an early education learning 1 3 26 program such as Aanganwadi Centers?

4.3 Of appropriate age attend primary school? 1 16 13 4.4 Of appropriate age complete primary school? 22 4 4

4.5 Of appropriate age attend secondary school? Secondary 13 11 6 school – about 25%; Higher secondary school – about 5-8%

4.6 Of appropriate age complete secondary school? 21 9 4.7 Attend a non-formal and/or informal learning program 10 19 1 such as skill building, vocational training, tailoring, IT courses, computer literacy, and/or informal apprenticeship programs? Few 6-7% girls; None 0% Boys 4.8 Are on the street, at the market, at the railways, and/or at 5 23 2 the worksite during school hours? None 0% girls; Few 15% boys

4.9 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or beaten 1 5 3 7 14 by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? 65% Most girls, 80-85% Almost all boys) 4.10 Are inappropriately touched by students, teachers, and/or 30 other people in school? 4.11 Are raped by students, teachers, and/or other people in 30 school? 4.12 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name-called, 7 9 10 4 accused, and/or humiliated by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? 4.13 Are treated badly because of race, ethnicity, gender, 28 2 caste, illness, disability, and/or religion by students, teachers, and/or other people?

4.14 Attend schools that have teachers who are frequently 30 changing? 4.15 Attend schools that provide a mid-day meal? 2 28 4.16 Cannot attend school because of the travel time and/or 30 distance between [NAME OF SITE] and the school? 4.17 Attend schools that employ teachers who have adequate 1 5 24 years of schooling?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 193 4.18 Have their own chair or bench to sit on at school? 1 1 2 26 4.19 Have their own textbooks at school? 9 21 4.20 How many of the children currently cannot attend school 19 8 3 due to: School fees? 4.21 Need to earn money for household? 35-40% Some girls; 6 6 10 7 1 50-55% Most boys from age 10-12yrs onwards – for household and/or personal expenses

4.22 Transportation costs? 30 4.23 Cost of clothing such as uniforms and/or shoes? 15 14 1 4.24 Need to look after other children? 30-35% Some girls; 3% 4 12 14 Few boys 4.25 Need to look after an adult? Old Grandparents. Few girls 5 21 4 1-2%, Few boys 1-2 % 4.26 No schools in the area? 30

4.27 Not enough teachers? 30 4.28 Language spoken at school? 30 4.29 Lack of space in school for more students? 30 4.30 Pregnancy? 27 3

4.31 Marriage? 8 18 1 1 2 4.32 How many of the children currently cannot attend school 7 8 5 7 3 due to: Household chores within the family home? 12% Few girls; 2% Few boys 4.33 Domestic labour such as cooking and/or cleaning outside 2 17 4 5 2 the family home? Prior to school dropout: Few girls 10-15% engaged in domestic work along with mothers; Few boys 8-10% working along with fathers - cleaning/ cooking outside the home (sweeper for apartment buildings, roadside eateries). 4.34 Selling things on the street? Prior to school dropout: Few 10 20 8% boys; None 0% girls. 4.35 Working in the fields? 30

4.36 Sex work such as prostitution? 30 4.37 Illegal activities such as selling drugs or stealing? None 17 12 1 0% girls; Few 2-3% boys involved in stealing household items. No drug-selling cases. 4.38 Scavenging for bottles and/or trash? None 0% girls; Few 13 17 4% boys 4.39 Hazardous work that harms health and/or safety? 19 10 1 4.40 Drug abuse? 2% Few girls (due to father’s substance 14 15 1 abuse - violence); 4% Few boys (either own drug abuse or due to father’s substance induced violence)

4.41 Corporal punishment in schools? 26 1 2 1

THE AANGAN TRUST I 194 4.42 Lack of proper documentation from previous schools? 24 6

PART 5: Income and economic stability for children and their families

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50 51-75% All/ All % 76-100%

5.1 In the last 6 months, how many of the children and/or 5 14 3 5 3 families have been: Unable to afford basic needs (food, water, shelter, clothing)? 12% 5.2 Unable to save money? 50-55% 5 9 9 7 5.3 Borrowing money from the bank, friends, and/or other 1 15 14 individuals?

5.4 Owe money to others? 1 4 13 12 5.5 How many of the children and/or families have access to: 15 15 1 1 Vocational training opportunities? 5.6 Informal micro-lending schemes such as community 4 2 1 15 7 1 loans?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 195 3B) SAFE TOOL 2 - Adaptive strategies used to cope with various difficulties and obstacles

1.0 Expenditure Changes

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

1.01 Reduced overall spending 7 1 22

1.02 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 5 1 24 food/water 1.03 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 6 3 21 essentials (other than food/water), such as medical, educational, housing items, etc 1.04 Sold assets to procure food or money (legal sale of 27 3 personal/family assets) 1.05 Made purchases on credit/borrowed money 14 2 14

1.06 Gone into debt due to credit purchases 21 2 7 1.07 Reached out to others for assistance with credit and 18 1 11 debt organization

2.0 Dietary Changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

2.01 Decreased the number of meals eaten each day 9 4 17

2.02 Spent an entire day without eating 18 3 9 2.03 Reduced the amount of food that some people in the 22 2 6 family ate so that others could eat 2.04 Changed the type of food you consumed (e.g. shift to 5 8 17 poorer quality or cheaper food) 2.05 Stopped consuming or procuring filtered, clean water 12 8 10 NGO World Vision provided water filters to 18 of the 30 respondents (Once and More than once responses) while 12 respondents did not receive water filters. Out of 18, 8 respondents cannot use the filter because it stopped working; 10 respondents repaired the filter several times and are currently using this water filter. 2.06 Asked people you didn’t know for food 30

2.07 Asked relatives, friends, or other community members 16 7 7 to give you food 2.08 Sent members of the household elsewhere to eat or to 23 4 3 beg for food 2.09 Travelled long distances to acquire food/water 29 1

THE AANGAN TRUST I 196 3.0 Social/ Community-related changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

3.01 Started or joined an advocacy group or community 19 4 7 organization to deal with needed services or advocate for rights Part of JLGs (MFIs); NGOs 3.02 Obtained services (mental, physical, and emotional) or 12 7 11 entitlements for yourself or your family (from NGO, school, hospital, clinic, government office, etc.) 3.03 Started or joined a social welfare and protection 27 2 1 committee 3.04 Started or joined a child welfare and protection 29 1 committee

3.05 Participated in peaceful rallies or citizen’s movements 30 3.06 Enlisted the support of local leaders or police to report 27 2 1 child abuse or neglect 3.07 Consulted a family or community member to talk 1 29 about problems 3.08 Enlisted the help of family or community to stop a 24 2 4 situation of abuse or neglect 3.09 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 26 2 2 community members for financial needs (free/not borrowed)

3.10 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 25 3 2 community members for childcare needs (alternative caregivers for children) 3.11 Helped with rebuilding the community infrastructure 11 3 16 (like construction, supplies, feeding workers, etc.) 3.12 Started or engaged in more community-initiated 10 6 14 projects, including celebratory activities and community empowerment programs (e.g. sports, clubs, etc.) 3.13 Started or engaged in more school-based projects, 30 including celebratory activities and programs promoting education

3.14 Combined your immediate family with extended family 29 1 under one household/roof 3.15 Combined your family with others (not related) under 30 one household/roof 3.16 Changed the head-of-household to adapt to other 28 2 changes (e.g. oldest children or grandparents/ extended relatives became new head of the house) Death of husband in both cases - wives became new head of house. 3.17 Left household to live with a family other than your 28 1 1 own 3.18 Left household to live with relatives in a faraway place 29 1

THE AANGAN TRUST I 197 3.19 Left to live in an orphanage because your caregiver 30 could not take care of you at home 3.20 Sought spiritual or religious organization for financial, 18 8 4 social, or psychological support

4.0 Occupational/ Educational changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

4.01 Taken on a new job (you) 4 22 4 4.02 Taken on a new job (other members of your family or 8 19 3 household) 4.02.1 Which members (check all that apply) Men/ Women/ Children: 7 NA:8 Many men take up multiple daily wage jobs Fathers: 14 Mothers: 8 4.02.2 If women/mothers, what type of work (check all that Domestic/ Business Health care: Manufactur apply): child care:7 / 0 ing:0 (Domestic Finance: maid work) 1 Other:0 (running tea stall)

4.02.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: - - - - 4.03 Started a small business making or growing things to 24 5 1 sell to get by 4.04 Increased work load and time spent working to 17 8 5 procure greater income 4.05 Joined a vocational or technical school 28 2 4.06 Stopped going to school in order to work Includes 4 23 2 1 those who have never been to school

4.07 Stopped going to school or alternated the days you go 9 9 10 2 to school Includes those who have never been to school 4.08 Stayed home from school to look after siblings and/or 26 4 help with domestic work 4.09 Went to work for a family other than your own 30 4.10 Worked as a child laborer for shelter, either with 30 another family or institution 4.11 Had to leave household, alone, to travel and find work 29 1 (migration)

4.12 Had to leave home and move family away to find work 29 1 (migration) 4.13 Taken a job or done work that made you unsafe (such 27 3 as physical harm or physical/sexual abuse)? 4.13.1 What kind of work? (Describe) - - - -

THE AANGAN TRUST I 198 4.13.2 Did this work put you at risk for (select all that apply): Physical Psycholo Physical Sexual injury: 3 gical abuse: 0 abuse: 0 harm: 0 Other: 0 4.13.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: - - - - 4.13.4 Are you still doing this work? Yes: 2 No: 1

5.0 Dangerous or illegal activity

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

5.01 Joined or helped a gang or other dangerous groups in 30 exchange for protection, food, or shelter 5.02 Stolen food, property, or other items just to make do 30 5.03 Used substances to ease pain, anxiety, or hunger 22 3 5 (glue, paint, tobacco, alcohol, etc.)

5.04 Been left unattended for long periods (an hour or 20 2 8 more) because your caregiver couldn’t arrange childcare 5.05 Stayed in an unsafe place just to have shelter 30 5.06 Stayed in an abusive or dangerous relationship just to 30 have somebody to take care of you 5.07 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities 30 for food, money, protection, or shelter with someone you did know (neighbor, family, friends, etc.) 5.08 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities 30 for food, money, protection, or shelter with a stranger

5.09 Participated in violent protests, rallies or movements 30 5.10 Physically hurt or threatened someone for food or 30 shelter 5.11 Behaved in a way that would cause the community to 30 treat you badly/ostracize you 5.12 Sold illegal substances, such as drugs or sold stolen 30 foods/gasoline/other items that are in shortage 5.13 Engaged in self-harm, including purposely injuring 30 oneself or attempted suicide

6.0 Self-care and self-healing changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

6.01 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or 24 1 5 other mindfulness/reflective practices in groups 6.02 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or 23 3 4 other mindfulness/reflective practices alone, including journaling

THE AANGAN TRUST I 199 6.03 Engaged (or increased engagement) in physical or 29 1 athletic activity, including dance or sports 6.04 Engaged (or increased engagement) in intellectual or 24 1 5 educational activity, including reading or enriching your knowledge base 6.05 Engaged (or increased engagement) in hobbies or 22 3 5 activities that bring you personal joy, including music, art, etc. 6.06 Decreased hygiene practice, such as bathing/cleaning 4 4 22 self and clothes less often OR Stopped hygiene practice

6.07 Decreased health maintenance, such as not taking 4 4 22 care of wounds/injuries or using medical treatments (medications, and related products) less often OR Stopped health maintenance 6.08 Increased time spent in isolation 24 3 3 6.09 Increased time spent with others 1 1 28 6.10 Engaged in another activity to improve your personal Yes: 0 No: 30 livelihood that was not mentioned previously (e.g. any other coping mechanisms that helped you to take care of your body/physical needs and your mind/ psychosocial well-being) 6.10.1 If yes, please describe: - - - -

THE AANGAN TRUST I 200 APPENDIX 4: SAFE TOOL QUANTITATIVE DATA

DARUKHANA, MUMBAI

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

1. Total number of Research Participants interviewed 42 2. Number of Research interviews discarded due to incomplete data 12 3. Total number of completed SAFE Interviews (inclusive of both parts 1 & 2) 30 4. Total number of Male Research Subjects (Completed) 2

5. Total number of Female Research Subjects (Completed) 28

4A) SAFE TOOL 1 - Experiences of children and families in the community

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

6. Age range of Research Subjects (e.g. 25 – 48 years) 26-60 7. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location during their 11 {Tamil Nadu (2), UP, lifetime (inclusive of those who migrated within the past ten years) Bihar, Solapur, Aurangabad, Parli, Ratnagiri, Gujarat, Banpur, Hingoli} 8. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 0 ten years (inclusive of those who migrated within the past two years) 9. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 0 two years 10. Average number of people who live in each household 5

11. Number of Research Subjects who have ever attended school 26 12. Education range of Research Subjects (e.g. Grade II to Graduation; No schooling No schooling to Grade XII to Grade VIII etc.)

THE AANGAN TRUST I 201 PART 1: Health of Children

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

1.1 How many of the children currently have access to: 21 9 Clean drinking water? 1.2 Hospitals and/or health clinics? 1 14 15 1.3 Doctors, nurses, community health workers, and/or 1 14 15 health volunteers?

1.4 Free health services? 5 12 13 1.5 Health services that can be reached by accessible roads? 30 1.6 Health services that can be reached by public 30 transportation (bus, auto rickshaw)? 1.7 Health services that are open 24 hours a day and 7 days 10 7 13 per week? 1.8 Sexual health services such as testing, counseling, and 3 18 9 treatment for HIV and/or other sexually transmitted infections? Access for HIV, but not other STDs due to stigma

1.9 Medical treatment for diarrhea? 10 19 1 1.10 Medical treatment for dengue? 27 2 1 1.11 Medical treatment for malaria? 9 16 5 1.12 Medical treatment for having coughs and/or difficulty 6 18 5 1 breathing? 1.13 How many of the girls and/or women currently have 30 access to: Medical care before having a baby and/or medical care after having a baby?

1.14 Birth control methods such as condoms and/or birth 30 control pills? 1.15 Abortion services such as having trained medical workers 30 end a pregnancy? Children have access but may not choose to utilise these services in premarital pregnancies 1.16 How many of the children currently: 30 Use drugs or other substances such as whitener, iodex, puncture tube fluid, smack, or solvent? 5% Few girls; 75% Most boys – includes both experimental and addicted teenagers 1.17 Smoke cigarettes? 30 1.18 Use alcohol? 30

1.19 Have enough to eat? 24 6 1.20 Eat discarded and/or spoiled food? 20 3 7 1.21 Have problems sleeping? Due to drugs, lack of sleeping 6 14 4 6 space inside homes

THE AANGAN TRUST I 202 1.22 Feel tired throughout the day? Due to lack of adequate 2 23 2 3 nutrition 1.23 Have received complete routine immunization? 30

1.24 Need medical care but do not receive it because they 29 1 cannot afford it?

1.25 Need medication but do not receive it because they 12 18 cannot afford it? 1.26 Have died from health-related problems? Less than 1% 24 6

PART 2: Children and their relationships with family, friends and community

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

2.1 How many of the children currently: 22 8

Have to care for younger children without the help of an adult? 45% Some girls; 2% Few boys 2.2 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or beaten 14 16 in the home? 45% Some girls; 70% Most boys 2.3 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name- 1 14 15 called, accused, and/or humiliated in the home? 50% Some girls; 75% Most boys 2.4 Are inappropriately touched in the home? 13 17 2.5 Are raped in the home? 14 16

2.6 Witness community violence such as assault, use of 6 23 1 weapons, muggings, gang violence, and/or police brutality?

2.7 Are treated badly by others because of race, ethnicity, 1 27 2 gender, caste, illness, disability, and/or religion?

2.8 Have at least one family member who abuses drugs? 18 9 3 2.9 Have at least one family member who abuses alcohol? 3 27

2.10 Have a relationship with a trusted individual who provides 6 21 3 them with care? 10%

2.11 How many of the children currently have access to: 3 10 17

Social service and/or child welfare organizations?

2.12 Religious, spiritual, dance, arts, and/or sports programs? 5 25 2.13 Services that reunite separated children to their families? 30

2.14 How many of the young girls (ages 0-18) at the site are 5 21 4 married? 30% Some girls

THE AANGAN TRUST I 203 2.15 How many of the young boys (ages 0-18) at the site are 22 1 7 married 2-3% Few boys

PART 3: Children and their exposure to harm, violence, and physical and emotional safety

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

3.1 In the past 6 months, how many of the children were: 5 25 Burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, or beaten at the site? 35% Some boys; 2% Few girls 3.2 Inappropriately touched at the site? 40% Some girls; 0% 8 15 7 None boys 3.3 Raped at the site? 13 17

3.4 Threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name-called, 3 10 15 2 accused, and/or humiliated at the site? 3.5 Killed by violence at the site? 24 6 3.6 Killed by accidents at the site? 30

3.7 Using weapons such as guns, knives, and/or sharp 30 objects to hurt others? 0% None girls; 25% Few boys 3.8 Living without a parent or another adult who takes care of 2 28 them at the site? Mainly trafficked children working in factories 3.9 Exposed to unsafe chemicals in the air, water, and/or 30 home environment at the site? 3.10 Living in a space that is not protected from cold, damp, 30 heat, rain, and/or wind?

3.11 How many of the children left their homes to make money 30 for their families? 3.12 How many of the children left their homes due to violence 21 9 and/or abuse? 3.13 How many of the children currently have access to: 30 Toilets? Have paid access but most do not use 3.14 Separate toilets for girls and boys? Public toilets 30

3.15 Washing facilities? Usually inadequate makeshift 19 11 multipurpose washing facilities within homes (not fully covered) - also used for bathing 3.16 Separate washing facilities for girls and boys? 30 3.17 Answer Yes or No: There are toilets with locks inside the Yes: No:19 - - - - door A few public toilets don’t have locks 11

3.18 There are washing facilities with locks inside the door Yes:0 No:30 - - - - 3.19 How many of the children have access to: 17 13 Police whom they trust to provide protection?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 204 3.20 Friends and/or peers whom they trust to provide 3 8 9 10 protection? 3.21 Weapons such as knives, guns, and/or sharp objects? 2% 14 16 Few girls; 55% Most boys

PART 4: Education for children; economic security for children and their families

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50 51-75% All/ All % 76-100%

4.1 How many of the children currently: 4 16 10 Attend school? Overall, about 50-55% children 6-18yrs attend school. 90% enroll in primary school: 35% private, 55% government; 10% no schooling 4.2 Of appropriate age attend an early education learning 19 11 program such as Aanganwadi Centers?

4.3 Of appropriate age attend primary school? But many 6 22 2 drop-out mid-way in primary schools

4.4 Of appropriate age complete primary school? 20 8 2

4.5 Of appropriate age attend secondary school? 6 20 4 4.6 Of appropriate age complete secondary school? 22 8 4.7 Attend a non-formal and/or informal learning program 13 17 such as skill building, vocational training, tailoring, IT courses, computer literacy, and/or informal apprenticeship programs? 3% Few girls; 2% Few boys

4.8 Are on the street, at the market, at the railways, and/or at 1 14 15 the worksite during school hours? 10% Few girls; 45% Some boys 4.9 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or beaten 1 29 by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? 4.10 Are inappropriately touched by students, teachers, and/or 30 other people in school? 4.11 Are raped by students, teachers, and/or other people in 30 school? 4.12 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name- 6 24 called, accused, and/or humiliated by students, teachers, and/or other people in school?

4.13 Are treated badly because of race, ethnicity, gender, 30 caste, illness, disability, and/or religion by students, teachers, and/or other people? 4.14 Attend schools that have teachers who are frequently 24 3 1 2 changing? 4.15 Attend schools that provide a mid-day meal? 30 4.16 Cannot attend school because of the travel time and/or 2 11 17 distance between [NAME OF SITE] and the school? 4.17 Attend schools that employ teachers who have adequate 6 11 5 8 years of schooling?

4.18 Have their own chair or bench to sit on at school? 30

THE AANGAN TRUST I 205 4.19 Have their own textbooks at school? 30 4.20 How many of the children currently cannot attend school 27 3 due to: School fees? 4.21 Need to earn money for household? 5% Few girls; 20% 27 3 Few boys. {Total working children: 10% (10-13 yrs); 30% (14-17yrs)} 4.22 Transportation costs? 5 25

4.23 Cost of clothing such as uniforms and/or shoes? 25 5 4.24 Need to look after other children? Mainly girls 30 4.25 Need to look after an adult? 30 4.26 No schools in the area? 4 10 16 4.27 Not enough teachers? 30

4.28 Language spoken at school? 10 20 4.29 Lack of space in school for more students? 18 12 4.30 Pregnancy? 0.5-1% pregnant before marriage 19 11 4.31 Marriage? 18-20% Few girls – love and arranged; 1% 30 Few boys - love

4.32 How many of the children currently cannot attend school 30 due to: Household chores within the family home? 25% Few girls; less than 1% Few boys 4.33 Domestic labour such as cooking and/or cleaning outside 30 the family home? 10% Few girls; 3-4% Few boys – BMC sweepers, car-washing, canteen assistants 4.34 Selling things on the street 10% Few girls; 20% Few boys 30 4.35 Working in the fields? 30 4.36 Sex work such as prostitution? 0.5-1% Few girls; 0% 16 14 None boys

4.37 Illegal activities such as selling drugs or stealing? 1-2% 30 Few girls; 30-35% Some boys 4.38 Scavenging for bottles and/or trash? 1% Few girls; 10% 30 Few boys 4.39 Hazardous work that harms health and/or safety? 14 16 4.40 Drug abuse? 0% None girls; 30% Some boys 30 4.41 Corporal punishment in schools? Not harsh. Beatings 30 with ruler or hand. But none bunking school due to this reason

4.42 Lack of proper documentation from previous schools? 30

THE AANGAN TRUST I 206 PART 5: Income and economic stability for children and their families

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50% 51-75% All/ All 76-100%

5.1 In the last 6 months, how many of the children and/or 25 5 families have been: Unable to afford basic needs (food, water, shelter, clothing)? 5.2 Unable to save money? 30 5.3 Borrowing money from the bank, friends, and/or other 30 individuals? 5.4 Owe money to others? 30

5.5 How many of the children and/or families have access to: 13 17 Vocational training opportunities? 5.6 Informal micro-lending schemes such as community 30 loans?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 207 4B) SAFE TOOL 2 - Adaptive strategies used to cope with various difficulties and obstacles

1.0 Expenditure Changes

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

1.01 Reduced overall spending 30

1.02 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 30 food/water 1.03 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 30 essentials (other than food/water), such as medical, educational, housing items, etc 1.04 Sold assets to procure food or money (legal sale of 6 20 4 personal/family assets) 1.05 Made purchases on credit/borrowed money 3 27

1.06 Gone into debt due to credit purchases 25 5 1.07 Reached out to others for assistance with credit and 29 1 debt organization

2.0 Dietary Changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

2.01 Decreased the number of meals eaten each day 2 1 27

2.02 Spent an entire day without eating 5 1 24 2.03 Reduced the amount of food that some people in the 3 1 26 family ate so that others could eat Mainly mothers reduce so that children can eat 2.04 Changed the type of food you consumed (e.g. shift to 30 poorer quality or cheaper food) 2.05 Stopped consuming or procuring filtered, clean water 26 4 2.06 Asked people you didn’t know for food 20 10

2.07 Asked relatives, friends, or other community members 6 24 to give you food 2.08 Sent members of the household elsewhere to eat or to 24 1 5 beg for food 2.09 Travelled long distances to acquire food/water 28 2

THE AANGAN TRUST I 208 3.0 Social/ Community-related changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

3.01 Started or joined an advocacy group or community 16 11 3 organization to deal with needed services or advocate for rights 3.02 Obtained services (mental, physical, and emotional) or 30 entitlements for yourself or your family (from NGO, school, hospital, clinic, government office, etc.) Mainly government schools and hospitals; NGOs

3.03 Started or joined a social welfare and protection 25 2 3 committee 3.04 Started or joined a child welfare and protection 17 10 3 committee 3.05 Participated in peaceful rallies or citizen’s movements 15 4 11 3.06 Enlisted the support of local leaders or police to report 19 3 8 child abuse or neglect 3.07 Consulted a family or community member to talk about 8 12 10 problems

3.08 Enlisted the help of family or community to stop a 24 1 5 situation of abuse or neglect 3.09 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 12 18 community members for financial needs (free/not borrowed) 3.10 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 24 6 community members for childcare needs (alternative caregivers for children) 3.11 Helped with rebuilding the community infrastructure 25 3 2 (like construction, supplies, feeding workers, etc.) 3.12 Started or engaged in more community-initiated 18 8 4 projects, including celebratory activities and community empowerment programs (e.g. sports, clubs, etc.)

3.13 Started or engaged in more school-based projects, 25 2 3 including celebratory activities and programs promoting education 3.14 Combined your immediate family with extended family 30 under one household/roof 3.15 Combined your family with others (not related) under 30 one household/roof 3.16 Changed the head-of-household to adapt to other 24 6 changes (e.g. oldest children or grandparents/extended relatives became new head of the house)

3.17 Left household to live with a family other than your own 27 2 1 3.18 Left household to live with relatives in a faraway place 28 2 3.19 Left to live in an orphanage because your caregiver 29 1 could not take care of you at home

THE AANGAN TRUST I 209 3.20 Sought spiritual or religious organization for financial, 30 social, or psychological support

4.0 Occupational/ Educational changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

4.01 Taken on a new job (you) 4 11 15 4.02 Taken on a new job (other members of your family or 6 14 10 household) 4.02.1 Which members (check all that apply) Men/ Women/ Children: 5 NA:6 Many take up multiple daily wage jobs Fathers:14 Mothers: 12 4.02.2 If women/mothers, what type of work (check all that Domestic/ Business Health care: Manufactur apply): child care: 8 / 2 ing:5 Finance: 2 Other:3

4.02.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: - - - -

4.03 Started a small business making or growing things to 26 4 sell to get by 4.04 Increased work load and time spent working to procure 9 2 19 greater income 4.05 Joined a vocational or technical school 26 4 4.06 Stopped going to school in order to work 13 13 4 4.07 Stopped going to school or alternated the days you go 27 1 2 to school

4.08 Stayed home from school to look after siblings and/or 19 2 9 help with domestic work 4.09 Went to work for a family other than your own 27 1 2 4.10 Worked as a child laborer for shelter, either with 26 4 another family or institution 4.11 Had to leave household, alone, to travel and find work 28 2 (migration) 4.12 Had to leave home and move family away to find work 29 1 (migration)

4.13 Taken a job or done work that made you unsafe (such 28 1 1 as physical harm or physical/sexual abuse)? 4.13.1 What kind of work? (Describe) - - - -

THE AANGAN TRUST I 210 4.13.2 Did this work put you at risk for (select all that apply): Physical Psycholo Physical Sexual injury: 1 gical abuse: 1 abuse: 1 (constructio harm: 0 (Balwadi (balwadi n) teacher teacher - beaten up sexual within harassmen community t, rape by local threats) thugs) Other: 0 4.13.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: - - - - 4.13.4 Are you still doing this work? Yes: 0 No: 2

5.0 Dangerous or illegal activity

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

5.01 Joined or helped a gang or other dangerous groups in 30 exchange for protection, food, or shelter 5.02 Stolen food, property, or other items just to make do 27 1 2 5.03 Used substances to ease pain, anxiety, or hunger (glue, 19 3 8 paint, tobacco, alcohol, etc.)

5.04 Been left unattended for long periods (an hour or more) 12 18 because your caregiver couldn’t arrange childcare 5.05 Stayed in an unsafe place just to have shelter 24 4 2 5.06 Stayed in an abusive or dangerous relationship just to have somebody to take care of you Domestic violence, 19 11 staying with uncaring relatives away from family home 5.07 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities for food, money, protection, or shelter with someone 30 you did know (neighbor, family, friends, etc.) 5.08 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities 30 for food, money, protection, or shelter with a stranger

5.09 Participated in violent protests, rallies or movements 22 8 5.10 Physically hurt or threatened someone for food or 29 1 shelter 5.11 Behaved in a way that would cause the community to 29 1 treat you badly/ostracize you 5.12 Sold illegal substances, such as drugs or sold stolen 29 1 foods/gasoline/other items that are in shortage 5.13 Engaged in self-harm, including purposely injuring 22 6 2 oneself or attempted suicide

THE AANGAN TRUST I 211 6.0 Self-care and self-healing changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

6.01 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or 29 1 other mindfulness/reflective practices in groups 6.02 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or 29 1 other mindfulness/reflective practices alone, including journaling 6.03 Engaged (or increased engagement) in physical or 29 1 athletic activity, including dance or sports 6.04 Engaged (or increased engagement) in intellectual or 22 8 educational activity, including reading or enriching your knowledge base

6.05 Engaged (or increased engagement) in hobbies or 28 2 activities that bring you personal joy, including music, art, etc. 6.06 Decreased hygiene practice, such as bathing/cleaning 26 4 self and clothes less often OR Stopped hygiene practice 6.07 Decreased health maintenance, such as not taking care 7 23 of wounds/injuries or using medical treatments (medications, and related products) less often OR Stopped health maintenance 6.08 Increased time spent in isolation 16 3 11 6.09 Increased time spent with others 28 2

6.10 Engaged in another activity to improve your personal Yes: 10 No:20 livelihood that was not mentioned previously (e.g. any other coping mechanisms that helped you to take care of your body/physical needs and your mind/psychosocial well-being) 6.10.1 If yes, please describe: Mainly - - - trainings and other sessions through NGOs existing within Darukhana

THE AANGAN TRUST I 212 APPENDIX 5: SAFE TOOL QUANTITATIVE DATA

SULTANKOT, VARANASI

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

1. Total number of Research Participants interviewed 32 2. Number of Research interviews discarded due to incomplete data 2 3. Total number of completed SAFE Interviews (inclusive of both parts 1 & 2) 30 4. Total number of Male Research Subjects (Completed) 10

5. Total number of Female Research Subjects (Completed) 20

5A) SAFE TOOL 1 - Experiences of children and families in the community

Sr. No. Category Number/ Range

6. Age range of Research Subjects (e.g. 25 – 48 years) 21-58 7. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location during their 23 {Research participants lifetime (inclusive of those who migrated within the past ten years) who have migrated have mostly come from areas within Varanasi itself like Pilikothi, Chittanpura, or in UP such as Jaunpur, Mirzapur, Ghazipur. There are just five people who have come from outside the state of UP from Chattisgarh (1), WB (1) and Bihar (3).} *Women have mainly migrated post marriage 8. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 4 {Chattisgarh (1); other ten years (inclusive of those who migrated within the past two years) parts of UP (3)} 9. Number of research subjects who migrated to the current location within the past 0 two years 10. Average number of people who live in each household 9

11. Number of Research Subjects who have ever attended school 13 12. Education range of Research Subjects (e.g. Grade II to Graduation; No schooling No schooling to B.A. to Grade VIII etc.)

THE AANGAN TRUST I 213 PART 1: Health of Children

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50 51-75 All/ All % % 76-100%

1.1 How many of the children currently have access to: 16 6 4 4 Clean drinking water? 1.2 Hospitals and/or health clinics? 3 16 7 4 1.3 Doctors, nurses, community health workers, and/or health 8 15 7 volunteers? 1.4 Free health services? Even govt. hospital staff demand 10 9 6 2 3 bribes

1.5 Health services that can be reached by accessible roads? 5 25 1.6 Health services that can be reached by public transportation 1 12 14 1 2 (bus, auto rickshaw)? Need to walk some distance because even rickshaws cannot enter some of the narrow community streets. Transportation easily accessed from the main roads. 1.7 Health services that are open 24 hours a day and 7 days 1 4 25 per week? Government hospitals 1.8 Sexual health services such as testing, counseling, and 6 12 2 2 2 6 treatment for HIV and/or other sexually transmitted infections? Children (and adults) lacking in awareness. Can access only if accompanied by adult.

1.9 Medical treatment for diarrhea? 2 20 7 1 1.10 Medical treatment for dengue? 2 8 18 2 1.11 Medical treatment for malaria? 1 4 21 4 1.12 Medical treatment for having coughs and/or difficulty 1 19 1 7 2 breathing? 1.13 How many of the girls and/or women currently have access 2 17 9 2 to: Medical care before having a baby and/or medical care after having a baby? Services available but rarely accessed

1.14 Birth control methods such as condoms and/or birth control 14 10 5 1 pills? Available but low usage 1.15 Abortion services such as having trained medical workers 9 10 6 1 2 2 end a pregnancy? 1.16 How many of the children currently: 8 16 4 2 Use drugs or other substances such as whitener, iodex, puncture tube fluid, smack, or solvent? Only teenaged boys use drugs – below 10% 1.17 Smoke cigarettes? Only boys smoke. Chewing tobacco – 3 20 7 over 60% including few girls 1.18 Use alcohol? Only boys 5 14 11

1.19 Have enough to eat? 15 14 1 1.20 Eat discarded and/or spoiled food? 10 14 6

THE AANGAN TRUST I 214 1.21 Have problems sleeping? Due to pain, hunger, stress 22 8 1.22 Feel tired throughout the day? 3 3 3 17 4 1.23 Have received complete routine immunization? About 20% 3 20 4 1 2

1.24 Need medical care but do not receive it because they 1 1 18 8 2 cannot afford it?

1.25 Need medication but do not receive it because they cannot 6 22 2 afford it? 1.26 Have died from health-related problems? 9 10 6 5

PART 2: Children and their relationships with family, friends and community

Some Almost None Few Most Q. No. Question 26-50 All/ All Blank 0% 1-25% 51-75% % 76-100%

2.1 How many of the children currently: 3 6 12 9

Have to care for younger children without the help of an adult? Mainly girls 2.2 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or beaten 3 15 12 in the home? 2.3 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name-called, 2 3 25 accused, and/or humiliated in the home? 2.4 Are inappropriately touched in the home? 11 4 7 3 5

2.5 Are raped in the home? 11 14 5 2.6 Witness community violence such as assault, use of 1 12 15 2 weapons, muggings, gang violence, and/or police brutality? 60-65%, Mainly boys

2.7 Are treated badly by others because of race, ethnicity, 27 3 gender, caste, illness, disability, and/or religion? Gender- related female restrictions were not perceived by respondents as untoward; religious discrimination was strongly denied 2.8 Have at least one family member who abuses drugs? 4 14 9 3 2.9 Have at least one family member who abuses alcohol? 8 17 5 2.10 Have a relationship with a trusted individual who provides 5 10 7 7 1 them with care? 2.11 How many of the children currently have access to: 9 17 4

Social service and/or child welfare organizations? 2.12 Religious, spiritual, dance, arts, and/or sports programs? 2 5 10 12 1 Mainly religious activities 2.13 Services that reunite separated children to their families? 29 1 2.14 How many of the young girls (ages 0-18) at the site are 6 5 9 11 married? 50-55% including love and arranged marriages

THE AANGAN TRUST I 215 2.15 How many of the young boys (ages 0-18) at the site are 12 16 2 married 2-3% only love marriages

PART 3: Children and their exposure to harm, violence, and physical and emotional safety

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50 51-75% All/ All % 76-100%

3.1 In the past 6 months, how many of the children were: 3 19 8 Burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, or beaten at the site? 3.2 Inappropriately touched at the site? 9 14 7

3.3 Raped at the site? None within the past six months 26 4 3.4 Threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name-called, 7 8 12 3 accused, and/or humiliated at the site? About 60% - includes both community and work space interactions 3.5 Killed by violence at the site? 30 3.6 Killed by accidents at the site? 25 5

3.7 Using weapons such as guns, knives, and/or sharp 18 10 2 objects to hurt others? 3.8 Living without a parent or another adult who takes care 9 21 of them at the site? 3.9 Exposed to unsafe chemicals in the air, water, and/or 1 6 6 17 home environment at the site? 3.10 Living in a space that is not protected from cold, damp, 11 12 7 heat, rain, and/or wind? 3.11 How many of the children left their homes to make 8 19 3 money for their families?

3.12 How many of the children left their homes due to 14 15 1 violence and/or abuse? 3.13 How many of the children currently have access to: 9 21 Toilets? About 80% 3.14 Separate toilets for girls and boys? 30 3.15 Washing facilities? 4 6 20 3.16 Separate washing facilities for girls and boys? 30

3.17 Answer Yes or No: There are toilets with locks inside the Yes: No: - - - door 11 19 3.18 There are washing facilities with locks inside the door Yes:3 No: - - - 27 3.19 How many of the children have access to: 10 14 4 2 Police whom they trust to provide protection? 3.20 Friends and/or peers whom they trust to provide 4 14 6 6 protection?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 216 3.21 Weapons such as knives, guns, and/or sharp objects? 21 9 Have access to knives and sharp objects but rarely use or carry on self

PART 4: Education for children; economic security for children and their families

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50 51-75% All/ All % 76-100%

4.1 How many of the children currently: 23 5 2 Attend school? 15% in 3-18 yrs age group. No schooling: 25% H and 15% M. School-going Muslims: 60% madrasa, 30% private, 10% govt. School-going Hindus: 70% private, 30% govt. 4.2 Of appropriate age attend an early education learning 12 13 4 1 program such as Aanganwadi Centers? Less than 5% - Irregular basic learning activities only in one of the four centers

4.3 Of appropriate age attend primary school? Several 3 15 12 children admitted into Grade I at age 7 or 8 yrs instead of 6 yrs

4.4 Of appropriate age complete primary school? 25 5 High drop-out rate

4.5 Of appropriate age attend secondary school? 8 20 2 Less than 10%

4.6 Of appropriate age complete secondary school? 10 20 Less than 3% 4.7 Attend a non-formal and/or informal learning program 14 15 1 such as skill building, vocational training, tailoring, IT courses, computer literacy, and/or informal apprenticeship programs? Mainly informal skill-building and apprenticeship programs 4.8 Are on the street, at the market, at the railways, and/or 3 8 15 4 at the worksite during school hours?

4.9 Are burned, hit, punched, shaken, kicked, and/or 7 19 4 beaten by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? *Of those attending school 4.10 Are inappropriately touched by students, teachers, and/ 30 or other people in school? 4.11 Are raped by students, teachers, and/or other people in 30 school? 4.12 Are threatened, intimidated, yelled at harshly, name- 1 5 12 11 1 called, accused, and/or humiliated by students, teachers, and/or other people in school? 4.13 Are treated badly because of race, ethnicity, gender, 20 10 caste, illness, disability, and/or religion by students, teachers, and/or other people?

THE AANGAN TRUST I 217 4.14 Attend schools that have teachers who are frequently 12 10 8 changing? 4.15 Attend schools that provide a mid-day meal? 28 2 4.16 Cannot attend school because of the travel time and/or 10 14 5 1 distance between [NAME OF SITE] and the school? Mainly Government schools 4.17 Attend schools that employ teachers who have 18 4 1 7 adequate years of schooling?

4.18 Have their own chair or bench to sit on at school? 4 10 16 4.19 Have their own textbooks at school? 9 14 7 4.20 How many of the children currently cannot attend 2 2 25 1 school due to: School fees? 4.21 Need to earn money for household? From age 6yrs 6 17 7 onwards. Over 10yrs: 35% Hindu; 90% Muslim. Overall, over 60% of child labourers are engaged in weaving and embroidery 4.22 Transportation costs? Children mainly walk to school 20 8 2

4.23 Cost of clothing such as uniforms and/or shoes? Govt. 24 4 2 schools provide while private schools give adequate time - don’t usually pressurize students to come in uniform 4.24 Need to look after other children? Mainly girls 2 23 5 4.25 Need to look after an adult? 22 8 4.26 No schools in the area? 20 6 4

4.27 Not enough teachers? 4 17 6 3 4.28 Language spoken at school? 28 2 4.29 Lack of space in school for more students? 27 2 1 4.30 Pregnancy? 30 4.31 Marriage? Most girls drop out for other reasons much 26 4 before marriage

4.32 How many of the children currently cannot attend 9 9 12 school due to: Household chores within the family home? Only girls 4.33 Domestic labour such as cooking and/or cleaning 4 25 1 outside the family home? About 10% of child labourers 4.34 Selling things on the street 1 27 2 4.35 Working in the fields? 30 4.36 Sex work such as prostitution? 29 1

4.37 Illegal activities such as selling drugs or stealing? 27 3 4.38 Scavenging for bottles and/or trash? 16 14 4.39 Hazardous work that harms health and/or safety? 1 4 6 15 4 4.40 Drug abuse? 30

THE AANGAN TRUST I 218 4.41 Corporal punishment in schools? Mild-moderate 12 14 4 physical disciplining such as beatings with ruler, slaps etc. - not perceived by respondents as inappropriate 4.42 Lack of proper documentation from previous schools? 25 1 4

PART 5: Income and economic stability for children and their family

Q. No. Question None Few Some Most Almost Blank 0% 1-25% 26-50 51-75% All/ All % 76-100%

5.1 In the last 6 months, how many of the children and/or 3 5 17 5 families have been: Unable to afford basic needs (food, water, shelter, clothing)? 5.2 Unable to save money? About 80-85% 2 4 10 14 5.3 Borrowing money from the bank, friends, and/or other 2 16 12 individuals? 5.4 Owe money to others? 6 15 9

5.5 How many of the children and/or families have access to: 21 8 1 Vocational training opportunities? 5.6 Informal micro-lending schemes such as community loans? 8 20 2 Few take multiple MFI loans

THE AANGAN TRUST I 219 5B) SAFE TOOL 2 - Adaptive strategies used to cope with various difficulties and obstacles

1.0 Expenditure Changes

Number of Research Subjects (out of 30) who responded:-

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

1.01 Reduced overall spending 2 4 24

1.02 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 2 6 22 food/water 1.03 Decided not to spend money on any items other than 1 2 27 essentials (other than food/water), such as medical, educational, housing items, etc 1.04 Sold assets to procure food or money (legal sale of 6 14 10 personal/family assets) 1.05 Made purchases on credit/borrowed money 2 28

1.06 Gone into debt due to credit purchases 12 4 14 1.07 Reached out to others for assistance with credit and 21 4 5 debt organization

2.0 Dietary Changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

2.01 Decreased the number of meals eaten each day 5 7 18

2.02 Spent an entire day without eating 14 7 9 2.03 Reduced the amount of food that some people in the 12 2 16 family ate so that others could eat 2.04 Changed the type of food you consumed (e.g. shift to 1 29 poorer quality or cheaper food) 2.05 Stopped consuming or procuring filtered, clean water 5 25 1 2.06 Asked people you didn’t know for food 30

2.07 Asked relatives, friends, or other community members 10 8 12 to give you food 2.08 Sent members of the household elsewhere to eat or 27 2 1 to beg for food Sent children to relative’s homes for meals 2.09 Travelled long distances to acquire food/water 30

THE AANGAN TRUST I 220 3.0 Social/ Community-related changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

3.01 Started or joined an advocacy group or community 27 2 1 organization to deal with needed services or advocate for rights 3.02 Obtained services (mental, physical, and emotional) or 21 4 5 entitlements for yourself or your family (from NGO, school, hospital, clinic, government office, etc.) 3.03 Started or joined a social welfare and protection 28 1 1 committee 3.04 Started or joined a child welfare and protection 28 1 1 committee

3.05 Participated in peaceful rallies or citizen’s movements 22 3 5 Only males 3.06 Enlisted the support of local leaders or police to report 29 1 child abuse or neglect 3.07 Consulted a family or community member to talk 16 5 9 about problems 3.08 Enlisted the help of family or community to stop a 22 3 5 situation of abuse or neglect Only family 3.09 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 30 community members for financial needs (free/not borrowed)

3.10 Sought help or support from neighbours or other 24 4 2 community members for childcare needs (alternative caregivers for children) 3.11 Helped with rebuilding the community infrastructure 29 1 (like construction, supplies, feeding workers, etc.) 3.12 Started or engaged in more community-initiated 11 5 14 projects, including celebratory activities and community empowerment programs (e.g. sports, clubs, etc.) 3.13 Started or engaged in more school-based projects, 28 2 including celebratory activities and programs promoting education

3.14 Combined your immediate family with extended family 23 7 under one household/roof 3.15 Combined your family with others (not related) under 30 one household/roof 3.16 Changed the head-of-household to adapt to other 22 7 1 changes (e.g. oldest children or grandparents/ extended relatives became new head of the house) Due to death, abandonment or temporary absence 3.17 Left household to live with a family other than your 26 3 own 3.18 Left household to live with relatives in a faraway place 30

THE AANGAN TRUST I 221 3.19 Left to live in an orphanage because your caregiver 30 could not take care of you at home 3.20 Sought spiritual or religious organization for financial, 26 3 1 social, or psychological support

4.0 Occupational/ Educational changes

Q. No. Strategy Never Once More than NA (Question) once

4.01 Taken on a new job (you) 21 6 3 4.02 Taken on a new job (other members of your family or 16 9 5 household) 4.02.1 Which members (check all that apply) Men/ Women/ Children: 10 NA:16 Fathers: 8 Mothers: 7 4.02.2 If women/mothers, what type of work (check all that Domestic/ Business Health care: Manufactur apply): child care:2 / 0 ing:5 (Domestic Finance: (Embroider maid work) 0 y, sari design work, tailoring)

Other:0

4.02.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: - - - - 4.03 Started a small business making or growing things to 29 1 sell to get by 4.04 Increased work load and time spent working to 4 3 23 procure greater income 4.05 Joined a vocational or technical school 30 4.06 Stopped going to school in order to work 1 8 4 17

4.07 Stopped going to school or alternated the days you 5 4 4 17 go to school 4.08 Stayed home from school to look after siblings and/or 6 1 6 17 help with domestic work 4.09 Went to work for a family other than your own 30 Excluding domestic maid work 4.10 Worked as a child laborer for shelter, either with 30 another family or institution 4.11 Had to leave household, alone, to travel and find work 25 4 1 (migration)

4.12 Had to leave home and move family away to find work 28 2 (migration) 4.13 Taken a job or done work that made you unsafe (such 14 7 9 as physical harm or physical/sexual abuse)? 4.13.1 What kind of work? (Describe) - - - -

THE AANGAN TRUST I 222 4.13.2 Did this work put you at risk for (select all that apply): Physical Psycholo Physical Sexual injury: 14 gical abuse: 5 abuse: 0 (Powerloom harm: 0 (beatings by weaving, employers) Other: 0 ragpicking, embroidery etc. – loom injuries; eye- sight/ hearing problems; persistent bodyaches; asthma etc. 4.13.3 If ‘Other’, please describe: - - - - 4.13.4 Are you still doing this work? Yes: 15 No: 1

5.0 Dangerous or illegal activity

Q. No. Strategy More than Never Once NA (Question) once

5.01 Joined or helped a gang or other dangerous groups in 29 1 exchange for protection, food, or shelter 5.02 Stolen food, property, or other items just to make do 25 3 2 5.03 Used substances to ease pain, anxiety, or hunger 19 3 8 (glue, paint, tobacco, alcohol, etc.)

5.04 Been left unattended for long periods (an hour or more) because your caregiver couldn’t arrange 4 5 21 childcare 5.05 Stayed in an unsafe place just to have shelter 29 1 5.06 Stayed in an abusive or dangerous relationship just to have somebody to take care of you Domestic 23 7 violence, marital rape 5.07 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities for food, money, protection, or shelter with someone 30 you did know (neighbor, family, friends, etc.) 5.08 Had sexual intercourse or engaged in sexual activities 30 for food, money, protection, or shelter with a stranger

5.09 Participated in violent protests, rallies or movements 28 1 1 5.10 Physically hurt or threatened someone for food or shelter 1 respondent has murdered another adult but 30 not for food or shelter 5.11 Behaved in a way that would cause the community to 26 2 2 treat you badly/ostracize you 5.12 Sold illegal substances, such as drugs or sold stolen 29 1 foods/gasoline/other items that are in shortage

THE AANGAN TRUST I 223 5.13 Engaged in self-harm, including purposely injuring oneself or attempted suicide Mainly contemplation of 22 6 2 suicide rather than suicide attempts

6.0 Self-care and self-healing changes

Q. No. Strategy More than Never Once NA (Question) once

6.01 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or 29 1 other mindfulness/reflective practices in groups 6.02 Engaged (or increased engagement) in meditation or other mindfulness/reflective practices alone, including 26 1 3 journaling 6.03 Engaged (or increased engagement) in physical or 21 5 4 athletic activity, including dance or sports Only males 6.04 Engaged (or increased engagement) in intellectual or educational activity, including reading or enriching your 27 3 knowledge base 6.05 Engaged (or increased engagement) in hobbies or activities that bring you personal joy, including music, 18 12 art, etc.

6.06 Decreased hygiene practice, such as bathing/cleaning self and clothes less often OR Stopped hygiene 11 5 14 practice 6.07 Decreased health maintenance, such as not taking care of wounds/injuries or using medical treatments 6 7 17 (medications, and related products) less often OR Stopped health maintenance 6.08 Increased time spent in isolation 7 5 18 6.09 Increased time spent with others 20 2 8 6.10 Engaged in another activity to improve your personal livelihood that was not mentioned previously (e.g. any other coping mechanisms that helped you to take Yes: 1 No: 29 care of your body/physical needs and your mind/ psychosocial well-being)

6.10.1 If yes, please describe: - - - -

THE AANGAN TRUST I 224