Korea 1800-1860: Intellectual and Social Reactions to Western Contacts

Korea 1800-1860: Intellectual and Social Reactions to Western Contacts Bonnie S. Kim The dawn of the nineteenth century would Sirhak, or practical learning, school of thought bring forth a new era of change, discovery and which advocated new, pragmatic historical method- challenge for the late Chosòn kingdom (1392- ologies based on "scholastic empiricism." Largely in 1910). Western Europeans first came to the response to the dismal conditions of this time, some shores of the Korean peninsula and made signifi- of the Sirhak thinkers were drawn to Catholicism cant contact with its people in this period. The (first introduced to Korea by missionaries in 1784 first such encounter happened in 1787, with the and then known as sohak, or western learning), with arrival of the French ships Boussole and its doctrine of original sin and promise of a "heav- Astrolabe, followed by "visits" by other English enly kingdom on earth." Yet the readiness to accept and French ships in 1799, 1811, 1832, 1845, the teachings of the Catholic Church on the part of 1846 and 1854. These initial Western contacts some of the ordinary people and the Sirhak thinkers coincided with radical transformations within was by no means universal. In fact, the Korean state Korean society in political, socio-economic and banned Catholicism and instituted a series of official intellectual areas. persecutions against Christian converts as well as mis- Political changes are evident in the deteriora- sionaries – in 1801, 1839 and 1866 – to rid the coun- tion of the Korean state apparatus. In 1800, the try of what the ruling élite considered the Western accession of the ten-year-old Sunjo, who was wide- corruption of the Confucianist ideal. ly regarded as a pawn of his mother’s family in-laws, It should be noted that Korea's long ties to brought on a period of unrest that threatened to Confucianism, often called the state religion of the destabilize the country's already tottering adminis- Chosòn kingdom, were partly responsible for the trative, economic and social institutions. From a rampant anti-foreign sentiment manifest within purely political standpoint, the deviation from a some of the ranks of Korean officialdom. Strictly more "traditional" form of monarchic government speaking, the tenets of Neo-Confucianism rec- to one dominated by royal in-laws created serious ognized China's supremacy in the world order problems. Nepotistic appointments to bureaucratic and as a corollary deemed less significant any positions served to corrupt fiscal and administrative country falling outside its sphere of influence in practices both at the center and in the provinces.The East Asia. For this reason, Many Koreans feared heavy tax burdens imposed upon the peasantry corruption through exposure to "barbaric" for- increased the incidences of social upheaval and eigners and were generally unwilling to accept rebellion in the countryside.The crisis in the politi- the Western intrusion into their country. cal arena had an unexpected result, as large numbers Yet while modern scholars have already shed of Koreans converted to Catholic Christianity. much light on the undeniable link between the per- Intellectual changes are represented by the rise vasive Confucian ideals of the Korean ruling class of a distinctive Koreacentric scholarship within the and Korea's unmitigated "isolationist" policies prior 19 to 1875, there has also been a longstanding, and I ably influenced by a series "threatening" crises in argue ill-founded, tendency to characterize nine- neighboring Japan and China around this time. The teenth century Korea as a "hermit kingdom." In first half of the nineteenth century was indeed a cru- fact, many among the country's élite had long main- cial point of transition for these three countries as tained a pragmatic and, given the limited informa- the West,led by Britain and the United States, began tion at their disposal, surprisingly accurate assess- the process of opening the East to commercial and ment of Western European civilization; they were diplomatic exchanges. Indeed many of these “open- even keenly aware of the nature and implications of ings" would be accomplished by force, as illustrated the Western presence in East Asia well before the by the Opium War in 1839, which was soon fol- first European ships arrived at Korea's shores at the lowed by the encroachment of Admiral Perry's end of the eighteenth century. Korean knowledge of "black ships" upon Japan. These incidents of coer- the West and Westerners grew as increasing contacts cive diplomacy gave fair warning to Korea.To avoid were made through encounters between Koreans a similarly ignominious fate as that suffered by China and Western vessels. and Japan, Korea's central government, which was Scholarly works that cover the history of Korea already by nature predisposed to recoil from any from 1800-1860 are so lacking that the historical lit- contact from the West, withdrew deliberately from erature of that period may be described as a "black the arena of East-West diplomacy until the turn of hole." Nearly all Western studies of the diplomatic, the twentieth century. social, and institutional history of Korea focus on the Yet despite Korea's general desire to be exclud- period after 1860, commencing with the rule of the ed from Western diplomatic exchanges, Korean offi- Taew òngun (1864-1873), during whose reign Korea cials were by no means inhospitable to those officially opened its doors to international trade in Westerners who managed successfully to make con- 1876. In short, there has been comparatively little tact prior to the so-called official period of "seclu- consideration of the complex interplay of domestic sion." Official records indicate that the vast majori- and foreign affairs in the first half of the nineteenth ty of French and English visitors to Korea were century, apart from cursory overviews in general rather well-received. Even if most Koreans were survey histories. The latter, however, have yet to eager to hasten the departure of these foreign ves- break ground on what is becoming recognized as sels, careful measures were made to make the for- one of the most turbulent and least understood peri- eigners’ sojourn comfortable and without incident. ods of modern Korean history. In many cases, the Koreans approached their new What is more, much of the scholarship on guests at first with caution but proceeded to attempt Korea's late nineteenth century contacts with the communication with them in an amicable fashion. West has placed great emphasis on the central gov- Narrative accounts kept by English travelers ernment's outright hostility towards the "barbaric" mention the hospitable treatment they received aggressions of the West. This perspective fails to from the Koreans upon their arrival. Much of the address the fact that many early encounters were not interaction between the two parties seems to have violent in nature but reflect peaceful attempts on taken place aboard English or Korean vessels, the part of the Westerners to bring about trade and rather than on land in the Korean coastal villages commercial exchange. It is important to realize that themselves. Captain Basil Hall, who kept a Korean attitudes toward Westerners, often referred detailed account of his trip along the Korean to as "Western barbarians (yangi)," were consider- coastal waters during this time, took note of the 20 BONNIE S. KIM "unique" appearance of the Koreans alongside at both head and tail. It was 30 hands in numerous other cultural and geographic observa- length, and six hands in width. The pine pan- tions in a book he later published as [An] Account els were nailed with iron nails, and on the of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of top and middle decks there were 10 large Corea and Great Loo Choo Island. In it, he rooms and 20 small ones, at both head and tail of the boat there were compasses posi- remarks initially that "Their [the Koreans’] beards tioned about. Black and white sheep were and moustaches, which, apparently, had never being raised within the boat itself, and there been cut, and their fans and their long pipes and were roosts for ducks and chickens set up as strange language and mannerisms gave a grotesque well as pig pens, and from front to back, air to the group, impossible to describe." Hall banners of various color were pinned up. In then proceeds to invite some of his new hosts, front of the door of the quarters of a person including their "distinguished chief" aboard for a with rank, a man wearing armor with sword breakfast of eggs, commenting that: "The polite- stood guard all day long and restricted peo- ness and ease with which he [the chief] adapted to ple from entering or leaving...As for that the habitudes of a people so different than himself which was used as dishware were decorative was truly admirable." vessels, wine goblets made of glass and Apart from the Western narrative vignettes spoons of silver. Those weapons on board on this particular encounter, official Korean included 30 sabres, 35 guns, 24 spears accounts provide equally fascinating insight into (lances), eight large cannons. the nature of the exchanges between the two par- Following this, members of the ship's crew are ties and also, in some cases, shrewd observations listed by order of rank, while amusing descriptions of daily life and custom aboard ship or in the of their general appearance and attire provide color- coastal village. Importantly, it appears that the vast ful images for the reader: majority of these exchanges were, in fact, quite amicable and respectful on both sides. Many of the Some of their faces were white as if pow- ò official Chos n court documents of this time con- dered or black like ink, some had short-cut tain meticulously detailed accounts of these hair, and some had it shorn clear to the exchanges, including the numerous items and crown of the head, at the top of which was individuals aboard each vessel, as well as informa- a small, braided bunch of hair; as for that tion on measurements and materials used in the which they wore, some wore western cloth construction of the ship.

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