Freedom & Responsibility

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 458 968 PS 029 928

TITLE Freedom & Responsibility: A Glorious Counterpoint. AMI/USA Conference (Boston, Massachusetts, July 20-23, 2000). INSTITUTION American Montessori International of the United States, Inc., Rochester, NY. PUB DATE 2001-07-00 NOTE 115p.; "Freedom and Responsibility" copyright by Margaret E. Stephenson. AVAILABLE FROM Association Montessori International of the United States, Inc., 410 Alexander St., Rochester, NY 14607 ($15). Tel: 716-461-5920; Fax: 716-461-0075; e-mail: [email protected]. PUB TYPE Collected Works Proceedings (021) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Administration; Adolescents; Child Development; Children; Conference Papers; Conferences; Early Childhood Education; Educational Philosophy; Educational Practices; Elementary Secondary Education; *Freedom; *Montessori Method; *Responsibility; Teacher Aides; Teacher Role IDENTIFIERS Montessori Preschools; Montessori Schools

ABSTRACT This conference proceedings compile presentations from a 2000 meeting of the American Montessori International of the United States, focusing on the Montessori view toward freedom and responsibility and addressing other issues of importance in Montessori education. The papers presented at the conference are: (1) "Strategies for You and Your School" (Charles Snowden, Jr.); (2) "Action-Oriented Agenda Keeps Board Meetings Moving" (Charles Snowden, Jr.); (3) "Forming and Charging the Board Committees" (Charles Snowden, Jr.); (4) "The Annual Agendas" (Charles Snowden, Jr.); (5) "The Intimacy of Responsibility" (Renilde Montessori); (6) "Freedom and Responsibility" (Margaret E. Stephenson); (7) "The Importance of Freedom in Our World Today" (Silvia Dubovoy); (8) "Active Discipline" (Silvana Montanaro) ; (9) "Theoretical Tenents [sic] of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year Olds" (Phyllis Pottish-Lewis) ; (10) "Adolescent Theory: Erdkinder Outcomes" (David Kahn); (11) "The Role of the Teacher and the Role of the Assistant" (Annette Haines);(12) "Setting Limits--So Little Understood, So Greatly Needed" (Judi Orion);(13) "Freedom that Inspires Responsibility: Removing the Obstacles" (Cathryn Kasper);(14) "The Necessary Freedom To Become Montessori 'Erdkinder'" (Laurie Ewert-Krocker); (15) "Freeing the Child's Response-Ability: Celebrating the Natural Genius of Children" (Thomas Armstrong);(16) "Poised for Success--Building Character and Citizenship in Children" (John Rosemond); (17) "Bringing Out the Best in Your Child: Achievement Begins at Home" (John Rosemond);(18) "Spiritual Freedom and Moral Responsibility: A Most Glorious Counterpoint" (Eduardo Cuevas); (19) "Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years" (Phyllis Pottish-Lewis); (20) "Understanding the Nature of the Industry and the Special Opportunities It Presents" (Joe Vaz);(21) "Freedom To Develop" (Silvana Montanaro); (22) "Beyond Open House--Sharing Montessori's Perspective with Parents" (Carla Caudill-Waechter); and (23)"Some Conceptual Considerations in the Interdisciplinary Study of Immigrant Children" (Marcelo M. Suarez Orozco). Some papers contain references. (KB)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the ori inal document. frclornEe, responsbillty A GLORIOUS COUNTERPOINT

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Sheraton Colonial Hotel, Boston North Boston, Massachusetts July 20-23, 2000 Freedom & Responsibility A Glorious Counterpoint Margaret Elizabeth Stephenson Fund 2000

The Margaret Elizabeth Stephenson Fund 2000 (MES 2000) is the first financial aid fund to benefit AMI teacher trainees. With the establishment of this fund, students who meet the criteria will be eligible for partial scholarships at AMI training centers in the United States.

Due to the generosity of 280 charter members, AMI /USA established MES 2000 in honor of Margaret Elizabeth Stephenson, who devoted her life to AMI teacher training in the U.S. This fund recognizes and continues her invaluable contribution to teacher training.

Miss Margaret Elizabeth Stephenson AMI/ USA will encourage annual growth of the fund to address the changing financial needs of trainees. Margaret E. Stephenson is heralded as one of the greatest interpreters of the principles If you have any questions, or wish to support the fund, please contact us: of Montessori education. In 1962, after studying with both Dr. Maria Montessori AMI/USA and Mr. Mario Montessori, she was com- 410 Alexander Street missioned to initiate training in the United Rochester, NY 14607 States where, for almost 40 years, she has conducted both Primary and Elementary phone: 716-461-5920 fax: 716-461-0075 Training Courses. e-mail: [email protected]

UNESCO International Year for the Culture of Peace

We who understand Montessori at the deepest level know which calls for everyone's involvement. A group of Nobel instinctively that we are citizens of the world. The work Peace Prize winners joined together to help clarify the reso- we do, which joins us together philosophically, extends to lutions of the United Nations and make them applicable the very boundaries of the globe...and beyond. Because to all persons. They created Manifesto 2000 which expresses we are sensitively aware of our responsibility to all chil- a universal goal of peace. It is not governed by a higher dren everywhere, we seek to extend our confirmed val- authority, but instead, relies on each individual's commit- ues of a respectful culture of peace into the future. ment to the true meaning of freedom, and the responsibility to live in accordance with its intrinsic rules and prag- Year 2000 was proclaimed The International Year of the Cul- matic values. As stated, they are: respect for all life, rejec- ture of Peace by the United Nations General Assembly. tion of violence, sharing with others, listening to under- UNESCO is responsible for coordinating all activities re- stand each other, preserving the planet and rediscovering lated to this proclamation. One outstanding project exists, solidarity.

This book and any portion thereof may not be reproduced for any purpose, whether private or public, without the expressed written permission of the Association Montessori Internationale and the Association Montessori International of the United TABLE OF CONTENTS

Conference Schedule 4

Strategies for You and Your School 0 Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM 6

Action-Oriented Agenda Keeps Board Meetings Moving 0 Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM 11

Forming and Charging the Board Committees 0 Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM 13

The Annual Agendas 0 Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM 15

The Intimacy of Responsibility 0 Renilde Montessori 17

Freedom and Responsibility 0 Margaret Stephenson 19

The Importance of Freedom in Our World Today 0 Silvia Dubovoy, Ph.D. 23

Active Discipline 0 Silvana Montanaro, M.D. 29

Theoretical Tenents of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year Olds 0 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis 31

Adolescent Theory: Erdkinder Outcomes 0 David Kahn 41

The Role of the Teacher and the Role of the Assistant 0 Annette Haines, Ed.D. 45

Setting LimitsSo Little Understood, So Greatly Needed 0 Judi Orion 53

Freedom that Inspires Responsibility: Removing the Obstacles 0 Cathryn Kasper 56

The Necessary Freedom to Become Montessori Erdkinder 0 Laurie Ewert-Krocker 61

Freeing the Child's Response-Ability 0 Thomas Armstrong, Ph.D. 64

Poised for Success - Building Character and Citizenship in Children 0 John Rosemond 68

Bringing Out the Best in Your Child: Achievement Begins at Home 0 John Rosemond 75

Spiritual Freedom and Moral Responsibility: A Most Glorious Counterpoint 0 Eduardo Cuevas 81

Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years 0 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis 85

Understanding the Nature of Me Industry and the Special Opportunities it Presents 0 Joe Vaz 95

Freedom to Develop 0 Silvana Montanaro, M.D. 97

Beyond Open House and OrientationSharing Montessori's Perspective with Parents 0 Carla Caudill-Waechter 99

Some Conceptual Considerations in the Interdisciplinary Study of Immigrant Children 0 Marcelo M. Suarez Orozco, Ph.D. 103 CONFERENCE SCHEDULE

Thursday July 20, 2000

2:00 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. Administrator's Series 0 Strategies for You and Your SchoolCharles Snowden, Jr., ISM

7:00 p.m. 0 The Intimacy of ResponsibilityRenilde Montessori

8:30 p.m. Reception

Friday July 21, 2000

9:00 a.m. - 10:15 a.m. 0 Freedom and Responsibility Margaret Stephenson

10:45 a.m. - 12:00 p.m. O The Importance of Freedom in Our World Today Silvia Dubovoy, Ph.D.

2:00 p.m.3:15 p.m. Seminar Sessions O Active Discipline Silvana Montanaro, M.D. O Freedom & Responsibility in the First Level of Development Silvia Dubovoy, Ph.D. O Theoretical Tenents of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year-Olds Phyllis Pottish-Lewis O Adolescent Theory: Erdkinder Outcomes David Kahn O Educateurs sans Frontières Renilde Montessori, Camillo Grazzini, Hilla Patell O The Role of the Teacher and the Role of the Assistant Annette Haines, Ed.D. O Setting Tuition and Fulfilling Your Mission Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM

3:45 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. Seminar Sessions O Setting LimitsSo Little Understood, So Greatly Needed Judi Orion O Freedom that Inspires Responsibility: Removing the Obstacles Cathryn Kasper O Work for the 9-12 Year Olds Margaret Stephenson O The Necessary Freedom to Become Montessori Erdkinder Laurie Ewert-Krocker O Educateurs sans FrontiOres Renilde Montessori, Camillo Grazzini, Hilla Patell O Understanding Freedom and Responsibility Annette Haines, Ed.D. O Setting Tuition and Fulfilling Your Mission (con't.) Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM

4 6 Saturday July 22, 2000

9:00 a.m. - 10:15 a.m. El Freeing the Child's Response-Ability Thomas Armstrong, Ph.D.

10:45 a.m. - 12:00 p.m. O Responsibility as the Foundation for True Freedom in Education Marsilia Palocci

2:00 p.m.5:00 p.m. O 9-12 Roundtable Discussion

Sunday July 23, 2000

9:00 a.m.10:30 a.m. O Poised for SuccessBuilding Character and Citizenship in Children John Rosemond

11:00 a.m. - 12:15 p.m. Seminar Sessions CI Bringing Out the Best in Your Child: Achievement Begins at Home John Rosemond O Spiritual Freedom and Moral Responsibility: A Most Glorious Counterpoint Eduardo Cuevas O Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years Phyllis Pottish-Lewis El Obsetvation When to Intervene Annette Haines, Ed. D. CI Understanding the Nature of the Industry and the Special Opportunities it Presents Barbara Gordon, Joe Vaz

2:00 p.m. - 3:15 p.m. Seminar Sessions El Teen-Proofing: Understanding and Managing your Teenager John Rosemond O Freedom to Develop Silvana Montanaro, M.D. El Beyond Open House and OrientationSharing Montessori's Perspective with Parents Carla Caudill-Waechter CI The Prepared Environment A Key to Independence Annette Haines, Ed.D. El How to Develop a School that Stresses Quality and Service to the Community Barbara Gordon, Joe Vaz

3:45 p.m.5:00 p.m. General Session AMI/USA Research Update Closing Panel Renilde Montessori, Silvana Montanaro, M.D., Marsilia Palocci, and Margaret Stephenson Closing Remarks Virginia McHugh

7:30 p.m. Banquet Address El Some Conceptual Considerations in the Interdisciplinary Study of Immigrant Children Marcelo M. Suárez Orozco, Ph.D.

5 7 Strategies for You and Your School Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM

Pricing, Affordability, and Mission deductible. ing strategy. Finally, present the results Pricing should be setting tuition to Let's make only a token increaseto the board for a decision. cover costs for the kind of school you this year because we have taken If your financial need calls for sub- want. heat for higher ones in the past stantial tuition increase(s) and you are Affordability is not really a math- ("give our parents a break"). still gun-shy about a much larger hike ematical computation but a family's than you have made in the past, at least willingness to pay that tuition. The "Tuition Cap" go higher than you would otherwise A school with a well-defined and You will "reach the top" if: have done. Test out these theories in well-implemented mission stands out you do not offer quality pro- your own environment ... then do the in the eyes of parents and students. grams right thing next year. The program has specific and you do not regularly inform par- unique characteristics ents about the quality Insights on private school operation The faculty believes in and de- you do not recognize that yourThe challenge of setting tuitions livers the requisite programs parents are consumers Your board of governors bears re- and services you do not form a bond withsponsibility for establishing tuitions. The quality of these services de- parents This is not an easy task. On the one termines value to constituents you do not tell parents how youhand, there is the goal of serving an differ from public schools andidentified market without excluding Five Questions To Ask Before Setting other competitors large numbers of families through pro- Tuition you are not open with parentshibitive pricing. On the other hand, about your finances there is the goal of providing quality Why are we in business? you do not seek parent adviceprograms in an ever-demanding envi- Who are our customers? and involvement ronment. In short, you want the best, What will we offer them? you are not a good steward but you are scared that setting higher Who will provide the service? you are not prudent and wise tuitions will cause current families to What are the expected out- you cannot justify that every-withdraw and discourage prospective comes? thing you do benefits studentsfamilies from even applying. and parents The typical board meeting devoted Erroneous premises employed in tu- you do not market your schoolto pricing begins with a review of the ition setting: constantly recurrent arguments for tuition in- There is a traffic bearing point. creases: Set the price we feel will beGovernance inflation; easily accepted, and then see Tuition setting: a true test of board leader- real-dollar salary improvement what we can afford. ship for faculty and key personnel; Only one year's tuition should All but a few schools suffer from cost of new equipment, re- be considered at a time. inadequate funding. As a result, pro- sources, and technology; Our past tuitions have beengrams are limited or of lesser than de- need for additional personnel to ideal. sired quality, faculty must work at very improve services and program Pay careful attention to prices low salaries, or classes are much larger quality; charged by other private/inde- than anyone wants. Have the courage higher cost in several areas of pendent schools. to charge what it costs to operate the general operation. Base any measure of capacity to kind of school you want. Be responsible The focus is the next year, com- pay on our own (trustee-parent)to those you are committed to serve. pared with the past (known) year and circumstances, those about Take the time to assess every ele-the year currently unfolding. Discus- whom we are concerned, and ment. Assign a board committee tosions are influenced by what other lo- those who speak out the loudestsettle on what really should constitutecal private schools charge and what (the "squeaky wheels"). quality core programs and services atschools similar to yours in the region Inflation is the principal factor inyour school. At the same time, chargecharge. (Perhaps there is perspective on the drive for tuition increase. another committee to review your sal-where your school sits nationally in a Keep tuitions such that the great- ary and compensation structure, deter-spectrum of schools.) est possible number of families mine needed changes, and estimate the Board members, then state posi- can afford to pay the full price. personnel cost involved in the pro-tions based on their own experiences If we maintainlow tuition, thosegrams and services identified by theas business people and often as parents with greater capacity will donate companion committee. Have both com-of enrolled childrenall to the point of at least to the extent of the highermittees report to the Finance Commit-what they believe the "traffic will bear." tuitions we need because it is tee and challenge it to develop a fund-Many give anecdotal accounts of finan-

6 Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM cial stress experienced by a few fami-Financial Management point and probably from a cash lies they know. Financial equilibrium: walking the standpoint). The debate frequently comes downbudget tightrope While purchase and installation of to a battle between those who argued Private-independent school enroll- computers and related non-person- for a minimal increase but who werement is generally healthy. Classrooms nel expenses are often considered persuaded to move to a higher figureare full; waiting pools are ample. The capital expenses (as they should be), of "x" dollars, and an opposing groupcomfort level thereby produced in the resulting operating expenses can that argued for a much larger increasemany boards and administrations can be expected to continue to mount as but gave in to pressure and movedbe dangerous. a percentage of overall budget. When down to a figure that is $25 above The following factors caution coupled with direct personnel ex- ..as if $25 per year is a significantagainst complacency. At the same time, penses for maintenance of networks difference! they argue for an even heavier empha- and systems, and for instructional We contend that boards that relysis on strategic planning than is cur- costs specific to these systems, some on this arbitrary "seat-of-the-pants"rently in vogue particularly on the fi- schools have already reached or ex- model are not serving their schoolsnancial aspects of strategic planning. ceeded a figure of 10% of total oper- well. The pricing process should be Many schools have developed ag- ating budget allocated to computer based on many more and better re- gressive, sophisticated annual giving systems and associated (personnel searched premises than those underly- programs and experienced sharp and other) costs. ing this scenario. This entire issue of To percentage increases in annual giv- The Point details our thoroughly tested ing campaign totals. This steep gra-Financial Equilibrium Principles positions regarding tuition setting. The dient cannot be sustained indefi- On the one hand, schools have full concepts have been successfully em- nitely, and, in some schools, has al-classrooms and waiting pools. On the ployed in hundreds of private schools ready become flat. other, they are experiencing "tapped of all types and sizes, urban and rural, Many schools have relied upon aux-out" alternate revenue sources coupled in every region. iliary services, particularly summerwith difficult to control expenses. In the programs and extended day pro-face of this mixed picture, two sets of Your wallet vs. school need grams, as vehicles to supplement tu-principles rise to positions of even On most boards, the majority of ition/fee income levels. While fewergreater importance than they have his- members are current parents. Such in- examples are at hand of these hav-torically held. The first set includes the dividuals add a great deal to the board: ing "peaked," these services willfollowing principles. deep and abiding interest in the school, eventually reach a saturation level as Operating budgets must be brought first-hand knowledge of student opin- well. under control without relying on in- ions and reactions (drawn from their Many schools have seized (at least creased enrollments, increased an- own children and classmates), open theoretically) upon the idea of en- nual giving, and increased auxiliary lines of communication with other par- dowment as "the answer" to keep- services. ents (often as much a consequence of ing tuitions at manageable levels Your school's balanced budget must the social activity of their spouse as and, thus, the answer to keeping their include appropriately funded alloca- their own interchanges), and conclu- schools affordable for current fami- tions for depreciation, for renewal sions drawn from observations made lies. But shallow interest rate gradi- and replacement of physical assets, while attending events or simply visit- ents in recent years, coupled with and for professional growth and de- ing the school. Yet, many of these same competition from successful major velopment of "people assets." Not individuals have a problem separating fund-raising campaigns that have one of these constitutes a legitimate their family from what often are the endowment as a major target, argue area in which to "save" money. best interests of the school. against this as a practical solution of Your school's balanced budget must For example, if their child has had significance. realistically address the basic, three- a bad experience with a teacher, they In recent years, many schools have part operations funding equation. find it difficult to believe that the school experienced sharp percentage in- Schools tend to "wish" for low class is well-served by that teacher. And, im- creases in unfunded tuition aid. Its sizes and strong faculty compensa- portant to the topic of price-setting, gradient, too, cannot be sustained tion packages in combination with they resist needed tuition hikes because indefinitely and, as with annual giv- low tuitions. This combination sums they know the total impact on their ing, has already either flattened or to insolvency and cannot be main- own walletand recognize that they become officially "frozen" (capped tained over time (see the figure on the are not candidates for financial aid. by board and/or administrative ac- next page). If you are a current parent as well tion). At least one of those "wishes" must as a member of the board, you must put Funding depreciation in physicalbe relinquished to yield larger-than- aside this "conflict of interest" and plant, particularly under recent FASBideal class sizes, weaker-than-ideal fac- weigh what is best for the school and regulations,' can be expected to in-ulty compensation packages, and/or its service to the total constituency. crease the percentage of operating ex-higher-than-ideal tuition levels. A use- pense allocated to plant maintenanceful strategic plan should firmly and (certainly from an accounting stand-forthrightly establish board-level

7 9 Strategies for You and Your School

mission statement, a flattening of the gradient (in percent-of-operating-ex- small higher salaries holding penses terms) is inevitable. While the class and benefits the line on= insolvency choice of making socioeconomic diver- size for faculty tuition sity a priorityfirst in the mission statement and then in the operating budget is certainly controllable, the flatten- prioritization among these three neces-uncontrollable aspects of annual giv-ing of the eventual percent-of-operat- sarily competing elements. (As ISM hasing, tuition aid, auxiliary services, en-ing gradient is not controllable if your consistently noted, acceptance of thedowment, and depreciation. school is to remain solvent. second of thesea weaker-than-ideal Annual giving production is a Auxiliary services income is theo- faculty compensation package isfunction of a school's budget-balancingretically controllable indefinitely, un- likely, over time, to yield a faculty thatpolicies,3 of the overall developmentlike the previous two items. There is no delivers weaker-than-ideal academicexcellence and organizational effort,inherent and necessary limit on an up- quality.) and of what might be termed "super-ward revenue gradient in this area, Once the operations budget is sol-discretionary" income in the targetedwhether expressed in actual dollars or idly balancedi.e., in equilibrium families. as a percentage of overall operating your strategic plan's financial and other If "discretionary" income in thebudget. components must doggedly honor thatprivate school context refers to a sort In practical terms, however, limits equilibrium and must maintain thatof family "profit margin" from whichsoon appear. If, for example, your equilibrium over time. As Hopkins,tuition dollars can be drawn, then "su-school decides to restrict its extended Massy, and others have noted, "Theper-discretionary" income representsday program to the school's own stu- idea behind long-run financial equilib-those funds that are available after thedents, then expansion of that program rium is simply that in addition to hav-first layer of discretionary income hasbeyond a certain point is not realistic. ing the budget in balance in a givenbeen spent. Yet, even if your school decides against year, the aggregate growth rates of in- The flattening of annual givingsuch a limitation, constraints still inevi- come and expense should be equal" orcurves in recent years4 is a result oftably come into play in regard both to income should exceed expense.2 schools having successfully enhanced staffing levels and the capacities of your This yields the second set of prin-development excellence and effort. Thisfacilities and/or the property on which ciples. accomplishment produced a sharplyyour facilities rest. Any planning action that increasesupward revenue gradient for some It is unrealistic to expect auxiliary operating expenses requires a corre-time, coupled with a consequent "us-services to provide indefinite increases sponding action to increase operat-ing up" of the super-discretionary poolin percent-revenue levelsunless your ing revenues. of dollars. Two factors contributed toschool is willing to build these pro- Any circumstance that decreases op-this draining of the super-discretionarygrams to the point where they surpass erating revenues requires a corre-pool: annual giving programs' successthe size of the overall school operation. sponding decrease in operating ex-in tapping that pool, and the national The controllable aspects of endow- ( penses. explosion in private philanthropic ac-ment include the excellence and orga- Any planning action that brings ativity (which was probably caused innizational priority placed upon a de- one-time, non-operating expensepart by declines in both corporate andferred giving program, coupled with (e.g., construction, adaption, equip-government philanthropic activity). skilled management of the principal ment) requires support from non-op- The largely controllable aspects of(investment management). erating revenues (i.e., capital cam-this flattening, then, include budget- Less-controllable aspects include p a igns, major gifts programs).balancing policies and overall develop-the maturity of the deferred giving pro- Schools that borrow to support one-ment excellence and organizational ef-gram, including the overall health and time, non-operating expenses mustfort. Once the annual giving organiza-the specific areas of growth within the decide whether debt service is antion is both mature and superb, thenational and global economies, and operating or non-operating expenseannual giving revenue gradient mayfederal treatment of appreciated assets and allocate accordingly. become "uncontrollable" (as far as thefor tax purposes. Current parents, look- gradient's upward continuance is con-ing ahead to college and retirement Controllable/uncontrollable Variables cerned). It thereby becomes flat' for rea-costs, may not be interested in giving Discussion in finance meetings of-sons unrelated to anything the schoolpart of their assets to your endowment ten turns to the subject of "controllinghas done or can do. fund. expenses" or "maximizing revenues," The percentage of a school's bud- Whereas depreciation and renewal but these phrases are, in private schoolget allocated to unfunded tuition aidof facilities were once controllable ex- finance, simplistic. Most finance factors cannot sustain a steady upward gradi-penses in the sense that they could be represent a mixture of controllable andent indefinitely, either. Even in schoolsdeferred indefinitely (on paper), this is uncontrollable variables, as demon-in which socioeconomic diversity (asno longer the case. While schools may strated at the beginning of this article.distinct from socioethnic and/or socio-still choose whether to fund deprecia- Take a closer look at the controllable/cultural diversity) is paramount in thetion in their facilities, the reporting of

8 Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM depreciation in an audit is now re-amount of interest earned on cash required. The aging of facilities is uncon-serves or on endowment funds, and, of Charles (Chip) Snowden joined Independent Schools Management in 1993, bringing with him trollable; to provide prudent manage- course, inflation itself. 20 years experience in private-independent ment of physical assets, you must con- school administration. As a consultant at ISM. sistently fund yearly renewal and re-Summary Chip specializes In conducting Institutional As- sessments, Market Analyses, Board Workshops placement costs from operations and This complex mixture of control- and Administrative Structure Reviews. Chip holds set aside funds that will pay for replace-lable, quasi-controllable, and uncon- a B.A. from the University of Delaware. In addi- ment at the end of a system's life cycle.trollable school finance variables com- tion, he has studied educational administration -and leadership at the University of South Ala- Renewal/replacement demands can bebines to make strategic financial plan- bama, East Carolina University (NC) , and Texas expected to statistically increase thening a matter of overriding importance Christian University. percentage of operating expense allo-to private-independent school boards cated by schools to their physical facili-and management teams. Right now, ties. while the school finance picture is Operations dollars expended onstrong, operations budgets must be computer technology and its associatedbrought into an honest equilibrium (personnel and other) costs are control-(see, again, the first set of principles lable. Here, at least, is one expense-listed in the section titled Financial Equi- growth area in which the concept oflibrium Principles). Once that honest "controlling expenses" relates to realequilibrium is established, the second finance. set of principles must be observed scru- Despite its seeming controllability,pulously. 0 however, this expense category, like the preceding revenue-and-expense items, looms as a formidable difficulty. Com-Notes puter-related expense comprises an ' See "Prepare for the FASB Accounting area in which mission and marketing Changes," I&P, 19-9-35. often collide. Technology and com- 'Hopkins, D.S.P, and Massy W.F. Planning puter-assisted instruction clearly en- Models for Colleges and Universities, Stanford: hance virtually any school's academic Stanford University Press, 1981, as cited by mission. However, because of per- Aitken, P., and others, in Access and Affordability ceived external pressuresboth from Washington, D.C.: NA1S, 1994, p. 61. competing schools and from the 3 Your policy determines the extent to school's own parent bodya school's which operating expenses are covered by tu- leaders may reach a point where they ition/fee income, thereby allowing fund raising to focus on enhancements or conversely, feel pressured to upgrade hardware whether annual giving is used to offset the dif- and software beyond the point where ference between costs and tuition/fees. the equipment substantially supple- See, for example, NAIS Statistics 1994, ments academic programs. Even with page 100. See "Annual Giving: The New Real- the cost of technology coming down ity" I&P, 16-12-45. each year, it will be difficult to control See "Annual Giving: The New Reality," the demand for new applications and I&P, 16 -12 -45. advanced hardware. And, because issues of competition and marketing bear on solvency (i.e., on the school's perceived quality and its ability to prepare students for the future, and, consequently, on its reten- tion capability and its perceived philanthropic worthiness), "mission" often yields to "marketing." Thus, a theoretically controllable expense becomes less so in practice. There are other operations budget components or influences that are basically not controllable. They include the amount of discretionary and/or "super-discretionary" income in school families, increases in the costs of fringe benefits paid to faculty/staff as part of overall compensation packages, the 1 1 9 Strategies for You and Your School

1. Board 6. Personnel 2. President 7. Development 3. Treasurer 8. Executive 4. Finance 9. Academic 5. Buildings & Grounds 10. ACE 11. Marketing 12. Committee on Trustees 13. Head Support & Evaluation

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Reprinted by permission 70 12 Action-oriented Agenda Keeps Board Meetings Moving Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM Are you eagerly looking forward This approach conveys a minimumto the scheduled meeting, as part of a to your next board meeting? No? Per-of information. There is no indicationpacket that also includes a summary haps that's because you've come to ex- that anything non-routine in nature willreport of administrative activity pre- pect a "typical" session, one character-be addressed; no suggestion that anypared by the School Head, a digest of ized by: topic should be researched in advance;committee research or other relevant Lengthy discussions, often focus- no estimate of the time commitment tobackground for anticipated delibera- ing upon minutiae or items of be made, nor of the time allocated totion, and minutes of interim meetings special interest to just one or two any particular topic. (if any) of the Executive Committee. members; There is no focal point; even committee chairs with little to report willA step-by-step look at the enhanced a detailed report by the Head on be expected to say something to fillagenda school activities since the last their spot on the agenda. Members are Head's summary report. Since this re- board meeting; not led away from any pet issue they port on administrative activity will inability to deal effectively withmay have, so they consequently can be have been sent to board members in important issues because mem- expected to introduce it at the first op- advance, with the agenda, 10 min- bers do not have the background portunity. utes should be adequate time for a information they need; brief review and a pertinent question poor attendance...at times not An enhanced Board Agenda or two. even a quorum; Board meetings do not have to be Executive committee minutes. Five minimal progress; you can't that way. They can be exciting events minutes should be sufficient to review these interim items, if any. seem to get action taken or deci- in which board members are fully en- In-process committee issue. The pur- sions made. gaged, focused on significant issues, To build a better meeting, startand oriented toward action. This is pos- pose of this discussion is to allow a committee chair access to whole- with the agenda. Keep this frameworksible when board operations are based board feedback about some sticking focused on action, and set the stage foron the concept that the majority of the point faced by the committee as it a productive session. board's work will be accomplished on the committee level rather than by the works toward finalization of its pro- A typical Board Agenda full board) Boards tend to undertake each A strong committee system guided posoarl.F example, as the Finance Com- meeting's work based on the sameby carefully selected committee chairsmittee moves toward finalization of its standard agenda, which encouragesdoes the groundwork discussion, fact-proposed operations budget for the fol- the same non-action-focused results.finding, recommendations. Then, in itslowing school year, it may wish to have Does your board's agenda resemblemeetings, the full board can focus onseveral minutes of face-to-face input by the whole board on some particular Figure 1? action. The "enhanced agenda" (Figure 2,expenditure under consideration, prior on pg. 12) encourages that action. Itto finalizing its draft budget. In another specifies the key topics to be consideredscenario, if the Development Commit- Figure 1 - Typical Agenda at each meeting, ranks all agenda itemstee is charged with putting together a in terms of urgency and importance onstrategic marketing plan by, say, De- 1. Call to order a scale of 1 to 5 (low to high priority),cember 31, it may want an in-process 2.Approval of previous minutes and sets a time frame. The ranking, car-review by the whole board in mid-No- ried out by the board president with thevember. 3.Head of School's report Head's input, trains the board to focus This kind of board review of com- 4.Committee reports: its energy on items that are both impor-mittee work is quite different in its pur- a. Education Committee tant and urgent. pose from the deadly habit of having b. Personnel Committee Note that this agenda specifies dis-every committee routinely summarize c. Facilities Committee cussing only one in-process committee its activities, regardless of the nature and stage of development of those ac- d. Development Committee issue, taking action on only one proposal, and limiting the meeting to 21/2tivities. e. Finance Committee hours. Although you may at times have Discussion and action on commit- 5.Old business more than two pressing matters to con- tee proposal. This item is shown on 6. New business sider, sticking as closely as possible to the agenda in boldface and awarded 7.Adjournment these parameters helps ensure a pro- a high rating on importance, urgency, ductive, upbeat session. or both, to emphasize to board mem- The agenda should be sent to all bers that this constitutes the primary board members at least four days prior reason for having this meeting. Mem- 13 Action-oriented Agenda Keeps Board Meetings Moving

Figure 2 - Enhanced Agenda

Time ImportanceUrgency (1-5)* Agenda Item

7:00 p.m. 2 1 Call to order

7:00 p.m. 3 1 Approval of previous minutes

7:05 p.m. 3 1 Review of Head's summary report 7:15 p.m. 3 2 Review of Head's Executive Committee minutes (if any) 7:20 p.m. 4 3 Discussion of one in-process committee issue 7:45 p.m. 4 5 Discussion and ACTION on one committee proposal 8:30 p.m. Break 8:45 p.m. 3 2 Miscellaneous items for brief discussion and referral to appropriate committees 9:25 p.m. 4 2 Action minutes summary

9:30 p.m. 1 1 Adjournment

1 =low priority, 5=high priority

bers, duly alerted, can then be ex- non-agenda items introduced in the pected to invest significant home- "miscellaneous" discussion segment work time in preparation. (This ma- of the agenda. 0 terial is the "digest of committee research or other relevant background for anticipated deliberation" that is Notes sent in advance with the agenda packet.) 1 For details on the committee-based approach to board operations, see these Ideas & Miscellaneous items for brief dis- Perspectives articles: "Stages of Board Develop- cussion and referral to appropriate ment," Vol. 16, No. 10, p. 39; "The Annual committees. Non-agenda issues Agendas," Vol. 19, No. 2, p. 5; and "Forming raised during this segment of the and Charging the Board Committees," Vol. 19, meeting (the "new business" por- No. 7, p. 27. tion) should almost always be re- 2 See "Action Minutes Turn Good Inten- ferred immediately to an appropri- tions into Accomplishments," To The Point, Vol. ate committee or placed on the 2, No. 10, p. 57. agenda for the next full board meeting. Again, the emphasis is on work in committee. Unless the item has true urgency and must be discussed now by the entire board, it should not be pursued in this meeting. Summary of action minutes. At the close of the meeting, the appropriate Charles (Chip) Snowden joined Independent board officer reads the action min- Schools Management in 1993, bringing with him utes,2 the short list of items on which 20 years experience in private-independent school administration. As a consultant at ISM. action has been taken. This would in- Chip specializes in conducting Institutional As- clude consensus approval (or not) of sessments, Market Analyses, Board Workshops the in-process committee activity dis- and Administrative Structure Reviews. Chip holds a B.A. from the University of Delaware. In addi- cussed earlier in this meeting, the tion, he has studied educational administration results of the whole-Board vote on and leadership at the University of South Ala- the committee action proposal, and bama, East Carolina University (NC) , and Texas Christian University. the referral to committee or to subsequent whole-board meeting of any

72 Forming and Charging the Board Committees Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM

ISM has previously discussed "Stages and Grounds, Admissions/EnrollmentOne or Stage Three board, is a poor use of Board Development."' Boards that areManagement, and others, may have noof board talent, is usually inefficient, in Stages One (short definition) or Three board-appropriate role to play, particularlyand is occasionally even dysfunctional. (petrified), rather than the recommended with Stage One or Stage Three boards.The board's role, and that of its com- Stage Two, frequently have difficulty orga- If boards exist primarily to planmittees, should remain strategic. nizing themselves to do effective strategicand execute strategic functions, the Conceived in this way, the distinc- planning and implementation. This article yearly committee formation-and-tion between standing committees and suggests an annual approach to board com- charge process becomes clear. For ex-ad hoc committees may become irrel- mittee organization which can move the ample, if no "strategic functions" areevant. All committees should be ad hoc board rapidly off the operating plane (ad- implied for the Education Committeein the sense that they are annually com- ministration of school operations) towardby a given set of annual agendas, thenmissioned to carry out that particular the strategic, viability-focused, Stage Twono Education Committee need beyear 's planning-document-inspired components of trusteeship. formed for that year. It may be termedstrategic functions. If no such strategic "dormant," or it may simply be elimi-functions are envisioned in a given year I think that boards exist primarilynated by the Executive Committee un-for a particular committee, then that to plan and execute strategic functions. til a board-appropriate role appears forcommittee does not function (some- Therefore, an effective board is one thatit in the future. thing which often happens de facto in develops a strong planning structure An example of such a role mightany case). for your school. be the execution of a preliminary study (As discussed ina previous issue,6 ISM's recommended annual plan-for an electronics-assisted instructionthe Head Evaluation Committee may ning and agenda-setting cycle2 impliessystem for the school's medium-rangegenerate a charge for a committee when that the board's Executive Committeefuture. Consistent with the committee'sspecial data-collection tasks are re- and the Head should, at this time ofresponsibilities in the areas of thequired. Such a request would be made year, thoughtfully re-examine the exist- school's future educational require-through the Executive Committee.) ing board committee structure. Thatments and long-term marketability, As for the kind of operations-re- structure should be determined by thesuch a charge would grow out of anlated activity common among some implications of the school's planningitem in the school's planning documentcommitteese.g., organizing and con- document, and by the annual springcalling for the possible installation ofducting an annual auction or bake sale, updating of that document, and by thesuch a system four to eight years intodriving sports teams or cheerleaders to document's resulting school, board,the future. The Education Committeeaway games this kind of marvelously and administration agendas for thewould be "re-formed" and charged tohelpful activity comes under the proper upcoming school year. conduct its study over an 18-monthpurview of several parent committees period, then turn its findings over towithin a parent organization. These The Board Committee Line-up the Executive Committee and Head.activities are not strategic; they are Having revisited the planningThe Head and the faculty would then"merely" helpful and important. If ex- document and set the next year 's agen- develop and pursue the concept, basedecuted by the board committees, they das, the Executive Committee and theon those findings. become confusing to a board which is Head will find, in most cases, there is a I recommend that the Executivetrying to organize and structure itself need to continue at least four commit-Committee and the Head ask this ques-to "do the trusteeship." tees (besides the Executive Committeetion as they consider the implications itself): the Finance Committee, the De-of their annual agendas for board struc-Charging the Committees velopment Committee,. the Headture in the coming year: "Does each Each July, once the board commit- Evaluation Committee, and the Com-item in the annual agendas requiretee structure for the next school year mittee on Trustees.3 The successful ex-board-level oversight and/or participationhas been decided, the Executive Com- ecution of any realistic annual boardin order to be successfully addressed?"mittee and Head use the annual agen- agenda will require excellence in eachIf the board and Head have adopteddas to develop the charge for each com- of those areas. ISM's recommended Head-evaluationmittee.7 As part of this process, the new My own view is that the existencesystem,5 the answer will often be no. charges should be compared with any of other commonly found board com- Oversight and participation will,charges from the previous year. This mittees may or may not be implied byinstead, be conducted in the next yearemphasizes that this year 's charges are a given set of annual agendas.4 Suchand every year by the board's Headderived from this year's planning frequently used committees as Educa-Evaluation Committee, not by adocument stipulations, and that those tion, Student Programs, Personnel,plethora of board committees eachstipulations change, year-to-year. Marketing and Community / Publiccharged with oversight of a specificSample charges to a Board Finance Relations, Alumni Relations, Long-component of the administration's ownCommittee range (or Strategic) Planning, Buildingsagenda. This, especially with a Stage "Using the concept of a multi-year,

13 15 Forming and Charging the Board Committees

percentage-based display of majorSample Charges to Board Development paigns, endowment drives, and other non-an- line item expenses,' project aCommittee nual efforts. graduated set of percentage "Using the planning document's '° See again "Stages of Board Develop- changes designed to strengthen the four-to-six-year major gifts cam- ment," I&P, 16-10-39. See also The ISM Trustee annual operating budget's capac- paign projections, and with the as- Guidebook, Chapter Four, "Organizing for Suc- cess." ity to express the school's instruc- sistance of the Head, the Develop- tional mission, using the stipula- ment Officer, and the major gifts tions and assumptions implicit in campaign consultant provided for the master planning document." in the operating budget, develop a Proposal due to board: October 15. proposed case statement for the "Using the planning document's campaign. Include recommenda- Charles (Chip) Snowden joined Independent strategic projections for the next tions and a suggested timeline for Schools Management in 1993, bringing with him school year, respond to, and assist further decisions on the details 20 years experience In private-independent as needed, the administration in its school administration. As a consultant at ISM. eventually to be included in the Chip specializes In conducting Institutional As- development of the operating bud- case statement document(s)." Pro- sessments, Market Analyses, Board Workshops get for the school year beginning posal due to board: May 1. and Administrative Structure Reviews. Chip holds a B.A. from the University of Delaware. In addi- 13 months from now. Give formal "Upon completion of the case tion, he has studied educational administration endorsement and.approval of the statement proposal, meet with the and leadership at the University of South Ala- final draft prior to its submission Committee on Trustees to discuss bama, East Carolina University (NC) , and Texas to the board." Proposal due to board: implications for the board profile Christian University. December 1. and the new trustee cultivation plan/ schedule." Meeting with Com- Sample charges to a Committee on mittee on Trustees: immediately upon Trustees completion of case statement proposal. "Using the planning document's four-to-six-year major gifts cam- These sample board committee paign9 projections, reformulate thecharges have in common: a tight rela- board profile and submit to thetionship to the school's planning docu- board a master cultivation plan/ment (and, thereby, to the annual agen- schedule for the potential trusteesdas); a focus which is clearly strategic; who collectively will provide the and timelines which are mutually sup- strongest arrangement and great-portive. 0 est balance of strengths (by virtue of their fund-raising experience, their access to affluence, and/or Notes their own affluence). Include in the ' See "Stages of Board Development," cultivation plan/schedule both I&P, 16-10-39. See also ISM's 1992 book, How timetables and individual respon- to Put Your Board Together in Ways That Make sibilities." Proposal due to board: Sense: The ISM Trustee Guidebook, Chapter Four, October 1. "Organizing for Success." "Following the development of the See "Head Evaluation, Linking Mission, above cultivation plan/schedule, Planning, and Success," I&P, 18-18-15, entire issue; "Strategic Planning: the Foundation Pro- prepare a revisiOn of the Augustcess," 18-16-61; and "The Annual Agendas," new trustee orientation process so 19-2-5. that preparation for and conduct 3 For more on these committees, see: "Fi- of major gifts campaigns becomenance Committee," I&P, 18-8-32; "Develop- central themes in the orientation ment Committee," 17-10-37; "Head Evaluation sessions." Proposal due to board: Committee," 18-15-57, entire issue; "Commit- March 1. tee on Trustees," 13-13-49. "Upon the Board Development 4 Your bylaws may specify six to eight Committee's completion of its pro-committees. This article suggests bylaw language which is permissive in that regard, posed major gifts campaign projec- rather than prescriptive. tions, meet with that committee to discuss implications of the case 5 See again I&P, 18-15, entire issue. statement for the board profile and See I&P, 18-15, entire issue. the new trustee cultivation plan/ 7 See I&P, 19-2-5. schedule." Meeting to be held at 8 See "Budget as Philosophy," l&P, completion of development of the case 18-8-29. statement; meeting initiated by Devel- 9 "Major gifts," in ISM's usage, refers to opment Committee. all types of fund-raising projects in which large gifts will be sought, including capital cam- 14 16 The Annual Agendas Charles Snowden, Jr., ISM

ISM recently published a reformation of its As the planning document extends chair or co-chair each committee. Re- recommended Head-Evaluation process in into the future and items become in- sponsibility: Executive Committee. Ideas & Perspectives) The new processcreasingly abstract, it is the job of the 2. Develop the charge for each commit- links a school's mission and its (resulting)annual school agenda to "concretize" tee for the next year in light of the planning documents with the three keythem. Based on the previous example, annual school agenda; compare the agendas": the annual school agenda, thesetting a "review of the effectiveness of new charges with last year 's to em- annual board agenda, and the annual school the middle school's character develop- phasize the differences in the impli- administration implementation agenda. ment efforts" for the plan's fifth year, cations of this year's annual school the Executive Committee and the Head agenda for each committee. Respon- Spring is the time to review themight develop from that charge the fol- sibility: Executive Committee. school's planning document(s) inlowing items. 3. Review the annual August orienta- preparation for the agenda-setting Survey upper school students and tion process for new trustees in light tasks of summer.' It is vital for the board their parents regarding the effective- of this year's annual school agenda. and Head to focus attention on school ness of the curricular and co-curricu- Alter the content of the orientations mission and planning now, before set- lar character development programs to emphasize the fact that, while cer- ting the annual agendas, to provide the that were part of their experience in tain trustee characteristics and be- foundation for successful operations middle school. haviors are consistent, year after year, throughout the coming year. Visit at least five other middle others are determined by the annual schools with strong character devel- school agenda and its new set of im- Annual School Agenda opment programs. plications. Responsibility: Committee The Executive Committee and the Arrange at least one middle school on Trustees. Head, having revisited the school's teacher in-service program exploring mission statement and planning docu- character development themes. August ments, construct an annual agenda de- Discuss with middle school faculty1. Execute the committee assignments signed to move the strategic or long- the redesign of their teacher-evalua- and charges, as determined in the range plan forward on a schedule. tion system to include character de- July sessions. (Here the board agenda Most planning documents show a velopment themes. would list both the assignments and high degree of specificity in their first The annual school agenda, then, the charges.) Responsibility: Commit- year or two, becoming increasingly ab-lists action items that may be taken ver- tee on Trustees. stract as they project the long-term fu-batim from the school's planning2. Execute the new trustee orientation ture. document's more abstract language. program, as determined in the July Typical planning document lan- sessions. (Here the board agenda guage in first year of plan: "ReviseAnnual Board Agenda would provide an overview of the the approach to middle school com- Having developed the annual orientation program, its goals, and its munity service programs to provideschool agenda, the Executive Commit- components.) Responsibility: Commit- more meaningful, mission-explicit,tee, with the Head's participation, then tee on Trustees. in-depth experiences for our studentsdevelops the annual board agenda.3. Receive the Head Evaluation and for the individuals and commu-This agenda details the board's action Committee's newly developed docu- nity agencies that host the experi-month-by-month and then serves as the ment, which details the Head's ma- ences." Executive Committee's own oversight jor and routine objectives for the Typical planning document lan-agenda for the year. A partial-year ex- coming 10 months. Ratify the docu- guage in fifth year of plan: "Reviewample follows. ment, adding or revising committee the effectiveness of the middle charges as necessary.3 Responsibility: school's character development ef-July Executive Committee. forts." 1. Review the committee structure of During the first and second years the board in view of the annualSeptember of typical planning documents, many school agenda's (and in view of the1. Review and evaluate the new trustee items are relatively concrete. As a re- strategic plan's or long-range plan's) orientation process. Responsibility: sult, the annual school agenda may use requirements of the board for the Committee on Trustees. language identical to that of the plan- next year; decide whether to retain2. Review the first draft of the next ning document. In that case, the Execu- the same committee/sub-committee year 's enrollment projection docu- tive Committee and the Head should structure; determine the number of ment, and respond to the administra- proceed on the other two agendas: the trustees and non-trustees needed for tion. Responsibility: Finance Commit- annual board agenda and the annual each committee to further the annual tee and Admission Committee. administrationimplementation school agenda at the board level; and agenda. select appropriate individuals to

15 The Annual Agendas

October gic plan's charge to enhance rapport 1. Review the first draft of next year's with parent body). Responsibility: Di- Charles (Chip) Snowden joined Independent vision Heads. Schools Management in 1993, bringing with him operating budget. Respond to the 20 years experience In private-independent administration. Responsibility: Finance 2. Finalize the newly developed faculty school administration. As a consultant at ISM. Committee. professional development and re- Chip specializes in conducting Institutional As- sessments, Market Analyses, Board Workshops 2. Review tentative personnel change newal program, as called for in the and Administrative Structure Reviews. Chip holds projections for next year. Respond to annual school agenda (following the a B.A. from the University of Delaware. In addi- the administration. Responsibility: strategic plan's charge to reduce fac- tion, he has studied educational administration and leadership at the University of South Ala- Personnel Committee and Finance Com- ulty attrition and enhance faculty bama, East Carolina University (NC) , and Texas mittee. morale). Responsibility: Division Christian University. 3. Review first round of Head Evalua- Heads. tion Committee hi-process feedback (data gathered from head evaluationSeptember process). Responsibility: Executive1. Develop the first draft of next year's Committee. enrollment projections. The first draft This partial calendar listing of annual of next year's operating budget, de- board agenda items emphasizes the veloped in October, will be based on relationship between the board these figures. Responsibility: Admis- agenda and the school's strategic sion Director. plan or long-range plan. The annual2. Initiate the new Parent Education school agenda serves as the bridge,1 Plan. Responsibility: Division Heads between the planning document and and Development Director. the board agenda. 3. Initiate the new faculty professional development and renewal program. Annual Administration Implementa- Responsibility: Division Heads. tion Agenda Like the annual board agenda, thisOctober is a month-by-month listing of action1. Examine the strategic plan's person- items. The administration implemen- nel implications for next year and tationagendaspecifiesthe develop tentative personnel change administration's role in furthering projections. Responsibility: Head of the annual school agenda (and, School. thereby, the school's planning docu-2. Develop the first draft of next year's ment). Examples follow. operating budget. Responsibility: Head and Business Manager. July 1. Review the structure and function ofThe annual administration implemen- the management team in view of thetation agenda progresses parallel to the annual school agenda's (and, thus, inannual board agenda.6Each advances view of the strategic plan's or long-the strategic or long-range plan as ex- range plan's) requirements on thepressed in the annual school agenda. administration for the next 12Using this approach, the school re- months; decide whether to retain pre-mains mission-focused and proactive viously developed structural rela-to reach ideal levels in all board and tionships, job descriptions, and taskschool operations. 0 force structures. Responsibility: Head of School. Notes 2. Develop specific goals and objectives with the management team for the ' See "Head Evaluation: Linking Mission, next 12 months. Further develop Planning, and Success," l&P, Vol. 18, No. 15, these documents into evaluation in- entire issue. struments similar to the Head-evalu- 2See "Head Evaluation: An Annual Time- ation system used by the board's table," I&P, Vol. 18, No. 15, p.57. Head Evaluation Committee.4 Re- 3 I&P, Vol. 18, No. 15, p. 58. sponsibility: Head of School. l&P, Vol. 18, No. 15, p. 57. 5 For more on PEP's, see "Community- August building Management with Your Parent Body," 1. Finalize the revised Parent Education I&P, Vol. 16, No. 8, p. 30. Plan,5 as called for in the annual 6 l&P, Vol. 18, No. 15, p. 59, chart. school agenda (following the strate- 1 8 116 The Intimacy of Responsibility Renilde Montessori

Both words"intimacy" and "re-occasional, or in the children in whom,and encouraged to develop, or discour- sponsibility"are open to multiple andthough still inchoate, it will shine withaged, warped, and even totally obliter- perhaps controversial interpretations. constant, luminous splendour until itated by those who hear not the music Within our context, intimacy is the is caused to dim and become feebleof the child's existential enthusiasm. antithesis of prejudice and its attendantthrough the inadvertency of those who To help and encourage the child's demons segregation and isolation. In-call them to life. quest for humanity is a blithe task, timacy is akin to deep-rooted, conge- In our hasty, Red Queen style ofmaking demands on ancient memories nial familiarity, the highest form ofliving so many of us have mislaid theculled long before the ability to remem- companionableness; it is the delightintimacies of existence, of which theber was in place. It also makes demands inherent in the knowledge of equalmost important is the intimacy betweenon a change of pace and rhythm. Fa- worth, not only with a few choice hu-parents and their children, betweenmiliarity, friendship, intimacythese mans and their achievements, not only educators and the young humans inare plants of slow and steady growth, with our immediate environment,their charge; for if this is not the place,thriving only when there is a sense of natural or man-made; in its farthestno other can germinate and flourish toendless time, not a splintered continu- reaches, it is the knowledge of complic- permeate the essence of their existence.ity where moments of togetherness be- ity with our universe and its untold There is a saying"Those whocome, in their immediacy, sharp as number of splendid, magnificent phe-hear not the music think the dancershards of broken glass. nomena. mad." A provocative statement, which It takes time, and attention, and Since its inception, our species has acquires reality when, while enjoyingjoyful participation of all members, pursued the knowledge and under-a ballet, we click on the mute button ofeach at their own level of adequacy, to standing of these phenomena poweredour remote control. The movements ofweave the rich tapestry of reciprocal re- by fascination, or by obsessive tenac-the dancers on the screen become sud-sponsibility. ity, or by awe, reverence and wonder;denly absurd. Our intimate response to When a child is born his first spiri- fundamentally, by the urge to learn,more or less glorious music interpretedtual habitat is the ambience of intimacy which is perhaps the strongest of allby more or less expressive bodies iswith his mother within the confines of human drives. rudely severed and falls into a drearya family. All being well, the child is a And so, over millions of years, we little limbo. source of wonder and delight to the have accumulated quite a bit of knowl- Responsibility, within our context,mother, the father and the family. In the edge and some understanding of themeans the ability to respond usefullyabsence of a family, a circumstance in- workings of ourselves, our earth, ourand with intelligence, therefore impliescreasingly prevalent, he should at least universe. Being a young and credulous intimate knowledge of the matters re-be a source of wonder and delight to species, we are inordinately pleasedquiring a response. Unless we hear thethe mother and father because then his with ourselves and our little hoard ofmusic, the danger threatens that wefirst task is fulfilledto bring joy to knowledge, tending to forget that whatmay think the dancers mad. those who called him to life. we know is infinitesimal. A cosmic sage Responsibility cannot be assumed If this joy is unconditional, the par- may look down on us and chortle whenby anyone who has not intimate knowl-ents will wish their child, from the be- the peacocks among us proclaim thatedge of, for instance, a person, or aginning and throughout his childhood, we now have unraveled the secrets ofgroup of people; of animals or plants;to be implicated in their daily doings. life. of a situation, a business, an associa-They will, companionably, present his We also tend to forget that ourtion, a society, an organisation, aworld to him as a hospitable place, knowledge is more often put to use forproject, or a country, any of which at afilled with an infinite variety of inter- evil purposes than for a greater good given time may call for care, guidance,esting ventures and adventures. Within under the régime of those who indulgeleadership or representation. safe confines, they will allow him the in the travesty of leadership that is the So, supposing all of the above isfreedom and opportunity to observe, pursuit of power. true, how do we teach our children toexplore and investigate; to move about Paradoxically, although we are in-acquire intimate knowledge of all of- first creeping, then crawling, then deed a young and credulous species,life's matters? How do we teach themwalking and running, indoors and out- as part of our human condition there isto become responsible? doors; and, as his abilities increase, they within us an ancient core of wisdom, We don't. will invite him to participate in all ac- the wisdom from which we draw the Neither intimacy nor responsibil-tivities within his capabilities. awareness of our intimacy with life andity can be taught, not by parents, not This is how the child will attain all its matters, with our habitat and allby teachers, not by professors, or reli-lasting intimacy with his environment its furnishings, living and non-living. gious leaders, or any other expert inand all within it, establishing a source We have not yet learned to seek outhuman instruction. The pursuit of inti-of perennial contentment with love of and heed this awareness, either in our-macy and responsibility is an inherentlife as the leitmotif of his existence. selves, the adults, where it has becomecharacteristic that can either be helped Maria Montessori, in one of her

17 1 9 The Intimacy of Responsibility most frequently quoted chapters in The Her prime directive to educators totional hardiness. Secret of Childhood The Intelligence of"follow the child," simple as it is, has Through work with the Montessori Love, writes: often been grievously misinterpreted,autodidactic materials they gain famil- "Is it not a characteristic of love,misunderstood and misapplied. Wheniarity and ease with the abstract con- that sensibility that enables a child toit has been put into practice, whethercepts these embody, for working with see what others do not see? That col-in the family, in Montessori preparedthe materials gives them the opportu- lects details that others do not perceive,environments or by educators in othernity to replicate individually a process and appreciates special qualities, whichcontexts, observers have been, and con-of abstraction undertaken by mankind are, as it were, hidden and which onlytinue to be, amazed. over thousands of years. Their lan- love can discover? It is because the It is in the Casa dei Bambini thatguage becomes rich, lyrical, scientific child's intelligence assimilates by lov-Maria Montessori observed the extraor-and precise. ing, and not just indifferently, that hedinary phenomenon of the birth of an The children's innate love of the can see the invisible. This active, ardent, organised, interdependent, responsibleenvironment is heightened, enhanced meticulous, constant absorption in lovesociety occurring spontaneously in en-and given depth. It becomes perennial, is characteristic of children. vironments of children three to sixand universal. It translates into aware- "To the adult it appears as liveli-years of age. ness of all aspects and characteristics ness and joy, as intensity of life; these In The Absorbent Mind she writes: of their physical world, of its non-hu- are recognised as infant characteristics. "Social integration has occurredman inhabitants, and of the past and But there has been no recognition of thewhen the individual identifies himselfpresent achievements of its own versa- love behind them, that is to say, thewith the group to which he belongs. tile, playful, erratic kind. spiritual energy, the moral beauty thatWhen this has happened, the indi- At the beginning of life, the great- accompanies creation. vidual thinks more about the successest gift educators can give the children "The child's love is still pure of of his group than his own personal suc-in their charge is to assist them, vigor- contrasts. He loves because he takes, cess." ously and wisely, in their quest for in- because nature orders him to do so. An example may be given of a hu- timacy and familiarity with all matters And what he takes he absorbs to make man society not lacking in this integra-pertaining to their existence. it a part of his own life, so as to createtion. It is the society of little children The premise is simpleif their love his own being." who are guided by the magical powersof the environment is ineradicably As a natural consequence of hisof nature. We must value it and trea-rooted and remains a vital given in their profound love for his environment, thesure it, because neither character norhuman condition, they will assume early years are also the time when thethe social sentiment can be given byenlightened responsibility for the fu- habit of assuming responsibility takesteachers. They are products of life. ture of the lovely earth that brought root and becomes part of a child's be- But we must not confuse this natu-them forth. ing. If it does not happen then, the sense ralsocialsolidaritywiththe The premise may be simple. How- of responsibility will not develop as aorganisation of adult society which ever, to propose it verges on the ridicu- natural phenomenon. Indeed, it may be governs man's destinies. It is simply thelous. It will continue to be perceived as aberrant, inducing the individual tolast phase of children's unfolding, thelaughably naive until such a time as we strive for power; or it may metamor-almost divine and mysterious creationbecome willing and adequate to follow phose to become a devastating life-sen- of a social embryo. the child. And then? Ah that is a story tence complete with the ball-and-chain In the Casa dei Bambini, within ex- for another day. 0 of obligations eternally imposed, by theplicit, clearly delineated parameters, self, or by others. the children acquire a sense of solidar- If the foundations of intimacy andity with each other and with the adults responsibility are laid within the fam-in charge; they also assume responsi- ily environment, these come to fruitionbility for the entire physical environ- and acquire a new dimension when thement, keeping it clean, orderly and child, at approximately three years ofbeautiful. They assume responsibility Renilde Montessori is Maria Montessori's youngest grandchild. She lived and traveled with her age, leaves home to join a children'sfor each other helping, teaching, com-grandmother as a child. She attended community. Since this is a Montessoriforting and trusting. Every activity in Montessori schools and finished her secondary conference, we might as well take athe environment has a clear, intelligible studies in the Montessori Lyceum of Amsterdam. In 1968 she joined the Montessori movement, first Montessori Children's House as thepurpose, so that the search for mean- as a personal assistant to her father, Mario platform for our discourse. ing becomes a habit of the intelligence. Montessori. She obtained her primary Montessori The Casa dei Bambini is a prime ex-Control of error inherent in the materi- diploma from the Washington Montessori Institute in 1971 and has since been lecturer, trainer, and ample of an environment prepared forals, and prevalent in the environment AMI examiner. From 1989 to 1995 she was Direc- children in useful and intelligent re-as a whole, makes it possible for the tor of Training at The Foundation for Montessori sponse to their developmental exigen-children to develop a highly sophisti- Education In Toronto. In September of 1995 she became the General Secretary of AMI and now cies for the very good reason that Mariacated degree of physical and intellec- serves as it's President. Montessori, eminent scientist that shetual independence. As they become in- was, took her lead from the childrendependent in body, mind and spirit, themselves. they create a lasting bulwark of emo-

18 Freedom and Responsibility Margaret E. Stephenson

I would like to reflect upon free-reason ... Butif his nature has beenmark the deepest line of division bedom and responsibility as privilegesenriched with the faculty of under-tween men." granted only to human beings in the standing, it also has been given a bur- Dr. Montessori's recognition of the created universe. As privileges, they are den that no other earthly creature ischild's task to construct a man and of to be cherished, not to be thoughtrequired to bear. ... From the momenthis powers to carry out that task made lightly of, but valued highly. As privi-that reason dawns, he must assume theher significantly aware of the impor- leges, we hold them in thrall for future responsibilities of a human way of life." tance of educating the intellect and of generations. As gifts to human beings, (p. 188) training the will. And so she spoke of they have to be considered in the "aid Jean Mouroux in his book Thethe need of the child for "liberty in a to life" which Dr. Maria Montessori ad-Meaning of Man, writes, "The first prob- prepared environment." It is that con- vocated for the construction of man. lem that arises is that of the meaningcept of liberty that carries along with it Dr. Maria Montessori never forgotand purpose of our freedom. It is notthe factor of responsibility. The child the key figure who was the object and given us for its own sake, or for any endcannot learn to be responsible unless the subject of her educational principles we please, but quite definitely that wehe has freedom to exercise ithe can- and practice. That figure is the humanmay realise ourselves. There we have anot be truly free unless he can learn to being, who came late in time onto thestarting point to which every reflectingbe responsible. Dr. Montessori has stage-set of the universe. But though heman will assent. To develop all our ca- given the child, from his earliest days came late into the drama of the cosmos,pacities and aptitudes, our physical andin the Children's House, a way df he came uniquely gifted. He was en-spiritual powers, to fulfill our humanrealising his freedom and recognising dowed with two special gifts, whichtask, and play our part in the world,his responsibility and exercising it. were his alone, among the inhabitantsand thus to construct and create our- We mentioned Dr. Montessori's of earth, and which set him apart fromselvesto bring ourselves to birth asformula of "liberty in a prepared envi- animals and plants. These gifts werewe would bethat is assuredly man'sronment." What do we think of when intellect and will, or in other words,true greatness and the essence of spiri-we hear the words "prepared environ- reason and love. It is these gifts thattual liberty. But here we stand at thement?" Do we think of the classroom carry with them freedom and respon-parting of the ways." space of the Casa dei Bambini, the sibility. Because these gifts of intellect But Mr. Mouroux continues, noChildren's House for the three to six- and will are attributes of the humanless significantly for us in ouryear-olds? Do we imagine the double being, they are matter for education.Montessori work of aiding life. environment of the elementary chil- And thereforethey belongin He writes, "We are faced with thedren, those from six to twelve years of Montessori education. Dr. Montessorichoiceare we going to realise our be-age, needing the indoor classroom and sets out her programme in her book "Toing in accordance with the dictates ofthe facilities outside, of museums, art Educate the Human Potential" " ...not inour own will or by responding to ourgalleries, libraries, industries, the envi- the service of any political or socialvocation? That is the tragic and the de- ronment of the working society? Do we creed should the teacher work, but incisive choice that divides mankind intothink of it in terms of Dr. Montessori's the service of the complete human be-two opposing campsthose whovision for the adolescent, the Erdkinder, ing, able to exercise in freedom a self-refuse and those who consent to givethe earth children? I would like to ex- disciplined will and judgement, un-their allegiance to something higherpand our idea of the prepared environ- hamperedbyprejudiceandthan themselveslet them name thisment and to relate it to the universe, undistorted by fear." (p. 3) 'something' as best they can, whetherthe cosmos, and to examine Dr. I have found no clearer or more sig-duty or ideal or God. Montessori's principles and practice in nificant description of the role of intel- "For the former, liberty consists in educating for liberty and preparing for ligence and will than in Robertrefusing, not indeed all constraints (oneresponsibility in that immensity of dra- Brennan, 0.P.'s book "The Image of Hiscan choose one's constraints) but at anymatic vision. Maker." Brennan writes, "No other crea-rate all obligations; it is a power to For the story of the human being, ture in the visible universe can boast ofrealise one's being in strict indepen-created with his unique gifts of intel- the gift of intelligence. No other crea-dence of any transcendent call. For thelect and will, we find him being placed ture has insight or pure thought or alatter, liberty is found in giving oneselfin a prepared environment the world ,plan for its future. No other creature hasto the service of something greater and within the universe of stars and plan- the knowledge that can make it free ofbetter than self, it is a power to realiseets, a world of chemicals, of solids, liq- the limitations of matter. No other crea-self by self-dedication to the good anduids, gases, which are to form the con- ture can choose what it shall or shallby opening oneself to God. The libertytinents and oceans, of land and water, not do. No other creature is able to takethat refuses is essentially anarchic andwhich are to be furnished and inhab- its powers and actions in hand, so todestructive, the liberty that gives is es-ited with plants and animals, with in- speak, and make an immortal destinysentially committed and constructive.sects, butterflies and bees, with flow- out of them. For no other creature hasThe two are mutually exclusive anders and weeds and crops, with fish and

79 Freedom and Responsibility frogs, with tadpoles and whales. Nonebegin in the home, and parents have toof innovations in the training courses of these created species, apart fromrealise their responsibility. "You canbeing given, changes to the theory and man, had freedom or could exercise re-pull the cat's tail, but you may not. And to the simple presentations of the ma- sponsibility. do not brawl because I said NO." terials. The other created species had been This reminds me of Miranda not Dr. Montessori told us to "give the given a way of life, the fulfilling ofher real name but this is a true story! Iworld to the small child." How absurd which brought its happiness. They hadwas present and heard the discussion that may sound! How can that be done, no choice, they could not change theirwhile teaching in the schoolwithinthe world in all its vastness cannot fit appointed way of lifethe mole could the U.S.A.! into the four walls of the primary class- not decide it was tired of living in a tun- One day a woman came to enroll herroom? But Dr. Montessori realised that nel underground and would take to theabout 4-year-old in the school. She said, "Ithe world was composed of qualities treetops. The human being can choose must warn you never to say 'no' to Miranda and facts. She incarnated those quali- where he or she will live, in a hot cli- if anyone says 'no' to her she lies on theties into the sensorial materials and mate or a cold, in a wet or a dry one.floor and has a fit and we're afraid she might gave the child the language for the And so it is, with all the aspects of ourdie." "Oh," said the headmistress after aquality. Then she presented the mate- life. short pause. "You'd better take her home rial to the child, showed him how to Dr. Montessori gave the child edu-we cannot accept her into the school here." work with it and left him free to repeat cation to use his liberty arightwithin "Why not? We've heard so much about thethe experience. his prepared environmentand she school how good it is." "No, we could not How simple! No long description trained the child's will to recognise his take her hereyou see, we often say no toof the material, no long dissertation of responsibility towards the upkeep and children when they behave badly. And if she what to do; in many cases the material conservation of that environment. had a fit, she would just have to die, as none shows you that you have done it From the somewhat limited Children'sof us would have time to look after her." wrong, if you have made a mistake. House, to the double environment of The mother's eyebrows went up with her I wonder if Dr. Montessori had as classroom and outer society of the el-hair linethe child's smirk changed to a simple a formula for teaching the child ementary children, the environment of look of horror. They left. But somehow the freedom and responsibility? man takes on ever expanding dimen-child came back and into the school. She I believe she had! It is called "the sions until the adult is exposed to the was often said 'no' to! She never had a fit exercises of practical life." This is a freedom of the world, through everand did not dieand after a while turnedgroup of exercises, with materials, widening opportunities of travel. But into a civilised human being! which are presented to the children so unless the human being has been The trouble is that society has for- that they may learn how to use them, trained from his entrance into his owngotten the distinction between can andand can repeat the experience of using family unit, to value his freedom andmay. Do parents correct their childrenthem. The materials are to do with car- to realise his responsibility for using itwhen they say, "Can I go out to play?"ing for the environment and the objects aright, we have a recipe for disaster. "Yes you can, but you may not!" within it, caring for the person of the Human beings have free will, Do not then make the mistake ofchild, so that he may present himself which means they can choose whatgoing into a long, detailed explanationas a member of society, caring for other they shall or shall not do. Unless theyof why you may not! It is nearly bed-people and their needs so that one are educated as to what they may or time, it is too hot, too cold, too wet, toolearns how to behave in polite society, may not do, they will have freedom, butdryit is simply you may not go outlearning how to move about so that one may not be responsible. to play. does not disturb others and eventually Unfortunately for society, we live Parents, and adults generally havecan so control one's movements by in a climate of pleasing ourselves, ofbecome so used to giving explanations one's own will that one can keep en- living by emotion not by reason. When for their orders that they have lost sighttirely still when necessary. These exer- emotion, not reason, governs ourof the fact that they are the responsible cises may all be carried out within the conduct, we behave irresponsibly.authority in the home responsible sofreedom of the prepared environment, Dom Hubert Van Zeller, O.S.B. hasthat commands and prohibitionsand the child learns that he may carry something very wise to say in this re-should never be given with any heat, out these exercises whenever he wishes gard, "I am what my will is. My will isbut matter of factly, coldly, with no hintto do so, as long as they are sitting in what I am. I am not my emotions." of blame. their place on the shelf and not being But we have a society in which, all The more I reflect upon Dr. Mariaused by someone else. Freedom pro- too often, feelings predominate. "WhatMontessori, her observations of thehibition. Freedomresponsibility do you feel like?" "My feelings arechild and his needs and her teachingsboth exercised by material objects, but hurt." "I don't feel like doing it." It doeson the way to help him achieve his own exercised by a dominant authority. not matter what you feel like, if youunique potential, the more I come to BUT, the exercises of practical life have a task to douse your reason torecognise how contemporary an edu-have an even more significant part to decide whether you should do it or not.cator she was, for all time. Her prin-play in preparing the child for the un- This training to understand free-ciples and practice are so matter of fact,derstanding of freedom and its con- dom as a privilege and responsibilityso simple, so clear and easy to follow, comitant, responsibility. has to be governed by reason, has tothat it makes me very sad when I hear The exercises of practical life do not

20 Margaret E. Stephenson have a control of error unlike most ofsible. brought in a lovely bunch of flowers, the Montessori materials, because theBut what about the elementaryand they would look beautiful in this shelf is dusted, even if all the dust haschild? Has the Montessori elementarysilver vase if it were cleaned up." not been removed. What they do have, classroom need of the exercises of prac- The child is free to see the need in and this serves as training to responsi-tical life? Yes, and they now have to bethe Children's House and if he chooses, bility, are "points of interest." Insteadcarried out within an expanded envi-he can become responsible for answer- of right or wrong performance, we haveronment. ing that need. better and better and best. The classroom and its furnishings As the child enters the elementary By presenting the exercise, byhave to be cared for and kept in order,class of the Montessori school and is showing how to do it, we are educat-but so has the outside environment ofolder, the opportunities for community ing the intellect. And what of the will,society. There is a behaviour to do withservice increase. All around are ex- that other great gift to the human be-outside libraries, with museums, withamples of people in need. All around ing, and the guardian of responsibility?art galleries, with parks and gardens,in society are the poor, the homeless, "Can you wash the table this timewith shops, with industrial workplaces.the blind, the old. Under adult super- without letting any drops of water fallEach calls for a different code of con-vision, the elementary children should off this side? I will show you how toduct that has to be followed. become aware of the need of those less do it. Scrub very hard in the middle of In each of these places are peoplewell off, and learn how to offer the ser- the table, now watch we have to be-and the exercises of grace and courtesy,vice they need. Without community gin to go very carefully, as we get nearfirst learnt in the Casa dei Bambini andservice, the children do not become the edge of the table. Now you have toaccorded to the child's companions inaware of their responsibility to those in stop your hand, so that drops of waterthe Children's House and to any visi-need and are not prepared for the next do not fall over the edge. Now it's yourtors to it, are to be extended to peoplelevel of service to the community which turncan you do it like that?" Herein libraries, museums, art galleries,comes with adolescence and adult- we have challenged the child, to con-shops, anywhere the elementary childhood. trol, but we have shown him how to goes out to work in or to visit. Assuredly there comes a recogni- control his hand. But there is an even more signifi-tion of a need, when pop stars, the me- Perhaps the first time, or the sec-cant factor embedded in the exercisesdia, governments, organised agencies ond, he may have drops falling off theof practical life at the elementary andbecome involved, and large amounts of edge. But we repeat the challenge, histhe third plane levels of development.aid are raised, because our attention has performance perfects itself and even-It is nothing to do with Green Peace,been drawn to a tragedy that has come tually he has complete control. with protest marches for the conserva-about or is about to happen. But what Now here is the important pointtion of the countryside with sermons,about the need of the hidden, the un- about this training and control of thewith whipping up the emotions. It is sung, the lost from sight, the stepped- movement of the hand. It does not re-to do with reason with the realisationover in the streettheir need is even ally matter, and no great harm is done,that all within the cosmos are interde- greater because it is often unrecognised. if there is water all over when the childpendent, to a greater or lesser degree. The need often becomes apparent only is washing a table. But learning to con- It is part of the Exercises of Grace to the keenly observant. It is to these trol one's actions does matter, and isand Courtesy, of the Practical Life Ex-needy that we should be directing the going to matter more and more as the ercises. The child should first have beenattention of the elementary children. It child gets older, and he has not learntintroduced to the idea in the home en-is in this way that we can guide the chil- to control himself when his hand wantsvironment. It is the idea of service to dren to compassion, to a recognition of to connect itself to a companion's nose! the community. In the home it takes the their responsibility for others in the The training of the willthe abil-form of helping to keep the environ-world whom they do not personally ity to choose the right. The points of ment in order for the rest of the family.know, but whom they are bound to interest and the challenge to controlIt may be scraping the carrots for alove, because they are fellow human and perfectionwhat a simple pre-meal, of dusting the bookshelves, ofbeings, part of the cosmos, which we scription for educating to responsibil-laying the table, of taking out the gar-all share and inhabit. The gift of will, ity while realising one's freedom! bagebut it is service to othersnotwhich in other words means love, has This educating of the intellect and for any remuneration but because theyto be exercised if it is not to atrophy. To the training of the will should begin inare in need of the service and it is partlove means, simply, to will, to choose, the home. If the child then goes to aof my responsibility to offer it. "Am Ithe good of the other. Montessori school, the education andmy brother's keeper?" "Yes," should Schools and other educational in- the training continue in the preparedcome the answer loud and clear, "be-stitutions are aware of the intellect and environment of the Children's House.cause he is in need." Not from theits need to be developed. Letters after The child began to learn to care for the teacher telling to a child does the re-the name have come to be highly re- environment and for the people withinsponsibility come, or pointing it out ingarded. But unless we also recognise it in the home and then in thewords, but from the child being led that other gift to man, the will, and be- Montessori school. He has freedom al-within the prepared environment togin to train it, we are likely to end up lowed to him in the prepared environ-recognise the need of another. "I willwith nations of irresponsible citizens, ment and he is learning to be respon-polish this silver vase because Mary has highly academic, but uncontrolled. 210 4 Freedom and Responsibility

In a significant doctoral thesis, Dr.it. We cannot give "the aid to life" Michael Gross studied Dr. Montessori'swhich Dr. Montessori wished us to give "Concept of Personality." He writes:unless we allow freedom in a prepared "The reconstruction of a humane soci-environment and ask for the accompa- ety is contingent upon the strength andnying responsibility, by training the unification of the human personality,will to responsible action. the full elaboration of which depends This task belongs to the whole upon a method of education rooted inadult population; it is not just the obli- the laws of development." gation of parents and teachers. But it I contend that Dr. Montessori hasmay very well be the responsibility of formulated such a method. In her book,Montessorians to educate the outside Education and Peace, she writes, "Theworld to the realisation of the gifts of fundamental freedom the freedom ofintellect and will granted uniquely to the individualis necessary for thehuman beings and what this gift evolution of a species for two reasons:means, in terms of civilisation's sur- 1) it gives individuals infinite possibili-vival. 0 ties for growth and improvement and constitutes the starting point of man's M.E. Stephenson complete development, 2) it makes the formation of a society possible, for freedom is the basis of human society. (p. 122)...Education today does not take personality into account and does not Margaret E. Stephenson studied with Dr. Maria Montessori for many years and, in 1960, was com- develop it. Man today pays no heed to missioned by the Montessori family to travel to human personality and regards human the United States as a teacher trainer for the society as a colony without individu- Whitby School in Connecticut. In 1962, an AMI training center was opened in Washington, DC, als." (p. 124) with Margaret Stephenson as its Director of Train- Dr. Maria Montessori's "aid to life" ing. Miss Stephenson was the Director of Training (as she called it, deprecating The at the Montessori Institute of Milwaukee. Inc. from 1989 to 1995. Montessori Method), took each human being in her school as unique and gave them the possibility of realising their freedom in the prepared environment and of being responsible for it. I think that we have forgotten the points of interest, the challenge to the human being to remember his gifts of intellect and will, which have to be realised and exercised if the civilisation which has been built up over a thou- sand years, is not to disintegrate and disappear into anarchy and lawless- ness. Give to the intellectshow how to dothen give to the willthe challenge: "Can you do it like that?" Con- ductbehaviourthoughtjudge- mentthe intellectual understanding then the will, the choice. Dr. Montessori's message has always been the same to those who study and apply without compromise and innovations her principles and practice. Her message is: "The child is both a hope and a promise for the future." But adults have to realise that the child, along with all human beings, was granted intellect and will, so that he could come to understand and that he was given the freedom of the world, but that he would be held responsible for 24 22 The Importance of Freedom in Our World Today Silvia Dubovoy, Ph.D. Introduction a spiritual reality is born, precisely be-tion of the totality. cause man is capable of knowing him- Man needs to fulfill his mission in It is an honor and a responsibilityself and others, and that our principalthe cosmic order. In order to be able to to have been called upon to addressconcern is education. do it, he needs to be free to develop indi- you at the opening of this conference, We have the capacity to become vidual potentialities. Freedom and Responsibility A Glorious aware and understand our existential Maria Montessori has a view of the Counterpoint, and discuss with you thesituation and the contradictions thatuniverse in its totality. For her, the importance of freedom in our worldexist today in the world. This capacitywhole earth with everything that is in today. is mainly what makes us human. Weit, including man, is part of the cosmic The year 2000 has been proclaimedare aware that we need to transformorder. There is a discipline that main- The International Year of the Culture ofourselves if we want to help life. How-tains the course of the universe. Human Peace by the United Nations Generalever, the understanding of human na-beings are part of that universe and Assembly. What better form of celebrat-ture has never been more difficult thanhave to follow patterns dictated by laws ing this year than to work together forin our contemporary society. of nature. the free development of the child in a We are in the year 2000; we have She has a strong faith in the natu- peaceful and constructive environ-achieved a mastery of nature un-ral impulse of man towards his own ment? dreamed of in the last century. The ad-growth, towards his complete forma- In an address given in Copenhagenvancement of science in every aspecttion in successive stages of physical and on May 22, 1937, Maria Montessorior discipline is outstanding; computerspsychological growth. Her vision is tosaid: are multiplying our knowledge at anwards the child, who she considers has "Education today, in this particu-accelerated rate. New possibilities areunseen powers that we need to dis- lar social period, is assuming truly un-discovered in every field every second.cover through a scientific pedagogy. limited importance. And the increasedThe word globalization has set its placeMontessori says: "Nature gives life by emphasis on its practical value can beon earth. giving freedom and independence, but summed up in one sentence: education And still there is a danger in suchwith it gives laws determined in accor- is the best weapon for peace."' success. Man may forget the nature ofdance with time and its special needs. And in an address given beforeman, the very essence of human devel-Our first teacher will be the child him- The European Congress for Peace inopment and, distracted with his humanself or rather the vital urge of cosmic Brussels on September 3, 1936, she said:power to satisfy his ambitions, it is pos- laws that lead him unconsciously."' "Peace is a goal that can be attainedsible he will ignore the cosmic task that Nature has given the child a vital only through common accord, and the man plays as part of the totality. impulsean inner guidethat directs means to achieve this unity for peace For this universe to exist therehim towards the full development of are twofold: first, an immediate effortneeds to be a dynamic equilibrium. Allhis personality. The child has to grow, to resolve conflict without recourse toelements in the universe are in the pro-develop and perfect by himself. There- violencein other words, to preventcess of development. For this develop-fore, education has to be a help to life; war and second, a long-term effort toment to take place, the attendance andit must collaborate with the child in the establish a lasting peace among men.the collaboration of .everyone is essen-task of constructing himself. To con- Preventing conflicts is the work of poli-tial. The emergence of man in the pro-struct himself the child needs an intel- tics; establishing peace is the work ofcess of evolution, with the awarenessligent and loving defense, a prepared education."' of himself, with reasoning powers andenvironment, with a prepared adult There cannot be peace within your-imagination, makes him part of nature,that understands deeply the concept of self, your family, the community, coun-subject to laws of development and atfreedom. Our task is to convey through tries and the world if there is no free-the same time possessing the capacityeducation the responsibility that man dom; but it is freedom within limits,to transcend nature. has towards him and the totality. freedom with responsibility. The task of human beings is not The aim of this lecture is both theo- During these days, you will hearjust to provide for themselves but toretical and practical. The keynote will the word freedom repeated (manyunderstand that we are an essential parttouch the theory, the seminar the prac- times) in each and every lecture andin the maintenance of the earth, andtical aspect of the importance of free- seminar. We trust that through repeti-therefore the universe, for future gen-dom for human development. tion we might all achieve a deeper un-erations. There is a responsibility in derstanding of these important aspectseverything that we do. What is freedom? of the human personality that is con- Man needs the opportunity to take Freedom is used in different mean- structed during the first six years of lifefrom the environment what he needsings, even ambiguously. I'm sure that and which are so much needed today. and, at the same time, to be aware thatwe all have an intellectual understand- I have the certainty that all of ushis actions contribute directly or indi-ing of it. What seems problematic is who are here, believe that within manrectly to the development or destruc-being able to put into practice such con-

23 The Importance of Freedom in Our World Today cepts as freedom and responsibility inis the ability to choose from within,we are really and concretely free. We our daily lives and this is extremelyguided by an inner teacher who followsare so conditioned by society that free- necessary today. a vital urge of cosmic laws, that leadsdom seems to be not a fact but only a The idea of freedom is as old ashim in an unconscious way. possibility. It has to be conquered; it has human thought. We find many defini- In the normal development of ato be an achievement of the human per- tions since the Sanskrit texts, in Thehealthy child it is not believed thatson. It has to be in spite of the obstacles Bible, Aristotle, Plato, etc.: "Truth willmuch of the time, if presented with aand the conditions we are constantly make you free" we cart read in The Bible. free choice, he will choose what is good exposed to. In Bergson's words: "To be There is an exhaustive list of meanings;for his growth. This he does because itfree is to conquer freedom." my intention is just to mention some oftastes good, feels good, gives pleasure Only when an individual chooses, them. and enjoyment. This implies that heunder his own impulses and not un- Freedom may mean physical free-knows better than anyone else what isder the will of another, is he acting dom, like moving from one place to good for him. freely. Only when his choice is guided another. It may mean psychological This Makes sense if we agree thatby reason (knowledge) is he acting freedom, spontaneity inherent in man'smost basically, we all seek what is goodfreely. When it is his choice, then he nature. We discuss internal freedomfor ourselves. To help the child meansaccepts the responsibility and the con- and external freedom, and civil free-not that the adult satisfy his needs di-sequences of his decision. It is freedom dom within the framework of the law. rectly but rather, make possible for himof choice based on knowledge. There is also freedom of speech, aca-to fulfill his needs and make his own When you know what you want demic freedom, etc. choices. and you know your limitations, then Some meanings might be ambigu- The problem of free choice comesyou can make the decision with respon- ous and contradictory, such as freedomwhen we cannot figure out what is re-sibility, which is the ability to respond, of the press, which can be many timesally good, and once we have decidedand accept the consequences. a way of manipulating or conditioningwhat is good, we are unable to act on Montessori says, "Free choice is the public to think in some waysit. We are so conditioned by externalone of the highest of all mental pro- against his freedom to think. demands that we have lost the abilitycesses. Only the child, deeply aware of To most philosophers, freedom hasto know what we want or what is re-his need for practice and for the devel- meant through the centuries: ally good for our development. opment of his spiritual life, can really The capacity to choose freely If we stop to think for a moment be said to choose freely."5 between two options; what is the source of our goals and our To know what we really want, we A liberation, the capacity ofdesires? Is the source of our desiresmust be sensitive to our innermost freeing oneself from irrational pas- coming from ignorance about our trueneeds. Children are sensitive to their sions, sufferings, and limitations. needs? Are our desires or goals moti-inner needs. Children can remain so Freedom implies an option of thevated by external influences or nega-when the adults around them do not will. There can be no freedom of willtive emotions, which are psychologi-continually become an obstacle to their without awareness, without autonomycally destructive elements that actuallydevelopment. Children can remain so or independence to act. Depending onenslave us in the "freedom" to pursuewhen they do not obstruct the path of the context, we can use them as politi-them? How can we educate our chil-human development. cal, economic, moral or psychologicaldren to fulfill their needs if we do not Montessori states that to be able to meanings. recognize our own needs? have responsibility, freedom cannot be In simple terms, if I would ask you Finally, one day, we find that weseparated from discipline. Freedom right now,. "What is freedom?" youknow what we want, but we cannotand discipline are like two sides of a might answer in the same manner thatcarry it out because the problem nowcoin. some of my students answer wheneveris that our desires conflict with each I ask the same question: "Doing what-other and our desires conflict withWhat is discipline? ever you want, whenever you want toother's desires. Just like the word freedom the do it." Preparing ourselves to solve theseword discipline is used in different con- While Montessori would agree thatproblems, so that true freedom may betexts. following one's wishes without inter-achieved, is what discipline is all about. The word discipline in the dictio- ference is freedom, she would also say Erich Fromm writes: "Freedomnary is synonymous with punishment, that without discipline, a person: consists not in doing what one pleasesa command or order from external a) Does not really know what he/ and what circumstances invite you, butsources. It makes you think of an au- she wants, and in being able without hindrance or re-thoritarian government or an adult try- b) Is unable to do what he/she straint, to do in a direct way what ising to control with orders, mistrust and chooses. good for your development accordingthe supervising control that is necessar- For Montessori, freedom meansto the laws of the structure of humanily implied by the belief that children the ability to choose what is good,existence."4 or youngsters are evil. based on the principle that "good" is In reality, the problem is not so The word discipline comes from what is good for man, and "evil" ormuch how we define freedom as muchdisciple, a follower, one that has to fol- "bad" is what is detrimental to man. Itas knowing whether or to what extentlow rules and accepts limits given by a

24 Silvia Dubovoy, Ph.D. teacher. Discipline, in simple terms, iswork. Self-discipline, inner-discipline Everything that helps man to be to be able to follow a rule of life when-comes as a result of work. himself is an education for freedom. All ever it is necessary. The relation between freedom andthat restrains his being, destroys his When a child is born he has an in-independence has a different connota-freedom. What we are talking about ner driveforce of life, vital energy tion for Montessori. She gives a widerhere is not a free education but an edu- an inner teacher, that directs him to-meaning to independence than to free-cation to be able to be free in the prac- wards the actualization of all his poten-dom. It is possible that a person maytice of freedom. tialities through self-construction. Hebe independent without being free, but needs to construct himself through ex-it is not possible to have true freedomResponsibility periences in the environment and adaptwithout having acquired independence Responsibility is the result of free- to it. To be able to do this, he has to beas a basis. Each level of independencedom and discipline. It is a task of a hu- free to obey an inner teacher, he has toin a developing organism comes as aman being since birth and can only be discipline himself and grow accordingresult of the acquisition of a new func-acquired through experiences in the to the laws of nature that set a patterntion. An animal, as independent as itenvironment. for the structure of human existence.may seem, cannot acquire freedom be- Responsibility is my response to a He has to fulfill his taskthat of con-cause freedom to choose is related torequest that I feel to be my concern. tributing to the whole plan. the power of thought and reasoning. "Responsibility and response have the One must be truthful to the lawsEach act in man is necessarily preceded same root, respondere'to answer.' To of naturea master greater than us by an intellectual act, a judgment. Tobe responsible means to be ready to the cosmic plan that has limits whichbe able to make choices the child needsrespond."6 balance and harmonize the whole uni-to be independent. Having a choice and To be able to respond you have to verse. exercising it is the beginning of respon- know what you want and you have to For Montessori there is no freedomsibility and freedom. know how to do it. To be ready to re- without discipline, but it is an active When we prepare an environmentspond, a human being needs to have discipline. Everything that exists in thein which the child may act freely, inknowledge and the ability to do what universe follows natural laws of devel-which he can find motives of activityis requested. When the child has to opment and certain patterns. Man, asthat will help him to develop, we aremake decisions beyond his ability to part of the cosmic plan, needs to fol-guiding him towards freedom. We pro-respond, he feels overwhelmed and low certain laws of development,. Whenvide opportunities for him to be inde-insecure. man follows these laws he is actingpendent. This means that he can per- Responsibility is not a duty im- with discipline. He is truthful to him-form activities without the immediateposed upon me from the outside. It is a self and the laws that govern optimalassistance or direction of an adult. Toresponse to do something that I know development. It means obedience to thelet the child be himself is not permis-how to do. If there is lack of knowledge laws that govern optimal human devel-siveness, indulgence or over protection. or ignorance about what is requested opment. It is a discipline that comesIt is love with respect for the child'sof a child or a youngster, we cannot ask from within and is not imposed fromown inner signals. He is not abandonedfor responsibility. The responsibility external sources. to misbehave, because there are limitsgoes to the person that did not give This discipline is not related toin the environment that must be fol-them (child or youngster) enough in- punishment and coercion that leads tolowed. We cannot give a true freedomformation. immobility. It is not the "thinkingof choice without limits in the environ- The first responsibility of a new- chair" or "time out." A child who isment. born is to breathe, to eat, to digest and made to be quiet and silent is not a dis- A person that can be a master ofto excrete; no one can do it for him. His ciplined child but a paralyzed one. Anhimself is a disciplined person. A per-organism is prepared to do this task individual is disciplined when he isson that acts because of external orders,and he has to do it to survive. These master of himself, when he can control is a slave of another's will. When a child first responsibilities are unconscious himself and when he can follow his in-is not allowed his freedom, more andand instinctive; however, they are an ner teacher. more external control is necessary toanswer to an inner drive, a force of life Freedom in a prepared environ-keep him restrained. that guides the child towards his full ment is a fundamental principle of Freedom, independence and disci-development and survival. Montessori education, but it is freedom pline have to be conquered to be able The laws of nature protect the child with limits, freedom with responsibil-to respond to any activity, which leadsby giving him unconscious directions. ity and it has two directions: to order, harmony, and development.Through activities in the environment a)To be able to do things True freedom comes only when you areduring the process of growing, the child b)Limits and limitations in contact with your inner-self. Free-becomes conscious of his own skills To be able to follow his innerdom depends on the level of personaland responds to those activities that he teacher a child needs to be independentconsciousness, the concept of one's selfknows how to do. However, the child and have motives for activity with in-and the world around us. It has to behas developmental limitations and telligent purposes. We need to provideexperimented and conquered step byneeds the protection of an intelligent an environment adequate to his needsstep. There is no freedom from, but free-adult to prepare an environment in and encourage discipline throughdom to. which he can overcome obstacles for his

25 The Importance of Freedom in Our World Today development and become responsible. child until he has the knowledge to bepresentations for the child to acquire In a Montessori environment theresponsible for his actions. more knowledge and control of him- child is helped to develop his will so self, she trusts the free choices of the he can make the right choices. Which type of authority? child and indirectly continues guiding The will is the manifestation of the Among other definitions in the dic-him towards the full development of vital energy. It is a conscious expressiontionary, authority means: the power tohis potentialities. It becomes freedom of the life force. It is the maximum di-determine; the right to control; a powerwith limits. rection of movements. Without the ac-or right delegated or given; right to re- Which limits? Among others, let us tions performed there is no manifesta-spect or acceptance of one's word, com-give an idea: tion of the will, as the external expres-mand, thought, etc.; a ruling.9 The collective interest. The free- sion of the will is only found in move- It seems there are two types of au-dom of the child must have as a limit ments. thority: one based on knowledge andthe collective interest. That means that Montessori says: "There can be noexperience, and another one based onhe may not do anything to hurt him- manifestation of the will without com-control and power that becomes anself or to damage others. pleted action. He who thinks of per-authoritarian type. The authoritarian His freedom is allowed until he in- forming a good action, but leaves it un-type is always in control because it doesfringes upon to the freedom of another. done, he who desires to atone for annot trust the child's power to be respon-If the edrth is our prepared environ- offence, but takes no steps to do so, hesible, does not believe that the child is ment we all have a responsibility to care who proposes to go out, to pay a call orever mature, and will not let the childfor this environment. We cannot con- to write a letter, but goes no farther inact without supervision. This type taminate or pollute the oceans, the air, the matter, does not accomplish an ex-shows that he is in control all the time.etc. because it belongs to all living or- ercise of the will. To think and to wishThe rules and limits are given for hisganisms. By not being aware of this is not enough. It is action whichbenefit and not for the collective inter-limit we must pay the consequences for counts."7 est. This type is defensive and choosesour actions. In a Montessori environment theto be possessive, dominant and indif- Knowledge must precede choice. child is helped to develop his will. Theferent towards the needs of the child. No child is allowed to work with some- educator is a kind of mediator betweenThis type of authority provokes fear,thing that has not been presented or the environment and the child. She ob-guilt, submission, and lack of self-es- that he does not know how to use. With serves the child's needs and offers theteem in the child. The relationship isthis limit we see the deep intuition of opportunity for him to choose what hesimilar to a master and a slave. Montessori about knowing and voli- needs. The child becomes obedient to The other type of authority is thattion. When the child wants to choose his inner laws. If the adult understands of an experienced leader and an enthu-an activity with materials, he must see this aspect of self-construction and re-siastic apprentice. This type under-how to use it before he can do the ac- spects it the child will obey him. How-stands that he is the authority only fortivity. When he knows its appropriate ever, to be able to obey the child needsa certain period of time until the childuse, he can use it with an intelligent to develop his will and freely choosecan be responsible for his actions. Aspurpose and be successful. He does not to follow another 's wish. soon as the child shows, through hisact just to know but to grow and be re- Will and obedience are very muchchoices and independent actions, thatsponsible. He needs this action to ex- related to each other. Obedience mayhe has acquired a,new level of respon-pand his mind, to control and coordi- well imply a sublimation of thesibility, the authority withdraws step by nate his movements. Doing a task that individual's own wills.' step. It trusts the process of develop-he knows how to perform leads him to If the inner urge of the child hasment and is always open to learning ifnew discoveries that promote his de- been protected during the first years ofhe makes mistakes. The rules and lim-velopment and his independence. life, it is possible to see a disciplinedits are based on the collective interest Correct use of the material. The child that knows what he wants and isand are given with an attitude that willmanner in which the child uses the able to manifest his will through his freeinvite the child to acquire responsibil-material has to have an intelligent pur- choices. ity. The child becomes the master of hispose. The child's development comes However, this is not the reality inown thoughts and actions and is ablethrough the progress towards perfec- our schools and homes. Parents make to control himself, conquering innertion provided by the correct use of the many mistakes and the child is not re-discipline and progressing into a self-material. By having the opportunity to sponsible for all of his actions. He needsconfident, responsible individual. Thiswork with the essence of the material, some limits placed by an adult who has type of humanistic authority is like athe child educates and disciplines him- the role of a humanistic authority (par-frame of reference for the child thatself. Each piece of material is designed ent or teacher). gives him a sense of security. to achieve a particular aim. The child For a certain period of time, the In a prepared environment thecan explore and make variations after adult is the authority while the child isdirectress is the authority at the begin-he has experienced the purpose of the conquering his freedom, independencening of the year. She has the experienceactivity. and self-control. This means that theand the knowledge and establishes lim- The number of materials in the adult gives free choices to a certain ex-its to help the child adapt to the envi-environment is limited. There must be tent and makes some decisions for theronment. After she has given enoughonly those materials with which the 26 28 Silvia Dubovoy, Ph.D.

children are working. Other materials knowledge of human develop-Conclusion should be put away and brought out ment and believes in education The importance of freedom with when they are needed. There should be as a help to life responsibility in our world today is just one of each material. The child will A prepared environment for eachimmense. The circumstances that exist develop respect and patience while plane of development in the life of a child are a threat if the waiting for an exercise that another Opportunities for acquiring suc-child has not acquired a strong person- child is using. With this limit the child cessive levels of independence ality. It is our task to help the child be overcomes possessiveness and devel- Possibilities for the will of thefree to make the right choices, and the ops social skills. After working with a child to develop right decisions. No one can give an- piece of material, the child has to put it The option of having free choiceother freedom; no one can discipline back in order and in the same way and to make decisions another. It has to come from within. position in which he found it, thus de- Accepting mistakes or errors asResponsibility is a process and has to veloping respect and responsibility. opportunities for learning be attained by means of experiences in The child is free within these lim- Democratic limits the environment. Our responsibility is its and he abides by them with joy be- The possibility for the child toto acknowledge the request of the child cause they make his life predictable and participate and collaborate in ev-who is asking, "Help me to do it by my- help him to feel secure and in control. ery aspect of his environment self. Trust me. I will make it." In the prepared environment there is Respect, interest, knowledge, love Let me finish with this sentence freedom for individuality. and responsibility for the child from Montessori: "The child is the spiri- Nature reveals itself in diversity. It tual builder of mankind, and obstacles is like an artist who never repeats her- Obstacles to freedom and responsibility to his free development are the stones self; it is as fingerprints from the hand No limits/rulesOver permis-in the wall by which the soul of man that are never equal. Each mind is a siveness is associated with inse-has become imprisoned. "" 0 special creation and constructs a unique curity, antisocial aggressiveness system of knowledge. The only possi- and inconsistency. These will re- bility for a child to develop his special sult in lack of stable values for Notes abilities and his own methods of orga- guiding behavior, insecurity and nizing his experience, and to discover vacillation in meeting problem- 'Montessori, Maria, Education and Peace, his surroundings and himself is atic circumstances in life. Clio Press, Oxford, England, 1949, Reprinted through a prepared environment which Rigid standards The child will 1992, p. 28. can keep his freedom safe. Many times have a tendency to rigidity, se- Ibid., p. 24. these possibilities are destroyed when vere conflicts, guilt, self-con- 3 Montessori, Maria, The Absorbent Mind, the adult does not understand or accept demnation and self-devaluation. Clio Press, Oxford, England, 1992, p. 22. his task to be the authority for a certain It leads to excessive condemna- Fromm, Erich, Escape from Freedom, period of time. tion of self for socially disap- Fawcet World Library, U.S.A. Montessori tells us that when there proved behavior. 5 Montessori, Maria, The Absorbent Mind, are problems with discipline in a group Overprotection - Leads to sub- Clio Press, Oxford, England, 1992, P. 247. it is because freedom is lacking. At this mission, inadequacy, lack of ini- moment the directress has to observe tiative, tendency to passive de- 6 Fromm, Erich, Man for Himself An In- quiry into the Psychology of Ethics, Holt, Rinehart with deep interest what limits are es- pendency in relations with oth- & Winston, Inc. U.S.A., 1947, p. 105. tablished. The chaos in a group or in a ers. family is a control of error for the adult. OverindulgenceSelfish, de- 7 Montessori, Maria, The Advanced What type of authority/leadership is manding, with inability to toler- Montessori Method Vol. 1, Clio Press, Oxford, England, p. 132-133. he carrying out? Is there an authoritar- ate frustration. The child is rebel- ian figure? Is the work the child is do- lious to any type of authority. 8 Montessori, Maria, The Absorbent Mind, ing his own choice or imposed? Are the Seeking attention and lack of re- Clio Press, Oxford, England, p. 234. activities a challenge or an obstacle for sponsibility. 9 Random House Unabridged Dictionary, the child's development? Faulty Parental ModelsThe Second Edition, Random House, Inc., New York, Montessori says: "But what kind of child internalizes unethical or N.Y., 1993. freedom has he been given? The only socially undesirable attitudes 10 Montessori, Maria, Education and Peace, true freedom for an individual is to and behaviors. Clio Press. Oxford, England, 1988, p. 55. have the opportunity to act indepen- Contradictory Demands The " Montessori, Maria, Education and Peace, dently. That is the condition sine qua non child is confused and lacks an in- Clio Press, Oxford, England, 1988, p. 201. of individuality. There is no such thing tegrated frame of reference. Self- as an individual until a person can act devaluation. Bibliography by himself."1° Rejection - Feelings of insecurity and isolation. Attention seekingMontessori, Maria. The Absorbent Mind. Conditions that promote freedom and with a negative and hostile be- Oxford, England: Clio Press. responsibility havior. A child who is unable toMontessori, Maria. Education and Peace. A prepared adult that has the give and to receive affection. Oxford, England: Clio Press. 11 27 The Importance of Freedom in Our World Today

Montessori, Maria. The Advanced Montessori Method. Vol. I. Oxford, England: Clio Press. Montessori, Maria. Education for a New World. Oxford, England: Clio Press. Fromm, Erich. Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc. U.S.A. Escape from Freedom. Rinehart & Winston, Inc. U.S.A. Maslow, Abraham. The Farther Reaches of Hu- man Nature. New York: Penguin Books. Random House Unabridged Dictionary. New York: Random House.

Silvia Dubovoy, Ph.D. has been active in Montessori work since 1965, first as a parent, then as coordinator of the first Montessori school in Mexico City. Dr. Dubovoy is an AMI primary trainer, holds an M.A. and a Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Barcelona and is currently the Director of Training for the Montessori Insti- tute of San Diego in La Jolla, California. She is a member of the AMI and AMI/USA Board of Di- rectors.

28 Active Discipline Silvana Montanaro, M.D. "Active discipline: a perfect rela-wrong; we were trying to stop their children's needs we become able to see tionship between the child and the en-energy instead of offering the forces ofthe relationship between action and vironment." life a proper way to be used. discipline and can better combine these Maybe it is necessary to clarify the Active discipline is Montessori'stwo components. The difficulty we see word discipline. It comes from "dis-response to the problem of convertingas parents/teachers/adults is that, ciple" (lat. discere), someone who lovesrebellious children into disciples, lov-when viewed superficially, action and to learn so he decides to follow some-ing followers of the adults they dependdiscipline seem contradictory and im- one who has the knowledge/expertiseon for their own survival and develop-possible to put together. From the past the disciple is looking for. This decisionment. To understand the problem wewe have received the idea that children implies the desire of becoming a fol-must consider how it is possible to mixcome with bad tendencies and it is our lower, a listener, a lover of the teacher.freedom and discipline and arrive atresponsibility to be strong in correct- Are young children such a type ofactive discipline. She tells us: "We do noting these tendencies and transform the person? We must answer "yes" becausebelieve that an individual is disciplinedsavage child into a civilized human we know that children, entering theonly when he is artificially made as si-being. Education was supposed to use world with great potential but not de-lent as a mute and as motionless as apower not compassion, and every fined skills, have the need to followparalytic. Such one is not disciplined "wrong" manifestation of the child was someone (at least one human being) inbut annihilated. We claim that an indi-looked at as an expression of the innate order to survive physically and to ac-vidual is disciplined when he is thewrong and not of our mistakes. It has quire human characteristics. They aremaster of himself and when he can, asbeen the genius of Montessori, com- psychic embryos and their develop,a consequence, control himself whenbined with her scientific preparation ment into complete human beingshe must follow a rule of life. Such a con-and capacity of observing without pre- needs the presence of an external envi-cept of active discipline is not easy toconceived ideas, that made it possible ronment where they must find theunderstand nor to attain. But it cer-to "discover" the child and see in his models of their human growth. tainly embodies a lofty principle oftantrums and rebellion the response to But which kind of disciple is theeducation that is quite different fromthe violence we were doing to his de- child? A passive recipient of externalthe absolute and undiscussed coercionvelopment. We were, even if in good knowledge, a follower of any type ofthat produce immobility." faith, impeding children from accom- adult/ teacher? Even if children de- Even more interesting is the factplishing their internal mission, the mis- pend, like every living being, on theirthat Montessori tells us that while thesion entrusted to them by life: to grbw environment, still, like every living be-child must be active, the adults mustand become a complete human being. ing, they need to find in this environ-be passive observers... "and their pas-Once this was understood, and a pre- ment the appropriate things necessarysivity should be compounded of anpared environment was given to them, for their development. anxious scientific curiosity and respectchildren of any age demonstrated great If children need adults and adultsfor the phenomena which they wish tolove for the environment, great respect wish to help children, why is there such observe." for it and great capacity for self-disci- a problem in obtaining the right atti- Here, from Discovery of the Child, ispline and concentration on their work, tude for following the model? what we have to keep in mind: "Rebel- since the first moment of their life. Once The problem is such that we havelion, misbehavior, non-collaboration inMontessori understood this and could the impression, looking into the past ofchildren are the expression of a deepprepare materials/work for both pedagogy (a branch of knowledge as disease, of a reaction to the obstacles tohandicapped and normal children, the old as human beings themselves), thatthe river of life which is deviated intomiracle of discipline appeared in her the desire of following, of acceptingwrong paths because we think that dis-environment. She tells us that indepen- with love the directions of the teacher,cipline is equal of immobility." dence is the necessary first step to dis- is unusual, something against human Montessori discipline is active,cipline because, for the growing child, nature. We seem to be born without thelinked with work, chosen freely, in re-independence is "a question of life." So desire for discipline. We want freedomsponse to the inner urges of the humanwe come to the core of the problem: but not discipline. This paradox can betendencies and sensitive periods. It ischildren must be given independence. solved only when we can put into con-a work that brings independence. The"We cannot be free if we are not inde- text human development and what itwork and the active experiences in thependent." entails. environment are the mental food nec- The educators must gain knowl- It has been Montessori who, be-essary for a harmonious development. edge of human development, recognize cause of her scientific preparation, hu-The psychic embryo, the child of thethe necessity for work at any age, pre- mility and great patience in observing,first three years of life, must be active,pare an environment where action/ could eventually explain and solve thisso we do not limit purposeful actionswork is possible so independence can problem. In reality the pedagogical ap-but show how to perform them. be attained and, from independence, proach to the children's education was With our understanding of theactive discipline.

29 11 4 Active Discipline

"We have only to apply these principles to see a calm come upon a child which characterizes and illuminates all his actions. There is thus truly born a new child, a child that is morally superior to one who is treated as a helpless and incompetent being. This inner liberation is accompanied by a new sense of dignity. From now on the child becomes interested in his own conquests and in educating himself. No punish- ments or rewards are needed." 2 We know that it is difficult to give up old habits and prejudices but we are supported by almost 100 years of Montessori education producing "active discipline" everywhere it is applied. 0

Notes

Maria Montessori, The Discovery of the Child, Ballantine Books, p. 49. 2Ibid., p.59.

Silvana Quattrocchi Montanaro, M.D., received her degree in Medicine and Surgery, with a speciality in Psychiatry, from the University of Rome. In 1955 she joined the staff of the Rome Montessori School for Assistants to Infancy, where she has taught mental hygiene, child neuropsychiatry, nutrition and obstetrics. Dr. Montanaro is currently the Director of Training for the Assistants to Infancy course In Rome and San Diego and serves on the board of directors of AMI. She has also been the Director of Training for the AMI As- sistants to Infancy courses in London and Mexico City, and was responsible for bringing toddler training to the United States.

30 Theoretical Tenents of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year Olds Phyllis Pottish-Lewis

A theoretical examination of the human What exactly was the message thathuman being would be one that con- qualities necessary for a contributing indi-people recognized embodied in this es-cerned itself not simply with an aca- vidual of society that can be fostered andsay that they wanted to convey to thedemic acquisition of facts, but with developed in a child, and an analysis andpeople of their company, state, or coun-helping the individual achieve those recognition of the elements and character- try? From the universal popularity ofqualities and characteristics recognized istics of an educational system required to this article, one could infer that allas essential for the attainment and occasion this development. peoples of the world recognize the im-maintenance of a productive, success- portance of developing in their citizensful, and contented life, such as Lt. Introduction the initiative, ingenuity and responsi-Rowan must have enjoyed. These In the March 1900 issue of thebility that young Andrew Rowan pos-qualities and characteristics are not magazine The Philistine, editor Elbertsessed in order "to take a message tomysterious and unidentifiable. They Hubbard portrayed a true story thatGarcia." Hubbard says, "Civilization isare clearly recognizable and so can be over time has become immortal. It wasone long, anxious search for just suchaddressed in a very deliberate ap- a short story, but of such import thatindividuals Anything such a man asksproach. its message is apt for any time and anyshall be granted. He is wanted in every culture. It is called, "A Message tocity, town and villagein every office,Potentials to be developed in a climate Garcia." shop, store and factory. The world criesof freedom The United States, in defense ofout for such; he is needed and needed A sense of independence: This Cuba, had declared war against Spain.badly the man who can "Carry a Mes- is a characteristic that is so vital In April 1898, the American chief ofsage to Garcia."' that without it a child, and then staff required certain information from Dr. Montessori's life's work was unfortunately the ensuing adult, the leader of the Cuban forces, Generaldevoted to finding a way that would will be dependent always on ex- Calixto Garcia, but was unable to es-ensure the most propitious "education ternal sources for assistance in all tablish any commuMcation with himof the human potentials," of which re- regards. A dependence can be through the Spanish blockade. Accord-sponsibility ranks very high; in other either physical or mental, with ingly, a young lieutenant, Andrewwords, a way to unlock the Lt. Rowan both forms being detrimental to Rowan, was dispatched from Washing-in us all. It was her belief that if one the developing person. A depen- ton with the task of making his wayprovided the child with the right kind dency of any kind will curb into Cuba to find General Garcia,of opportunities, these opportunities much of the creative abilities and though no one in Washington knew justcould assist in the natural unfolding functioning that exist naturally where the insurgent general might be.and development of the child's poten- within the person. It is only Rowan landed secretly on the coast oftials, and enable him to be a stronger when an individual becomes a Cuba in a small boat, learned throughmember of society, one for whom the free thinker and a free actor, local patriots where to look for Garcia,world would "cry out." She believed rather than following blindly or and made his way to the general, gotthat education should enhance the de- fearfully the options and dictates the information that he sought, and,velopment of all potentials lying dor- of others, that he can best make with the same privacy, retraced hismant within the child in order to cre- a real contribution to his society. route to the coast and back to Washing- ate members of society, who eventually A sense of responsibility: A ton. could one day function as responsibly child, who one day becomes an The resourcefulness of the youngand efficiently as the young lieutenant adult, will take his place lieutenant was, of course, praiseworthyhad. She has said, "Not in the service amongst a group of people in his in the extreme. It was that aspect of theof any political or social creed should society. To be a dependable incident that so impressed Hubbardthe teacher work, but in the service of member of society one must be that it evoked the best of his skill in thethe complete human being, able to ex- a responsible one. Irresponsibil- short essay. He made it into an impres-ercise in freedom a self-disciplined will ity as a prevailing characteristic sive sermon to young people, a lessonand judgement, unperverted by preju- of the members of any society, in success. "To take a message todice and distorted by fear."' serves to weaken and destroy Garcia" has become a byword for people This complete human being is one the society's basic foundations. over time all throughout the world; itwho has developed to his fullest extent A sense of observation: For a means, "show that you are resourcefulall the potentials that lie dormant at member of society to act respon- and inventive, that you can think inde-birth, which eventually will permit the sibly, he first must proceed from pendently, exert a high degree of self-child to serve his society as needed. knowledge. Most of this knowl- discipline, accept responsibilities whiCh Therefore, the greatest service an edge is obtained from careful ob- you carry through to success." education could offer a developing jective observation. To observe

31 33 Theoretical Tenents of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year Olds

thoroughly is essential for the These are a few qualities which liehoodthe continued actualization of acquisition of real and usefulin potential in children and can be con-his potentials as he learns how to exist facts. Facts that are imagined orsciously developed or educated toin societyDr. Montessori turned her contrived only create a shakyequip a person with the tools he needsintellect and experience. It is quite one foundation for action. From theto perform obligations and missionsthing to recognize the characteristics acquisition of real knowledgewhich might befall him as he functionsrequired to "take a message to Garcia," derived from meticulous obser-satisfactorily in the world. These abili-and quite another to devise a method vations, a society member canties must become so ingrained in a childby which these characteristics can de- proceed in a responsible mannerthat they eventually become second velop to their greatest ability. Based on to serve adequately. nature to him, and when faced with aher observations of children and child- The ability to analyze: Once atask, the child should be able to master hood, Dr. Montessori reasoned that for member of society has gatheredall of his talents in the pursuit of a suc-a child to develop naturally and spon- his real information, he thencessful completion of that task. taneously, there were a number of con- must be able to analyze his data ditions that must be recognized and methodically. In this way he willElementary child has to make himselfimplemented. One of these was the be able to put things into per-a member of society notion of providing the child with an spective to see how some things To understand how the Montessori environment which offered him certain can exert an influence, and thuselementary environment helps the el-freedoms. She believed that a child affect other things. He will alsoementary child to actualize his poten-must be afforded the freedom to under- be able to determine, throughtials become a Lt. Rowan it is neces-take his self-construction according to analysis, what alteration may besary to comprehend the child's funda-his own nature. She says, "Liberty, the required for change. mental constitution and the interplaysole means, will lead to the maximum Make critical choices: Afterbetween it and his world. During thedevelopment of character, intelligence gathering precise informationfirst six years of his life, in the first planeand sentiment; and will give to us, the and accurately analyzing it, oneof development, the child constructed aneducators, peace, and the possibility of can make critical choices. Forindividual, who, to a certain degree, de-contemplating the miracle of growth.' choices to be responsible, criticalveloped independence, responsible This freedom is offered the child, and well thought out, they mustbehavior, the ability to communicate tobut this is done in connection with real be founded on sound evidence,express his ideas and feelings, and anand meaningful activities on which he analyzed carefully and exactly.understanding of the society in whichcan labor for the express purpose of To make the best judgementshe lives. During the next six years offorming and expanding the powers la- people must develop the abilityhis life, in the second plane of develop- tent within him. Again, Dr. Montessori to discern and perceive distinctment, the child's task is different sinceoffers us the benefit of her experience subtleties, ones that may be elu-the individual has been constructed al-when she states, "It would not be pos- sive, before making a final deci-ready. At this time the task is to learnsible to conceive liberty of develop- sion. exactly and more concretely what itment, if by its very nature the child The expression of language:means to be a functioning member of awere not capable of a spontaneous or- The development of this poten-larger society. As the child pursues hisganic development, if the tendency to tial is crucial, as it is the tool thatinvestigation he will continue to de-develop his energies (expansion of la- one uses to communicate one'svelop and refine those essential quali- tent powers), the conquest of the means thoughts, ideas and feelings toties that will help him contribute to so-necessary to a harmonious innate de- another. Without the full devel-ciety at large. To make this constructionvelopment, did not already exist. In opment of this potential, anysuccessfully the child must have an ac-order to expand, the child, left at lib- ideas or notions that may havecurate knowledge and be aware of theerty to exercise his activities, ought to been conceived, no matter howcomponents of society. Without that in- find in his surroundings something magnificent or wonderful, willformation he cannot proceed from aorganised in direct relation to his inter- remain locked inside with nosound basis. To this end, he must ac-nal organisation which is developing door from which to emerge. quire through his own explorations and itself by natural laws."' To exercise an obedience of thediscoveries a reasonable understanding The process by which the child right kind: The act of true obe-of the facets of society and its members,thus benefits the most has been delin- dience is to control one's will byand he must have continued freedomeated clearly by Dr. Montessori. An exhibiting a self-discipline thatto practice being a valuable and con-environment must be provided that is would allow one to repress orstructive member. replete with select and meaningful ac- sublimate any selfish urges in tivities from which the child can choose favor of acting for the good of theEssential components inherent in anfreely to work. With these components, whole. This kind of obedience iselementary Montessori environmentfreedom and activities, the child can positive and integral to the fun- begin the process of educating his es- damental harmonious function-Freedom sential characteristics. When this kind ing of any society. To this comprehensive develop-of freedom is provided in a prepared ment in the child's journey to adult-environment with a teacher whose re- 32 4 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis sponsibility it is to link the child to that exercise their rational faculties; if theyImagination and Reason environment, the children are able to are not free to work together, they will be Hitherto, the primary child ex- develop more fully the human poten-deprived of opportunities to cooperateplored his environment with an absor- tials which lie promising in each ofand collaborate; if talking is not a free-bent mind, the natural and universal them. dom extended them, they will neverability he possessed that allowed him This development occurs sponta-learn to communicate and expressto make his construction of an indi- neously in an environment where free-themselves and their ideas adequately;vidual. With this absorbent mind the dom is offered. However, it is a free-if they are limited to working in theirchild could take in facts and qualities dom within limits. The limits provideimmediate environments, their opportu-from the environment with exceptional structure to the liberty, and nurture thenities to develop independence andease. As he explored the world of his development. The children are free toresponsibility will be stunted and im-environment he also applied his sen- choose their own work as long as thatpaired. sory abilities in order to comprehend choice is one which will further their But above all, a greater disserviceand digest the world at large. However, abilities; they are free to schedule theirwill have been done to the child if theat about age six the mind of the child own work as long as that schedule is ef-teacher acts for the child in all thesechanges with his transition to the sec- fective and productive; they are free torespects rather than permitting him theond plane of development. This is a engage in lengthy discussions as long asfreedom to act for himself. The impli-psychological change corresponding to they are cooperative, considerate andcation to the child will be, "you are in-the changing natural and universal accomplish their objectives; they arefree capable of making the best choice,characteristics. The elementary child no to work in groups as long as they develop therefore I must choose for you." Anlonger uses the absorbent mind and the and preserve the skills to maintain aapproach that makes the choices for thesensory powers as his principal tools. basic harmony in the social unit bychild will not only impede the fruitionRather, he engages reason and imagi- putting the needs of group before indi-of the potentials, it will create a depen-nation to discover the elements of the vidual selfish ones. The children aredency in the child, which, when heworld and universe. His imagination accountable for responsible choices inmoves into society, will create an indi-becomes a tool by which he can picture all of these regards. It is through thesevidual whose essential characteristicsthe past with all of its fascinations and freedoms balanced by limits, that thewill be crippled, preventing him frommysteries, while his reason can help children have the opportunity to de-functioning successfully without guid-him comprehend and understand the velop and nurture, little by little, degree ance from others. results and consequences of thoughts, by degree, the basic human potentials actions and decisions made by people. that will one day be required to allowMaking use of natural tendencies andThe future, too, is now in reach of this them to perform as valuable memberspsychological characteristics in thechild, as he employs his imagination of society and thoughtfully fulfill theirchild's development and reason to grasp the possibilities of obligations. As Dr. Montessori pondered thewhat might be in store for him. His elementary child and his ensuing de-imagination allows him to envision a Teacher's Responsibility velopment, she observed in her de-role for himself, and his reason permits The task of effecting the balancecades of work with children that naturehim to determine if his creation is between the freedoms offered in theseemed to endow this child with ten-sound and feasible. As the child works classroom and the corresponding req-dencies and psychological characteris-in the elementary environment, free to uisite responsibility falls to the adulttics that would assist him in this veryexercise his reasoning powers and his attempting to implement the principlesparticular development, just as natureimagination, he will become more prac- of Dr. Montessori. This task is one ofdid with the child in the first plane. Sheticed and adept at using these natural the essential responsibilities of thereasoned that since these characteris-talents. The children use their reason to teacher; it is not an easy one. tics seem to be both natural and uni-make judgements and to analyze. Teachers first must recognize andversal, the environment prepared forTherefore, their explorations and work understand the value of offering free-the developing citizens of the futuremust embody the experience of reason. dom; this is their responsibility. Thenmust provide for the free expression of If teachers wish to serve the child, they must take care not to intrude onthese characteristics. Actually, Dr.they must free him to reason things out that precious freedom once it has beenMontessori went one step further thanfor himself. It is imperative that they extended successfully. If assignments arethe mere recognition of these charac-not reason for him. Instead they must imposed the children will have little op-teristics and the allowance of their freeprovide and protect his opportunities portunity to learn to make their ownexpression. She believed that theyto reason through to a conclusion in- propitious choices; if the children arecould, nay, should be used as tools independently. If the child is given the told when to learn everything, they willthe required constructions of the indi-opportunity to reason then he can, and fail to learn how to schedule their ownvidual at the different planes, since itthrough doing, he can develop the abil- time carefully; if children are not left freewas to effect these constructions thatity to reason by exploring with his to sort out their difficulties, they will notnature endowed the child with theseimagination. Dr. Montessori says, learn to solve problems; if they areremarkable abilities. "[T]he child must learn by his own in- spoon-fed the reasons that lie behind all dividual activity, being given a mental matters and mysteries, they will fail to freedom to take what he needs, and not

33 35 Theoretical Tenents of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year Olds to be questioned in his choice."5 only chaos. They also realize that forcorporate other elements that provide this harmony to exist, there must be co-opportunities for the child to work on Order as a Reason for Laws andoperation amongst the members, asdeveloping his essential characteristics Directives well as clear and honest communica-while allowing him to investigate the Another natural aspect contribut-tion. It soon becomes apparent to theworld around him. One of these oppor- ing to the child's development thatchildren that frequently, to maintain the tunities Dr. Montessori called "going- undergoes a change when he movesharmony of the whole group, indi-out" because it allows the child to go into the second plane of developmentvidual members sometimes must sup-out into society to see for himself its around six years of age is his sense ofpress their personal wishes and desiresmysteries and mechanisms. The child order. By this time the child has beenwhen these desires conflict with thosemust be free to go out in order to verify able to generate an internal order forof the group. When a member of afor himself the discoveries encountered himself derived from the external or-group can accomplish this, he has trulyin class. Therefore, the walls of the der of the primary environment. As thearrived, as it marks the point of a dueclassroom must be extended to include child earlier explored his own society,respect for the will of the whole. the totality of society. This offering pro- simultaneously absorbing the order vides other opportunities for the chil- within it, he observed its prevailingGreat Work dren as well. It gives them the chance order and harmony. That order and The task of becoming a productive,to manage themselves responsibly and harmony was preserved by the govern-responsible, and valued member of so-to exert reasonable discipline indepen- ing laws of the society. As the olderciety is a formidable one. Nature, how-dent of a guardian adult. Moreover, child begins to explore the social fabricever, has endowed the elementary childgoing-out is connected with the child's within the elementary class, he be-with additional characteristics to en-exploration of society. If he has to move comes more able to understand andsure this development. It has providedinto society then the child must know accept its rules as he knows that, justthe second plane child with a greatsociety, and in order to know it, he has as in the primary class, it is the under-strength and endurance, which hitherto to get out into it. He cannot know about lying law and order that provides a se-he has not possessed. This period is dis-society by merely listening to lectures curity and harmony to life. At sometinguished by a time when a child canon it. He must experience it himself. Dr. level he recognizes that without a setwork endlessly and with great interestMontessori remarks, "To understand of governing laws all order will dissi-on topics that have touched his imagi-the importance of [going-out], which pate into chaos. nation. By throwing himself into hisought to permit social experiences, we work the child can accomplish all thatmust not be content to consider the Herd Instinct he needs to build a sound foundation.children's outing a simple health-giv- The child from zero to six, makesIt is only with a solid foundation de-ing exercise. It is designed to bring the the complete construction of an indi-rived from his own work that the childchild's attainments to life for him. It is vidual. At birth, he arrives completelycan move confidently and securelyonly thus that their realities will pen- dependent on those around him. By thefrom childhood into adulthood. Thisetrate him. That is what we call experi- age of six, that construction has beenperiod of great strength will assist theence. made. The child is an individual readychild in accomplishing his goals of de- "A child enclosed within limits to launch into the next construction ofveloping those qualities that will enablehowever vast remains incapable of re- becoming a member of a group. In or-him to function satisfactorily through-alizing his full value and will not suc- der to propel him into this social con-out life. ceed in adapting himself to the outer struction with relative ease, nature en- When a system of education rec-world."6 dowed him with a desire to work withognizes and provides an environment The opportunity to go-out is im- others. Dr. Montessori called this pro-in which children may freely expressperative since it is only through going- clivity the "herd instinct." She believedtheir natural tendencies and character-out that the child will be in touch with that children used this characteristic toistics, we have a system that has athe behavior of his people and the laws develop and practice those qualitiesgreater chance of helping them to natu-and order that govern his society. What that they would one day need to be-rally develop the potentials within. Ifare the rules of the museum? How come full-fledged members of society.this system of education takes accountshould the animals be treated in the Just as they must do when they takeof the development of the human po-zoo? What is the expected behavior in their place in society, when children aretential, it should result in an individual, the library? The children must have a free to work together, because they arewho will understand the workings ofchance to learn and to practice accept- drawn to each other naturally, theysociety, sufficiently, to be able to serveing those rules, and by doing so, un- learn to function according to the rules it. derstand them and be responsible to and laws of governmentrules which them. They also must have the chance the group has adopted, and to whichGoing-Out to practice at obedience to the prevail- the members are expected to adhere. In addition to the recognition of theing laws, and by obeying them, adapt Children learn by experience that fornatural endowments of the child andto what society reasonably asks. there to be peace and harmony in thethe allowance of their free expression Going-out is a notion that relates group the rules must be accepted andwithin a Montessori elementary class,to several key potentials in the devel- obeyed, otherwise order cannot prevail,the elementary environment must in-oping human being that were identi-

34 36 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis fied earlier. It relates directly to inde-charging of a moral responsibility bymust expect him to use them always. pendence because to go out success-showing courtesy and respect for those Since children have been given the free- fully achieves another degree of inde-on the outside. The training for it be-dom in which to make this construc- pendence. This independence is rel-gins in the class when the children aretion, and since the potentials are devel- evant in two realms, the physical andresponsible for seeking permission foroping little by little, in order to crystal- the mental. In the physical realm, from the visit. When they write for permis-lize into reality they must be exercised going-out the child learns such matters sion they must know how to write theconstantly. Thus, there must be an ex- as how to plan for his excursions, toappropriate letter, how to address po-pectation that once these potentials sur- look ahead at what he might need, tolitely people unknown to them, andface, even slightly perceptibly, they wear the appropriate attire for comfort,how to use acceptable penmanship andmust be used. If the children are asked and to bring along the necessary tools.paper. Once the visit is undertaken, theto be capable and to meet their poten- A mental independence is developedchildren practice the acceptable socialtials, they will. If there is no expecta- from going-out by the child's learningbehavior required for the event. Whention asked of them, then they may not to cope with whatever exigencies theit is over, frequently there are notes ofrise to their potential. going-out entails and creates. This men-thanks to write to those people who Before being able to do this, how- tal independence is related to logicalenabled the visit to happen. This rein-ever, teachers must understand clearly thinking and the exercise of judgement.forces for the child that it is reasonablethemselves the value of having expec- Another key potential to whichto have and express gratitude to thosetations, and how these expectations, going-out is related is that of self-con-who have done him a service. This is adetermined by the Montessori prin- trol. Can the children follow the rulessocial responsibility of which the childciples that guide their work, help the of life, rules which have been deter-ultimately becomes especially aware child to rise to loftier heights. Teachers mined to guard and protect the society?when granted the freedom to go-out. continually must maintain the vision of Self-control asks one to assume the re- Obviously, since going-out has sowhat children truly are capable of. In sponsibility of one's own conduct with-many essential elements that providefact, they must realize that in failing to out requiring external monitoring.opportunities for the development ofhave high expectations of the child's Children can recognize the need forthe child's potential, it must be an inte-work, they handicap the child by rob- self-control, and they realize that theygral part of the freedoms offered in thebing him of opportunities to develop need to assume responsibility for theirelementary class, if the class is really to great powers, sentencing him to a life own self-control without the need forserve the needs of the developing child. of mediocrity. It is important for teach- an external agent. Taking on self-con-One way to ensure that the child thusers to keep in sight the great heights to trol is the recognition of responsibility.moves beyond the walls of the class iswhich children can soar and the great Going-out is related to the will be-by limiting what is put inside the class. qualities that are waiting to be un- cause it entails choice: where to go,The class should never possess a fullleashed, when children are provided what to do, what to take, what exactlylibrary, because if it did, there wouldwith sufficient direction and nurturing, to find out about this activity in whichbe no reason to go out to the neighbor-and asked to be responsible to do their we are all engaged. It is not a case ofhood library to find the missing infor-very best, a best which otherwise may having everyone involved going out, amation. In the same vein, a class shouldnever be attained simply because it was responsible choice must be made as tonot contain a whole menagerie of ani-never asked of them. who will leave the class. Careful con-mals or a whole nursery of plants, since sideration must be given as to what willthis would restrict the child's need toNotion of Work be sought, and why it is sought, andgo outside to explore nature. Serious As Montessori teachers define and what will be needed in the seeking. Thisthought must be given always regard-crystallize their expectations of is deliberating a real choice. Dr.ing the preservation of the child's rea-children's work, they can draw on Dr. Montessori says, "The first thing to do sons and needs for going-out to exploreMontessori's views on the importance is to simplify the outing. It is necessary, his world. of work. In an article entitled Child's then, to carry as few things as possible Instinct To Work, she wrote, "One must and, consequently, 'to choose."' Expectations look for the aim of humanity in that Going-out should be related di- Another aspect beyond those natu-activity which is transforming the rectly to the work of the child, his ac-rally occurring in the child, which can- earth. Man is here to work and his work tivities, and the development of hisnot be overlooked in enabling the childis not for the good of himself but for potentials. Thus, it springs from theto develop to the fullest his human po-this great construction which we call interest of the child, not projects whichtentials, is having a set of expectationscivilization, and it has transformed the have been organized by the teacher.to which the child can aspire. In thisearth from what it was to what it is, and This means that not all members of theregard a teacher plays an active andis building up the social building which class go out at once. In this there is acrucial role. She must provide the en-is civilization today. difference from traditional organizedvironment with the meaningful activi- "This conception is in fact the same field trips, because goings-out are re-ties, and take care not to pose an im-as what really happens because all men lated to the child's work. pediment by obstructing the freedommust work and all social life is based The going-out is related to rela- that is offered. Moreover, once the childupon the work of man. But it is evident tions with people outside and the dis-begins to demonstrate his abilities, shethat if man merely thinks of work as a

35 3 7 Theoretical Tenents of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year Olds means to provide a living it is a muchthe same vein characteristics, and per- observation, it is possible that their field lower conception than that of the manhaps also to find some with other kindsof observation might expand to flow- who works in order to help his fellowof vein systems. By leaving the childreners on the plant, or perhaps to the kinds men to build up cosmic work, workfree to follow their interest, having justof bark on the plant. Moreover, this which affects the whole world. Thisgiven them a bit of knowledge ratherdeveloping heightened ability will not helps one to conceive work as some-than inundating them with every de-be limited just to the plants. It will ex- thing which invites and helps insteadtail about leaf systems, the teacher lib-tend to all areas of the child's world, of something which is forced uponerates the children to work indepen-because now it is a skill. The child pos- one."8 dently. When the children in their free-sesses it, and he will use it in all realms. These are words which must bedom work independently, they are, in Since the children are free to work heeded always, as teachers must under-fact, developing their independence.in groups, the child probably did not stand and accept the great essence ofThis development takes place gradu- leave the classroom alone, but among work, and how it is necessary, not justally. Also, if they take this freedom and others with similar interests and in pos- for the development of a single childwork constructively and diligently, thesession of the new lesson and language. and his well-being, but ultimately forchildren not only are becoming inde-As the children observe, explore and the success of humanity. When onependent, requiring little adult interven-discover things, they also discuss. truly comprehends this notion of work tion, but they are also becoming respon-Naturally, there may be differences of and its value, one need feel no doubtssible. Through taking on the responsi-opinions. Some members of the group when a child is asked to be responsiblebility of actually working productivelymay not agree that this kind of plant for his work. In fact, if she does not ex- on their own, they are developing theirhas a leaf system with parallel veins. pect the children to work, the teacherability to be responsible. This leads to debate, healthy argument, is derelict in her duty. If children, for Having been given the language orand the defending of one's position some reason, do not work spontane-the scientific names of the features ofsupported by reasons. Through this ously and naturally, then a teacher mustthe varieties of vein systems, the chil-invaluable process the child is learning find ways to help them become in-dren begin to use these names that arethe fine art of expressing himself and volved in constructive work. But sheabstract symbols for physical character-analyzing his own position. He is learn- must expect that work happens. Ifistics when they are exploring. As theying this the only way it can be learned, teachers, along with society, ignore theare used again and again, these namesby having the freedom to actually prac- natural desire of the human being tobecome the possession of the children. tice it, thus allowing the realities to pen- work, then they cannot help but per-In this way the children fortify andetrate him to the very core. petuate a debilitating, limited and at-build their vocabularies, while at the Eventually, the children will have rophied work ethic. same time possessing the tools ,to ex-to make decisions. They will want to press themselves precisely. Precise lan-determine if the plant has a vein sys- Illustration of How the Class Works guage supported by an exact vocabu-tem that is parallel or reticulate. They In order to envision more clearlylary provides a buttress for intelligiblewant to make a choice. When this how a Montessori elementary environ-communication. choice is based on observation, reason, ment helps in the unfolding of these During the process of examininganalysis, and thoughtful consideration, human potentials that I mentioned ear-plants with particular characteristics,the choice is a critical one. Again, chil- lier, by offering freedom within limitsthe children closely observe the fea-dren learn to make critical choices by while recognizing and using the natu-tures to determine if a leaf has reticu-being left free to explore, consider, dis- ral assets of the child, let us considerlate veins or if it has parallel veins. It iscuss, reason out, and finally to decide. the following illustration. Perhaps thethrough this process by which the chil- It is unimportant what that choice is, teacher observes that after she has pre- dren develop their powers of observa-because it is not the botany that mat- sented an initial fundamental lesson in tion. They look once, and then they look ters. What does matter is the process in botany, such as how the plant makesagain to see exactly which vein system which the child engages to learn to its food, a few children still seem inter- the leaf possesses. In this ceaseless look- make a final determination. The chil- ested in pursuing that subject more.ing, motivated by genuine interest, thedren learn to make decisions and to Following the interest of the children,children refine their powers of obser-solve their problems on their own, in- the teacher acts on her observation byvation. As their exploration continues,dependent of adult intervention, only giving them another lesson, for ex-still motivated by their interest, so doesby being allowed to involve themselves ample, the kinds of vein systems in thetheir observation. Once intrigued, theyin a process. leaf and their accompanying names.use this ability and apply it, not only It is a function of several elements Again, as before, once she has given theto the plants in the classroom, but alsoinherent within a Montessori elemen- lesson, the teacher leaves the childrento the plants in the school yard. Verytary class that helps the child to evolve free to wonder and to explore, perhapssoon they want to observe the plantsto the degree that he would be capable suggesting that they take their investi-on the street as they walk to school orof "taking a message to Garcia." With- gations out of the immediate environ-the ones in their yard at home to seeout offering freedom limited by responsi- ment. They may explore the leaves ofwhich vein systems particular plantsbility to the children to work on pur- the plants in the environment, both in- possess. Because they are carefully ob-poseful activities; without recognizing door and outdoor, to find others withserving leaves and in the habit of exactthe child's natural tendencies and assets

36 3 8 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis and using them to assist in his own con-inferior, even when the standard mayhim as a member of society. When these struction; without implementing oppor-have been untenable, unattainable orstandards are made clear to him, he will tunities for the children to go out to de-even inappropriate. In light of this, tobe fully aware of that to which he is termine for themselves the factors ofhelp a child learn to evaluate his ownresponsible. He can choose to meet or which society is composed; withoutperformance, based on reasonable andnot meet the defined and required ex- expecting that children behave and act ac-real goals without interference frompectations. The first step in this process, cording to a reasonably high standard,others, is to offer him a skill that willhowever, is for the teacher to recognize we do not offer children opportunitiesserve him throughout life. the importance of expectations, and around which the development of es- believe that children will rise to what- sential potentials can naturally ensue.Expectations ever level is expected of them. There- To ensure that society will have mem- To this end, one of the first steps infore, for the sake of the children, the bers who can act independently andself-evaluation is for the child to rec-expectations must be real and they responsibly, while possessing the pow-ognize and adopt for himself a stan-must be lofty. If the child is given high ers of observation and articulation, indard of reasonable behavior, because itexpectations he will meet them, as he order ultimately to make reasonedwill be this standard by which he willis endowed with the power of great choices, education must offer a way forevaluate his conduct. He can be helpedwork and therefore has a great ability. these attributes to be developed con-to" recognize constructive and accept-As noted previously, nature has given sciously. able behavior by understanding andthe child this psychological character- observing the conduct so deemed in theistic as a tool in his construction of him- The Importance of Developing Abilityclass. This can be achieved by function-self as a valued member of society. to Evaluate Others ing in the class society with his peersTeachers must help the child to use all It is well for a system of educationin a climate of freedom. Dr. Montessori of his tools. Hence, they must expect to provide for the careful and deliber-remarks, "It is difficult to make socialthe children to use these tools to aid in ate development of the human poten- relations real if one uses only the imagi-their development. It does not take tials, but for it to serve the child com-nation; practical experience is neces-much experience working with chil- pletely it also must provide a way forsary. One cannot awaken the con-dren to know that when presented with him to learn how to gauge for himselfscience by talking about it. The childexpectations they will meet them. the success and progress of his devel-must exercise a constant watch over his Another notion that the teacher opment. Children have this opportu- own activities. Thus education can re-must keep in mind is that clear and rea- nity within a Montessori elementarysolve its problems while realizing itselfsonable expectations arrived at through classroom. This opportunity for devel- when it seeks to resolve them by meansan accurate and complete understand- oping the ability to evaluate one's self, of acts."9 ing of the Montessori principles, rather when used, will save the child from Once the child is fully and freelythan arbitrarily determined, become having to rely on external sources to operational within the classroom he canuseful guidelines by which the children measure his efforts and progress. This then utilize a system by which to mea-can measure their performances. These ability is essential for an individual tosure his efforts and accomplishments.expectations become the child's stan- possess for it frees him from living ac-It is his responsibility to evaluate him-dard by which he will conduct himself, cording to the opinions and standards self and his own performance in respectby which he will evaluate himself, by of others. There is a harmful messageto what could and should be asked ofwhich he measures himself and his ac- implicit in approaches where childrenhim as a contributing member of soci-complishments, and by which he de- must rely on external sources for theirety. This ability to "self-evaluate" willtermines if he has been responsible to evaluation. That tacit message is, "younot simply materialize when the needhis society. are not worthy to assess yourself, there-for it appears. It must be formed and fore, someone outside of yourself mustpolished, just as do the characteristicsDefine Expectations for Children determine and evaluate your work."which eventually are to be evaluated. In this interest it is the teacher 's This approach hinders the child's de-The possibility for this developmentresponsibility to define clearly and velopment. What will serve the childshould be inherent within the dailymake the children aware of these ex- is to present him with a means byworkings of a Montessori elementarypectations, the children's standard, which he can clearly see and assess hisclassroom. Accordingly, let us examineduring the first days of class. This can own efforts. Instead, he becomes thein detail the steps involved in thebe done easily by sitting with the group monitor of his conduct and behavior,child's acquisition of the ability to as-as a whole, the small society which re- and is alone responsible for any alter-sess whether his performance is at parsides within the walls of the classroom, ations required, based on his own rea-with the standards required for a valu-to discuss various aspects that relate to sons. People who have not been free toable member of society. societies and their society in particular. develop this ability instead measure One of the first things of which to make their worth by standards set by othersTeacher'sRecognitionofthethe children consciously aware is the and consequently, always are strivingExpectations elements that make up a society. A so- to meet the goals of external sources. If Before a child can define for him-ciety is not just a country or a state or a they cannot measure up to this exter-self a standard of reasonable behaviortown; it can be just a few people such nal standard, they view themselves ashe first must know what is expected ofas within the classroom. And for soci-

37 39 Theoretical Tenents of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year Olds ety to work harmoniously, all membersder of the society has been establishedpectations become the tool by which to have to work together for the sake ofby the group for the group, then themeasure their performances and the whole. In order to do that there areexpectations or the standards of behav-around which they can develop respon- rules and laws that must be devised toior have been set. If these have been laid sibility. help the citizens govern themselves. Itout clearly and systematically, there is through discussions of this natureshould be no questions about their im-Public School Curricula and the child's ability to reason that theportance and relevance. Everyone In defining for the children the ex- children realize that laws are made forshould clearly understand what his re-pectations that comprise the founda- the protection and flourishing of soci-sponsibility and obligation is to the tion of the workings of the class, there ety and for themselves individually asgroup and the workings of the society.are some critical points which must be members within society, rather than asThe children now have the knowledgeraised with the children relatively early. prohibitions. of what the expectations are for func-One such point is the notion of work. It is always crucial to enlist the ser- tioning together. Accordingly, they canDuring the elementary years the child vices of the children in this process ofmeasure their actions and accomplish- is presented with Cosmic Education, defining the laws of society, and theirments by these expectations. which, because of its appealing nature, responsibilities to these laws, since it is However, for this to remain a se-allows for an enormous work, for the their society. The children must be en-cure foundation around which the chil-grandest work and the greatest effort, couraged to propose rules which willdren can function, there is one more el-as it encompasses the vision of the help them all function well within theement to be considered which serveswhole universe. Since freedom is also class. When it is the children them-as the cornerstone to the entire struc-granted the children, enabling them to selves who are, in effect, free to defineture. That crucial element is thepick those things that motivate their the law and order for themselves, theteacher's consistency in implementinginterest, the children are at liberty to rules become theirs, because they havethe structure. The children must be ac-study topics of their choosing in great not been imposed by others. This factcountable to maintaining the rules, anddepth for long periods of time. How- has been achieved by enlisting theirit falls to the teacher to oversee thisever, according to society there are cer- advice and their cooperation. If themaintenance. Without consistency ittain things that must be learned above adult makes the rules which are im-matters not how many rules and lawsand beyond particular loves in which posed on the children, then the childrenhave been set out and defined. If on onethe children may immerse themselves. may or may not cooperate in the ad-day the teacher expects one kind of be-Those requirements are set down by the herence to the rules; may or may nothavior, and on a different day tolerates public school curriculum, and function as accept responsibility for them. In thatanother, then the structure will notthe limits which balance the freedom case, the teacher alone will be respon-stand. If the laws and guidelines togiven to choose the great work. Chil- sible for policing the laws. But, if thewhich the children are responsible, anddren need to know that they are respon- law and order has been arrived atby which they evaluate their perfor-sible for learning all that would have through a collaboration with the chil-mance are inconsistent, then the chil-been expected of them had they at- dren, they will view the classroom asdren have no accurate means by which tended traditional school. Once that has theirs, and will assume responsibilityto measure their performances. Morebeen learned the child is free to work for its care and maintenance. If a ruleunfortunately, there will be anotherat length in his preferred subjects. is breached, the children will remindmessage implicit in these capriciousTherefore, the public school curriculum the person committing the infraction ofexpectations. The implication is that thehelps the child to determine for him- the acceptable behavior or the expec-limits of the structure can be challengedself whether he has accomplished what tation of the group, and in this way theby children as the structure is notsociety asks of its children. If the child children become the caretakers of thesound. They need not be responsible forhas done what is expected, then he has class or the society. successful management of their ownmeasured up. If he has not done the If something of great importancebehavior agreed on by the whole groupwork, he can see this clearly, too, as he has not been suggested during the dis-for the good of the whole. Instead ofundertakes to evaluate his perfor- cussions with the children, the teacheraltering their behavior to fit positivelymance. can very easily get it introduced for dis-within the structure, the children will The limits provided by the public cussion by questioning its importance.use their creative energies devisingschool curriculum help the teacher She can inquire what the group thinksways to work around it. When involvedstructure the freedom for the child, and of such and such. Shouldn't this be con-in this pursuit, children waste theirconcurrently and importantly, provide sidered as well, for this reason? Once ittime and energy experimenting withhim with a piece of material around is on the table the children can discusswhich rule can be breached and whichwhich he can evaluate his progress. If it, and if it is reasonable, as reasoningcannot. By contrast, when the structurehe has completed in a timely manner creatures they should have no difficultyremains constant, it remains strong andthat which is asked by society, then he in eventually adopting the suggestionprovides a secure environment inis responsible to what society has asked as one of their rules. which to work. The children can workof people his age. If he has not com- within the expectations because theypleted the requirements, that fact be- Consistency and Sound Foundation will always know what to expect.comes evident as well. In either case the Once the fundamental law and or-When these remain consistent, the ex-child can see for himself and judge his

38 4 0 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis own performance against the standard,of evaluation as she reviews the child'sand evaluation, all abilities that will be that which has been asked of him. work with him. This is not the time forrequired and useful once the child has Work Diaries or Daily Journals correcting the child's work. It is a time to attained adulthood. These abilities will The child can be offered the free-work with hima shared responsibil-prove valuable tools for a lifelong pro- doms to choose his work and to workity, to enable him to evaluate and judgecess of continually determining and in groups, which includes talking withhis own work and performance. Theassessing successes and failures. It is his peers, as long as he is aware of thechild must come to recognize when itduring this process that the child is ac- work expectation, society's require-is deficient and then design a methodtively practicing how to judge, how to ments, and all that for which he is re-to improve it. weigh, how to measure, how to evalu- sponsible. To this end the child must These meetings are the teacher 'sate his performance, how to determine be given a vehicle by which he can ac-opportunity to oversee the work of theif he in fact has met his responsibilities. tually monitor his success at these en-children. As the children are con-It is only through consciously identify- deavors. The vehicle that provides thissciously measuring and evaluatinging the successes and how they came opportunity is a daily journal, in whichtheir work, the teacher can make perti-about, that one can ensure more of the child keeps track of his lessons, thenent notes on areas requiring strength-them. And, it is through recognizing amount of work done, and the time ening. In this way she can be remindedand acknowledging the failures that taken on each entry. The child's recordto follow through in her efforts to di-one can begin the process to remedy of his actual work is the tool both herect the child. Ultimately it is thethem. and the teacher use to assess his respon-teacher 's responsibility to see that the If a child has had an opportunity sibility to the freedom given him tochildren acceptably complete the workto proceed through a system of educa- choose his own work, design his ownasked of them by the public school cur-tion in which he has been given the schedule, work with others, while at thericulum. freedom to develop and refine those same time meeting the public school Finally, the children must have aqualities needed to be a valuable citi- curriculum. means to assess the level of responsi-zen, as well as given opportunities to bility they show in connection with alllearn how to assess his achievements Regular Meetings with Children of the freedoms they have. Since theand appraise his ability to be respon- This assessment occurs during thechildren are now rational human be-sible, then this system of education has regular, individual meetings that theings, imbued with a period of greatindeed succeeded in aiding the child's teacher has with each child. Since thestrength prevailing in the psychologi-total development. It will produce re- children can reason now, they under-cal realm as well as the physical, theysponsible people who are well aware stand that the freedom granted must be can withstand hearing that they haveof who they are, where their talents lie, proportionate to the responsibility andcertain deficits and areas which needwhat they can contribute, and perhaps, productivity that they demonstrate.improvement. This will not hurt theirone day even be able to "take a mes- Upon examination, if the children arefeelings. It is only through their beingsage to Garcia." This is exactly the kind consistently accountable for their work, made consciously aware of their short-of opportunity in education that Dr. then there is no reason to interfere withcomings that they can consciouslyMontessori envisioned for the elemen- their freedom. However, if collabora-make changes. By pampering thesetary child. 0 tive evaluation reveals that a child can-people, one deprives them of the not handle responsibly the freedomawareness that they need in order to given, the teacher must intercede onmake necessary changes. Thus, these Notes means are essential and must be imple- behalf of the welfare of the child. The 'Elbert Hubbard, A Message to Garcia and teacher and child must decide togethermented in education with each child,'Other Essays, Thomas Y. Crowell Co., New when and on what the child will work.if each is to see for himself and then York, 1917, p. 23. This is the choice that confronts thejudge rationally, if he has employed his 'Montessori, Maria, To Educate the Human child: you can do it by yourself produc-freedoms responsibly. Potential, Kalakshetra Publications, Madras, tively, or you can do it with me. India, 1973, p. 3. Since the entries in the journal in-Conclusion 3 Montessori, Maria, The Advanced clude details of the kind of work, the It can be seen in this examination Montessori MethodVolume One, Kalakshetra amount of work and the time it took, of a system of education that gives the Publications, Madras, India, 1965, p. 5. the child and the teacher have a clearchild freedom, but asks of him respon- Ibid, p. 57. picture of how much time he has spentsibility for that freedom, that it also 5 Montessori, Maria, To Educate the Human on how many things. The journal is amust provide the child the means to Potential, Kalakshetra Publications, Madras, vehicle by which he can see clearly forevaluate his own performance. In con- India, 1973, p. 7. himself, and thus personally evaluate, clusion, these means are the implemen- Montessori, Maria, From Childhood to exactly how he is spending his time,tation of three pieces of metaphorical Adolescence, Schocken Books, New York, 1973, how much he is accomplishing; essen-material: the public school curriculum, p. 26. tially, how responsible he has been tothe daily journals, and the regular lbid, p. 26. the freedom proffered him. meetings with the teacher. Through Montessori, Maria, Child's Instinct to During the meetings the teacher their allied use the children develop the Work. must be quite clear about the processpersonal skills of assessment, appraisal, 39 41 Theoretical Tenents of Freedom and Responsibility for the 6-12 Year Olds

9 Montessori, Maria, From Childhood to Adolescence, Schocken Books, New York, 1973, p. 27.

Bibliography Hubbard, Elbert. A Message to Garcia and Other Essays. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1917. Montessori, Maria. The Advanced Montessori MethodVolume One. Madras, India: Kalakshetra Publications, 1965. Montessori, Maria. Child's Instinct to Work. From a lecture given by Margaret Stephenson in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1990. Montessori, Maria. From Childhood to Adoles- cence. New York: Schocken Books, 1973. Montessori, Maria. To Educate the Human Potential. Madras, India: Kalakshetra Pub- lications, 1973.

Phyllis Pottish-Lewis is an AMI elementary trainer, consultant and teacher. She received her AMI primary and elementary diplomas in 1971 and 1977 respectively and has taught at both levels for 29 years. She holds a Bachelor's Degree in Zoology from UCLA and is licensed as a Califor- nia Medical Technologist. Ms. Pottish-Lewis served as a past president of EAA.

4 2 40 Adolescent Theory: Erdkinder Outcomes David Kahn Dr. Montessori envisioned theon economic and social understandingsgagement for the adolescent on the Erdkinder prepared environment forsuggested by both David Orr andland. They are a source of meaningful adolescents as a place that developsDavid Hutchinson in their descriptionswork, work that will be valued by the their bodies as well as their sense ofof the educational value of place. community itself, work that challenges social order and their expanding intel- Orr emphasizes the need for inte-both the mind and the body, work that lect. The prepared environment willgrating education with nature and withis recognized as legitimate by the cul- include a "museum of machines," acommunity: "The idea that place couldture, work that has economic validity, produce stand, a greenhouse, a garden,be a significant educational tool waswork that is made noble by being done natural wild spaces, a bed-and-break-proposed by John Dewey in an 1897with integrity and passion. Engage- fast style guest room, a farmhouse com-essay. Dewey proposed that we 'makement leads to a sense of ownership and mons for student living and studyeach of our schools an embryonic com-stewardship. space; and three barns: one for animals,munity ... with types of occupations The specific nature and purpose of one for a wood and craft area, and onethat reflect the life of the larger society.'an occupation may inspire a student to to house large equipment. He intended to broaden the focus ofcommit to the occupation not as part While formulating the program foreducation, which he regarded as tooof a vague choice for the moment, but the farm, we recognize the need for a'highly specialized, one-sided, and nar-with spurts of passion about what framework of study that emerges inrow.' The school, its relations with theneeds to be done as part of belonging direct contact with real life. Real-lifelarger community and all of its inter-to a community. As an individual thus experiences at the farm will be rootednal functions, Dewey proposed to re-begins to develop a specific interest and in the solidity of this specific naturalmake into curriculum." (p. 127) expertise in an occupation, community and human-built place for the young David Hutchison underscoresrecognition of the individual's contri- adolescent: "...the exploration is evenOrr 's principles with what he calls "thebutionusuallyfollows. The wider [than in the elementary], encom-spirit of place": "To know one's placeadolescent's resulting sense of pride passing the farm and the communityis to have an intimate knowledge of theand accomplishment matures the occu- of the rural area. It echoes what the chil-local environment (both natural andpation into a role. dren explored at the second plane [el-built) and the various professional The transition from occupation to ementary years]: civilization and howroles, shared histories, and interdepen-role is subtle. The student, in effect, tries it came about. But now the explorationdent relationships that sustain the com-on the role, becomes immersed in the takes place in reality because the ado-munity over the long term. To furtherknowledge and the process of a specific lescents are actually doing it. Coopera-strengthen children's ties to the localcalling: "I am the sugar bush builder, I tion with the land, cooperation in com-community, their participation in com-am the videographer, I am the bee- merce, and cooperation in the culturalmunity projects that help to nurturekeeper, I am the bookkeeper." Being an life of the rural society touch materi-culturally significant relationships be-interdependent part of a concrete ven- ally the things studied in the secondtween young and old can be fosteredture, learning how to interact in order plane and afford the adolescent the op-by way of apprenticeship-style pro-to cooperate freely, trying on different portunity to see his or her place in so-grams and community renewal effortsoccupations and roles matures young ciety." (Margaret Stephenson, cited inthat arise within ecologically sustain-people and makes them useful in their The Adolescent Colloquium, p. 35) able contexts." (p. 129) own eyes. The "program for study and work" Place is defined by its limits; it is Looking to the economic self-suf- grows out of the farm "prepared envi-immediate and on a small scale: a build-ficiency of the adolescent farm commu- ronment" concept. Although the social,ing, a neighborhood, a hundred acresnity, Montessori highlights economic moral, intellectual and emotional di-easily walked across in a day. Place isindependence as "the general principle mensions of the adolescent are fullywhere we livea source for food, wa-of social education for adolescents." integrated into living as a farm com-ter, energy, materials, friends, and rec- (p. 104) She speaks of the "wide social munity, the following separate discus-reation. Place in a diminished sense isconnotations of productiveness and sions around each dimension are for thereal estate, but the Erdkinder definitionearning power." (p. 106) She remarks sake of finding common ground withof place refers to the larger economic,that, "If the produce can be used com- developmental psychology outside ofecological, social, political, and spiritualmercially this brings in the fundamen- Montessori education. elements of the immediate surround-tal mechanism of society, that of pro- ings. Place is a community to which theduction and exchange, on which eco- Social Dimension adolescent feels he or she both belongsnomic life is based." (p. 107) The Socially Prepared Environment and contributes. Most importantly on the farm, the Montessori calls her "essential re- work role will function for the greater form" a "school of experience in theOccupations or Work as Social good. The adolescent's desires, emo- elements of social life." (p. 107) FirstActivity tions, and attachments are tied up with and foremost, work and study is based Occupations are the point of en-the whole communitythe work is

41 43 Adolescent Theory: Erdkinder Outcomes connected with the social enterprise ofmunity who come along. sophical arrangement of events in the the farm. Social aims convert an occu- All occupations on the farm givehistory of humanity and how they con- pation into a role. Assuming a role inrise to communication and cooperationfigure in human, geological, and cos- something implies that the occupationwith an underlying perception of con-mic terms. Human consciousness touches or engages a person and trans-nection to the greater good. Compan-strives to understand human progress forms that person, elevates thationship is ongoing; relationships to thein evolutionary terms. Simply stated, person's aims in life, validates the self,neighbors and neighboring communitythe adolescent must know where hu- centers the personality, and adds im-are part of the social fabric of themanity has come from and where hu- petus to learning. The adolescent's in-Erdkinder community. Every member ofmanity is going, especially in light of terest evolves into a "community task,"the Erdkinder community is a learningthe well-being of the planet. This is not where the student sees the work as es-member of an ongoing moral concernto make the Erdkinder community a sential to the whole. A higher socializa- day and night. The learning is to be place for ecological politics. Rather, the tion occurs, which is able to translateshared and reflected upon, and the edu-ethic of the land and its destiny is the experienced roles on the farm intocational plan includes a formal place fordeeply personal, touching at some un- a view of the collective role of human-this sharing and reflection. The fullestconscious level the will to live and to ity: the "cosmic task" of the individualexamination of social roles leads to anprovide for future generations. The and of humanity in general. The ado-understanding of right and wrong ac-ethic of the land and its preservation is lescent is a "social newborn" whichtions in relation to work, study, the en-a life principle, calling to work of the means that the adolescent is "a newvironment and social responsibilities. mind and heart to make sense of the born member of adult society, a new Emerging out of these maturingworld and what is most valued. born participant in adult society"; heroles on the farm is the "more dynamic Looking at history from the philo- or she is newly born as one who cantraining of character and developmentsophical standpoint of our real relation- "take an active part in society's produc-of a clearer consciousness of social re-ship to the natural world as lived on tive labours or in regulation of itsality." (Montessori, From Childhood tothe farm, with the right use Of water organisation." (Grazzini p. 136) Adolescence, p. 100) Adolescent psycho- and land, plants and animals, air and logical characteristics described byenergy, brings history into focus with Social outcomes for the early adoles-Montessori include "a state of expecta-the world's present environmental cent stage of life include: tion, a tendency towards creative workquestions and with the adolescent's whatitmeans to make aand a need for strengthening of self-inner sense of balance. These are moral contribution confidence." (p. 101) She further as-considerations. Points of comparison interdependency and the need tocribes to adolescents a "sensitive periodwith the past around questions of en- cooperate with adults, peers, andwhen there should develop the mostvironment will transform history from the natural world noble characteristics that would pre-a mere logic and sequence of events to work roles and their social and cos-pare a man to be social, that is to say, aa search for answers to the moral ques- mic meaning sense of justice and a sense of personaltions about survival; about living on a adaptability to a variety of work dignity." The occupations and roles onplanet with limited resources; about demands for the sake of others the land provide "an exercise of 'uti-planning lifestyles that will adapt to the work judged as a product of life,lized virtues,' of 'super-values' andscarcity of resources. History thus in direct relation to life skills acquired beyond the limits ofmakes humans wiser about how they economic independence andone's own particular specialization, will live, both present and future. When interdependence past or future." (p. 103) Thus, it ishistory interfaces with formative ado- individual initiative in relation tothrough the occupations and roles onlescent thinking about what life will group goals the land that "valorization" of person-bring, it can be an inexhaustible source ality takes place; the students feel val-of motivation, identity, vocation and Moral Dimension ued because they are making a tangiblemorality. Montessori points out that "thecontribution. The individual student observation of nature has not only asucceeds in a task by very personal ef-Moral outcomes for the early adoles- side that is philosophical and scientific,fort with a sense of accomplishmentcent stage of life include: it has a side of social experiences thatrising out of the work completed and respect for others and their roles leads on to the observations of civiliza-the economic benefits therein. the nobility of work and adult-like tion and the life of men." (p. 106) The philosophical adolescent responsibilities A social spirit and moral conductmind, which has already experienced right use of the natural environ- permeate the developing Erdkinder. So- the great stories of evolution in the ment while meeting human needs cial perception is enhanced throughMontessori elementary program, can freedom to act on individual ini- shared experience of common activi-easily intuit that humans must all tiative; to commit to freely chosen ties. In order to function as an interde- choose a way of life and ecological work pendent whole, basic informationidentity compatible with the rest of bio- group progress and individual needs to be exchanged, tasks need tological existencepast, present, and fu- progress resulting in a happy life be recorded, and skills need to be im-ture. The Montessori adolescent has that contributes to others parted to the next members of the corn-already well understood the philo- mission orientation to the univer-

42 David Kahn

sal needs of humanity comes together. Occupations not only Air is studied for its role in earth's what makes for a virtuous life, su-fulfill the adolescent's need to belong climate and in plant and animal life per values which are humanitarianand be valued, but they also provide cycles. and for a better world the motivation for academic study: "... Energy is studied as a comprehen- conscience is exercised by commu-work on the land is an introduction sive force that begins with the Big nity values and responsible dia-both to nature and to civilization and Bang and has global implications logue gives a limitless field for scientific and as a universal human need. It can a sense of spiritual balance historic studies. ...there is an opportu- be viewed from the standpoint of nity to learn both academically and alternative technology for the pro- Cognitive Dimension through actual experience what are the duction of energy available to the Place, Study and Work elements of social life." (Montessori, farm. Montessori wrote that "It is impos- From Childhood to Adolescence, p. 107) Animals and plants are studied for sible to fix a priori a detailed program An occupation leads naturally to a their role in natural ecosystems for study and work. We can only givesearch for contextual knowledge (aca- and for their relationship to hu- the general plan. This is because a pro-demic study). mans in agricultural science, food gram should only be drawn up gradu- An occupation provides direct ex- processing and distribution, do- ally under the guidance of experience."perience, which is by nature urgent, mestication, and the history of civi- (From Childhood to Adolescence, p. 111) intimate, and engaging. It contrasts lization. Therefore, it is sometimes necessary towith symbolic experience, which can be The human organism is studied for draw on the experience of contempo-remote, detached, and even beyond the its collaboration with the cosmic rary environmentalists, such as Davidcomprehension of the adolescent. (Note agents and its building of human Orr and others providing insight andthe similarity to an exercise of practi- systems that are compatible with some specific techniques for using thecal life in the casa.) the systems found in the natural natural environment and its occupa- An occupation is limited in nature. world. tions, to generate options for studyThe contextual knowledge to which it The knowledge demanded, for a moving toward motivated academicleads has concrete boundaries (like theproject based, experience based kind of projects evolved by community pro-Montessori materials), keeping worklearning is not a subject to be covered, cess. Dr. Orr refers to study of place:and study always in relation to the sur-but rather knowledge to be applied for "The classroom and indoor laboratoryrounding environment and the specif-the greater good of operating Erdkinder are ideal environments in which to nar-ics of the occupation. through the work of a common enter- row reality in order to focus on bits and Within these limits, the occupationprise. Thus, the occupation's roots in pieces. The study of place, by contrast,demands knowledge, which may in-meaningful work extend to the related enables us to widen the focus to exam-volve measurement, refinement of thecontextual study, providing motivation ine the interrelationships between dis-senses, precision, coordination, re-for becoming the "expert" around your ciplines and to lengthen our perceptionsearch, and, finally, expression in oraloccupation, infusing academic work of time." (p. 129) or written form. The knowledge de- with purpose and meaning. Study of place refers to living spacemanded is rigorous and, if incomplete, framed by the interdependent "cosmicmeans that the occupation cannot beMontessori's Educational Syllabus agents"land, water, air, energy, plantsfully engaging, understood, integrated Montessori's "Educational Sylla- and animals, and humans. The inter-into the surrounding whole, or evenbus" is not a mere subject list. She de- dependencies learned in Montessoricompleted. scribes knowledge in psychological elementary take on a new sense of re- One can use web of life (interde-terms such as "opening up ways of ex- ality when experienced in the Erdkinder pendencies) as a cognitive structure.pression," addressing the "formative environment. The adolescent has theWhen one structures occupationsforces' in the evolution of the soul of ability to abstract placeto perceive allaround different interdependent partsman," or making the "individual a part at once its ecological and cultural fea-of the nature, a whole interdisciplinaryof...civilization." (p. 115) tures, its history, its present function-science study emerges which is re- Montessori divides the "Educa- ing, its related literacy, its convergentquired to inform those occupations.tional Syllabus" into three parts (pp. meanings, its future possibilities. WhenFollowing are a few examples. 115-119). The first, "opportunities for exploring place, the adolescent exam- Work with the soil introduces bothself-expression," encompasses artistic, ines the natural data of the community geological and biological studies.linguistic, and imaginative activities the flora and fauna, the archives of The biological applies to the teem-music, language, and art. Next is "the the region, the architectural remnants ing life in the soil. The geological'formative' education that will con- of its settlement period, its diverse com- aspect extends to soil's mineralstruct firm foundations for the charac- munities, each with respective unfold- content. ter," consisting of moral education, ing histories, etc. Work with water suggests studiesmathematics, and languages. Finally, But it is not until the student actu- related to the origin of life and to"general education" is presented as ally takes on real life occupations that earth's histOry. It is studied for its "the preparation for adult life," encom- the cognitive process integrated with physical and chemical propertiespassing three divisions of history: "the social, moral, and emotional really relevant to farming. study of the earth and of living things" 43 4 5 Adolescent Theory: Erdkinder Outcomes pertains to natural history (already discussed in relation to land-based occupations); "the study of human progress and the building up of civilization" refers to the history of human achievement and technology; and, finally, "the study of the history of mankind" encompasses the physical and intellectual range of human activities: migrations, exploration, human settlement, government, and civics. Closer examination of these divisions of history suggests a myriad of intellectual studies.

Cognitive outcomes for the early adolescent stage of life include: to integrate personal expression with a variety of artistic, speaking, musical and media modalities in direct relation to occupations and role development within the community; to enter into the questions of nature and cosmos with full understanding of mathematics in direct connection to the practical needs of the farm environment as well as analyzing scientific causes of the natural world and extensions into the universe; to learn a variety of languages and about language in order to pen- etrate different cultures and improve human understanding; to connect the history of life on earth and its civilizations with the principles of personal and social evolution of a human community; to see the whole of history, the future destiny of humans, and experience and reflect on the individual contribution one makes to the creative direction of the future. 0

David Kahn is Executive Director of NAMTA and has participated in implementation projects in the Cleveland Public Schools, Lorain (Ohio) Pub- lic Schools, Kansas City Public Schools, District of Columbia Public Schools, and Denver Public Schools.

4 6 The Role of the Teacher and the Role of the Assistant Annette Haines, Ed.D.

Intro duction Yet what does the assistant do? This most, are those of human language. It Someone asked a famous conduc-paper hopes to offer some insight intois not the movement of the trees, the tor of a great symphony orchestrathis question from both a practical andbirds, or the automobiles which babies which instrument he considered thea theoretical perspective. struggle to achieve, but those specifi- most difficult to play. The conductor o o cally human movements that will help thought a moment, then said, "Second The mind of the young child isthem construct the adults they are fiddle. I can get plenty of first violinists. very different from our own. Startinggrowing to be. But to find one who can play secondfrom nothing, the baby absorbs impres- Walt Whitman encapsulated this fiddle with enthusiasmthat's a prob-sions from his environment and incor-when he wrote: lem. And if we have no second fiddles,porates them (Montessori said incar- There was a child went forth every day, we have no harmony." nates them) into his very being. Theseand the first object he looked upon and re- Montessori was clear that only oneimpressions are indelible. They are per-ceived with wonder or pity or love or dread, trained director/ress was needed in themanent. And they make up the person- that object he became, Children's House. She believed that tooality of the future man or woman this And that object became part of him for many "teachers" compromised thelittle baby is becoming. All of us were the day or a certain part of the day....or for children's development of indepen-children once. Our feelings, our atti-many years or stretching cycles of years. dence. tudes, our abilities, our self-esteem all Children do not need, nor do theystem from events of childhood re- It is because of this, because little ultimately benefit from, constant pre- membered, or not. Montessori said thatchildren become what they experience senting of materials. In our anxiety tothe child has an absorbent mind. Thein their environment, because they take be good directresses, we can easily fallchild, she said, has a mind able to ab-it all inthe good and the badand into over-teaching the children. Dr.sorb knowledge: to take it in like amake it a part of their very being, it is Montessori protected us and the chil-sponge. Each has the power to teachbecause of this that we must, as dren from this trap by stipulating onehim-or-herself. Montessori says, give the best to the small- directress for twenty-five or more chil- Even though the baby is not yet est. dren. (Lillard, 1991) conscious, having no ego or memory But how exactly do we do that? However most schools are re-or will, he is born with the power toAnd more specifically, what is the role quired by law to have a much lowerabsorb impressions from the environ-of the assistant in a Children's House? adult/chlid ratio. The solution has beenment which are never forgotten. ThinkHow can the assistant be that invalu- to hire someone as a classroom assis-about language. The mother tongue isable aide that every directress dreams tant. This individual's role is clearly aabsorbed by the unconscious mind andof? How can he or she be an active help subordinate one, and yet one which isbecomes a permanent acquisition. Youto the children during their formative terribly important; a secbnd adult in awill speak the way your mother spoke. period and, as Montessori suggests, be room can make or break the classroom. A Japanese child will learn Japanese, anan aid to life? The trained directress has spent a mini- Indian child will learn an Indian dia- mum of nine months learning her art lect, and an African will learn an Afri-The Assistant's Role in Regards to the some have spent two or three years. Yetcan language. Social, racial, culturalEnvironment schools put assistants into classroomsand religious idiosyncrasies are simi- Dr. Montessori, from her extensive with little or no training and expectlarly absorbed unconsciously from the observation of children, not only real- them to learn by some kind of osmo-young child's environment and becomeized the peculiarly absorbent nature of sis. Naturally, these individuals oftena part of him which can never be com- the child's mind, but recognized that develop behavior patterns that hinderpletely erased. Climate, country, home- little children had the same universal rather than help. land, they are in our blood, so to speak. tendencies as all human beings, regard- In far too many classes the aide The young child also has incred- less of age. becomes a kind of floor-walker, hover-ible energy. Montessori called it the With these principles as guidelines, ing over the children. Her activities hormethe elan vitale or vital force thatshe prepared a special environment for may include tidying up before, duringpushes the child towards activity. The the young child, a secure world where and after a child's work; interruptingnewborn begins to move, raise its head,the child could reach optimal psycho- to praise, correct, or socialize; givingstruggle to sit up, to crawl, and so forth,logical or mental development, just as lessons; reminding and cajoling, disci-and this impulse towards activity per-he or she had reached physical com- plining and controlling; and doing forsists throughout the child's early years.pleteness in their mother's womb. the child. The overactive aide is an ob-And it is not random activity, but move- This environment must protect the stacle to independence. (Hughes, 1990,ment guided to specific ends, to makechildren from all obstacles to growth. p. 39) uniquely human acquisitions. So weIt must be full of purposeful activities, The result is often more discordantsee that of all the sounds which thestimulating mental and physical in- than harmonious. baby hears, the sounds that attract himvolvement, and rich in learning expe- 4547 The Role of the Teacher and the Role of the Assistant

THE CHILD FROM BIRTH TO SIX YEARS

UNIVERSAL HUMAN TENDENCIES: those manifestations of the spirit of mankind which are basic to all humanity, i.e., the marks of the Human Race.

Explorationthe need to find out about and experience the world Orientationthe need to place oneself in relation to one's environment Order the need to classify and organize everything so that one may fully act on the environment Abstractionthe need to create extensions of self in order to transform the environment; the ability to imagine THE or create an idea in the mind HUMAN Exactitudethe need for precision and exactness, to explain one's environment in an orderly, precise manner BEING (the mathematical mind) Activitythe need to work, to use one's hands, to manipulate the environment Self-perfectionthe need to satisfy inner needs, to repeat an activity until It becomes part of the developing personality Language the need to communicate with others, to transmit experiences from one generation to another Spiritual lifethe need to explore that which was not visible to the eye, to explain that which we cannotthe need for customs, ideals, culture, emotions

Explorationthe infant and toddler must experience her environment through her sensesshe must go out into her world to learn what is in it Orientation - the young child must place herself in relation to the objects, persons and phenomenon In her world Order - to gain a sense of security, as she places herself in relation to her environment, the child has a great need for stability and order within that world; therefore she does not like changes during the early THE years YOUNG Abstractionthe young child begins to abstract when she hears her mother's voice in another room and CHILD recognizes it as hers; the toddler abstracts when she hears the word "tree" and can envision a tree in her mind Exactitude - the young child has the need to see activities in exact sequence, to work in exact ways so that she may form in her mind logical and reasonable patterns of thinking Activitythe young child must be active in order to adapt to her environment and learn to live within it; her exploration and orientation must take place through activityespecially through the use of her hands Self-perfectionthe young child has an insatiable thirst for the language of her environment; this enables her to express her needs and ideas to others Spiritual lifethe young child needs to be included in the life of her culture so that she may become a part of it riences for their absorbent minds. The Sensorial area of the Prepared Environ- sewing machine) could create. aim of the prepared environment is toment. Here children become aware of Materials for mathematics and lan- be a help to life, to assist young chil-their senses and refine them through guage need to be created: classified dren in their work of adaptation andrepeated use, exploring relationships card material; chain tickets, self-construction and thereby allowand qualities of the physical world. memory game slips, math opera- them to evolve into integrated person-They form concepts and learn to choose tion tickets for the charts, etc. are alities, developed as fully as their po-and make judgments, to observe and examples of the materials which tential and inherited traits permit. compare. need to be made. An assistant, with First, and perhaps most important, In the Math area, children work a little direction, some card stock is the Practical Life area. Working withwith concrete representations of math- and a laminating machine (or a these initial exercises, the children learnematical concepts, gradually moving little petty cash for the local print to adapt to their new social environ-towards an internalization of abstract shop with laminating abilities) can ment. They gain self-confidence as theymath facts without confusion, fear, or be an absolute hero or heroine! learn to take care of themselves, learnboredom. The Language area provides Exercises need to be set up. Smell- control over their body movements andthe children with the tools of commu- ing bottles and tasting jars can be begin to construct their mental facul-nication and the language, which is taken home and filled. The assis- ties as they concentrate on sequencedtheir cultural heritage, along with an tant can be instructed on the art tasks. They develop logical thoughtappreciation for the physical world and and science of filling the thermic patterns as they follow through fromthe natural order of the plant and ani- bottles at a moment's notice so this begirming to middle to end of each ex-mal kingdom. fun activity can get out of the ercise. They develop manual skills and So the first thing the assistant can closet. physical dexterity that they will usedo is help with the preparation of the And repairs need to be made: paint later in the more advanced areas ofenvironment. Usually a week or so touch-ups on wooden materials, Mathematics and Language. The key-before the children return in the fall, the gluing knobs, trimming threads, note of the Practical Life area is pur-director /ress and aide return to the and so forth; the bow frame can be poseful activity, and the result is whatclassroom. There is much to be done to taken home and its ribbons hand we call "normalized" children, childrenget ready for school. washed and ironed and repairs can free of any deviations that could im- There is sewing to be done: polish- be made on the other frames such pede their growth, children who can ing cloths, aprons, chain mats and as snaps and buttons. Special control their impulses and concentrate runners, blindfolds, just to name touches can be addedlittle em- on the task at hand. some of the projects which an as- bellishments added or refreshed to Second after Practical Life is the sistant (together with fabric and a make boxes and baskets more ap-

46 4 3 Annette Haines, Ed.D.

pealing and attractive. neatly in their little dishes. tative data for lesson planning and de- In the Language area there are pen-cision-making and 2) it documents the The week before school is the time cils to be sharpened, paper to belife of the class for record-keeping pur- to get everything in order. Are there 55 cut, moveable alphabet boxes to beposes. counters, 45 spindles, 81 green beads dusted and letters aligned each Montessori reminds us, children and 100 red ones? With a little direc- day, and classified card material towant to do something useful. Useless tion, there is much the assistant can do be put in order, each class of pic-play without meaning does not appeal to see that the school year gets off on a tures neatly rubber-banded to-to them; "Neither do so many of the positive note. gether with the key picture on thetasks set for children in...school. That As the days and weeks of the top. The teacher's tray can beis why children are rebellious and school year progress, the aide can help checked to see that there is a littlenaughty. I answer only that there are to maintain the environment. Things supply of blank slips of paper, a redno bad children. What seems like ca- run down daily and yet each morning pencil, a lead pencil and a pair ofprice is only rebellion against the everything must be back, all in order, scissors. denial...of their desire for a natural everything in its place. Every,day, once In the Mathematics area, the chainsenvironment...If the children are al- again, the environment must tangibly and tickets of the bead cabinet of-lowed free development and given oc- demonstrate the level of perfection pos- ten need tending, the paper sup-cupations that correspond with their sible. Each new day represents a fresh plies for the Work Charts need re-unfolding minds, their natural good- start...an unspoken challenge: "Today, filling, the pencils need sharpen-ness will shine forth." (Montessori, can I return it to the shelf the way I ing, and the decimal system cards1912 address at Carnegie Hall) found it (and the way I found it was often need ordering. This is why the directress is so pro- beautiful)? tective of the child's work. It is through Regular deep cleaning needs to be To really give the best to the small-work, when movement works hand in done, perhaps washing one shelfest, there is enough work to be done thathand with the mind, that the young a day will get the job done. both directress and aide can be busilychild's mind comes into contact with Also, on a daily basis, all theemployed each day before school andexternal reality. This work leads to an shelves must be checked. In thein the afternoon when the children have integration of the personality. half-hour before school, thedeparted. Yet all this work must be rel- Children's work is vital for their directress and aide together mustegated to periods when the children aregrowth. They must have the responsi- work quickly to replenish all thenot there. Why? Because it is really thebility for their classroom because pur- supplies...to make sure there ischildren that need to be active in thisposeful work is a means of develop- paste in the paste jars, polish in theenvironment, not the adults. The envi-ment. Young children have a natural polishing bottles, paper towels andronment is a construct which we pro-instinct for work and are happiest when paper for metal inset work (all cutvide as a motive for the child's activity. allowed to put their energy to good use. to the right size), soap in the soapIf the adults are viewed as servants (or Unlike adults, who work to create dish, etc. Clean, dry laundry needsas surrogate mothers, perhaps)eversome change in their environment, little to be neatly folded and put away,ready and willing to do their work forchildren work to create a change in plants watered, objects dusted, andthemthe children will not be easilythemselves. They work to grow. Like the the little soap dishes cleaned sopersuaded that it is their house andwoman practicing her tennis serve, the that they are dry and sparkling.they will never begin to work on it pro-little girl repeats her movements over Working together in the early foundly. and over again, expending a lot of en- morning, the pair creates solidar- ergy without seeming to accomplish ity. This teamwork, this collabora-The Assistant's Role in Regard to thevery much. Like the man working at tion, will be essential in the hours Children his golf swing, the little boy washes a when the children are present. table over and over again ... not to get Observe the table clean, but to gain increased In many classrooms the assistant One of the most important roles ofcontrol over his muscles. He practices is relegated to the Practical Life area. the assistant is that of a second pair ofcoordination of the mind and hand. He Yet there is much that needs to be doneeyes. The assistant should sit quietly inlearns to work in a sequential way, and in the other areas of the classroom. a chair when not needed, keeping adevelops his ability to work indepen- In the Sensorial area, for example,notepad and pencil on his or her lap. dently. Self-discipline grows as the chil- the assistant can prepare the sen-They can take note of the children'sdren focus their energy on useful tasks. sitizing trays with warm water inwork, noting what child is workingSelf-confidence increases as they mas- the morning and empty them outwith what activity and for how long.ter new skills. at the end of the day. Also, they canThe children's behavior can be ob- When children begin to concen- check the sequence of the geomet-served and documented, taking care to trate on an activity (and it doesn't mat- ric cabinet drawers and cards,record the frequency, the duration, andter which activity it is!) a beneficial check the bells to see they are inthe time of specific incidences. This change begins to take place deep within order, and see that the little grainsrecord serves two purposes: 1) it pro-them. If the children are able to repeat- of the discrimination exercises arevides necessary objective and quanti-edly experience such periods of spon-

47 4 9 The Role of the Teacher and the Role of the Assistant taneous concentration, they will beginShe struggles with the buttons violentlythe level of frustration and decide when to exhibit the characteristics of what Dr. until she comes up with a good idea...ifit would be prudent to intervene. First, Montessori called normality. she turns each button just right, it willwait and see. Stand back and say to Dr. Montessori said that she dis-slip through the buttonhole. All's wellyourself, "not yet." When real help is covered the secret of childhood whenthat ends well and the last page of theneeded, offer that help. But just a little she observed the first little ragamuffinsbook shows Sarah with a smug littlehelp, and always mixed with encour- in the San Lorenzo quarter of Rome insmile. Ms. Jensen concludes: "All in all,agement. As I did with the heavy door: the first Casa dei Bambini. She, like all offor Sarah, it was a pretty good day." "You can do it. Pull. Pull hard." us, had some preconceived notions I used to work as a secretary in a about what children were like. We thinkchurch-basement Montessori school.Maintain a High Level of of children as having certain "childish" They put my desk out in the hall, rightEnvironmental Order qualitiesa love of play, a delight inby the bathroom (which actually was a Another important idea Maria fantasy, a quicksilver personality whichpretty good idea). I would watch theMontessori gives us is the idea of sensi- darts from one thing to another, and sobathroom door and the littlest children tive periods. A sensitive period is a tran- forth. What she found happening in thewould struggle with the heavy door. Isitory unit of time, during which the slums of San Lorenzo, however, waslearned to say, "Pull! Pull hard!" Thechild is guided by inner sensibilities alien to all the long-standing beliefschildren would beam with satisfactiontowards particular facets of his or her about children. She compared herselfwhen they had conquered the door. environment which will aid in the ac- to Columbus discovering a New World. Montessori suggests that it is thequisition of specific traits. Once the She discovered, she said, the new child. "energy of creative life which urges thechild has acquired the mental construc- Children who are normalized uni-child on, which obliges him to do alltion peculiar to that sensitive period, versally exhibit certain behaviors: theythese things." (1946, p. 67) The adultthe sensitivity departs... to be replaced have a love of order, a love of work, adoes best to let the small child do thingsby another, and then another, through- profound spontaneous concentration,for himselfin collaboration with na-out the years of early childhood. an attachment to reality, a love of si-turealthough it is very hard for an When a child is in a sensitivity pe- lence and working alone, a generosity,adult to stand by and watch a tiny childriod, it is as if the child were "in love" and the ability to make good choices. struggle to open a heavy door or climbwith certain things. The sensitivity acts They are cheerfully obedient, indepen-a stair. Once children begin to coordi-as a kind of spotlight, which focuses on dent, cooperative and helpful. Theynate their movements, they perfectone thing while leaving the child indif- display initiative, self-discipline, andthemselves through practice. We seeferent to another. Thus, in this period joy. this in the baby who, with great diffi-of unconscious construction, the sensi- These characteristics are certainlyculty, has reached the top of the stairstive periods choose what the child needs not those generally ascribed to child-but cries to be placed at the bottom sofor development, whereas later the con- hood. But the vision of the new child isthey can repeat their noble efforts. scious intellect, or will, assumes the seen daily in Montessori classrooms Think how hard it is to stand backtask of selecting where the child's at- throughout the world. Our work de-and let children pour their juice, tieténtion will settle. When a sensitive mands that we have faith in the child.their shoes or zip their coats. It is soperiod focuses the child's energies to- Many of the children in our classes to-much easier to jump in and do it forwards one aspect of the environment, day are like geodes, rough on the out-them. "We are so much quicker." "Wethe absorbent mind assimilates the pe- side yet containing marvelous beautywon't spill." "We can do it easily." Yetculiar knowledge or characteristic as- within. We must remember that withinMontessori reminds us of the rich mansociated with that aspect rapidly and each child is a treasure, and learn towho has many servants. He is, she said,brilliantly. observe carefully, objectively, and notactually poor because he is dependent Sensitive periods occur at specific jump to hasty conclusions. on others: he does not even know howages and are limited in duration. They Montessori discovered the secret ofto dress or feed himself. This examplecan be seen as windows of opportunity childhood through her observations.may be obsolete because today mostwhere the mind is prepared to accept The trained directress has spent manypeople don't have servants. Howeverand digest a new piece of information; hours learning how to do scientific ob-we still encounter older men who havewhen, as it were, the doors of percep- servation; but the assistant can observegrown so dependent on their wives thattion are open. When the child achieves too...and share what they have seen.if the wife gets sick or dies, the manthis state, when the door into its mind They may see things from the lunch-cannot care for himself at all! Howis open, if nobody is prepared to help room, the bus queue or the playground,much better it would have been if theor is ready to listen, the door may swing which can round-out the profile. wife had shown him how to cook ashut, possibly never to open again. But meal, how to wash his clothes or mendif someone is present, ready and pre- Assist the Development of hisjacket.Unnecessaryhelp,pared at all times, then the moments Independence Montessori says, is an obstacle to de-will be caught, the step made. Then the Virginia Jensen tells the story ofvelopment. process of learning will be easy and free Sarah and the Door. Sarah is a little girl Of course, we cannot let the childfrom strain. "...if the cup of learning who is left alone in the house. Her coatstand outside a bathroom door just be-in the broadest senseis constantly gets caught in the door and she panics.cause it is too heavy. We must evaluateproffered when the child is thirsty, it

48 Annette Haines, Ed.D.

will drink." (Deakin, 1971, P. 42) same elements of the environmentdirectress will supply the assistant with One of the most important sensi-again and again, and become passion-a list of the presentations each child has tivities is the sensitive period for order. ately interested, concentrated, in theirhad, the assistant can more effectively It is easily observable in young childrenwork. If concentration, as we have said,offer suggestions for work. beginning around the age of eighteenis the key to normalization, we must months and continuing with great in- protect the child who is concentrating.Aid Repetition tensity during the child's third year ofThe directress and the assistant can Often, we ask children "Are you life. This sensitivity explains many ofkeep a diligent watch so that a childdone?" when a child is fiddling around the so-called tantrums of this stormywho is absorbed in work is not dis-with a piece of material. This implies period. At this time, young childrenturbed by one of his or her friends. that it is time to put the work away and have an urgent need for order in their So what about those little childrendiscourages the necessary repetition. environment. They are trying to makewho are in chaos? What do we do withInstead, if a child has seemingly lost sense out of the many sensations whichthe children whose attention is so shortinterest in an activity you may be able bombard them. If the order of theirthat they flit from table to table, teas-to re-focus them on the task at hand by world is upset in any way, it greatlying and disturbing everyone, those chil-simply saying, "Do it again!" Or use a disturbs their sense of security. Accord-dren who fantasize with the Red Rodsleading question such as "Do they feel ing to Dr. Montessori, "Plainly theor the Color Tablets once they can bethe same?" (i.e., the Touch Tablets) or child's love of order is something morepersuaded to get out some piece of ap-"Which one comes next?" (i.e., the Pink than what the adult means by theparatus? These children need to be con-Tower). words. It is a vital need at a certain age, nected to some activity that engages In Language and Mathematics the in which disorder is painful and is felttheir interest. Often it helps to re-directassistant may be able to refer the child as a wound in the depths of the soul,their energies to the environment andto a control card or chart. However, so that the child might say, 'I cannot live its care. They can be asked to push theonce again, it falls upon the directress unless I have order about me.' It is in- chairs under the tables without makingto enlighten the assistant as to what lan- deed a question of life and death. Fora sound. They can be asked to roll theguage or control is appropriate with the grown-up it is only a question ofrugs up nicely and tightly, to take watereach piece of material. Re-directing and external pleasure, of a more or less in-to the guinea hen in the yard or sweepre-focusing techniques are not to be different comfort. But the child makesthe front walk. Also they might wantused with children who are concentrat- himself out of the elements of his envi-to: ing; they are useful, however, as diver- ronment, and this self-making is not ac-Practical Life sionary tactics to protect working chil- complished by some vague formula, change water in vases dren from being distracted by the noisy but following a precise and definite fold laundry and disruptive children in the class. guidance." (Montessori, 1936/1983, p. water plants 52) trim threads on cloths Soften Voice and Control Movement Many examples of this need forSensorial The assistant should have a place order are sited by Dr. Montessori in her wash tasting cups/spoons to be when not needed, usually a chair books, stories of children who became check the order of the bells to sit in an out-of-the-way place. All terribly upset When things were not in align the decanomial in its box conversation should be kept at a low their proper places (and every mother prepare the sensitization level and one-on-one, never from has stories of her own to tell). tray(s) across the room. If there is a need to The intensity of this period wanesLanguage talk to a child, the adult should get up a bit after the third year and at this time rotate objects in boxes and slowly move to within a 12 inch, it can have great educational value in sharpen pencils or conversational, distance and com- the classroom. Thirty children could straighten the moveable alphabetmunicate at the child's eye-level. Even- not be allowed to choose their own letters mannered, pleasant tones are necessary work and co-exist in a classroom un- rubber-band the classified so as not to frighten children when re- less children had this basic need for card material direction is necessary. Other sugges- order. It is this need which makes the Mathematics tions regarding voice and movement young child delight in putting every- dust the chains include: thing in its proper place on the shelf. organize the Golden Bead Avoiding "shhhh" to quiet the The Montessori environment, with its material children order, and levels of order down to the fix the stamps in the Stamp Game Using exact words tiniest detail, is very reassuring to the boxes Not reacting verbally (or non- young child because it fulfills this need. or double-check the bead verbally) to dropped items, quantities broken glasses, spilled water, Defend Children's Rights/Protect It goes without saying that if the etc. Concentration assistant is to re-direct children to the Avoiding reprimands When children are in a sensitiveabove kinds of activities, he or she Moving gracefully, slowly, and period, they are irresistibly drawn toneeds to know what exactly is expected carefully certain activities, they return to theby the classroom directress. Also, if the Never stepping on floor mats

49 51 The Role of the Teacher and the Role of the Assistant

Remembering that the adult'sCourtesy. teacher gives lessons such as "how to body movements act as a The name may sound a bit quaint,wait to be recognized," or "how to walk model for the children but the notion is certainly timeless.in the hall," aimed at preventing nega- Young children, as we all know,Such lessons should be an integral parttive behavior before it occurs. Then, if have a great urge to move and, in fact, of the daily life of the Montessori class. a child "forgets," a gentle reminder perfect their body coordinationFor example, early in the school year,may be all that is necessary; or re-pre- through this continued practice. Notthe young children learn "how to shakesenting the game later may be an even only do they enjoy movingas everyhands." Other lessons focus on themore tactful reminder. Such an ap- mother knowsthey enjoy activitieschild's movements (grace) in walkingproach serves to protect children's that help them refine their movements.around a mat, opening a door, and car-growing sense of dignity and self- They will put great effort into suchrying trays, baskets and buckets.worth. things as walking on a line, rolling aThrough these little lessons, the chil- There is no material for Grace and rug, carrying a chair, and opening anddren learn respect for others and at theCourtesy per se. You can't find it in a shutting a door. The joy (and serious-same time gain independence. The les-box on the shelf. The material is the two ness) on the faces of children partici-sons of grace and courtesy are given inadults in the room who constantly pating in a Silence Game can only besmall groups and involve role play atmodel gracious and courteous explained by a kind of inborn sensitiv-anemotionallyneutraltime.behaviour. ity or inner instinct towards perfection.Montessori felt that early childhood was the age for learning good manners;Assistant's Role in Regards to the Model Grace and Courtesy knowing what to do in a given socialDirector/ress Even now I can remember the em-context boosts a child's self-confidence. barrassment I felt when my mother Little courtesies, the please's, thankCommunicate said, "Tell the lady 'thank you," as ayou's, the I'm sorry's and the excuse me's, The assistant and the director/ress large woman loomed over the cash reg-lubricate the movement of social life inmust work to maintain open and con- ister and handed me a piece of candya group. vivial lines of communication. The pe- in the neighborhood grocery store. I This knowledge is presented in ariod before and after school is a crucial must have been about three years old.pleasant and non-threatening way and time for sharing because when the chil- And of I course I knew I should sayin little steps. But whether or when thisdren are present it is best to keep the "thank you" to the lady, but suddenlyknowledge is used depends upon theconversation between the two adults to I wasn't at all in the mood. Instead Ichild. The director /ress may gently re-a minimum. The before-and-after remember being red-faced -and angry.mind a child of a particular courtesy,school time is the time for assistants to Later, as a young mother myself, Ibut will not insist on it. The impulse toshare what they have observed and the would find myself doing the sameact must come from within the child. time for the director /ress to share thing, insisting that my children say At arrival and dismissal time, theknowledge. It is hoped that in this way "I'm sorry." Well, when one sisterdirector/ress gives the child the oppor-the two can become a team. During the pinched the other in the back seat oftuthty to shake her hand and therebyday, non-verbal communication in the our station wagon, she didn't feel sorry.practice this newly-acquired skill, but form of eye-contact and gestures can be My correcting just increased her stub-will not press the issue if the child isquite effective, and when teamwork born refusal. Once again, adult andnot yet ready to attempt it. The trainedhas been established, the pair will find child had locked horns in an age-oldadult knows that one day, after weeksthey are doing a kind of "dance" to- conflict. (or months) of watching the older chil-gether, providing a loving but vigilant It is an unnecessary battle. Dr.dren, the young child will slowly offerwatchfulness. A special kind of cama- Montessori observed that young chil-a hand in greeting a silent affirmationraderie and professional sharing can dren have a profound sense of personalof new-found maturity. and should be developed. dignity. Confrontations like these occur Other lessons of grace and cour- At arrival and dismissal, the assis- when adults forget that children aretesy might include: tant may appear more accessible and people whose tender feelings can eas- how to listen less intimidating to parents than the ily be wounded by a careless remark. how to knock at a door and wait director/ress. They will tend to confide If we as adults brusquely interfere how to select a refreshment in the assistantsharing their concerns, when we observe a social error or com- (take the one closest to you) stories, gossip, and so forthrather mission, the child's first reaction will how to blow your nose than going to the director/ress. When be a defensive one. No self-respecting how to wait in line this happens, it is suggested that the as- person likes to be corrected, certainly drinking and eating properly sistant defer to the director/ress. Pro- not publicly. Instead (granted there is how to accept a gift (say fessionalism and confidentially are no real emergency, e.g., someone being "thank you") prize virtues. punched, kicked or bitten), we can ...and the list could go on and on. make a mental note that "the child has In each lesson, the positive aspectsPreserve and Protect Lessons not known what to do. Later at an emo-of a situation are stressed. Instead of As the director/ress is giving les- tionally neutral time, the director /ressreprimanding ("don't interrupt,"sons and focusing her energies on one can give a special lesson of Grace and"don't run," etc.), the Montessorichild at a time, the assistant is free to Annette Haines, Ed.D. view the room as a whole. An impor- of tyrants with resulting anarchy. plies that I accept the restrictions in ac- tant responsibility of the assistant is to When everyone does as he pleases,cordance with the rules of safety for preserve and protect the lessons giventhe result is constant friction. Frictioneveryone. We can only be free if OR- to individual children or small groupsdisturbs interpersonal relationships,DER is observed." (Dreikurs,1964, p. 9) of children. If the assistant can take carewhich in turn intensifies the conflict. In of the little "emergencies" which inevi-an atmosphere of such constant con-The Assistant's Role in Regards to tably arise, look out for and disperseflict, stress and strain produce tension,Personal Preparation aimless groups of children, help sweep anger, nervousness and irritability; and up the broken glass, and remind chil-all the negative aspects of social livingProfessional Development dren of their rugs and their forgottenflourish. Freedom is part of democracy; The assistant must be loyal and chairs, it protects the rights of every-but the subtle point that we cannotsupportive, even if he or she doesn't one. Often our job is that of a police-have freedom unless we respect theagree with the director / ress all the man: protecting the honest citizen fromfreedom of others is seldom recog-time. Professionalism, punctuality and the little criminals. Of course no onenized. No one can enjoy freedom un-confidentiality are all necessary, along wants to be a policeman. But it is nec-less his neighbor has it too. In order forwith the obvious willingness to work. essary to have a policeman to guard theeveryone to have freedom, we mustThe assistant may enjoy bringing the civil law. Without rules, we have anar- have order. And order bears with it cer-best of him or herself into the classroom chy. The children do not have absolute tain restrictions and obligations. and might take some enrichment freedom, even though they are given "Freedom also implies responsibil-classes (storytelling, sign language, the freedom to choose their own work.ity. I am free to drive a car. But if I alsomusic, origami, etc.) to enhance what We give them freedom within limits. Iffeel free to drive it north in a south-they offer to the children. It is always each member of the class insists on do- bound lane, my freedom will end veryhelpful to compile a "bag-of-tricks": ing as he pleases, we have a class fullsoon. The freedom to drive my car im-songs, stories, poems to be read aloud,

COMMUNICATION: THE VALUE OF REFRAMING

DO'S DON'TS

pose questions give all the answers encourage discoveries solve all the problems seek helpers; use resources

empower by giving choices & options engage in power struggles eliminate choices, corner the child

be natural be rigid, stereotypical, or mechanical follow gut and intuition use common sense

be warm, gentle, loving, & affectionate create dependencies or attachments be free to laugh (light spirit) be the entertainer or clown

touch in comfort or in response to the child control with touch touch uninvited

be clear, direct, honest, and straightforward give mixed messages with statements & names make statements into questions have double standards

entice, seduce, invite, stimulate, guide force or demand with ultimatums or harsh speak softly, gently and angry speech move slowly, gracefully

make direct eye contact pretend to listen; interrupt; speed-up, or speak at eye level; listen loom over the child

(Thanks to Joen Bettmann )

513 The Role of the Teacher and the Role of the Assistant favorite books, and playground games. These are useful, particularly at transition times.

Spiritual Development It is necessary for anyone working with small children to periodically engage in some form of self-evaluation. We all need to reflect on our own childhood and ask ourselves, "What baggage do I carry with me which keeps me from being able to be objective?" The adult in a Montessori class does little to control the children. But they need to do a lot to control them. This may necessitate a total re-framing of habitual response patterns (the don'ts) into new, positive patterns of behavior (the do's). [See table on p. 511

Every assistant can be that invaluable aide every teacher dreams of. If the two work together, they can create a symphonywith first and second fiddle resonating in balanced harmony. 0

References

Deakin, Michael. The Children on the Hill: The Story of an Extraordinary Family. London: Andre Deutsch, Ltd., 1971. Dreikurs, Rudolf. Children the Challenge. N.Y.: E.P Dutton., 1964. Hughes, Nikki. "Obstacle Hunting: A 'Practi- cal' for Teachers." The NAMTA Journal, 15, 2, 1964, P. 37-42. Jensen, Virginia Allen. Sara and the Door. N.Y.: Lippincott, 1977. Lillard, Paula. "The Aide." AMI/USA News, March, 1991. Montessori, Maria. The Secret of Childhood. In- dia: Sangam Books, 1936/1983.

Annette Haines, Ed.D. is currently the Director of Training at the Montessori Training Center of St. Louis as well as an AMI school consultant at the primary level. She holds both AMI primary and elementary diplomas and serves as an AMI international examiner and lecturer and member of the Sponsoring Committee. Annette has a B.A. In English Literature from Washington University, a master's In curriculum and Instruction and a doctorate In education from Southern Illinois Uni- versity.

52 5 4 Setting Limits-So Little Understood, So Greatly Needed Judi Orion When offering parent informationtrums, physical abusethe toddlering that children arrive to us from many meetings at school, which meeting con-striking out at the adult, crying, whin-different parenting styles, we have to sistently has the best attendance? Whening, begging; this is usually indicativebe clear about the style we plan to in- conferencing with parents, which child-of an experience pattern that informscorporate and be consistent with it. rearing topic causes the most concerns;the toddler that she simply has to per- We must also look to the present, raises the most questions? When work-sist and she will achieve what shethe near future, and the distant future. ing with young teachers, which classwants. She "wears the adult down."If our goal for the distant future is to issues cause the most problems? WhenThis leaves a toddler with an unrealis-have an individual who is self-disci- training teachers, which aspect of "stu-tic idea of personal power power sheplined, who can accept the rules even dent teaching" gives the young teach-knows she cannot really handle. if not in complete agreement with ers the most trouble? As a teacher of With the birth of each new being,them, who can live peacefully in any young children, which issues send youwe have an opportunity to help thissociety accepting and honoring the somewhere for advice or consume vastchild reach her full human potential orfreedoms of others, then we must pre- amounts of your planning time orwe can submit to her every whim, re-pare for that future now. cause the greatest frustrations? sulting in an unhappy, selfish child who If we want a child who can handle Why, for many of us, is the idea ofconstantly searches for someone whothe freedoms offered in the primary setting limits so difficult, sometimescares enough to tell her, "No, stop." Montessori class, who can interact with viewed as negative, and not what is During the first year of an infant'sthe larger group of children in the pri- envisioned when thinking of workinglife, it is difficult to imagine having tomary, who can master self-discipline in with young children? set limits on his behavior. A baby indi-the primary years, then we must begin All of life has limits. Limits arecates her needs; if we are observantthat process now. what make it possible for us to live to- enough, we determine what those If we want a child who can master gether as social beings. Without limitsneeds are and try to meet them. Thisimpulse control (a major developmen- we would live in chaos, with a fairsystem works great until this being be-tal milestone of the second year), who amount of insecurity and with little orgins to move about the environment. can slowly come to accept the existence no predictability. Once this being begins moving we findof others and the rights and freedoms Limits offer tiny children a senseourselves saying "No, don't touch,"of others, then we must begin prepar- of security, order and consistency,More often than we would like. Perhapsing for that the day the child enters our safety and a preliminary ability to pre- the environment has not been preparedcommunity. dict what will happen next. Within a to allow for exploration. If we acknowl- This leads us to contemplate the framework of limits a small child is able edge the infant's need to explore, does"rules of the community." Like any to make a positive human self-con-this mean we have to allow her to ex-other community of humans, each struction. When small children are leftplore any and everywhere? Absolutelyone's freedom ends where another's with no limits they are abandoned tonot. And perhaps this is when the prob-freedom begins. So what kinds of rules their own devices and any constructionlem begins. must be established to protect the free- that has been achieved is often de- Setting limits begins the momentdom of all the members of this commu- stroyed. Movement patterns becomean infant begins moving around thenity? chaotic, and the voice becomes loudenvironment. A safe place for explora- 1. No one may hurt another and inappropriate for the situation.tion is created and this is where the person's body. These behaviors, unfortunately, rein- baby can explore. Of course, she is in- 2. No one may harm the materials force the view of the "terrible twos."terested in any and everything. But in the environment. Within a framework of limits, toddlers, some things simply are not safe to ex- When you have too many rules who often rebel against limits, come toplore and therefore not allowed. with children, you find yourself con- know that someone will control things Parents and teachers are so oftenstantly spending time reinforcing the when they are out of control. (Adoles-confused about what kind of limits arerules and not working with the chil- cents, who often rebel against limits,appropriate and when to set them.dren. use those limits set by a loving familySince most of you are here primarily in With rule number one, "No one as a safeguard; when risking not being the role of educator, not parent, I wouldmay hurt another person's body," this accepted by their peers by choosing tolike to focus on setting limits within animplies that there will be no biting, go against the group wishes, they useinfant community. pushing, pulling away from, or hitting. those limits as the excuse.) First of all, in preparation for aEven one child's yelling may be "hurt- Anywhere one goes today it is,community of children, we have toful" to the ears of another person. unfortunately, the norm to encounterthink about and envision the commu-Whenever this occurs, the behavior is situations where an adult is unwillingnity. How would we like to see it run-stopped in one of several ways. to firmly and lovingly set limits for his ning? What kind of behaviors would You speak to the child firmly, "We or her toddler. We witness temper tan-we expect in the children? Remember-do not bite people. You may bite on this

53 55 Setting LimitsSo Little Understood, So Greatly Needed teething ring." Acknowledge the frus- For many adults we procrastinate"owner" is already engaged, is concentration behind the biting but do notin setting limits, allowing our emotionstrating on something new, wait until excuse the biting because of it. Also,to become involved and perhaps notic-she finishes. For an older child (a two- don't create victims by giving undueing some underlying anger creeping in.year- old) you simply step in when she attention to the child who has been bit-Then, when we voice a limit, we are sofinishes and say, "I notice you left the ten or pushed. Acknowledge the hurt,emotionally "hooked" that we are ei-animals on the table. Please put them put ice on it, if necessary, write an acci- ther ambivalent or unclear, or the limitaway now." For younger children, once dent report and get on with things. To is not realistic for the situation. We over-they are actively engaged in new work, the perpetrator we must very firmlyreact and are usually emotionally in-the "old" work is no longer theirs. They and very clearly state the limits againvolved. Perhaps our ego is involved inwill often happily help you put it away and again. Gradually, the children willhow well the children follow our rules.but with no ownership of the work. come to accept that limits regardingPerhaps we feel as if we are an inad-They are so "in the moment" that once their physical safety are being enforced. equate teacher if we have disciplinefinished, the work is no longer theirs. "We yell outside; inside we speakproblems. Perhaps we have some un-And so, with the limit that the work will softly." "You may sit here to have yourresolved control issues in which webe returned to its place, you seduce the tantrum." have to make the children understandyounger child to help you, you give a With rule number two, "No onethat we are the ones in control. The se-very clear choice to the two-year-old. may harm the materials in the environ-cret is that we are not the ones in con- When a child comes into the envi- ment," it is implied that nothing can betrol of everything; we can only controlronment having had few or no limits, thrown, that one must move one's bodyourselves. If children are given workwe must simultaneously work with the in such a way not to bump into furni-appropriate for their developmentalparents to help them understand our ture, people, etc. When running, throw-needs of the moment, they come intobelief about limits. If parents cannot ing, etc. occurs, the behavior is stopped. control of themselves. accept that their child will live with lim- "We run outside; inside we walk." "We In order to be clear about settingits in the environment, then perhaps the throw balls outside." "If you throw thelimits, and about the appropriatenesschild will be better served in a differ- material, you may not work with it."of limits, we must take some time forent type of program. There does come "Before choosing that puzzle, you mustsoul-searching. What was our personala point when one has to accept that put the animals back on the shelf." experience with limits as a child? DoMontessori may not be the answer for We must also remember that a tod-we remember? Do we view our child-everyone. However, before sending dler is in a developmental crisis we re-hood as being either very restrictive oraway families, examine your own be- fer to as the "crisis of self-affirmation"very free? If we have children of ourliefs first. Are you comfortable with (as opposed to the "opposition crisis").own, how do we/did we set limits forsetting limits or does ambivalence A child in this developmental crisisthem? Do we understand and accept acreep in? "Put your work away, o.k.?" needs to be given choices so that sheyoung child's deep need for explora- "Want to help me clean up the table?" feels empowered to have some controltion and allow for those possibilities? "You hurt my feelings when you say over herself and that those adults im- When a young baby begins walk-that." portant to her acknowledge that she ising, they want and need to walk. Do How clear are you about limits? a completely separate being from herwe allow this possibility? Or would weThere is not a formula one can give mother. prefer them to now sit quietly and play? about how to set them. You must first When interrupting inappropriateIn an Infant Community, do we acceptbelieve in the benefits and necessity of behaviorrunning, yelling, biting,the abilities of these young children and limits; then you must practice setting pushing, etc.whenever possible, giveallow them to work to their own capac- them. They are unique to each situation the child a choice. But sometimes aity, or do we try to interfere with thebut, at the same time, general to the choice is not a possibility. way we think the work should be running of a social group. "I can see you need to nm. Woulddone? Do we have perfectionistic ten- If you find you want or need more you like to go outside now to run ordencies hampering our relationshipspecific help regarding setting limits, I run later?" with children? Are our expectationsrecommend ordering the tape by the "We're going outside. Can you putrealistic for the abilities and develop-Love and Logic Institute, Toddlers, Love your shoes on yourself or do you needmental needs of the children in ourand Logic Parenting for Early Childhood. my help?" group? The Love and Logic Institute is an in- "The puzzle must be picked up. Limits are going to be handled dif- stitute dedicated to helping parents and Can you do it by yourself or do youferently for children at different devel-educators use a loving and logical ap- need help?" opmental stages. An 18-month-old isproach to child raising. "I see you have left the wateringgoing to need more assistance in put- can on the floor. Before choosing some-ting work away, but the work will beFrom their materials thing else to work on you must put theput away. A two-year-old can put her What is Love and Logic? Love al- watering can away." work away independently and acceptlows children to grow through their "This paint is not for the walls.that nothing else can be taken on themistakes. Logic allows them to live Let's go wash your hands and chooseshelf until the first activity is put away.with the consequences of their choices. other work." If you notice work left out and the

54 Judi Orion

The Love and Logic Process: 1. Shared control: Gain control by giving away the control you don't need. 2. Shared thinking and decision- making: Provide opportunities for the child to do the greatest amount of thinking and deci sion-making. 3. Equal shares of consequences with empathy: An absence of anger causes a child to think and learn from her mistakes. 4. Maintain the child's self-concept: Increased self-concept leads to improved behavior and improved achievement. 0

Judi Orion, Director of Training at the Assistants to Infancy training in Denver, has lectured exten- sively about the child under three in the states and abroad. Judi is a trainer at the 3-6 level, and AMI examiner and also consultant at the 0-3 and 3-6 levels. Judi trained with Dr. Silvana Montanaro at the 0-3 level then worked with Dr. Montanaro when she introduced 0-3 training in the U.S. She has been involved with Montessori education for 30 years.

55 Freedom that Inspires Responsibility: Removing the Obstacles Cathryn Kasper Thirty years ago, I met a womanwas not a method of instruction, but athat this environment of the Children's who changed my life. I opened the "Help to Life."3 House is diagnostic, remedial, and lib- cover of a little blue book with a child's Then there is that word "disci- erating. In this environment, totally dif- handprint on the front and she stepped pline." Over time, in today's world, thisferent traits arise. This transformation out and spoke to me. We hadn't metword has taken on almost an interpre-continues to intrigue adults, and now before, but she knew my child. She toldtation of repression. I feel that what shehas been rediscovered by such social me great mysteries about him that I hadintended was to convey the idea ofscientists as Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi not even considered, of his powers andmastery of self. That kind of disciplineand noted Dr. Jane Healy. abilities, of his spiritual nature. Theseinvolves a choice. At first that choice So, how do we go about preparing resonated so deeply within me that Imay be intermittent, then frequent,the environment for freedom and re- knew she understood him and was tell- then it may be so integrated that it is sponsibility to manifest itself? We pre- ing me the truth. the child's automatic response. Dr. pare the adult, we prepare the environ- A year later, I literally sat at the feet Montessori called this process thement, we prepare the parents. of her son, Mario, a calm, gentle man"three levels of obedience."4 The final Let us first consider the prepared with a twinkle in his eye. He too spokestep in this process of gradually beingadult. What brought you to this work? of the child I knew, but now I realizedable to respond to the guiding adult, isDoes that curiosity, that intention to it was the precious universal child ofto internalize the process so completelyhelp, still burn bright within you? You whom they spokeEvery Child. Mythat the response comes without theneed it every day, because it will be the teacher, Este la Colmenero Palmieri adult. This last step is responsibility. Todeciding factor in your actions. This had miraculously persuaded Mariome, this is the child's expression of trueprocess of being conscious, of intend- Montessori to spend an afternoon at the freedom. That choice for responsible ac- ing and choosing to do our best, is Los Angeles Montessori Teacher Train- tion can only be made by the child whowhere we show our responsibility. We ing Institute. He listened to our many is free to think and act for himself. Re-have been entrusted with the child questions patiently. To each one he gave sponsibility is the manifestation of thewhom Dr. Montessori describes as the a thoughtful reply, and almost always incarnation of freedom on all three lev- "Spiritual Embryo"'the child in the it included this phrase: "Follow theels: physical, psychological and spiri-second embryonic periodthe pro- child." To this day, those words remaintual. longed infancy of the human being in some of the best advice I've ever re- Dr. Montessori saw that this order-which the child absorbs and incarnates ceived. Today I want to share With youing of one's own life was a natural state. his total environment. Sir Percy Nunn what I am learning about this univer-She maintained that there are activitiesnamed that absorbing and incarnating sal child. characteristic of all children which theyability the "inneme."9 Dr. Montessori astounded themust be allowed to carry out. We con- Our challenge as prepared adults world when she declared that libertytinue to see evidence that the child inis to prepare an environment that can to act freely within limits is the key tothe process of self-formation is drivenliberate the child from both "the normal development and the openby the "Universal Tendencies"5 and isprison" and "the desert."1° This process door to inner freedom. She said: "Wedrawn to certain activities by the suc-requires furnishings and materials to be cannot make a man good, we can onlycession of the "Sensitive Periods."' beautifully attractive, child-size, break- help him to make himself."' Instead of In this quest, it is normal to en-able, and precise, so the child can in- education being the work of the adult,counter some natural obstacles becausecrease his strength and understanding she stated that, "The child orders hishe is, at this time, too small, too weak,by repetition, thus liberating himself own life. This is an expression of child-too lacking in control of his movementsfrom the "prison of the flesh" by achiev- hood. Imagine what a wonderful thing to be successful at everything he tries. ing control over her movements. Then, it is. Freedom and discipline come to-We adults can warp and delay thisthe adult must master the art of pre- gether. This [is] a discovery becausequest by being too restrictive, too help-senting the materials. It is through these they are generally thought to be oppo-fulthereby doubling the child's diffi-presentations that we give a choice of site things. Instead we find that thereculty. Then the child's protestations areappropriate developmental activity to is no freedom without discipline. Free-typically interpreted as misbehavior,the child through which he liberates dom and discipline are a harmoniousrather than, as they truly are, a bid forhimself from the "desert" of boredom. combination. They are strictly con-freedom to be independent. Physical order is the basis neces- nected one with the other."' Today, we repeat Dr. Montessori'ssary for the Human Tendencies and the She wanted to change forever theexperiment that became her prescrip-Sensitive Periods to operate effectively. way people regarded the child. Shetion: "normalize the condition"7 of thisDisorder is the obstacle, so we go over went so far as to insist that her ap-overburdened child by means of free-every area with that in mind: proach of giving freedom to the childdom. Then we discover what she did: Does the floorplan allow for orien-

56 53 Cathryn Kasper

tation, freedom of exploration, and interrupt anyone. These freedomstime to present guidelines for social efficient movement? are always offered to provide theinteraction through these exercises. Do the materials present a clear child with maximum opportuni- Particularly on the play park, progression by their order on the ties to develop and explore. where there are no didactic materials, shelves? the environment is larger, and there is Are the materials beautiful and at- This may be a child's first experi-increased opportunity for movement, tractive to the child? Look forence of a social environment of peers.a new sensibility must be awakened. handmade containers that haveEduardo Cuevas gave a wonderful ex-We have been trying two outdoor prac- historical and cultural significance, ample of this entering child in his par-tices at our school: Alfie Kohn suggests tactile interest, and most of all, took ent education evening at the Sun Gar-that we must be "engaged," that is, to some control of movement and cre- den Montessori School in Portland,go beyond just putting rules out and ativity to make. Oregon, last October. He described aenforcing them. We must be active in Are materials complete withinchild who you will recognize; whoseexplaining why these processes make each exercise so the child can ex-parents' love had become "idolatry,"for a happier community. Children plore, discover, and repeat to mas-planting in the child a belief in his ownwanting to relate socially to others need tery? "monarchy." This little one enters thenot only examples, but also the oppor- Are the walls of the classroomsocial environment of theCasato dis-tunity for dialogue." We begin by talk- made interesting by beautiful pic-cover other kings and queens, just asing about Vivian Gussin Paley's guide- tures and hanging artifacts that aresure of their complete entitlement toline of "You Can't Say You Can't Play."14 rotated and labeled weekly, androyal attentiona shock! Here, to theirAlthough negatively stated, it is brief thus form the inspiration for yoursurprise, the rights of all are protected.and true. We give Grace and Courtesy true stories and the child's ownThe teacher is clearly the authority.lessons about how to modify games to work? Here, they discover a small but firm setinclude everyone who wants to play. Are the outdoor extension andof limitsanother shock to the mon-The other important aspect of an inclu- playpark prepared with the samearch! Here, there is respect for the rightssive social model is learning how to attention to detail and appropriate-of everyone as well as for the group astake turns in decision-making about ness as the indoor environment?a whole. group activities. If there are two or Do they invite not only physical Dr. Montessori gave us an insightmore desired activities that a group development, but also explorationinto another child whom we recognize,could do together, we may help a dis- of botany and zoology? even when he arrives in the guise of the cussion about which to do first, rather monarch. She describes "the child ofthan have a decision based on majority Before the year begins, consider thethree [who], when he first comes torule. This makes it worthwhile for ev- social environment. Which liberties andschool, is a fighter on the verge of be-eryone to participate. It leads to a so- limits apply? ing vanquished; he has already a de-cial environment that calls to each one Freedom of Movement comesf ens iv e attitude which masks histo be creative and responsible to oth- within the limits of respect for oth-deeper nature. The higher energies,ers. ers and the needs of the commu-which could guide him to a disciplined We also must "prepare" the par- nity. peace and a divine wisdom, are asleep. ents. We offer our assistance to them in Freedom to take food & drink mustAll that remains active is a superficialwelcoming conferences before the year be done safely with attention topersonality which exhausts itself inbegins, so we can establish understand- cleanliness. clumsy movements, vague ideas, anding of our approach, so there will be Freedom to respond to personalthe effort to resist or avoid adult con-harmony between the systems of home needs happens within a structurestraint."" and theCasa.We prepare ourselves to of safety, so the child uses a pass Dr. Montessori pointed out that, "Ifbe a resource to the larger support sys- to let adults know she is leavingdiscipline were already arrived, our tems in our cities if special diagnosis the class and going down the hallwork would hardly be needed; the for vision, hearing, or other physical or to the bathroom. child's instinct would be a safe enoughpsychological needs arise. We initiate Freedom to choose an activity isguide to enable him to deal with everyactivities and newsletters which help based on its availability on thedifficulty."" So we must plan the op-parents of our school community meet shelf and if it has been presented. portunities for this child to become aand support each other. Most impor- Freedom to work as long as onenormalized part of society. It happenstantly, we extend our open-hearted pa- desires is there, provided that ma-through the experience of the kindness tience, and appreciation for the tremen- terials are used with care and pur-and respect modeled by the adults and dous work that they are doing. Look pose, and that they are returned,experienced children, and through the for positive steps and encourage them. in order, to the appropriate locationgroup exercises of Grace and Courtesy. Now the stage is set, the players on the shelf. Our adult manners must be impec-arrive, and the drama begins! How do Freedom to observe anothercable. They relay the message that theyou personally begin your own day? I person's work, or to sit alone notchild is free and safe to develop. As the sometimes go to each piece of material working, is available on the- con-child gets older, and more interested in that I intend to present that day and dition that it is quiet, and does notgroup activity, we must be alert to the touch it, checking for order and beauty. Freedom that Inspires Responsibility: Removing the Obstacles

Our Northwest trainer, Shannonagain, and again, and again, using oursmall pitcher. The four-year-olds then Helfrich, gave us a great idea: take offdiscoveries to guide us in removing thego ask the older children to please re- your shoes and walk on the line in si-obstacles to development, by removingfill the Britta pitcher. Here is a cycle that lence. I find this is a walking medita-unused or abused material, rotatinginvolves many levels of social cooperation almost like a labyrinth, and alsoactivities for interest, and replacingtion and responsibility to accomplish. like mindfulness training as I breatheworn and broken things. In this free society, the children's expe- and become aware of each step.15 With We give the liberty to work to theriences lead directly to the realization this, I leave the outer world behind, andchild, allowing their development -of their responsibilities. What's more, enter into the world of childhood,when in doubt, stay out. This freedomtheir eagerness to demonstrate and use ready for my guides for the day readyto work as long as they want gives them their abilities leads directly to being of to follow the child. the feeling of spaciousness and secu-service to others. The rewards are in- During this day, we are observers,rity to proceed in their own way. Wetrinsic in the actiirity and require no presenters, and guides. This is our ownmust keep accurate records, so we canfurther acclaim than the thanks of their adult cycle of normalization. Observa-present the stairwaysthe natural pro-friends. tion is both objective and intuitive. Wegression of materials that present the Then there are the activities that can sit in a relaxed way, letting our pos-opportunity to become more skilled,"ripple" out into larger and longer ture be soft, our gaze soft, allowing ourand thus produce the feeling of secu-cycles of independent activity. In our receptive nature to open to what is be-rity that comes from knowing their en-class, the cycle of food and drink before us. We can consciously observe invironment. gins simply, but grows in complexity an objective, scientific way. And we can We also must plan what I call theas the child develops. We begin the year also open more than our eyes. We can"stairways" and "ripples" - planningwith the basic lessons of food prepara- open our hearts, looking for the posi-and watching the child for ways totion as individual activities of practi- tive aspects of each child's behavior, thewiden the application of skills to extendcal life. As children master these skills, signs of the developing personality. Forthe cycle of activity. The key to thisI invite them to help prepare snack for now, we look for the normalization thatgrowth is the balance between freedomthe class. The volunteer chefs of the day is taking place before our eyes. We areto work on activities that appeal to theput their name card into holders that wanting and looking for the signs. I like child's interest because they answer anlet the other children know who is do- to put a small sentence of reminder atinner drive to perfect and master lifeing this work today. They don aprons the top of my daily observation sheetskills, and limits that are natural to theand chef 's hats and wash up at the as a checklist of what I intend to lookformation of community and produc-hand-washing exercise. for: concentration/flow, developmenttive approaches to work. At the beginning of the year, the of the will, control of movement, social The "stairways" may be offeredfood and preparation tools are laid out grace, courtesy, the child on the brinkthrough points of interest of followingfor the children on the food prep table. of discovery. exercisesthings that draw the childNow, at this point in the development Later, at a quiet time, we can re-forward through the materials. Weof this community, the oldest ones turn to the notes and decide on solu-must watch for these signs and be readyknow how to get the food from the tiny tions to the obstacles. to offer the next step. It may be a newrefrigerator, gather the colander for Then it is time for presentation. Wepoint of interest, "Can you wash thewashing the food, the chopping boards must come to the child with the aware-whole table without one drop on thefrom the food prep cupboard, and ness of what we have observed andfloor?"; or a following activity, "Lookbowls to hold the prepared food on the make a connection from our heartfelthow clean and dry this table is - wouldsnack shelf. The assistant gives them wish for their benefit. We give clear,you like tO see how to make it shine?" sharp knives from the adult cupboard. precise visual demonstrations, and We can structure solutions to theThey go about their work happily, usu- only essential words so the child ab-challenges of our particular environ-ally observed by younger ones (at a sorbs enough to freely explore. We takements so the children make thingssafe, designated distance). As they fin- our leave just as concentration begins,work, and the solution becomes theirs.ish the preparation, they put out bowls and then we protect, observe, and whenFor example, the water from our tapof food with little recipe instructions necessary, hide from the child who hastastes of chlorine. So we bought a largeabove them, and snack is ready for any- found his work. Britta filtering pitcher, from which weone who is hungry. They proceed to Here we return to the work of thefill a small pitcher for children to servewash the prep dishes, then usually go scientist, remembering that we are stillthemselves water. This requires pa-on to get their own snacks. conducting the experiment that Dr. tience and control of movement as the The procedure for getting a snack Montessori began so long ago. She de-child first goes to get a glass from theis structured for increasing skills and clared that the teacher must have a snack shelf, then pours water, carries itresponsibilities, as well. Children new "general interest in the manifestation to a table, sits, and then may drink theto the class are invited as a very small of natural phenomena until he comeswater. What a change for the monarchgroup to have snack together, in a to the point where he loves nature andwho declares: "Mom, I want a drink!"group where they are introduced to the experiences the anxiety of one who hasNow the youngest children are unableproper way to offer and accept food. It prepared an experiment and is waiting to refill the pitcher, so they must go ask is very simple, and also very quick. for new data to appear." We observethe four-year-olds to please refill the"Henry, would you like a cracker?"

58 Cathryn Kasper

"Yes, please!" Crackers are offered, thenone of the older girls in class who tookwho has had a sure sense of personal comes, "Thank you" and "You're wel-a great interest in a very shy peer, freedom, and the generosity of spirit to come." Then they return to work, andwhose understanding and conversa-extend it to others in ways that are cre- the assistant tidies up, usually helpedtions in English were limited. Maddieative, compassionate, loving, and joy- by one or two children. often sought her out, inviting her toous. These are the new children, the Then comes the next level. Gradu-work with her, eat lunch with her andones that bring "an onset of hope"23 to ally, these new ones are given lessonsplay games. Maddie saw her need andour world. 0 on how to set a place on a placemat,reached out to her, bringing her into the then invited to a lesson on washingsocial group. It was an example of the hands at the hand washing table, thensuccess of Dr. Montessori's great ex- Notes: given their own lesson on how to pre-periment in which "everyone develops ' Margaret Stephenson, paraphrasing Dr. pare their own snack. There is a shelfin a healthy, normal way. ... through the exchange of spiritual energy. "18 Montessori in Keynote address to the 1996 AMI with five little placemats, a stack of National Conference. dishes, and silverware as needed. The Our work in the Casa is not complete until we help the child toward the 2 Dr. Montessori, The Child, Society and the children set out the placemat, serve World, Clio Press 1989, P. 23. themselves according to little pictureopen door. At the end of each year we cards above the food bowls, then eat at Margaret Stephenson, The Secret Child- sing together in a Native American hood, Foreward, Fides Publishers, Inc. 1966, p. their table, and clean up by washingchant: "Good where we've been, good xv. their own dishes, cleaning their table,where we're going to." These words 4 Dr. Montessori, The Absorbent Mind, Clio and returning the placemat for anotherencapsulate our experience, for we are Press 1989, p. 235. person to use. but the open door through which the 'Margaret Stephenson, The Secret of Child- By January, we are ready to beginchild may walk. This should include hood, Foreward, Fides Publishers, Inc. 1966, p. a new level of work: the we cooked itobservation, hours in the next environ- xxv. ourselves lunch. The children plan thement, and visits from the elementary 6 Dr. Montessori, The Secret of Childhood, menu, choosing foods from manyteacher. Also extend this invitation to Fides Publishers, Inc. 1966, p.46. lands. I post a list of ingredients on the the public schools. We must establish a 'Dr. Montessori, The Absorbent Mind, Clio bulletin board, and they help their par-good ground of communication with Press 1989, p. 182. ents sign up and shop for them. Theythe elementary guide, and/or give Ibid., p. 55. helpful information to the public school prepare and cook the meal, create a 9 Ibid., p. 57. long lunch table by moving all the larg-where they will attend. It is our last est tables, which they set and decorate. 10 Dr. Montessori, What You Should Know work in removing the obstacles and About Your Child, Kalakshetra Publications, We all sit and eat together, serve, andpromoting harmony between systems. Vasanta Press, 1966, p.55. clean up, restoring the room to order Freedom and responsibility are ' Dr. Montessori, The Absorbent Mind, Clio for the afternoon work period. Thisalso hallmarks of what Dr. Montessori Press, 1989, p. 241. process incorporates many cycles ofsaw as a social movement for peace. 12 thid. work, all rippling out from the interestShe spoke passionately of that "drive in lunch. It relies on independence,for freedom, the individual's inherent Alfie Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature. food preparation skills, and taking re-need to be let alone so that he can act sponsibility for working as a group.on his own." It was her strong con- 14 Vivian Gussin Paley, You Can't Say You Can't Play. This past year, 16 children between theviction that, "Society cannot develop ages of 41/2 to 6 accomplished thisunless the individual develops."20 She 16 Thich Nhat Hanh, Peace is Every Step, p. 27. nearly every Friday from January tosaid, " The first step has been taken in June. I am in awe of their level of ac-our schools, which have given the child 16 Dr. Montessori, The Discovery of the Child, Fides Publishers, Inc., 1967, p. 4. complishment. the possibility of teaching us this great Joy in all things is the crowningrevealing lesson and helping us pursue 12Dr. Montessori, The Absorbent Mind, Clio Press, 1989, p. 206. characteristic of a Montessori learning this goal scientifically. The first step, environment. In The Absorbent Mind,from which all the rest follow, is then " Ibid., p. 207. the cooperation of the mixed ageto help the child develop all his func- 19 Dr. Montessori, Education and Peace, groupsisdocumented by Dr.tions as a free individual and to foster Henry Regnery Co, 1972, p 123. Montessori as she describes the "lovethat development of personality that 20 thid., p.65. and admiration on both sides" as theactuates social organization."2' We can 21 Ibid., p.123. older "heroes and teachers"r sponta-see that enlivened by the liberties and 22 Dr. Montessori, The Secret of Childhood, neously initiate activities and supportopportunities of the prepared environ- Fides Publishers, 1966, p. xvii. the younger children. ALE/2-year-old inment, the child can fulfill his task of de- 23 Margaret Stephenson, Philosophy Lec- our class this year epitomized this inveloping personality, become "orien- ture, Los Angeles Teacher Training Institute, the photos you see here. She organizedtated to his environment, adapted to his Spring 1972. a group of 3-year-olds into a "bring me" time, place and culture."22 This is a per- game with the vocabulary enrichmentson who freely participates in commu- cards. I also see a great deal of empa-nity, voluntarily living by its rules. This thy and responsibility in the actions ofis the responsibility that we see in one

59 61 Freedom that Inspires Responsibility: Removing the Obstacles

Cathryn Kasper is a teacher at the Corvallis Montessori School in Oregon where she serves as a Primary Mentor Teacher. Cathryn received an AMI primary diploma from the Montessori In- stitute of Los Angeles and a B.A. degree from the University of California at Santa Barbara. She has presented seminars to the Oregon Montessori Association, the National Association for the Edu- cation of the Young Child, and Montessori Insti- tute Northwest Alumni.

6 60 The Necessary Freedom to Become Montessori Erdkinder Laurie Ewert-Krocker Part I:Linking the Adolescent to theadult-like in their contribution to theedge in anatomy and reproduction, Environment community, but within the grasp ofgenetics and bovine care. These are Why the farm? Montessori sug-adolescents. Our job is to prepare thathard sciences, the knowledge of which gested that a farm would be an envi-environment and then link them to it. allows the students to become momen- ronment that could meet the needs and At the Farm School we are linkingtary experts in order to accomplish the characteristics of the age. Adolescentsthem to the farm environment in threetask of breeding the cow. are in a rapid state of growth and needways: Another occupation might be wa- to use their bodies to discover their own 1) By offering them roles in the com-ter quality maintenance. We live on the abilities and strengths, and to balance munity (care for self, care for envi-crest of two watersheds. The water we their growth with productive work. ronment, care for others) use finds its way into two river systems, When you work with adolescents, you 2)By offering them occupations on both emptying into Lake Erie. We draw see their need to move mountains, cut the landtasks that contribute toour water from wells, and we have an down trees, wield axes, carry lumber, the running of the farm, with itson-site water treatment system that dig in the soil, clear trails. They are not various tasks and businesses uses a wetland as part of the purifica- unlike the 2-3 year-old carrying chairs, 3)By offering opportunities for inves-tion process. Understanding this sys- moving furniture, but the adolescent tigations and inquiries possible ontem and monitoring it is an occupation moves the furniture of the world. the farm and in the community,that requires knowledge of water Montessori called the adolescent sparked by individual interest (the chemistry, wetland ecosystems, and the "the social embryo"they are in the "limitless field for scientific andtechnology of water purification sys- stage of birth into adult society. They historic studies") tems. need to explore and discover in what We use and maintain machines on ways they can make contributions toCommunity Life the farm. Understanding the physics of their community. They need to try on In order to create a true commu-machines is necessary background roles in the communityroles whichnity life, we have incorporated board-knowledge for using them. We had a we call."occupations." Their develop-ing at the farm. We have day studentsproject this year that involved study- mental task is to become contributing the middle school students froming simple machines and their appli- social beings. They need to know whatHershey Montessori Schoolbut wecation to farming. The students made they can do and what they can be goodhave built a facility that allows 24their own primitive hay forks (a form at. They have a strong desire to feel aboarding students to reside. We are alsoof a lever) out of wood, using tools in sense of purpose and mission, to knowproviding the day students with 25the process that involved both wedges that they have a cosmic task. And theynights boarding as part of their tuition,and inclined planes. The task of ma- need to feel that humanity has a pur-in order to integrate community life. chine making produced a context for a pose, a cosmic task, and that they can As community members, studentsstudy in physics. participate in it. will prepare and help cook meals, clean We have a stand of maple trees, The modern world is too complex the building, monitor energy use,and maple syrup production is a major for the young social embryo to navigatemonitor water quality, manage re-industry in our county. In order to pro- just yet, so the farm provides a micro-source use and recycling, chop woodduce maple syrup, we needed a struc- cosm of the social world, a coimnunityfor heat, maintain the building, pay the ture (a sugar house), we needed to asthat meets its fundamental needs, thatbills, sew curtains, make rugs, weavesess our maple tree stand (sugar bush), has its own micro-economy, that par-place mats. They will help to grow foodunderstand the plant processes that re- ticipates in the larger world as well.in the gardens and greenhouse, can,sult in sap movement, and learn to pro- And within it, the tasks available arefreeze, and preserve the food, care forcess the sap to the proper temperature tasks the adolescent can be successfulthe animalsmilk the cow, feed theand density to produce syrup. All of at: growing food, weaving cloth, rais-chickens, collect eggs, feed and shearthese activities provided occupations ing animals, running a bed and break-the sheep. that required contextual knowledge fast, running a market, maintaining a including tree identification and mea- household, cooking and preparingRoles and Occupations surement, the physics and geometry of meals, producing craft items in the As another way for them to engageconstruction, the biology of plant pro- wood shop, caring for the local ecosys- in the life of the community on the levelcesses, and the use of a hydrometer to tem and environment. The result is, asof enacting roles as occupations, wemeasure the density of a liquid. Other Montessori puts it, "a strengthening ofwill offer them real-life tasks that alsooccupations have included: self-confidence," a "valorization of therequire contextual studies in order to Soil analysis personality." be accomplished. There are many op- Pig care and meat for human The prepared environment of theportunities for them to integrate work consumption (nutrition) farm is a specialized environment inand study. For example, insemination Mapping the land (both triangulat- that it provides opportunities that areof the cow requires background knowl- ing and using modem GIS) The Necessary Freedom to Become Montessori Erdkinder

Digging, cataloguing, and studyingSchool would include a land-based Participate in the installation of the history from the archaeologicalapproach to adolescent education. waste treatment system site We got there on the experience of Begin initial gridding and prepa- Growing of plants in the bioshelter other adolescent practitioners who ration of archaeological dig site Running the bed and breakfastwere reaching out to try farm-like ex- Do initial investigations into green- business periences: John Long and Pat Ludick house structures /bio-shelter de- Running the farm market at Ruffing; Larry Schaefer at Lake signs Country; Michael Bagiackas from Do initial mapping of the property Individual Exploration and Study Hershey, who helped to create the farm- and its trail system Finally, the land, the farm, and thestead and land lab at our school. Clear trails local communities provide the invita- We got there through the grace of Research domestic animal care and tion and the springboard for explora-parents and board members who truly help design barn and pasture lay- tions that- are simply areas of interestwanted the best in Montessori prin- out for individuals and small groups, suchciples for their children, and who Cultivate a sense of ownership and as: trusted us as professionals and as par- stewardshipthat this is their Amish culture study ents and friends. land, their responsibility Aerodynamics We got there by integrating the stu- Child development dents' work and experiences with the We hiked to the farm, camped out, Astronomy land and community as soon as pos-star-gazed, hiked on the property, had Local history sible: our curriculum included studiesceremonies, did art work, wrote jour- of local biodiversity, studies of habitatsnals and poetry, took photographs, had And each role, occupation, or ex-on the school property, a study of ourreflective time, played, prayed, sang, ploration is an experience in humanwatershed, running a small class mar-and had seminar discussions. historyfor each of these roles isket business, doing community service We recorded our research and played out over and over again in hu-with young children in the school andideas in articles and newsletters that man communities over time, and eachat local nursing homes. Our historywent out to parents and friends of the informs the adolescent of his connect-studies included inquiries into the ef-community. We set up a website. The edness to all people in all places. It alsofect of cultures on the landthe sig-students gave tours and presentations provides a window onto the future ofnificance of agriculture in human evo-of their work at the farm at Open humanity, for our land, our farm, ourlution, the effect of the Industrial Revo-Houses and to special visitors. The stu- community faces the same issues oflution on society and the planet. dents gave tours to younger children survival, interdependence, human im- We got to the land through the gen- in other classes. pact on the ecosystem, and global eth-erosity of one community member who We studied the local communities ics as does every other community onhad land and resources to donate, toand their histories; went to cemeteries, the planet. If one can play a role in ourhelp fund the building of a facility, andinterviewed local historians. We met microcosm, communicate, problem- through the generosity of other philan-our government representatives. We solve, improve health, and discoverthropists and donors who followedwent to the county fair; we entered our beauty, them the hope is that the ado-suit. maple syrup in the county ccintest. lescent takes that microcosmic vision But mostly we got there by bring- We inseminated the cow, whose into any other environment he subse-ing the students onto the land and in-calf was just born, and to whom the stu- quently enters and cultivates faith inviting them to become stewards, pio-dents are strongly dedicated. humanity's ability to become collec-neers, designers, and builders. We of- We invited their ownership and tively moraland in the process, act-fered them real roles in the process ofresponsibility at a level that was not ing more consciously himself. developing this farm school and theirtokenistic, but real. And they re- The Montessori adolescent envi-high level of engagement, concern, andsponded by raising themselves to a ronment the farm should be a modeljoy in the process convinced everyonehigher level of knowledge, skill, aware- and a testing ground for that building else that this was right for them. ness, and dedication. They responded of self-confidence, for the valorizing of The environment needed to be pre-by becoming more confident, more in- the personality for the aid to adaptabil-pared. So we invited them to: dependent, and more nurturing of the ity and independence, but also to moral Assess trees and help clear and millland and each other. development. them My graduates write about their And everything we have experi- Build initial structures: the sugarexperience on the farm, even after some enced so far tells us it can be. house for maple syrup making,time has passed. The local teachers tell bridges over creeks me about their essays and autobiogra- Start the gardens; harvest and dis-phies and the significant role the farm Part II: How we got to the land tribute the produce; make mapleplayed in their lives. First, we got there by having a syrup and salsa; sell the products As one of my students put it, "I long-term vision, both as individuals Consult with the architect and in-cannot believe that this is where I go to and as a community. It has been an un- terior designers on design aspectsschool. This is such an amazing place. derstanding that Hershey Montessori of the building And it's ours." 0

62 Laurie Ewert-Krocker

Laurie Ewert-Krocker started the middle school program at Hershey Monessori School in Ohio four years ago, affer working in an upper elementary classroom for six years. She is currently col- laborating with David Kahn on the development of a fully inegrated curriculum and pedagogy for the Montessori Farm School, a land-based Erd kinder-like facility. She holds AMI primary and elementary diplomas as well as a B.A. from John Carroll University an an M.A. in English from the University of Washington, Seattle.

63 Freeing the Child's Response-Ability: Celebrating the Natural Genius of Children Thomas Armstrong, Ph.D.

The words "freedom" and "re-religious/spiritual background, view-ished that he shouted out loud: 'I've sponsibility" related to children haveing a child's spiritual being as the mostwritten, I've written!' The children ex- connotations that seem at first to me tosensitive and refined of entities thatcitedly ran up to look at the words be quite in opposition. When I think ofcould be gloriously uplifted (or con-which he had traced on the floor with "freedom" in connection with children,versely, ignominiously crushed) by thea piece of chalk. 'Me too, me too!' they I think of children chasing after butter-subtlest of gestures, actions, or feelingsshouted as they ran off in search of flies, climbing trees, and dancing in the from the adults around him or her. writing materials. Some crowded wind. Conversely, when I associate the Understanding the extraordinaryaround the blackboard. Others word "responsibility" to children, Iability of the child to respond to life isstretched themselves out upon the think of them taking out the garbage,what I found personally most earthfloor. They all began to write. Their doing their homework, and mowingshattering in Dr. Montessori's work,boundless activity was like a torrent. the lawn. It's very easy for us to con- and it was that which originally led meThey wrote everywhere, on doors, ceive of these two sets of activities asto enter the field of education twenty-walls, and even on loaves of bread at mutually exclusive (viz. "you can chaseeight years ago. Since that time, al- home." (The Secret of Childhood, pp. 131- butterflies after you've taken out thethough it seems at times as if I've been 132) garbage!!"). Such a dichotomy disap-aimlessly wandering in a labyrinth of This idea of learning as an ecstatic pears, however, when we disencumber competing educational philosophies,activity is not a familiar one in today's each word from its common set of cul-ideas, techniques, methods, and roles,test-ridden schools. Recently, I entered tural connotations, and start to relateI have always held Dr. Montessori'sthe key words "love of learning" into a to it more in terms of its face valuedeep respect for the child as a goldenpopular education database on the meaning. What is freedom, in this con-thread to help me find my way backinternet. I received only 13 citations. text, but the domain where a child canhome. Then I entered the words "learning dis- be free? What is responsibility, but the In my own work, I've referred toabilities" and I was flooded with thou- ability of a child to respond (response-this incredible ability of a child to re-sands of citations. We seem to be study- ability)? Isn't it possible now to put thespond to the world as his or her owning the wrong things in education these two ideas together? Can we conceivegenius. When I use the word genius, Idays. So much focus is placed on the of a situation in which children havego back to its original etymologicalproblems, the flaws, the disorders and the ability, that is to say, the freedom,meaning. If you look the word geniusdeficits, that we have lost touch with to respond to the world, to life? up in the Oxford English Dictionary,the essence of what it means to learn, I would suggest that this is the fun-where word meanings are definedand what it is that the child does best, damental condition of children. This ischronologically (with earlier and more that is, to learn with joy. Another of Dr. the essential impulse, I feel, of Mariafundamental definitions coming first),Montessori's observations that has Montessori's own work: that she rec-you will discover that its earliest defi- stayed with me over the years is her ognized this biological-spiritual beingnitions are related to the wbrds genesisexperience of observing a three-yearof children as having an innate ability("to give birth") and genial ("to bringold girl slipping cylinders in and out to respond to the environment, to thepleasure"). When I use the word ge-of their containers. Dr. Montessori world around them, in a miraculousnius, then, I do not use it in its contem- watched this child go through forty- way, in a way that was so amazing thatporary definition of describing some-two repetitions of this activity with a it would never be seen again at thatone who can achieve a high score onrapt and focused attention that seemed level of intensity in the course of thean IQ test, or paint like Picasso, butalmost as if it were prayer or medita- child's development into adulthood.rather in its more fundamental mean-tion. She writes: "Then she stopped as The deep level of respect that Dr. ing of "to give birth to joy" and in par-if coming out of a dream and smiled Montessori had for children, all theticular "to give birth to the joy of learn-happily. Her eyes shone brightly and more remarkable for the era in whiching." In this context, every child is ashe looked about...she had become so she lived (when children were not re-genius, because every child is born withabsorbed in what she was doing that garded as the paragons of potential thatthis innate ability this freedom to re-her ego became insensible to external they are in today's world), was, I feel,spond to the world with joy. One of mystimuli." (The Secret of Childhood, pp. informed both by her scientific/bio-favorite images for this sense of the119-120) We need more educational re- logical backgroundseeing a child'sgenius in children is represented by thesearch of this kind in all of our class- incredible "response-ability" much as "explosion into writing" that occurredrooms, more research on "peak experi- a marine biologist might marvel at thein Dr. Montessori's first Children'sences" in learningbecause these are delicate responsiveness of fan coral toHouse. As she writes: "The child whothe experiences that nurture the spiri- the ocean's currentsas well as by herfirst made the discovery was so aston-tual being of the child. I suspect that as

64 66 Thomas Armstrong, Ph.D.

the number of research studies on ec-Imagination: the incredible facility thatible countries with nuclear capabilities). stasy in learning grows, the number ofchildren have of perceiving in theirConsequently, it may be vital to our studies on "learning disabilities"mind's eye highly defined and articu-continued survival as a species that we (which one could also define as "nadirlated forms and images that serve asprotect qualities in childhood like cu- experiences" in learning) might hope- the basis for later artistic, scientific, andriosity, flexibility, joy, and creativity so fully decline. poetic discovery. that these traits can be preserved into In thinking about the genius ofJoy: the natural upswelling of brilliantadulthood where they might provide children, I've been attracted to descrip- emotion that children experience in re-tremendous adaptive potential in help- tive qualities that seem to further ex- sponse to learning something new. ing humanity to keep from blowing it- plicate this "response-ability" that stirs self off the map. up from the depths the seeds of possi- The above-mentioned qualities of bility and transformation in the child.genius are far more than simply cuteBiographical Basis for the Child's These qualities include: metaphors to describe the "innocent"Genius Curiosity: the innate ability of childrenlives of children. They represent, on the If you listen to the acknowledged to ask questions and instinctively ex-contrary, the most important naturaladult "geniuses" of different cultures plore what fascinates them in theresources available to humanity. Thereshare something of their own creative world; are sound foundations for their exist-process, it is not uncommon for them ence, and for their importance to theto compare what they do to the work Creativity: their capacity to envisionworld and its future welfare. Let me things in new combinations that elude of young children. Picasso said: "I used enumerate just a few of the most sig- the grasp of the average adult; to paint like Raphael, but it has taken nificant of these. me my whole life to learn how to paint Wonder: the natural astonishment that like a child." Einstein wrote: "I some- children have on encountering the mi-Neurological Basis of the Child's Ge-times ask myself. ... how did it come raculous nature of the living world; nius that I was the one to develop the theory Wisdom: the almost sage-like quality Very young children have nearlyof relativity. The reason, I think, is that of many children to ask age-old ques-twice the number of neuronal connec-a normal adult never stops to think tions that touch upon philosophical,tions and cerebral metabolic activity ofabout problems of space and time. religious, and spiritual issues; adults. The child's brain is flexible: ableThese are things, which he has thought to create specific neuronal pathways inof as a child. But my intellectual devel- Inventiveness: the knack that childrenresponse to specific environmentalopment was retarded, as a result of have to take random materials thatevents. What better way to define thewhich I began to wonder about space don't seem to belong together, and putchild's "response-ability" than throughand time only when I had already them together in some novel structurethis unique capacity of the brain to tai-grown up. Naturally, I could go deeper or pattern; lor its architecture to its surroundings!into the problem than a child with nor- Vitality: the natural aliveness that chil- mal abilities." (Ronald Clark, Einstein: dren have toward the world, in contrastEvolutionary Basis of the Child's Ge-The Life and Times, pp. 27-28) This state- to the rather automatic "deadness" thatnius ment itself is a rather dramatic instance characterizes the average worldly-wise There is a predisposition as speciesof neotony at work, and suggests that adult; evolve for youthful characteristics to bethere is a creative power in childhood held into adulthood (this phenomenonthat all transformative thinking may Sensitivity: the exquisite sensibilityis called "neotony" which meansultimately draw upon for its vitality. that many children have toward suffer-"holding youth"). For example, the ing, beauty, harmony, order, simplicity, forehead and chin of an infant ape lookPhenomenological Basis of the Child's kindness, and other significant featuresvery human-like. But when that apeGenius of life; grows into adulthood, those human- Recently, researchers have been Flexibility: the plasticity of the child'slike traits disappear. The same physi-formally investigating the kinds of ex- mind to move easily from one idea tocal traits in a human infant, however,periences that Maria Montessori re- another in a non-linear fashion in a wayare held into adulthood. Hence, in theferred to as "the great work" or the ac- that gives birth to new avenues ofhuman being there is neotony for thosetivity. of "the absorbent mind," such as thought; two traits. According to the latethe incident of the three-year-old girl Princeton anthropologist, Ashley Humor: the capacity of children to find cited above who focused so intently on Montagu, there are many psychologi-her work with the cylinders and con- something funny behind the most com-cal characteristics of childreninclud- mon or "serious" of subjects; tainers. In particular, a University of ing many of the qualities of geniusChicagopsychologist(nowat Playfulness: the ability of children tolisted above - which must be "held"Claremont Graduate School in Califor- live and thrive in the nexus betweeninto adulthood if our culture is to sur-nia), Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, has reality and possibility, and from thatvive. For example, what will happen ifcoined the term "flow" to describe the middle place, to create something newthe flexibility of childhood does notexperience of individuals, highly dis- for the world; make it into adulthood (e.g., a possible,ciplined in their professions (e.g., sur- if not to say, likely, scenario: two inflex-geons, mountain climbers, artists and

65 6 7 Freeing the Child's Response-Ability others), who talk about those momentsphysical, behavior, learning, and atten-episode of "Beavis and Butthead") stifle when they are most intently focused ontion problems as a result of this kind oftheir linguistic genius and creative their work. They seem to be describingpressure to succeed. power. the same kind of experience as Dr. Where is the child's genuine abil- Montessori did for young children: aSchool Influences that Shut Down theity to respond in all of this? How can state of absorbed alertness wherein theChild's Response-Ability we help free the child from these and subject is oblivious to external stimuli, Schools today are increasinglyother enslaving forces so that they can which upon termination, leaves the in-walking away from the kinds of ap-once again do what God and nature dividual feeling refreshed and relaxedproaches, and values, that have char-have endowed them with the ability to as if they had meditated or rested. Inacterized Montessori education for de-do: that is, the ability to respond with fact, Dr. Csikszentmihalyi has said thatcades (that is, if they ever entertainedjoy, vitality, creativity, humor, flexibil- children frequently enter spontane-them at all), and are adopting a far moreity, curiosity, wisdom, and wonder to ously into "flow" experiences, andindustrial or corporate "results-based" the world around them? I'd like to sug- some schools around the country haveattitude toward learning. Standardized gest a few ways. attempted to create these experiencestesting has reached a fever pitch, where more often through special "flowparents, teachers, .and administratorsFree Your Own Response-Ability as rooms" (for example, the Key Learning seem more focused on the task of howan Adult Community in Indianapolis, Indiana).to raise test scores, than on how to help Physicians have stressed how im- In this regard, Montessori classroomschildren learn. The movement is to-portant it is to watch one's diet and seem to have pioneered "flow rooms"ward less manipulatives, projects, and exercise so as to ward off conditions like long before these recent studies. real life activities, and on more text-stroke and arteriosclerosis, or harden- Having talked a little about thebooks, worksheets, and other materi-ing of the arteries. But there should be qualities of genius and their signifi-als that mimic what will be on the tests. far more attention placed on another cance for life, I would now like to con-Attention to the developmental issuesdisorderpsychosclerosis, or harden- sider some of the factors that seek tosurrounding children, so importanting of the mind! When we, as parents, shut down this genius, in other words,during the Piaget and Montessori-in-teachers, and educators, have gone factors that interfere with the freedomfluenced 1960s and 1970s, seems torigid and lost our own innate love of of a child's "response-ability." I'd likehave all but withered away, with chil-learning, then this makes a tremendous to suggest that the source of these ma-dren who show developmental differ-impression on children. Why should jor impediments are threefold: theences or learning and behavior difficul-they be interested in learning if we are home, the school, and the broader so-ties, now being labeled as "LD,"not? On the other hand, if children see ciety (popular culture in particular). Let"ADD," "ADHD" and put into specialthat we have managed to hold onto our me discuss them briefly. education programs that purport toown passion for discovery, our own help them, but often just give themcuriosity to explore the world, our own Home Influences that Shut Down themore concentrated doses of what theyimagination, and so forth (e.g., pre- Child's Response-Ability were failing at in the first place. Andserved these neotonous characteristics Many children come from homesthis, despite the fact that research sug-from childhood into our own adult- where depression, anxiety, racism, andgests these kids often possess many ofhood), then we have accomplished a other dysfunctional behavior serves tothe genius qualities described above. great deal toward helping them pre- dull or paralyze their "response-abil- serve their own "response-ability." ity" toward the world. How can a childPopular Culture Influences that Shut be curious about the world, for ex-Down the Child's Response-Ability Provide Simple Experiences ample, when an addicted or violent Finally, in the broader culture, chil- This was the genius of Maria adult slaps them for exploring their sur-dren are exposed to so much medioc-Montessori: that with simple learning roundings? Other children come fromrity in the media, that they are like littlematerials children could open up to so homes where there is tremendous pov-toys in the hands of manipulative pro-much of their own potential. In today's erty. If a parent is trying to feed theirgrammers, responding in knee-jerkeducational marketplace, there seems family or put a roof over their head,fashion to the latest outbursts of inan-to be such an obsession with making then there is no energy left to nurtureity, obscenity, or violence. Television,learning complicated (charts, booklets, this innate drive of the child to learn.video games, internet fare, and otherworksheets, toys, gimmicks, and more Conversely, some children come fromfeatures of high-tech culture for chil-all packaged into one commercially- homes where there is plenty of eco-dren are rarely geared toward develop-viable "teach-your-student-to-learn- nomic and educational opportunity,ing their curiosity, creativity, inventive-this" kit). However, when you ask the but parents use their advantages toness, or sense of wonder. Usually, theyworld's leading thinkers how they force knowledge down the children'sare designed to overstimulate kids towere inspired to follow their vocations, throats. Child development psycholo-buy consumer products. Ready-madekits tend not to figure very highly! gist David Elkind has coined a term the images and story-lines sap their imagi-Frank Lloyd Wright said it was work- "hurried child syndrome" to describenation. Trite language constructionsing with simple wooden blocks that led children who are being forced to grow(compare the language in a play byhim to design buildings. Einstein re- up too fast, and are coming down withShakespeare, for example, to any recentported that it was a simple magnetic

66 Thomas Armstrong, Ph.D. compass that his father showed him"freeing" impact on their learning ca- when he was four years old. Marthapacity. Certainly, in this respect, Dr. Thomas Armstrong, Ph.D. is an award-winning author and speaker with 26 years of teaching Graham wrote that it was when herMontessori worked with a model of experience from the primary through the doc- parents took her to a ballet at the agelearning based on multiple intelli- toral level, and over 700,000 books in print on of fourteen. Nobel Prize-winninggences long before that term was issues related to learning and human development. He is the author of eight books, including physicist Richard Feynman said it was coined. Multiple Inelligences in the Classroom, 7 Kinds of the walks he took with his father in Finally, let me just say that while Smart and The Myth of the A.D.D. Child. He has nature that filled him with a sense ofthe guidelines above are prescriptive, written for Ladies Home Journal, Parenting and Mothering, among others, and has appeared on curiosity toward how the universethere really is no easy answer to the television and radio programs such as "The To- works. In the classroom, it is often thequestion of how to free our children's day Show," "CBS This Morning," and the "BBC." quiet activity, the simple material, the"response-ability," because our society Dr. Armstrong is currently writing a book on the stages of life. incidental comment, or the accidentalhas become so complex, so fast-paced, occurrence, that makes the big impres-so inappropriate in many ways to the sion, the one that the student reportstrue needs of children, that it would back to you ten years later ("you knowquite frankly take a miracle for things when you read that poem to us, it madeto change significantly in the child's me want to be an English teacher!"). favor. But, of course, this is exactly what the child is: a miracle! I think that if we, Create a Response-Able Climate inas educators, parents, and child advo- the Classroom cates, can remember thiscan remem- In classrooms where children mustber Dr. Montessori's most fundamen- respond in rigid, contrived, or rote fash-tal message about who the child really ion to structured lessons, questions,is and how the child must be honored exercises, and activities, there is clearlyand respectedthen perhaps we have no freedom for them to exercise theirthe hope of salvation ahead of us after "response-ability." Dr. Montessori's inall. r:3 novations of giving children the opportunity to make choices, to work at their own pace, and to be celebrated for their References capacities as learners, unlocks their capacity to respond freely to the many Armstrong, Thomas. Awakening Your Child's different kinds of challenges that life Natural Genius. New York: Tarcher / presents to them. Putnam, 1991. Armstrong, Thomas. Awakening Genius in the Classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association Remember that Response-Ability for Supervision and Curriculum Devel- Comes in Many Forms opment, 1998. Children respond in diverse ways Armstrong, Thomas. Multiple Intelligences in the to the astonishing universe around Classroom, 2nd Ed. Alexandria, VA: Asso- them. Research by Dr. Howard ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Gardner, at Harvard University, sug- Development, 2000. gests that there are many ways to be Armstrong, Thomas. In Their Own Way: Dis- intelligent, and that children show dif- covering and Encouraging Your Child's Mul- ferent "proclivities" in the ways that tiple Intelligences, Revised and Updated. they develop with respect to these in- New York: Tarcher/Putnam, 2000. telligences (linguistic, spatial, logical- Clark, Ronald. Einstein: The Life and Times. New mathematical, musical, bodily-kines- York: Avon, 1984. thetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and Csikszentnnihalyi, Mihaly. Flow: The Psychology naturalistic). Some children respond of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper Collins, 1990. most intensely to nature, others to poems and stories, or math or science con- Diamond, Marian and Hopson, Janet. Magic Trees of the Mind: How to Nurture Your cepts, or pictures and images, or social Child's Intelligence, Creativity, and Healthy experiences. While all children possess Emotions from Birth through Adolescence. all the intelligences, and should be ex- New York: Dutton, 1998. posed to all of them on a regular basis, Elkind, David. The Hurried Child: Growing Up it is still helpful for us to recognize the Too Fast Too Soon. Reading, Mass: individual differences that children Addison-Wesley, 1981. have toward responding to different Montagu, Ashley. Growing Young. New York: materials and activities in the class- McGraw-Hill, 1983. room, so that we can provide those ex- Montessori, Maria. The Secret of Childhood. New periences most likely to have a direct York:Ballantine Books, 1973. 676 9 Poised for SuccessBuilding Character and Citizenship in Children John Rosemond

I'd like to start by sharing a truemere fact that you are here today is evi-member of your immediate extended story. A woman comes up to me indence of that. I'm being slightly face-family and you talked with an elder. Duluth, Minnesota after I had spokentious, but let's face it folks, GrandmaSomeone who had raised children, had at some length about this horriblynipped it in the bud. The first time itthe experience necessary to give you frightening phenomenon that is occur-happened was the last time it hap-the advice you were looking for. You ring in America today. She took me over pened. And is this in the child's bestsat down with that person over a cup to the side and said, "I need to talk tointerest? Absolutely! It is in the child's of coffee. It was probably a female. You you." I said, "Fine." She almost whis-best interest to stop anti-social behav-shared a cup of coffee with her and you pered, "I'm one of them." I said, "Oneior of that sort in its tracks as early as itpoured out your heart. "This is what's of who?" "I have a child that's eightcan be stopped. going on, what should I do?" And this years old and hits me all the time. Can We're not doing this in Americawoman, Grandma, gave advice that you help me listen to him? Can youtoday. We're the first generation ofwas based on a life she had led. It was help me understand why he's so angryAmerican parents who have been ledadvice that was down to earth. It was at me?" And immediately I knew whyto believe that you can talk a child outpractical. It was consumable. You did he was hitting her. of misbehaving. There is no evidencenot need a college education to under- This is just one example. This is thein the historical record that you can talkstand what this woman was saying to current American mentality. It's beena child out of misbehaving. There haveyou. You left Grandma's feeling reas- psychologized over the last 30-40 yearsto be consequences. Children have tosured that you were capable of han- instead of doing something about it.learn that this choice leads to this con-dling whatever it was you had brought People in the pre-modern era under-sequence and this choice leads to thisto Grandma because Grandma said this stood that children misbehaved. Theyconsequence. In previous generationsin so many words. She probably never did not need familial explanations,you learned this. You learned it at asaid these words specifically, but this pschobablistic explanations. Childrenvery early age and this learning gaveis my translation. Grandma said what misbehave because it is our originalyou freedom. You knew exactly whatis as true today as it was 50 years ago, nature to misbehave, period. The tod-your parameters were. Within those pa-and that is, "There is nothing a child dler comes into the world and he is arameters, within those boundaries, youcan do, nothing, that a responsible child. If you want to see human nature, could operate creatively as a child. Youadult cannot successfully deal with. look at a toddler. It's not a bad nature;didn't have to be constantly guessingNothing." And folks, haven't we lost it's just human nature. He doesn't wantwhere the line is drawn today. Andeven that? Don't we think, as a nation to do what he's told. He's self-centered.who's going to draw it. And if she saysof parents, that there are things our chil- He throws tantrums when he doesn'tit's drawn, is it really drawn? And is itdren can do that we can't handle? And get his way. He hits. That's human na-really drawn where she says it'sthis is why, you know, there's a place ture. drawn? And for how long is it drawn? in this world for my profession. This is It takes a while to civilize this hu-This is what today's child is laboringwhy my profession is thriving today. It man nature. During the civilizing pro-under, and folks, that's not freedom.is thriving today because we have up- cess, children misbehave. As you tuneThat's not freedomthat's anxiety.rooted the American parent from the their social being, they misbehave. TheToday's children are expressing this soil of common sense, by creating the people in the pre-modern era neededanxiety because they don't know what illusion that parenting is an intellectual, no other explanation than that.the rules are in a variety of ariti-socialpsychological process fraught with all Grandma, which is the term I use toways. sorts of psychological pitfalls, and if refer to the pre-modern parent, ex- About 40 years ago in America our you don't read the books, you won't pressed it this way, "Oh, he's just aentire parenting paradigm began toknow where the pitfalls are. If you fall boy!" That was about as close to a psy-shift. Prior to this time, if you were ainto the pitfalls you better read the chological explanation as you got inparent in America and you began hav-books or you won't know how to get 1935. "He's just a boy. Don't worrying a problem in the raising of a child,out of them. On and on this goes. And about it. Just do your job." But today's you didn't go to somebody like me. You it's a craziness that's infecting the mind parents are paralyzed with psychologi- didn't go to a psychologist or a clinicalof the American parent. The American cal fears. Their children hit them andsocial worker, or a psychiatrist. Youparent today can't think straight be- they think it's a psychological eventmight have if you lived in some intel-cause of people like me. That is the that needs to be understood, analyzed,lectual pocket in America, but intruth. Because of people like me, the and worked with. America, you just went down the streetAmerican parent can't think straight None of you hit your parents. I'dor across the field or through yourtoday. venture to say none of you did. Thebackyard and you sat down with a You also left Grandma's after that

68 John Rosemond cup of coffee knowing exactly what toFreedom to make choices and learn byup such an individual. None of you can do, or pretty much what to do, because trial and glorious, magnificent, indis-conjure up a person who is respectful, she said something like this, "Well, youpensable error. responsible, and resourceful who has know, as I recall, Uncle Charlie did But Grandma didn't brag to hermade a mess of his or her life. These something along those same lines andfriends about all of the blue ribbons herare people who fail; we all fail; we all here's the way I handled it. And Unclechild achieved in piano and soccer andhave failures. But these are people who Charlie's fine today as you can see. Ifso on and so forth. She didn't even re-pick themselves up and move on. Their you go home and you handle it withally care whether he got into the giftedfailures are not self-destructive nor are Billie pretty much the same way, I thinkand talented program or not, which isthey destructive to other people. It's the outcome will be pretty much thewhy there were very few gifted and tal-character that builds culture, not IQ, not same." You see these people didn't sitented programs. There was no demandhow many ribbons you earn in after down and say things like, "When didin the marketplace for gifted and tal-school activities. And we're losing this you toilet train your child?" "With talk-ented programs. Fifty years ago if youin America today. The American par- ing to you now, I'm beginning to getwent to school and complained of be-ent today thinks it's blue ribbons and the impression that in the raising ofing bored, your mother probablyIQ. Get them into the gifted and tal- your child, you are attempting to re-looked at you and said, "I'll give youented program, etc., etc., etc., when it's solve outstanding issues from yoursomething to be bored about." It wascharacter and citizenship that builds own childhood and I think we'd betteryour responsibility to get an educationculture. explore those issues and dimensions for50 years ago, not the teacher 's respon- Today we are focused on, courtesy awhile and pay me $100 /hour for thesesibility to spoon-feed it to you. Youof people like me, psychological devel- excursions into what I call psychologi-were supposed to get it. It was a per-opments. The paradigm has shifted cal archeology." You left with a clearsonal responsibility. from character development to psycho- sense of what to do. You left reassured. Grandma focused on character andlogical development. I will point out to Okay now, when parents come to seecitizenship issues in the raising of heryou that as the shift took place, we left people like me today, do you think theychild. She summed them up probablythe realm of the measurable, the obvi- leave as reliably feeling reassured? Doin a manner different from this. I callous, the concrete, the tangible. You you think they leave as reliably with athem the three Rs of child rearing. Shedidn't need a psychologist, and you still clear sense of direction? I don't thinkwas focused on teaching her child re- don't, to tell you if your child is respon- so. If they did, we would see parentsspect. Now you teach a child respectsible, respectful, and resourceful. We acting with purpose. I see, in Americafor others by beginning to teach theshifted to the abstract, the nebulous, today, very few parents acting withchild respect for your authority. Theand the theoretical when we started purposewith a clear understandingchild learns respect for your authoritytalking about the importance of some- of what this project is all about. first. Then he transfers that respect to thing called self-esteem. There is great Let's make it very clear, as I do toother legitimate authority figuresdenial in my profession as to what this my parent audiences all over America.whom you identify for him: the teacher, originally meant. If you go back to the You are not raising a child, you are rais-the policeman, etc. Gradually this re-books that were originally written on ing an adult. Let's get it straight. Thisspect broadens and encompasses andthe subject of children and their self- is not a day-to-day thing. This is a pro-becomes more egalitarian. Respect. esteem back in the 60s and early 70s, cess that has a long-term objective. Get She was also focused on teachingit's clear what these people were made it clear in your mind what this long-her child responsibility, the second ofof. If you were there and you watched term objective is. This is a 20-year plan,these three Rs, the willingness to accept the practice of self-esteem building in not a this-week plan. But that's whatresponsibility for his own behavior asschools, it's quite obvious what was most American parents are thinkingwell as a willingness to accept tasksgoing on. Children were being lied to. about. They're thinking about, "Howassigned by authority figures. It became a psychological crime to tell do I get through this week?" And at the She was also focused on teachinga child he had not done something as end of this week, "How do I gether child to be resourceful, the third ofwell as he could have done because a through the next week?" Grandma, inthe three Rs. Respect, responsibility,message like that might destroy his self- the raising of her child, emphasizedand resourcefulness. A willingness toesteem. Self-esteem, summed-up, was, character issues. She was focused onhang in there, tough it out, try and trydespite the denials, the attempt to make her child's character development. Sheagain in the face of adversity. Grandma children feel wonderful about them- really didn't care how many afterknew that regardless of IQ, a child who selves at all times, in all situations. school activities he was involved in. Inpossessed respect, responsibility, andWonderful. fact, in those days, the parents' (and myresourcefulness had all it took to suc- I was in a school recently in Ala- mother was this way) favorite afterceed in the world. bama speaking in an elementary school school activity for their children was, I tell my parent audiences as I willand I walked into the boy's restroom. "Go outside and find something to dotell you todayeach and every one ofThere are no men on the faculty so no and don't come home until dinner."you can conjure up in your mind rightmen's restroom. So I go into the boy's That was your after school activity. Andnow a highly intelligent person whorestroom, which is good because I these children were supervised, buthas made a complete mess of his life.wouldn't have seen what I saw other- they were allowed a lot of freedom.Each and every one of you can conjurewise. Above the mirror there was a 6971 Poised for SuccessBuilding Character and Citizenship in Children large computer generated banner, read-bad and that if there is one thing thatproblem, you absolve the child of re- ing in big colorful letters that couldn'twe baby boomers should not do, it issponsibility and you take away his free- be ignored, "You are now looking atto recreate ourselves and our culturedom. one of the most special people in theaccording to those molds. This is a horrible thing that is go- whole wide world." I thought, "Gag me Here is the myth. All of us babying on in America today, and the archi- with a spoon." What are we doing?boomers, most of you are, were raisedtects of it, let me assure you, are well- Somebody said, "What's wrong within pathologically.dysfunctional familiesintentioned people like me. In 1955, if I that, John?" What's wrong with tellingby pathologically codependent parentsmisbehaved in school (I was in the third a child he's one of the most specialwho infected us with their co-depen-grade), it is conceivable that I would people in the whole wide world? Well,dence and abused us psychologically,have been punished (not hit, punished) I believe there's a lot of validity to theif not physically. If you remember theby four separate people that day. First, ancient idea that you raise up a childabuse, you were abused. If you don'tmy teacher would have punished me. in the way he will go. This message,remember the abuse, then you wereIf I had done it before, whatever it was, which is intended for each and everycertainly abused. If you don't remem-then I would have gone to the princi- boy in that school (and I assume thatber the abuse, you need to come topal. In first grade, it was the Mother there is an equivalent message in thesomeone like me and we'll help youSuperior. I would have been punished girl's bathroom), is the kind of messageremember the abuse. You too can be aagain. Then a phone call would have that is all over America in children'svictim. been made to my mother and I would environments today. If these messages Now isn't that an attractive way tohave gone home and been punished succeed, let me just point out to youbuild culture? Grandma was focusedagain. You see, in these people's minds, what the consequences will be, and leton her child's behavior. She saw histhere was never enough. Then a phone me just bring this home by asking youbehavior as the tangible, beautiful,call went to my stepfather and when a question. Would you be inclined tomeasurable (if you will) out-springinghe came home from work I was pun- want to be friends with someone, anof his character development. And sheished again. Not one of these people sat adult, who shortly after meeting them, knew that if she (I'm going to use the term down with me and said, "Now John, it became obvious that this person in the positive sense; this is a term that has before you did this horrible, awful thought he was one of the most specialnegative connotations, but I'm going to usething that you did, can you get back in people in the whole wide world? them in a positive sense) if she manipu-touch with the feelings that you were Would you want to be friends with thatlated his behavior in the positive sense,having so that we can understand and person? No, in an adult, you see, thatshe would reach into his character de-try and help you?" is a completely socially obnoxious qual-velopment in so doing. So she manipu- This is what happens today. A child ity. It is repulsive. Why are we tellinglated his behavior through the disci-who misbehaves (and I was not bad, I was children things like this? Well, that's apline process. invariantly mischievous; I had to be mis- question for the people who said we Today we are focused on thechievous) if some child today misbe- should tell children things like this tochild's feelings. Notice how again, onhaves mischievously as much as I did answer. My answer is, we are tellingthis side of the coin, everything is con-in the third grade, I can guarantee you children things like this because people crete, everything is measurable, and ev-folks, this child is going to eventually in capital letters told us we should tell erything is tangible. There are very fewfind himself in the office of a mental children things like this. You see, wequestions as to what's going on. Every-health professional who wants to talk began worshipping capital letters. Oneone agrees the child did this. But nowabout his feelings and understand why of the things we did was to create thewe're going to the abstract, nebulous,he is behaving the way he does. I can myththis is absurdthat a 32-year-and theoretical. Now no one can agreetell you why I behaved that way. It's old person with a Ph.D. in psychology,because the primary concern and con-very simple. The laughs that I was get- who has been married for four yearssideration is, why did the child do it?ting from 36 other students completely and has one child age two, knows moreWhat were his feelings when he did it?canceled anything the adults were do- about children and how to raise themAnd then we lost it completely. In thising. What's there to understand? But properly than a 78-year-old womancase, the child was an independentheaven forbid that there would have with a fifth grade education who raisedagent acting with responsibility. In thisbeen psychologists around in my day ten, none of whom have ever seen theinstance, the child is the victim. He isbecause my family would have ended inside of a jail. We actuall3i created thisdriven to do what he does by psycho-up being dysfunctional and I would myth. In so doing, we completely di-logical circumstances, or now, biologi-have probably had some genetic kink minished, discounted, and denigrated,cal circumstances. Today the explana-and been put on medication of some Grandma's common sense. We demon- tion for misbehavior is, well, it's eithersort. ized the previous generation as well.because the child is acting out some You know what good parenting is We demonized pre-modern parenting, family dysfunction, or he is in the thrallgoing to be in about 25 years? Good old-fashioned, and conservative, tradi-of some genetic kink. There is no re-parenting is going to be (if we keep go- tional parenting. We demonized the tra-sponsibility there folks, and that's theing in the same direction) good parenting ditional family. We demonized the tra-problem with these current diagnoses.is going to be giving your child the right ditional marriage. We created the mythEvery single time you assign a diagno-pill on time. That's where we're going that all of these things were inherentlysis to a child, because of a behaviorin America. It's tragic where we're go-

70 72 John Rosemond ing in America. We're totally losing anshades of yellow. It's a beautiful thing.ing them ever feel bad. I maintain this understanding of who the child is.It's an unpredictable thing. It's hard tois impossible. You cannot instill con- We're reducing the child to a mecha-figure out for us emotional Neander-science, a sense of social obligation, nistic entity with freedom or responsi-thals sometimes, but it's a beautifulwithout causing the child remorse on bility. This mechanism needs to be ad-thing. A 25-year-old man is still func-occasion, regret, guilt even. These are justed with this chemical or that. Wetioning with the original eight. Let meall politically incorrect words to use in have created the designer child, withassure you, several of the points havechild-rearing today. If you want the all of this chaos, anarchy. We have cre-never been used. That's us men. child to stop hitting other children, you ated the impression that child-rearing You see, the impression was cre-must make him feel bad when he hits is hard. What a tragic thing to createated that the best parent is the parentother children. the impression that child-rearing iswho can walk into the child's feeling I could go on and on and on. hard. We have also, with the emphasisstate most effectively and the parentToday's woman is doing something on feelings, created the impression thatwho is the most sensitive to what's go-that Grandma never did. There are ex- there is only one gender properly ca-ing on psychologically with this child.ceptions to this too. I have to speak in pable of understanding the new psy-This is the impression that was createdgeneral terms, but this is happening all chological parenting / child-rearingby people like me. When this hap-too often so I speak about it. Today's paradigm, and that is the female gen-pened, the female parent, who waswoman is also nmning disciplinary in- der. I'm smiling because it is very riskyreading all these books that were pri-terference between her husband and for a man to stand up and talk aboutmarily designed for consumption byher children. Grandma said, "We're just women these days. Interesting thatfemales, looked at her mate and said,going to wait until Grandpa gets women can stand up and talk about"Well obviously, he's not going to behome." Today's woman is doing this: men, but the minute a man stands upable to understand this. He can't un-"No, no, no. I'll handle it. You didn't and talks about women, he better lookderstand my feelings." Grandma andread the book." And he didn't, because for the missiles. Here's what I think,Grandpa, the pre-modern parentthe book is all about his child's feelings, and all the evidence supports this.couple, when it came to their percep-which he just can't relate to for more Women are very feeling-oriented andtions of their children and their incli-than two or three pages. Then he be- men are not. Women are in touch withnations toward them, stood about this gins to see the same thing over and over their feelings. It is true what they sayclose together. Today, in many, manyagain and wants to know if his Sports about us men; we are not in touch with American homes there is a great gen-Illustrated has come. When you begin our feelings. There are exceptions onder divide in parenting. Grandma hadto feel as today's woman feels, that the both sides of the gender divide, butno problem with Grandpa's discipline entire weight of a project is on your these are general observations made byof the children as exemplified by some- shoulders, you become a micro-man- enough people that we can assume thatthing that anyone who grew up withager. This is the state of American fe- the reliability attributes some validitypre-modern parents heard, and thatmale parenting in America today. Be- to this. We men are not in touch withwas, "We're just going to wait untilcause we have led women to believe our feelings. A man has a feeling andyour father comes home." Said by athat there is only one gender properly gets over it. A women has a feeling andwoman who could have handled thecapable of carrying out the new psy- gets down into it. I think the differencesituation just fine thank you. She justchological parenting paradigm, specifi- is wonderful. The world would bedecided, "No, you just crossed the line.cally the female gender, the typical rather boring or crazy if we were all oneI think I'll bring in the big guns." Bruno American mother thinks, "It's all up to way or the other. came wompering home at 6 o'clock and me. If he's going to get into the right My wife understands people's feel-she said, "Sic 'em." When he disci-college, it's all up to me. If he's going ings a whole lot better than I do. I'm aplined the children, for the most part,to win the blue ribbons and get a schol- psychologist; she's got one year of col-he did not care how they felt about hisarship, it's all up to me. If he's going to lege. I can't count, if I had ten hands,discipline. In fact, he wanted them toget good grades, it's all up to me." the number of times she has pointedfeel bad. A child does something Do you hear, folks, behind this, out to me, how could I be so obliviouswrong, you want him to feel bad aboutchildren are not responsible? The more to someone else's feelings. It's not thatit. You cannot talk this into him; it mustresponsibility the American female par- I'm insensitive anymore than the aver-be done with consequences that makeent takes on her shoulders, the less re- age male, but I am insensitive. But nohim regret what he has done. So this issponsible children become. The less more than the average male. Men arewhat Grandpa did. Grandma did it too.they feel obligation to other people of emotional Neanderthals. Men andShe did the same thing, but today'sany sort, social, task obligation, any sort women, males and females, come intowoman, because she has been brainof obligation. Children without obliga- the world as newborns with eight cray-washed by psychological propagandation. Children without freedom. The ons in their emotional crayon boxes. Wethat was designed for consumption bytwo go hand in hand. all come into the world with red, or-females, operates under this conun- I was at an airport a couple of years ange, blue, green, purple, violet, black,drum when it comes to the disciplineago and I'm standing curbside, having and white. By the time a woman is 25of her children. Today's woman is try-given my bags to the baggage handler. she has 64 crayons in her emotionaling to discipline her children withoutThey checked my bags and I just stand crayon box. She has magenta, eightever causing any discomfort or mak-there and I do what I like to do most, I

71 Poised for SuccessBuilding Character and Citizenship in Children watch people. Not because I'm a psy-bar which American mothers have toating a monster. If she continued in this chologist, I'm a voyeur. A hotel vantry, if they want to be perceived as com-mode much past his second birthday, pulls up right next to the curb and dis-mitted to their children, to clear everyshe would raise a totally unhealthy charges a mother and a father and aday. The bar just keeps going up. Wenarcissist, also known as a spoiled brat. young boy about four years old. Thedon't let women just feed their children, Around the age of two, Grandma mother says to the father, "You help clothe their children, know where theybegan bringing the curtain down on him on with his book bag. I will checkare, and get them to bed at a properphase one of parenthood, servanthood. us in." Simple enough instructions. The hour. Oh no, that's down right irre-One of the most important things she husband begins to help him with hissponsible, negligent parenting. So whatdid in this regard was something we book bag. The mother walks over andyou have in a typical American family,are no longer giving American women she begins talking to the baggage han- where there are two concerned parents,permission to do. At age two what dler over the counter, telling him howwhich most of you are dealing with, should be done (and is still being done many bags they have, how manyyou have a parent who is in a micro-in most of the rest of the world)? Very people there are, where they're going,management frenzy, checking on ev-easily and simply because it's not a psy- what their flight sequence is. As she iserything because the American motherchological process; it's a very practical talking, she's constantly lookingbelieves today the more she does forthing you can do in three days to a around, saying a few things to the bag-her child, the more attention she pays,week. Never raise your voice, never gage handler and looking around. Ev-the more she provides for, the more shepop the child's rear endwhat am I ery time she looks around, I can see thatfixes in his life, the better a mother shetalking about? Toilet training, exactly. her eyes are bigger and her expressionis. The American male has become theWe've got people in America today that of concern is growing. Finally she goes, parenting aide. The real parent in theinsult the intelligence of children by "Hold on just a minute." She walksAmerican family has a parenting aide,saying it's perfectly all right for a over and she says, "That's not how toand he stands off to the side watchingthree-, four-, and five-year old intelli- do it. You're putting hard things in thethis frenzy of activity and every oncegent human child to still be soiling and front of the book bag. If you put hardin awhile the wife will turn to him andwetting himself. This is the state of pro- things in the front, as he walks throughgo, "Are you just going to stand there?" fessional parenting advice in America. the airport, it will chafe his little shoul- What's he supposed to do? In a project,Grandma knew the window of toilet der blade. You have to put the softtwo micro-managers in the sametraining opportunity is most wide open things in the front of the book bag andproject will kill each other. So he staysbetween 18 and 24 months. If you can the hard stuff in the back. I'll do it." Sheout of the fray and occasionally sheteach a four-month-old puppy to def- begins rearranging the things in thesighs and says, "I can't keep this up.ecate and urinate only on a rectangle book bag so that he won't have a trau-You are going to have to step in for meof newspaper on the kitchen floor matic experience walking through thefor awhile, but I'll be watching you."within three days without ever yelling airport. The father just backs off. He isHeaven forbid he make a decision onat the dog, ever hitting the dog, then now standing next to me. He backs off,his own. This has become just so com-by gosh you can do this equivalent with he looks at me, and I'm standing thereplicated when parenting is so simple. an 18-month human beingintelligent, kind of smiling, letting him know that I'm going to talk about the firstcreative, human being. It liberates the I've seen it all. He gestured as if to say, stage of parenting for the rest of the child, but it also liberates the mother. It "What's the use? In her eyes, I can't dotime we have this morning, which isn'tis a mutual liberation and it enabled anything right when it comes to themuch but it's enough, and then I'mmom to shift from servanthood into children." going to talk about the second and third authority figurehood, which is stage Today's women really do believestages in the break-out sessions. Thetwo. it's all up to them. They come to man-first stage and the first transition take You go through this transition be- age the whole show and every aspectplace during the first three years of life.tween 24 and 36 months or thereabouts. of it in order for it to turn out correctly. The first stage is really 18-24 months ofYou go through this transition where By the time the child was four years old, age. During that time the parent is a ser-the child is clinging to the first stage Grandma's job description soundedvant because the child is pretty depen-that made him the imperial potentate all like this: Grandma, your job is to see to it dent. The child makes a noise and wearound the world. That's the way he's that your child is properly fed, properlycome to the child's side and basicallybeen treated for two years. He clings dressed, that he's done his chores, that you ask, "How may I serve you, m' lord?to this, he doesn't want to let it go. It's know where he is, who he's with, and what How may I make you comfortable?"the child's perception of his mother that he's doing, and you get him to bed at a rea- We roll these children through shop-begs resolution. Let's get this straight. sonable hour. That is micro-manage-ping centers and other public places.It's the child's perception of her author- ment. I daresay many of you werePerfect strangers come and kneel before ity because 99% of the time she has been raised by women like that. How manyyou. Grandma knew that her service,the primary caregiver regardless of the of you were raised by a mother likealthough absolutely necessary in orderrelationship she has with her husband. that? Are you okay? to root this child securely in the world,It's the child's perception of her author- We don't let the modern Americanin order to convince him he's taken careity that needs resolution and Grandma mother just do that. By the contempo-of, that he doesn't have anything toresolved it. Grandma moved her child rary standard, and I call it the motherworry about, had paved the road to cre-through this all-important transition in

72 7 4 John Rosemond the manner of a leader, so that by thetion, reward, promise, complaint, or They're only six. This is so simple. time her child was three years old, he good reason. You will do what I say You're only answering the why nots saw her with new eyes. Once a servant, because I say so. basically. The six reasons are: you're not now an imposing and somewhat in- Now people don't like that. I know old enough, you might get hurt, there's timidating authority figure whopeople don't like that. They say, "Oh, not enough money, there's not enough loomed large and loving in his life.come on, that's so out of favor." Theretime, we don't believe in that, we don't Large and loving. We do not give theare a lot of things that are out of favorlike those kids. It doesn't matter which American female parent permission tothat I enjoy. Frank Sinatra is out of fa-explanation you give them, the right or move through this transition. The tran-vor. I enjoy Frank Sinatra. Big Band the wrong one, the child's not going to sition is moved through by the parentmusic is out of favor, but I enjoy Bigagree with it. Give them any reason. who communicates to the child threeBand music. Because I said so is out of About a year and a half ago, just to things basically: favor and I think there's a place and aillustrate this point, I said, "Write each time for it. People say, "You shouldexplanation on a scrap of paper, hold 1. Child of mine: For two years I paid at- never give children explanations?" No, them all up, put them in a goldfish tention to you, now you are going tothat's not what that means; not whatbowl and when the child asks why not, pay attention to me. You cannotthat means at all. Because I said so is ajust walk over and pick one. I was do- teach a child who is not paying at-backdrop to your authority. It's like it'sing this just to illustrate that it doesn't tention to you. And your obliga-written on the canvas back here, but Imatter which explanation you use, the tion is to teach, therefore you mustrecommend that parents don't ever saychild is going to figure it out. There are secure the child's attention. Andit. You don't have to. You never havesome people who honestly think if you how do you do this? Very simple.to say it for it to be the understanding.don't tell the child the real reason you You act like you know what you'reIn fact, the more you say, the more youwill end up doing harm. But let me ask doing. There's no psychology orsound like a broken record, and noyou this, how many of you grew up magic to this. How do you get thechild wants to pay attention to a bro-with parents who wouldn't give you attention of a child who doesn'tken record. You just want to turn theany explanations at all? It was always pay attention to you, as two-year-broken record off, so don't say it. Re-because I said so. How many of you? olds are inclined to do? They wantmember you're free to disagree just notRight. You folks, when you got to a cer- things from you; they don't payfree to disobey. tain age, you could figure all the an- attention to you. How do you get Give children explanations, if weswers out. Every single one of them. them to pay attention to you? Youare talking about an explanation con-You are not walking around the world act like you know what you're do-cerning a rule as opposed to an expla-today going, "Excuse me, you look in- ing. It's called leadership folks. Younation concerning a natural eventlike telligent. My parents wouldn't let me wrap yourself in the charisma ofsunrise or trees that are green in thego to my friend's house when I was six leadership. Once a servant, now asummer. Focusing on explanations foryears old and they still haven't ex- leader. If you've ever met someonerules, you will never be asked for anplained this to me. Can you help me wrapped in the charisma of lead-explanation if the child likes the rule;with this? I can't move on with my life ership, you pay instant attention. you are never asked for an explanationunless I get an explanation." 2. You will do what I tell you to do. That if the child likes the decision the adult I started doing this goldfish bowl is necessary at this stage of thehas made. You say to your 15-year-old thing about a year and a half ago. About game. When I tell you to do some-daughter, "Oh sure you can go to Newsix months later, some guy calls me thing, you will do it, but I'm notYork for the weekend with an 18-year- from Connecticut. He wants to put to- going to micro-manage your life.old-boy I have never met. Sure!" Your gether a goldfish bowl and explana- I'm going to let you learn the hard15-year-old daughter is not going totions on scraps of paper, package and way, by trial and error, but therelook at you and go, "Why?" They onlysell them at my speaking engagements. will be certain instructions I givewant explanations for decisions theyThis is really weird. A joke turns into a you and you will obey. You are freedon't like. And this is very importantmarketing outlet. But there are people to disagree with me. This is abso-because from this flows a second prin-who e-mail me all the time and are us- lutely necessary as an understatedciple. This is a fact, not a theory. If theing the goldfish bowl. A woman from corollary to the second under-child does not like a decision you haveConnecticut said it had been liberating. standing. You are free to disagreemade, the child is not going to like theNow her 6-year-old, as soon as she with me, completely free to dis-reason you give to support it. Why not?starts for the goldfish bowl, goes, "Just agree child. I encourage your dis-I'll tell you why not. Why not is A, B,forget it then." You know we don't give agreement. You are never free toand C. Under the circumstances, haschildren enough credit. How many disobey. Free to disagree, free tothe child ever gone, "I get it now? Howtimes have one of you said to a child question, never free to disobey.could I have been so thickheaded? It'swho asked you a question, "I think you Freedom and responsibility, obli-so clear and it's so plain. I can read be-can figure that out." I know you guys gation, respect. It all has to starttween the lines that you're doing thisdo. You know, you're the exception. somewhere. because you love me." If they don't likeMost American parents won't look at 3. You will do what I say, not because ofthe decision, they don't like the reason.their children and go, "You can figure bribe, brutality, persuasive explana- But go ahead and give it to them.that out. You don't need me answering

737:."3" Poised for SuccessBuilding Character and Citizenship in Children that for you." They answer it. You knoware getting them." "Well then, you aresomewhat of an activist. An old-fash- that's not the way to deal with it. going to be the most special child in theioned person someone maybe out of We're on to parental authority.area." place and out of time. I don't say any- Like all parents I can tell you how to "Why not, Dad?" thing new as I go around the country. stop arguments with children just like "I'll tell you why not. MotorcyclesWhat I try to do is put my audiences that. Freedom. Freedom to the parents,are dangerous and you're not oldback in touch with a clear unmystified freedom to the child. The child that con-enough to appreciate the danger andunderstanding of what the pre-modern stantly feels the need to argue becauseyou won't be for many years to come."parent had in mind. It has all been de- he's given the opportunity to argue is "Dad, I know they're dangerous. Imonized and the demonization has the child who's anxious. This is notpromise, I'll be careful." been largely, I daresay 99%, completely freedom. This is bondage. Let's free this I'm not going to sit down with himunfair. I try to put my audiences back child. How do you free this child? Endand try to explain the contradiction inin touch with this because I think that arguments. How do you end argu-his own words. You can't get a 15-year- the salvation of culture in America, if ments? Make a decision the childold to think like an adult. To think likethere is such a thing, is the restoration doesn't like. If the child demands anan adult you have to have adult expe-of the citizenship ethic when it comes explanation, give him an explanation.riences. You have to have the materialto raising children. Does this mean we He's only six. Now you come to a forkwith which to think like an adult. So atdon't need people like me? No. People in the road because he doesn't like thethis point I simply said (by the way, iflike me can still have space somewhere explanation. "That's really dumb; stu-you never get in an argument with your in here, but I dare say we try fill the pid; I hate you!" Whatever. children, you'll never say things you'll re- whole space. If we return to a citizen- Now you come to the fork in thegretit's wonderful), "Eric, if I was 15,ship ethic then we're not going to be road. The people who take this fork goI'd want a motorcycle too. If I came tothat useful in the general sense. I'll down argument alley. They try to ex-my parents and asked them for one,leave you with one thing, one quote plain themselves to their children andthey'd have said the same thing I justfrom the scriptures: "There is nothing they try to get their children to say, "Isaid to you. What's funny to me is, Inew under the sun." Thanks for invit- get it." Lots of parents give childrenwould have said the same thing to theming me here. 0 that opportunity. To come back whenthat you just said to me. Now you aren't they're 21 or 25 and go, "Now I get it."going laugh about this, but I am and it It's a wonderful proclamation. It's awould be rude of me to stand here and wonderful experience. It's a wonderfullaugh in your face." I turned and be- memory. gan walking out of the room. Eric said, Parents who take the other fork"Dad, you aren't going to walk away John Rosemond is currently the director of The never get into arguments with theirfrom this one. We're not done." I said, Center for Affirmative Parenting, located in children. When their children say, "I"Eric, I forgot to say one thing. We're Gastonia, North Carolina. The Center for Affirma- don't like that explanationit reallydone." He didn't speak to me for three tive Parenting is a national parenting resource center providing workshops and other educa- stinks," they look at their children anddays. It was a blessing. A woman e- tional presentations for parents and profession- they go, "Hey, if I was your age, I'd feelmailed me about two months ago re- als who work with children and families. He re- the same way. No problem." And thengarding her 13-year-old daughter. She ceived his M.S. in psychology from Western Illi- nois University. For nearly 20 years, he worked as do you know what they do? They walkhadn't spoken to her in a week. What a psychologist in Illinois and North Carolina and away. should she do? I e-mailed back, "Take directed several mental health programs for Does it work with teenagers? Sure.the vacation." children. Mr. Rosemond is the author of several parenting bestsellers, including A Family of Val- My son was 15 years old; he came to I go out in the country and I speak ues, Parent Power! and Teen-Proofing. He de- me and said he wanted to talk aboutfrom the perspective of someone who votes much of his time to writing and presenting getting a motorcycle. This was going tohas been a psychologist and has seen his popular skillshops across the country. be the shortest conversation we've ever that the good intentions of my profes- had, "You won't be getting a motor-sion at this point in time have created cycle, not this year, next year, the yearhavoc and chaos in parenting in after that. You can't have a motorcycle. America. Not all of us, but the main- If you are living in our house and youstream of my profession I think, has have saved enough money to buy your- done a lot of harm in America to how self a motorcycle, plan carefully be-children are handled in this country. I cause the day you buy the motorcyclethink from the perspective of some- is the day you move out. This is notbody who has been married for 32 punishment, don't misconstrue this asyears to the same woman, and I speak punishment. Here's the way I feel aboutfrom the perspective of someone who it and your mother feels the same way.has children who are 31 and 27, both Anyone who is old enough to makemarried, both with children, and I that big a decision needs to be free. Sospeak from the perspective of someone the day you buy a motorcycle is the daywho is, although living in the year 2000 you move out." "Dad, all of my friends at the age of 53, not a modernist, but

74 7 6 Bringing Out the Best in Your Child: Achievement Begins at Home John Rosemond

There are, in my estimation, threeing perpetual toddlers. There are tod-that we are creating the absolutely fic- stages to parenthood. Between thesedlers at two, 6, 10, and still at 14. Theytitious myth that toilet training a child three stages there are two very distinctact like toddlers, they think like tod-before the age of 24 months requires transitions. Actually there are threedlers. A toddler is a narcissist. A tod-undue force, as I was told on CBS Later transitions. Stage one is the stage ofdler, a beautiful human being, butToday by a pediatrician who debated servanthood, which is from birth to twosometimes I'm very, very blunt in mythe topic with methat to do this re- years of age. Then you go through andescription of children and my blunt-quires undue force. Folks, the fact of the all-important transition in which youness is misinterpreted by people as Imatter is that most of you in this room re-define yourself to the child and indon't like children or I have a negativewere toilet trained by 24 months by so doing you re-define who he is. Thatattitude toward children. No. I'm justparents who used no force whatsoever. transition takes place between 24 anda realist where children are concerned.They did what you do. You do this to 36 months, if you're on schedule. VeryI think the more realistically we ap-toilet train a human being. You set the few people are on schedule anymore.praise and apprise children, the morestage properly, you communicate prop- All of this was done very intuitively inloving we will be toward them. It is theerly, and you respond properly to mis- the pre-modern era. We have to be ex-lack of realistic perspective that causes takes. It's that simple. It is shameful that plicit today because we have lost touchadults frustration. To express that frus- we're not doing this anymore. It is with the intuitiveness of it. At the endtration toward children is the lack ofshameful that people with reputations of this transition, if you have stayed therealistic expectations. A narcissist be-that are unquestionable in the minds of course, and you know what the cur-lieves that what he wants, he deserves.many are promoting this idea, because riculum is during that transition, you'llThat is a toddler. A narcissist believesit extends the toddlerhood of children, have a child that sees you with newthe ends justify the means, and that iswhich is criminal. eyes. He sees you as an authority fig-a toddler. Toddlers hit, stealthey're So then, around the age of 36 ure. Your job is to communicate to himamoral. What we are raising in Americamonths, you enter into stage two your understandings that will form the foun- today, by all accounts and evidence, areauthority figurehood stage. Here's how dation of your authority. Your author-children who are perpetual toddlers. the old-fashioned parent talked to chil- ity is essential to his being able to as-These are children who, at the age ofdren. "Sit down right here. We are go- sume authority over his own life. He12, 13, 14, still believe that what theying to have a conversation and you may cannot do this without a model and youwant, they deserve and the ends jus-listen. You are not invited to speak, but provide the model. I talked earliertify the means. Because we are noif you're quiet, you may sit and you about those understandings. First,longer on schedule in parenting inmay listen." Did you hear that? We you'll pay more attention to me thanAmerica, because we no longer intu-don't talk to children like that anymore I'll pay to you, generally speaking, butitively understand the stages and tran- that's not nice. I was a guest in you'll get all the attention you need.sitions involved and the timing of it,someone's home the other day and the Number two, you'll do what I say, butparenting is like comedy. Timing is ev-children were eating with the adults, you're free to disagree. Number three,erything and if you're on time, by thewhich I didn't understand. The kids are you'll do what I say, not because I per-way, it's kind of fun, like comedy. Iffive and three. I didn't understand why suade you to, or belittle you into doingyou're not on time, your timing is offthey were eating with the adults on a it, or harangue you into doing it, orand it is stressful. We no longer under- special occasion, but that's me. The threaten you into doing it. You'll dostand the intuitive nature of thesethree-year-old, as soon as he's served what I say because I tell you to do it.stages and these transitions. You estab- and no one else is sitting at the table, It's as simple at that. That is the waylish authority over the child so that he(and why you serve the three-year-old the pre-modern parent arrived at ahas a template within which to beginis beyond me, but) he immediately point by 36 months where they couldestablishing authority over himself atpicks up his fork and begins to eat. honestly say that their children were noan appropriate age. It's called emanci-Here's the way I would have dealt with longer throwing tantrums, no longerpation and emancipation is not anthat. "Billy, it is not polite to start eat- actively defying their authority, no event that occurs when a child is 18, 19,ing until everyone is seated and has longer acting like toddlers. 20, 21, 22. Emancipation is a processtheir food. That is a rule. Put your fork Toddlerhood was over by age 36that begins at the age of 24 months. down until everyone is seated and has months. One of the most disturbing Essential to this process is the toi-their food." That's the way you talk to aspects of America's child-rearing cul-let training of the child. It is absolutely a three-year-old. He understands that, ture today is that toddlerhood is nevershameful that we are not toilet train-so that's how you talk to him. His fa- over in many cases. I have observeding, in this country, children by the agether came over and said, "Billy, that many American parents are rais-of 24 months. It's absolutely shamefulwouldn't you rather wait until every-

75 77 Bringing Out the Best in Your Child: Achievement Begins at Home one is seated and we can all eat to-It is not your allergies. It is not yourwas part and parcel of our culture and gether?" And he kept right on eating.ADD. It is you. As Grandma used toit was because of this ethic, I submit, This is the way parents talk to their chil- say, "There are no excuses." I believethat thousands upon thousands of dren today. If you count the number ofthat. I don't care what kind of mantleyoung men threw themselves on the "okays..." Count the number ofof victimhood we want to drape childrenbeaches of Normandy in 1944. These "okays," just if you're around parentsin, every single one of these mantles isguys knew. If you do the right thing, it during the day. It's this totally non-au-an illusion. It conceals who this childdoesn't mean good things are going to thoritative form of communication be-really and truly is. It conceals him fromhappen. cause today's parents believe that tohimself as well. In my estimation it is more impor- talk straightforwardly to a child, to re- If you make bad decisions, bad things willtant that you teach a child a service spect his intelligence, is somehow nothappen. These understandings enableethic than the work ethic. If you have a nice. It's mean. So do we get the results the child to take control of his life. I am choice, teach the service ethic. The work that parents of 50 years ago got? No. responsible for every decision I make. ethic will come along. The service ethic Are children as happy today? No. ByIf I make bad decisions, bad things willis, "I'm going to do this because it is all accounts, the rate of childhood andhappen. By the way, it's bad things willthe right thing to do regardless of the teen depression has increased by a fac- happen sooner or later. One of the thingscost to me of doing it." I think we have tor of 10 since 1965. You can say what you have to get across to children, be-lost this because we don't teach the ser- you will about traditional parenting,cause they are short-term oriented, isvice ethic in the family anymore. How and certainly it was not a perfect statethat bad things will not always happendid you get these things across to your of affairs, but guaranteed, the outcome right away. That doesn't mean a badchildren? You got these things across was a better outcome for children. Chil- thing isn't going to happen. If you'reto children through practice. You used dren were less violent, less aggressive. my age, you realize that at the age ofthe family as a workshop for citizen- They were happier as a lot. They did53 it is possible for something bad toship. First of all, notice that between the better in school with less help than ourbegin happening because of something second and third birthday, the center children are getting today. Anyway youyou did when you were 20. The earlierof attention in the family shifted from look at it, the outcome was better forwe can get this across to children thechild to parent, as it still should. As the kids, so you can argue and pick tradi-better. child's perception of the mother's role tional parenting apart and you can say If you make good decisions, child of mine, was revised, he began to see that his that there was this success. But thatthen good things will happen. Yes? That's mother was not in a primary relation- success didn't define the philosophy ofit. I let the audience fill in the blankship with him, but with his father. This the practice for the most part. It was thebecause inevitably everybody in theis very important. Prior to this time the philosophy, the idea behind it. Thereaudience says, "Good things will hap-child has every right to believe that he was a sense of mission to traditional pen." This, by the way, is a secular pointowns his mother. The pre-modern parenting. A sense of mission and long-of view. If you do the right things, good mother revised that and the child be- term purpose that we have lost. things should happen. That's the trackgan to see that the marriage was pri- So from age three to age 12 or 13we've been on in parenting for the lastmary, not the mother-child relation- you're in the authorityhood stage. Dur-40 years. It's been a secular parentingship. Today's children believe that, ing this time, it is essential that youtrack. The exemplary of this is the in-whether they can express it or not, be- communicate three more understand- sane habit that we have of putting starscause most women act like the mother- ings to children. It takes about a yearon charts when children do the rightchild relationship is the most important to communicate the first set of under-thing, counting up the stars and givingin the family. Most women divorce their standings. You'll pay more attention to them prizes and all this other stuff. Thehusbands the day their first child is me than I pay to you. You'll do what Ireality, as any mature human beingborn. It didn't used to be this way. I'm say because I say so. That takes about aknows, (and it's our job to pass realitynot talking about women. I'm talking year. Children understand that in aboutdown to our children in a way that is di- about what's happened to women. a year if you stay the course. Now thegestible and understandable, so perhapsLet's keep that very straight, otherwise second set of understandings is morethey won't have to experience quite theyou'll begin thinking this guy's anti- difficultit's more difficult to get across knocks that they would otherwise have towomen or sexist. I'm not. No more than to children. In fact, it could well be saidexperience as adults) the reality is that ifthe average 53-year-old. Most of you that no one ever really understandsyou make good decisions, bad thingsgrew up in families in which it was very this. You do as good a job as you canare less likely to happen. It's hard to be clear from an early age that the relation- and the real world is going to have toa good person because there are noship between your mother and your do the rest. The three understandingsguarantees that if you are a good per-father was where it was. Most children that it is your responsibility as a parentson, anything good is going to happen.today are growing up in families in to communicate are: You could be a bad person and there'swhich it is equally clear that the "where Child of mine, you are completely respon- a guarantee that bad things are goingit's at" relationship is the relationship sible for every decision you make. You areto happen sooner or later. Why shouldbetween the child and his mother. the agent of your decisions. You are theI be a good person? People with a fan- Today's mother stays rooted in the role agent of your behavior. It is not our di-tasy are people who become depressed,of servant indefinitely. We have not vorce. It is not your father's alcoholism. suicidal, morose, bitter, etc. This ethicgiven women of this generation per-

76 78 John Rosemond

mission to make the transition frombaby-sitters and inconveniencing them- the pre-modern mother. Here she is... servanthood to authority figurehood, onselves and driving 20 miles and pay-She was a loving woman, but she was time, on schedule, with purpose toing $10 or whatever to hear me speakstern. You knew she loved you, but she communicate to their child, I run theabout child-rearing. That's the type ofwas a stem person. This is why the look show and I run it in a way that you may audience I'm speaking to. worked. Can you imagine how won- not like. I asked the audience to raise theirderful it is for both parent and child for First thing that happened was (andhand if this statement is true of youthe look to work? It saves so much ef- this helps the child divest of self-when you were a child. "In your fam-fort and energy. All you have to do is centeredness, which is essential), theily, when you were a child, every childjust look and it stops. Here's my por- center of attention shifted from childabove the age of three was clearly ex-trayal of the modern mother... Again, and the mother-child relationship, topected to perform a daily routine ofthis is not about women. If this were the parent and the marriage. It is onlychores around the home. These choresabout women it would have been like within that context that children canhad to be done and they had to be done this. This is about what's happened. learn respect for authority. In the 1960sproperly or they were going to be doneThis is the most paradoxical generation I fell under the sway of hyper-liberalover again by you. For doing theseof American females to ever inhabit this ideas of raising your children. I be-chores you received no payment what-culture. They have liberated them- lieved that to teach a child respect forsoever of any kind. No stars on chartsselves economically, educationally, and authority was equivalent to teachingaccumulating to special privileges, noprofessionally, while they have inden- this child to be unquestioningly sub-money, nothing. You did these jobs be-tured themselves to their children. It is missive to authority. There is no equiva- cause you were a member of your fam-the most paradoxical situation. I'm con- lency there whatsoever. I went to col-ily." I asked this audience of 800 people vinced that today's children are learn- lege in the late-1960s and most of usto raise their hand if they could saying absolutely no respect for women. were raised by parents who com-that's the way it was when they were aThat's scary. We have stripped women manded our respect. There were a goodkid. I would say 650 hands went up.of permission to look like this... number who demanded it, which is theNow take the clock forward 30 years How many of you were raised by wrong way to go about it. Most of us and I want you to answer this question.a mother who never yelled? You were raised by parents who com-"Today in my family every child isobeyed her, but she never yelled. She manded our respect. They had an auraclearly expected to perform a daily rou-may have raised her voice occasionally, of authority about them that just cap-tine of chores around the home. Thesebut her voice never went cracking tured you. We were a generation thatchores have to be done properly orthrough the sound barrier. Is there a grew up, and when it came time, ques-done over again and the children arewoman in the room today with chil- tioned everything. We probably ques-not going to be paid in any way, shape,dren living with her in the home who tioned more than we should have.or form. They do these chores becausecan say that they obey her as well as There is no equivalency between teach-they are members of the family." Howshe obeyed her mother and, "I never ing a child respect for authority andmany of you can raise your hands andyell?" Do you realize the significance trampling on this child's ability to ques-say that's the way things are in my fam-of what we're talking about here? We're tion. All of the founding fathers, whoily? I would say 20 responded, buttalking about women who are yelling were people who thought in new ways,about 10 of the 20 raised their hand ten-because they have no authority in their were people who were raised by par-tatively, like this... liars. relationships with their children. They ents who commanded their authority, This is what's going on in America are trying to be their children's friends. commanded their respect through thetoday. We have lost a sense of missionThe American father, in order to keep proper use of authority. and purpose. This is nothing more than the peace, plays right along by trying The second thing that happenedindicative of the fact that we're trying to be his children's best buddy. These was that the pre-modern parent, afterto get through week by week. Howkids are growing up in families in securing the child's attention, put themany weeks of this is left? Can I getwhich there is no authority. They act child to work. Here we have the ser-through this week? Today's parents arelike wild Indians. They come to school vice ethic beginning to emerge. I wasthinking no further than Saturday.having never learned to pay attention speaking before an audience of aboutMaybe to the report card. Yesterday'sto authority figures and take them se- 800 people in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvaniaparents were thinking, "What kind ofriously. They come to school having about three years ago. The people whoindividual do I want to claim as mynever performed any regular tasks come to hear me talk generally paychild when this individual is 25 yearsaround the home. somethingit's in the evening. Theyold?" Our collective attention span has "Fails to pay attention, fails to com- have to drive, get home early fromshortened, and shortened because weplete his work." What are we talking work, hire baby-sitters on weeknights,are now a nation under television. Myabout? Attention deficit disorder. Tho- etc. You have to understand that I domother was a single parent for most ofmas Armstrong talked about this yes- not speak to a cross-section of Ameri-the first seven years of my life. She com-terday. You cannot take a child and fail can parents. I speak to a cross-sectionmanded my attention. How did sheto train him to pay attention to adult of American parents who want to do acommand it? She commanded it by act-authority, and fail to train him to ac- good job. They demonstrate their will-ing like she knew what she was doing.complish things upon direction, and ingness to do a good job by gettingHere is my body language portrayal ofput this child into school after six years 7779 Bringing Out the Best in Your Child: Achievement Begins at Home of this lack of training and expect thatery single one of those children learneddidn't have any problem saying to their this child is suddenly going to pay at-to read and write well enough to go tochildren that they were bothering her. tention and do his work. It's absurd. the second grade. We don't give women permission to People say that ADD was always I tell the story only because I wantsay that to children anymore. What is around. Okay, I'm in Coral Gables,you to understand that one parentingwrong with that? Nothing. If you just Florida two years ago August doing aparadigm which was embedded in ourspeak straightforwardly, you never workshop for the parochial schools ofculture 40+ years ago produces one out-have to scream. They listen. The five or South Miami. Mostly, there are teach-come. Another parenting paradigmsix other kids who had been kicked out ers, counselors, and administrators.which is embedded in our culture to-of their houses and I didn't form a re- During the break in the workshop inday produces an entirely different out-jected children's support group. It's a the morning, a woman, who I estimated come and there are actually naivewonderful thing not having adults con- to be of my mother's age, walks up andpeople who believe that we can juststantly micro-managing. Do you know begins to talk to me. She tells me thatfine-tune this paradigm and get it tohow few children grow up today with- she began teaching in 1947. In 1950, shework. No, folks. There ain't no amountout adults micro-managing? A lot of the said that they gave her 70 first graders.of fine tuning that you can do to this.ones who do grow up this way grow I looked at her I thought, "No. TheyOur only alternative at this point is toup in horrible circumstances. I grew up gave you 70 first graders and maybecreate a movement which lures parentsin good circumstances and I had a an aide, or a couple of aides, or maybeinto this paradigm. If we can get people mother who was responsible, loving, there were three teachers in the sameback into this paradigm, then we canand she never micro-managed me. In room." She said it was she and 70 firstclean up the excesses and fine tunethis anecdote there is a vision. My graders. I asked how in the world didthen. This is never going to work nomother has a Ph.D. in plant morphol- that happen and she told me that therematter how much fine-tuning we do.ogy. She is a brilliant woman. She is a were supposed to be two classes of 35,It is worthless as far as I'm concerned.scientist, she is a mathematician. She is but the day before school started, theIt is the bane of our culture. By the timesmart. I came to her when I was in the other teacher called and reported thatI was four years old my mother hadfifth grade and said that I was having her husband had been transferred andtaught me how to wash floors. By thetrouble with this math problem. She she could not fulfill her obligation.time I was five she had taught me howtook the book and she looked at it and They gave all 70 to the one teacher.to operate her washing machine andsaid that it was interesting. "They are There was a baby boom and a teacherwash my own clothes. How many four-teaching this the same way they taught shortage in 1950. Teachers were notyear-old children in America today areit to us when I was your age." She lined up outside of schools waiting forwashing floors? My mother did not sayturned the book around, handed it back positions to open. You had to go beatto me on that first day that she taughtto me and said, "I figured this out. So the bushes for teachers. They said she'dme how to wash the floor, "You know,can you." Right there the modern have to take all 70 until they found aI think we can play a game today. It'smother and my mother go in two dif- replacement. You cannot turn away 35called washing the floors." Knowingferent directions. I looked at my mother children tomorrow at the door. my mother she said something to thiswith this sense of shock. Here's this Okay. They moved all the kids toeffect, "John Rosemond, you are oldwoman who could have solved this the biggest classroom and lined theenough to learn to wash floors. I've gotproblem in her head, told me how to chairs and desks in seven rows of 10 a lot to do today and I'm going to teachdo it, cleared up all of my confusion in and she began teaching 70 first grad-you how to wash floors." That's howthe proverbial heartbeat, and she said ers. Many of these first graders wereyou taught the children. If you talk tothat. She said, "Let me remind you, children of immigrants who either didchildren like that I guarantee that theJohn Rosemond, when I was your age not speak English, or did not speak itlikelihood they will do what they'reI was in an orphanage. I had no one to well. Most of these children had nevertold increases by tenfold. go to. I figured this out and so can you." been to any sort of pre-school experi- I didn't regard my life as anythingI looked at her and I said, "Mom, I'm ence at all, much less Kindergarden.unusual. Everyone else was workingnot in an orphanage." She refused to Most of these children came to schoolfor their mothers. There was none ofhelp me. Just as simple as you please. as did I, not knowing their ABCs. Ithis business of quality time and youNo attempt to explain. Storm clouds don't know how many of you realizehave to be your child's playmate andcame across her face. She fixed me with that. My mother taught me the song, stuff like this. It was mother liberation.that stare and she said, "Don't you ever but if somebody said, "All right, here's The child was expected to entertainsay that to me again. Don't you ever a mishmash of letters of the alphabet, himself. Don't you dare come to me andtell me you've been working on some- find the M," I couldn't have done it. Youtell me you can't entertain yourself,thing for 45 minutes and can't get it." came to school in first grade and youchild of mine. I'll find something forWhat's wrong with that? She said, "I've were taught. In that context, she saidyou to do. You learn very quickly thatbeen working on some problems in my that after six weeks, when they realizedthe something in question was some-life for four or five years now and she was having no problems at all, theything you didn't want to do. My motherhaven't figured them out." decided to save money and leave themhad a phrase, underfoot. Underfoot was Okay. There's a mother you re- all year long. She taught 70 childrenwhen I was bothering her and she had spect. I used her as an example because without an aide and she 'said that ev-things to do. Women in those daysshe is the only close at hand example I

78 John Rosemond have and I tell the story to people of Let's talk a few minutes about tele-disorder. my generation and almost inevitablyvision and then we will dismiss. Tele- In the fifth grade in High Ridge they have a story like that about theirvision. How is it that 70 children inSchool in West Chester, Illinois, An- mother. It's really a story about the at-Coral Gables, Florida can come tothony came to school mid-year. Within titude that these people had. It was aschool in 1950 and lock their attentiona couple of weeks it became obvious long-term vision that they had for theironto a teacher and pay attention underthat Anthony could not sit still, pay at- children and every parenting occasionthe most adverse circumstances? Hav-tention, and do his work. Anthony became an occasion to further the mis-ing to sit relatively still in individualstands out in my mind because this is sion. Resourcefulness was built intodesks which were horribly uncomfort-the first time I've ever seen a kid who children by letting them learn their les-able. How could 70 children do this andsimply can't sit still, pay attention, and sons the hard way. By letting them golearn to read and write well enough todo his work. About two weeks after through the trial and error of what'sgo to second grade? I submit, becauseAnthony arrived, Mr. Colstead just involved in any significant learningthese children had long attention spans.walks into class one day dragging a big process. By letting them fail. By lettingIt is comforting to think, if you are therefrigerator box. He takes it up to the them fall flat on their faces. There wereparent of a child who has been diag-front of the class at Mrs. Colstead's in- expressions back then that said, I wantnosed with ADD, that your child'sstruction, cuts out the back of it, puts a you to accept responsibility for every- problems have absolutely nothing to dodesk in the box, and Anthony did his thing you do; I want you to figure outwith any decisions you have madework in the box. Anthony got his work your own problems; I want you to learn other than the decision concerning whodone in the box. Some people would to stand on your own two feet. Theyto marry. That this is a genetic problem. object to Anthony being in the box. were expression like this, "You madeIt's very comforting. It's discomfortingAnthony was not in the box all day. He this bed, you lie in it." These are thingsto hear what I believe to be the truth.was in the box when he needed to do we don't say to children anymore. IfThis is a developmental issue. It's nothis work. He got his work done in the you came home complaining about aa genetic issue. That during the mostbox. That's all that matters to me. The teacher, your mother wouldn't go tocritical years of brain development webox did the trick. Of course you can't school. She'd look at you and tell youare exposing children to a medium thatdo the box today because it hurts their that you'd better get a good grade fromhas as one primary predictive effect, theself-esteem. Never mind that they get him or you'll be in big trouble with me.shortening of attention span. Those 70their work done in the box. Apparently You'd better go to school tomorrow andkids came to school and probably nottheir self-esteem is more important figure out how he's going to like you.one of them had ever seen a televisionthan competency. Every once in awhile, That's what they would say to you. Youset except maybe in a store window.Mrs. Colstead would say, "Anthony, in went to school with a sense of respon-Today's child comes to first grade hav-the box." He would come up and get sibility. You weren't a victim and youring watched in excess of 5,000 hours ofin the box. mother wasn't going to let you charac-TV, which means he spends about one This is the first time (I'm 11 years terize yourself as one and she wasn'tfourth of his discretionary time in frontold and it's 1958) that I've seen a kid going to treat you as one. "I knew if Iof the TV set. Television is creating alike this. Where did all of these ADD gave you enough rope you'd hangprimary developmental environmentchildren come from if it's genetic? An- yourself." A clear statement that thesefor children. The question is, how is itthony? Our son Eric was the worst be- people were not micromanaging theireffecting development? That questionhaved child in his third grade class. We children. They saw their children get-can be answered to a great degree bywent in for a conference in January of ting into trouble and they did nothing.simply looking at the medium itself.1979 and Mrs. Stewart said, "Mr. and The noose would tighten. It was a won-Not the content, the medium. EveryMrs. Rosemond, not only is he the derful thing. You look back on thesetelevision program flickers every fewworst behaved child in my class, he is times as an adult and these are theseconds. Scene changes flicker. Some-the worst behaved child I have seen in memories that you cherish and one oftimes faster, sometimes slower, but the20 years of teaching." He was impul- the things that I tell my audiences to-average interval is 3.5 seconds whensive, he threw tantrums, he was explo- day is that we are not giving our chil-you take all programs into effect. Car- sive on the playground, he had a short dren memories to cherish. The memo-toons are more rapid. I submit that you attention span, he rarely finished his ries that you cherish are when yourcannot expose the developing brain toclass work, and we had homework parents didn't come to your assistance.this stimulation for any significant pe-marathons every night at the kitchen The memories that you cherish areriod of time and not compromise atten-table. By today's standard, he'd be di- when your parents held you com-tion span. So, I think we're producingagnosed with ADD, no question about pletely responsible for your own be-an attention span epidemic with tele-it. One year later, his fourth grade havior where they built a trap for you,vision and also in combination withteacher said he was one of the most well you fell into the trap and they wouldn'ttelevision, faulty parenting practicesbehaved, most well mannered, mature let you out. Those are the things wethat fail to teach children to pay atten-children she had ever taught. He was cherish as adults. We laugh about thesetion and complete any tasks at all. Ifreading a year above grade level. Dur- things. Today's parents are giving theiryou look strictly at our parenting prac-ing this year he took no medication, children nothing to laugh about whentices and television as a medium, you received no counseling, no tutoring, no they grow up. Nothing. find the diagnosis of attention deficitspecial attention or consideration of " 81 Bringing Out the Best in Your Child: Achievement Begins at Home any kind at school. What happened said to him, "You watch what between January 1979 and January of shows? How many hours a night John Rosemond is currently the director of The Center for Affirmative Parenting, located in 1980? Willie and I rotated our parenting do you watch these shows?" He Gastonia, North Carolina. The Center for Affirma- 180 degrees. We stopped being psycho- said an hour and a half. That's tive Parenting is a national parenting resource logical parents and we started being the about ten and a half hours a week. center providing workshops and other educa- tiond presentations for parents and profession- type of parents that our parents had My son-in-law is very money ori- als who work with children and families. He re- been, with modification. We did sev- ented. I said, "Marshall, do you ceived his M.S. in psychology from Western Illi- eral things: know how much money you could nois University. For nearly 20 years, he worked as a psychologist in Illinois and North Carolina and 1. We shifted the center of attention make in ten and a half hours a directed several mental health programs for in our family away from the chil- week?" I just think that television children. Mr. Rosemond is the author of several dren to the marriage. is a total waste of time, but that's parenting best sellers, including A Family of Val- ues, Parent Power! and Teen-Proofing. He de- 2. Our children came home from getting off on another soapbox en- votes much of his time to writing and presenting school one day and two children, tirely. One year later, this child is his popular skillshops across the country. who could have been described as functioning perfectly well in unwilling to lift a finger around the school. house the day before, were told that from that day forward they We were in a camping store in the would do all of the housework. Nosummer of 1978 and Eric brings me a transitionthis week we'll do onepair of hiking boots and wants me to chore and next week we'll do two.buy them for him. I tell him I can't af- No. You'll do all of them. There'sford them. He takes two steps back, the calendar on the refrigerator,slams the hiking boots down on the there's the notebook of job descrip-floor of the store which is crowded with tions over there. The work starts to-about 25 people in it, screaming at the day, right now, get to work. That'stop of his lungs that I never buy him how you talk to kids. Any ques-anything he wants. This is a 9-year-old tions, we'll be in the living room.perpetual toddler. A woman at another We went in the living room and the talk in North Carolina came up to me kids came in a few minutes laterafter the talk and told me she was re- and asked what they would be lieved to hear that this child was okay paid. I looked at Eric and said,today. She was in the store when that "We're going to let you live here."happened. She was working in the Actually there were four things notstore and she came up and said that on the list: cooking meals, ironingit was unbelievable. Her co-workers clothes, washing clothes, andtalked about nothing else for a week. mowing the grass. As the kids gotNone of them had ever seen a child like old enough to do these things, theythat before. The reason I tell stories like did them too. When they were 15this is because I tell parents that this they made one evening meal astuff doesn't take psychology books. It week and the rule was, theydoesn't require going into therapy. It couldn't open a can. Mom and Dadjust requires an understanding that al- can open cans because we havethough these people, these pre-modern learned to cook. You need to learnparents, weren't perfect parents, they to cook. When they went off to col- were human. They had a better idea of lege, Willie and I didn't know whatwhat they were doing. What we need to do. to do is to re-embrace the idea. The idea 3. The kids came home from schoolis more important, the mission, the atone day and there was no TV in thetitude is more important than any prac- house. We had given the family TVtice. Re-embrace all of that, bring it into away to the Salvation Army. Wethe modern era and polish it up a little didn't have a TV in our house forbit and begin using it again. There are 4 years. Then we went out andpeople all over the country who are bought the smallest color TV wedoing this with great success. could buy and hooked it up to a VCR and completely controlled the Thanks a lot for coming. 0 content and when we watched TV. I think my life is better for it. I've never seen a Seinfeld or Home Im- provement. I was talking to my son- in-law, who loves television, and I

80 Spiritual Freedom and Moral Responsibility: A Most Glorious Counterpoint Eduardo Cuevas

I would like to speak on the themework according to the child's needs is "The didactic materials, for inof this conference highlighting a differ-only one side of the problem. The otherstance, established through experimen- ent element: the development of theside of the problem has fundamentaltation, established by experience, is adult. Throughout this conference oth- importance and that is to leave the childgiven complete to the teacher. Of ers have spoken about how the childto work, obeying not the laws of thecourse, the teacher must be conscious benefits from having freedom and be-teachers but the laws of his own innerof the organization of the work and ing responsible for it. Thus, the childlife. When we say that the child's workmust know it. has been seen as the beneficiary of suchshould be allowed to develop in peace, "But, beyond the teacher knowing an environment where, once again, thewe mean that the child should be al-the organization of the work, above all adult is the benefactor. lowed to develop freely, in liberty. the teacher must respect the liberty of I have particularly enjoyed these "Two reasons exist for this ap-the child. This is the teacher's real mis- lectures, not only because they haveproach: first we have seen, the childsion." helped shed new light on otherwisedevelops himself. Secondly, because of Anyone who's taken the training well-known Montessori topics, but alsothat self-development, the child revealsrecalls this aspect of their preparation, because there is an altogether differentto us the laws motivating his work, thatas it took the greatest amount of one's "tone" to them as they are a series ofis, the psychological laws of his life. So,time to incorporate. The theory notes, lectures delivered during a very impor-we must develop both a science and anthe albums and, to a great extent, even tant event in the history of theart to respect the liberty of the child." the supervised practice, seem to con- Montessori movement. There is also a I have a particular knack for look-centrate on the informative nature of rather spontaneous air to them, whiching up the root meaning of words, as Ithe training. But a formative process only occurs in spoken communication.find that the etymology broadens enor-needs to be taking place at the same It's as if we are listening to Dr. mously the sense of a word, to the pointtime if we are to do what Dr. Montessori repeat a concept severalof revealing totally unsuspected rela-Montessori prescribed. Someone once times in different ways, so as to clarify tionships. Take, for instance, thismentioned that there seem to be many the concepts she's exposingsome-strange combination of science and art,good Montessori schools, but appar- thing one does not usually do when so apparently unrelated. If one looks upently no "real" Montessori schools ac- writing. the root meanings, one discovers a mostcording to her further expressions. I have also decided to take thisinteresting tie. Science means knowl- "A great distance and difference approach to my topic because of myedgeto knowwhich itself meansexist between applying this principle personal concerns as a teacher trainer. "to separate one thing from another: toand making a theory out of it. You see, I am very concerned with whatdiscern." While art means to fit to- "We must tear out our hearts, happens after the training in the "class-gether, as in a joint. cleanse them of prejudices and begin room," where I see such contrary things On the one hand, science (knowl-again so that the theory and the prac- occur. The training has two main as-edge) requires that we separate,tice are one and the same. But there pects to it, one being the passing on ofwhereas art puts back together again.must be faith that the theory is really information (which to many seems toThus Dr. Montessori's mention of bothtrue in order to apply it, to put it into be the bulk of our training courses), andaspects as requirements of the adult'spractice. a more subtle aspect dealing with for=preparation. "We must believe that all beings mation. Until recently, I was anticipat- She further expands this counter-develop by themselves, of themselves ing that from this informative and for-point in the following thoughts whichand that we cannot do better than not mative combination would arise trans- serve as the basis for our trainingto interrupt that development." formation. But I now consider that evencourses: Thus the observation exercises though these should certainly bring "Now, one cannot expect such or-practiced during our training, since it about greater levels of awareness andganization of work from a regularis not until we discover for ourselves consciousness, and usually do, trans-teacher. She will not organize the workthe secrets revealed by the children in formation can only truly come aboutbecause such organization itself is athe prepared environment that when the adult confronts the child,long work and a superior kind of work.Montessori becomes real to us. Only with all that the child implies. "Such a superior kind of work can-then can we believe. And only then will Regarding the freedom that onenot be done right on the spot, butthe information concerning the ap- must give the child within an environ-should have been done beforehand.proach and the materials take on a ment with set limits, Dr. MontessoriA scientific preparation should pre-wholly different dimension. says the following: cede, beyond what this teacher herself "The preparation of the teacher is "But the organization of the child'scan do. twofold: to be sensitive to the mystery 81 83 Spiritual Freedom and Moral Responsibility: A Most Glorious Counterpoint and to be sensitive to the wonder of lifenomena and the teacher 's duty towardwith truth and reality, Dr. Montessori revealing itself. such natural phenomena. refers to other virtues which will also "This is a sensitiveness which the "This is the attitude and formationarise naturally when confronted with habit of seeing miracles often makes us of mind which the teacher, father,the miracle of life. What I would like to lose so we no longer feel the mystery. mother and all humans should have."stress here is this spontaneous response "Thus, it is necessary to cultivate When, in our training, we talkon behalf of the adult, rather than the this sensibility to wonder in order toabout the preparation of the adult, wepainstaking, self-sacrificial process attain more perfect observation." say that this individual needs to em-which we've usually understood the This new dimension is one that in-body certain characteristics, referred toprocess to be. I contend that this would spires awe before the miracle of lifeas virtues of a moral dimension by Dr. imply the true transformation we're unfolding, a stance all too forgotten byMontessori. It is said that among these,seeking, and the greatest benefitnot most adults. I have often questioned ifone must develop humility, which I sin-only to the child but in an even greater this is a characteristic of human devel-cerely believe is not fully understood,extent to the adult. opment. Whether to develop necessar-as it is seen as something to impose "Another thing which the teacher ily implies losing one's sense of mar-from without, based on an act of themust learn is to contain, to hold back vel and fascination towards life in gen-will, rather than an element resultingthe impulse to intervene, to counsel or eral, and the human miracle in particu-from an inner encounter with truth. to advise. lar. Yet, Dr. Montessori continues to es- "If, for example, we have come to "Teaching is a work of inhibition; tablish, as with the sensitive period forthe conclusion that we have had littlea work of the will which is difficult to the refinement of the senses, that theto do for the life which grows for itself,follow. The greatest height of the abil- adult need only to refine this sensitiv-if we become convinced of this and re-ity of the teacher will be attained when ity toward the miraculous. alize it profoundly, we do not need toshe has reached that point where the "The sensibility is natural, but thesay, therefore, that we must becomechildren can work entirely alone, with- inner refinement is necessary or elsehumble. We need to say only that weout her help in any way. one passes by roughly and says...understand things more clearly and "The teacher must learn the hard I did it. then we are more intelligent thantask of being patient and how to ob- "The roughness and crudeness, thebefore. serve, because the teacher must observe inferiority of this is something from "That humility is the beginning ofalways. which we must lift ourselves in orderwork, of accomplishing something, has "Without acquiring patience one to understand the life which is unseenalways been the fundamental principlecannot acquire the ability to observe, within. of the spiritual life. This humility, how-and on the other hand, if one does not "We need education to lift us upever, is not humiliation, but it is an el-know how to observe, it is very hard to out of this passive force which gives us evation and the basic principle of pro-acquire patiencethese two things de- this low confusion of things." ducing anything." velop together and give to those per- We then expect that the right kind So, it is this encounter with truth,sons who have developed these virtues of training should rekindle this sensi-the truth found in the reality embod- an entirely different characteristic from tivity in our adult trainees, the empha-ied in the natural laws that govern theother teachers." sis being on developing the right atti-development of the child, which pro- With regard to the fine art of ob- tude before the developing child so thatfoundly transforms the adult. servation, the cornerstone of our edu- we may then approach the revelation "Something similar must comecational approach, Dr. Montessori adds: of its inner life in a wholesome man-about in the transformation of the "To learn to see, to observe, does ner. And what would constitute ateacher. not mean simply to look. It is to add to wholesome approach to the child? "We must pass from the type ofthe seeing of things which all do not Would it not be one that allows us toteacher who talks from a height to asee, to acquire and attain an attitude of maintain the proper perspective as totype who is apparently humble, andobserving. what is occurring on its own and whatwho works bringing about real benefit. "Many ask, who is it who explains our role is in this unfolding? Dr. "This teacher must prepare notand tells us what we must look at? If I Montessori expressed it this way: only with a culture which is easily ac-told you, then it would not be an ob- "Our closeness to somethingquired but with attitudes of character,servation, it would be a lesson. To ob- prompts us to say that we caused some-called virtues, which he may acquireserve means to be there, it means to be thing to grow when it has grown of it-little by little in the exercise of his work. making an effort to see, not to just see self. "The point is that the teacher mustthose things which one can see easily, "To recognize and realize that thisnot learn a new method but must ac-but to see the special phenomena which thing grows of itself naturally and that quire new attitudes. The more thewill develop in the children. this other thing is made by us is a sign teacher has been able to lose or forget "If the person gave explanations, of the great art of the intelligence. her old position the more able she willthe children would be disturbed and so "This distinction itself is funda-be to become a good teacher in thisthe only advice which we give to the mental and forms a grade of order inmethod." teacher for observation is to be immov- the mind of the teacher, namely, the Besides this "spontaneous" humil-able and silent, a thing which is very possibility of recognizing natural phe-ity brought about by the encounterdifficult. When this has been learned, -.82 8 4 Eduardo Cuevas already a great step has been made inmethod of the modern scientist, pa-sense. preparation." tience and constancy no longer exist in "We might say that in our method But what will move us to observethat form, but have been transformedwe see life developing and, at the same in such a manner? Initially it must beinto passion, a passion making her joy-time, the love for this developing life based on our interest in the fascinatingously observe the phenomenon beforeitself develops. phenomenon of development beforeher eyes. Such teachers no longer need "In teaching the student, (the) our eyes. (This must go beyond curios-to learn to be silent and motionless. teacher really sees himself brought ity which is superficial and lacks any "Our own interest in watching theback in the phenomena which he is ob- power of persistence.) At the same time, development of this phenomenon inserving, in the life he is studying. Teach- when one looks at the root of the wordthe child makes it natural for us toers really develop a personal interest interest (i.e., inter-esse), one can situ-stand silent. seeing human life at its source, at its be- ate oneself properly for this prolonged "The birth of this passion...is a cen- ginning. state of immobility and noninterfer-tral point or fulcrum upon which to "A wonderful feeling and another ence. The word means to stay betweenbuild the personality of the teacher. love is born in the teacher and there two points, in this case the observed "We might call this positive direc-enters within the teacher and the sci- and the observer, allowing the first totion and it permeates the developmententist an Apostolic spirit. This Apostolic express itself naturally and the latter to of the teacher, the scientist and thespirit sees not only the spirit of study witness these expressions...and bechild." about the child but the child object be- touched by them. This, according to Dr. In the beginning of this presenta-comes a teacher full of lessons to teach Montessori, creates within the observertion, I mentioned that we would beus, his teachers. the same passion for life as found in thelooking at the topic of this conference "It is, as Christ said, 'He who observed, namely the child. with respect to the adult developmentwishes to be first in the Kingdom of "When this same passion is bornand not so much the child's. That isHeaven must become like a little within the teacher, she will be in thebecause I have come to discover thatchild." same category with the modern experi-even we, as Montessorians, still believe, The training of a Montessori edu- mental scientist. The teacher may havehowever subtly, that the child is the onecator is therefore a subtle thing, as this scientific method in her hands forwho benefits because of his contactsubtle as the balance between a science a long time. She might coldly try towith us. Somehow, probably becauseand an art, and just as exciting! It is the apply it to the children in her class,any change has occurred basically fromadult that stands to gain the most due without knowing precisely and surelywithout and not from within, our para-to his contact with the unfettered source whether she is really acting in the rightdigm has not truly changed, still view-of humanity's development. It is the way. ing ourselves as the "giver" in this re-adult who will be brought back to the "But, if she comes to the pointlationship. We do not seem to under-very essence of his existence, of his rea- where she sees some phenomena in thestand that the child is as much a giverson for being, when coming in close child which interests her deeply and if not more soas we are. That we, ascontact with those that vibrate so en- passionately, she then has the math-individuals.and as humanity, mutually thusiastically before the miracle of life, ematical proof that she has entered onbenefit from children, in whateveras if they were conscious of it. Is this the right path. plane of development they may be. Wenot what it means to be the mature in- "Little by little the teacher will seewill have had a profound transforma- dividual of the species: that one be fully psychic phenomena in the child's ac-tion in the adult psyche when we areconscious of the marvel that surrounds tions and will learn to interpret theseable to recognize that the newborn, the one? experiences, these revelations from theinfant, the child and the adolescent all I would like to end my presenta- child. When she feels this fascinationcontribute to humanity in the planetion with yet some more quotes from and this thing which is more than hap- they are in, and not once they've ma-Dr. Montessori, as they should be our piness, she may be sure that she hastured into the adult of the species. initial source of inspiration and direc- provided the child with the right envi- "Then it is that we who have beention, the child being at the core of it. ronment." observing and following this natural "The study of a teacher is like a It is this encounter with the truthdevelopment of the child who feelstudy of the Soul. The teacher sees what and reality found in the developing moved as we would feel moved by anyis to be found there and also sees the child that transforms the adult. It is this great miracle of nature." path the teacher herself must follow to which impacts her life and changes her The Montessori educator must belearn. from within, not merely from without.able to see the developing human be- "This feeling of love is a connec- It is then that true spiritual freedom ising as himself, or himself as the devel-tion between Souls. The Soul of the experienced, and with it the moral,oping human being, eliminating anychild begins to blend with the Soul of "virtuous" responsibility which inevi-sense of superiority in the understand-the teacher and the child becomes obe- tably accompanies it. As Dr. Montessori ing that he himself is as yet incompletedient. When the spiritual life has put it: in his unfolding, and that his encoun-formed, it remains and grows and per- "When the teacher reaches thister with other souls in the path of life isfects itself because it is like a living be- point of maturity, all the rest will comeof mutual enrichment, where the no-ing which has been generated and must of itself. When the teacher develops thetions of giver and a receiver makes littletherefore grow. 8385 Spiritual Freedom and Moral Responsibility: A Most Glorious Counterpoint

"In this environment, one feels that the creation of love is a great work of sacrifice, of education, of patience and one cannot bring about this creation with vain words. Certainly, the teacher does not teach love and morality, but she has the great consolation in seeing it born." May you be deeply touched by what she discovered, and "stop looking at the pointing finger, but rather look at what the finger is pointing to: the child." Thank you for sharing this time of reflection with me.

References

Montessori, Maria. "The California Lectures Of Maria Montessori." 1915. Montessori, Maria. "Collected Speeches And Writings." The Clio Montessori Series. Montessori, Maria. "First Of The San Diego Lectures." July14, 1915. Montessori, Maria. "The Organization Of The Work Materials And The Spontaneous Production Of The Child's Mind." Montessori, Maria. "First And Second Of The San Francisco Lectures." August 67, 1915. Montessori, Maria. "The 'New Type' Of Teacher." Part 1 & 2.

Eduardo Cuevas is an AMI primary trainer and completed the first AMI course in Spain. He has presided over the Centro de Estudios Montessori en Puerto Rico y el Caribe, and is presently the Director of Training of the Montessori Training Centre of British Columbia, in Vancouver, Canada. He has held workshops on Montessori and the Importance of Religion in Human De- velopment in several European countries.

8 6 Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years Phyllis Pottish-Lewis

Freedom and responsibility: theintent to offer children freedom with-spondent responsibilities. The children practical means by which a teacher canout the limits or checks that would pro-should have the freedom to explore and strike an effective balance betweenvide a balance for that freedom. Shestudy any topics that pique their imagi- these two key Montessori concepts tobelieved that all freedoms given, mustnations without interference in this recreate a healthy atmosphere of personalalso be attended by responsibilities. Ingard. They should be free to choose the evolution for children, rather than a cli-fact, by asking the child to be respon-work that appeals to them. These ex- mate of permissiveness, and a consid-sible to the freedoms given, he is pro-plorations should happen both inside eration of factors that can impede thevided an opportunity to develop hisand outside of the class. The limit as- child's attempts to be independent andability to be responsible. In our questsociated with this particular freedom responsible. to assist the child in his path to inde-would be that the children meet re- pendence, we also provide the oppor-quirements asked of them were they to Introduction tunity to become responsible as it isattend a traditional school. Another intrinsic to independence. limit is that their work must be con- License versus Freedom To ask for responsibility for thestructive and productive. To arrive at The child is born with potentials.freedom given is not an unreasonablethe desired balance between this free- These potentials have been called by thing to do, but in fact, a necessity. Thedom and its limit, the children must Dr. Montessori the "human potentials."philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre says, "...itunderstand clearly all of the expecta- He has the potential for developing the [responsibility] is simply the logicaltions associated with their choice and functional intellect, eventually beingrequirement of the consequences of ourthe fundamental value of work. able to use reason and judgement; hefreedom."' If that requirement is not has the potential for coordinated move-there, then the freedom will become li-Importance of Work ment; he has the potential for the de-cense, and chaos and confusion will Children are given the freedom to velopment of language; he has the po-ensue. choose their work, but they in fact must tential for the ability to function inde- We have, then, Dr. Montessori ask-work. At this time in their lives, which pendently as a human being, embody-ing us not to impart or impose an edu- is a period of great work and accom- ing all that that implies. These are thecational method on the child impas-plishment, their time is too valuable to potentials that the child at birth pos-sively, but actually to aid life in its con- waste. Therefore, the prevailing expec- sesses, and which then need to be ac-struction by offering him freedom and tation for all children is that productive tuated. In order to actualize the poten-then leaving him free to act. However,work must be done. For a teacher to ask tials, the child needs to be able to actthe freedom granted must be tempered this of a child without qualms or doubt, freely on his environment. with responsibility. Herein lies the cruxshe herself must appreciate the vital As Dr. Maria Montessori reasonedof the challenge that we, as Montessorirole of work, so that she can expect it out the child's revelations to her, sheteachers, face. To really offer the edu- from her children. concluded that in order for children tocation that Dr. Montessori envisioned Truly realizing, as Dr. Montessori develop any human potential, theyfor the child, we must offer freedomhas said, that work is the basis of civili- must be given the freedom to act. It isbalanced by responsibility. This re-zation, and that being able to work is through his own activity that the childquires artistry. Without balance be-essential to the development of the can develop himself. The child must between these two essential elements, wechild, helps to fortify the teacher when free to move; he must be free to talk; he are in danger of creating a climate ofshe is faced with difficulties that arise must be free to pursue his own inter-permissiveness or a climate of restric-with children and parents in connection ests and curiosities as they emerge. Shetion, both of which will obstruct thewith the expectations of work. Another says, "Let us leave the life free to de-child in his natural development. As anotion that underscores her fortifica- velop within the limits of the good, andpart of executing this fundamental tasktion is fully comprehending that the el- let us observe this inner life develop-of the Montessori educator, the teacherementary child is truly capable of great ing. This is the whole of our mission."must first recognize and define for her-work. She always must have faith in the This idea of freedom is, however,self every aspect critical for success inchild and his enormous ability and a hard concept for many people to un-this great endeavor. never waiver in that belief in order to derstand. Those who have attempted ask him to work a little harder to attain it without firmly grasping all of theFreedom to Choose One's Own Work his potential and to develop his work concepts inherent within it have pro- Hence, let's identify and define for ethic. moted a climate of permissiveness whichourselves exactly the freedoms that Until a teacher gains her own ex- is seen in both homes and schools to-must be offered in the elementary pre-perience, these notions are sometimes day. But it was never Dr. Montess,ori: pared environment and their corre-difficult to defend in the face of paren-

85 87 Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years tal adversity. In today's social climatewithout the presence of the teacher areworthy of his ability, at the same time of permissiveness, a less experiencedtestimony to her artistry to offer free-connecting him with the environment, teacher might doubt herself and herdom balanced by responsibility. It is atso ultimately he, too, can work sponta- requests, wondering if she, in fact, isthese times that she can leave the classneously. It is then that you recede into asking too much work of the children.and no change in their behavior occurs.the background. Children who succeed But by succumbing to pressures of anyThis phenomenon is easily detectedat this process, eventually working kind, parental, societal or otherwise, when it is working. Its antithesis is alsowithout continual guidance from the and expecting less of the children thaneasily observed. If work is imposed onteacher, recognize their success, and that which they are capable of doing,the children or assigned by the teacher,consequently feel good about them- unwittingly teachers demean thethere will be a disintegration of workselves. This is truly how self-esteem is child's abilities. If one does not expectand subsequent disorder will ensuedeveloped, not by giving children the child to work, one is a hindrance towhen she leaves the room. A teacherempty compliments. Children, who his natural development rather than aonly needs to observe objectively herwork spontaneously and indepen- help. Margaret Stephenson says, "If weown class to see what it is that she of-dently, recognize it as such, and gain compromise this idea, we compromisefers, liberty or license? confidence in their abilities and de- the child's chances." Appreciating the velop a certain expertise. These acqui- importance of work sustains theChildren Who Don't Work sitions in their turn, further motivate teacher when she asks the child to be It is unrealistic to believe that allthe children to engage in more work. responsible for his choices. Thus, shechildren will come into the class with should have no compunctions aboutan acceptable work ethic, ready to as-Freedom to Work in Groups expecting that the child's work is con-sume the responsibility for their free Children naturally gravitate to stant, productive, constructive, andwork choices. Some lack the ability toeach other at this age. Dr. Montessori even at times ambitious. choose constructive activities and at-has said that this child, as an individual, tend to them properly. Those with thisshould participate in a truly social life. Spontaneous Work of Children Whendeficiency must be helped in that pro-This is why children should be free to it is Their Choice cess. Help is offered when a child iswork in groups. Group work gives the Another observation Dr.consistently expected to work, andindividual the possibility for growth Montessori had regarding the child'swhen a variety of exciting lessons fromand improvement, and makes the for- work is found in Education For A Newthe colorful palette of Cosmic Educa-mation of society possible. The children World. She writes, "The real aim of alltion has been given him from which hework best when given the freedom to children was revealed as constancy incan make a personal choice. This giv-work together according to their natu- work and spontaneity in choice ofing of lessons is a basic step. To arouseral proclivities, and through this kind work, without guidance of teachers.the desire to work, give many interest- of approach over time they consciously Following some inner guide, they oc-ing, varied lessons. Then ask the childlearn the difficult skills required for cupied themselves in work different forto choose from a few of them to pursue successfully working with others. This each that gave them joy and peace, andan idea more deeply. If the child can'taccomplishment is not always easy. then something else appeared that hador won't choose for himself, choose for For the child newly entering the never before been known among chil-him until he can do it by himself. Thiselementary class from the primary, dren, a spontaneous discipline. Thisdoesn't mean give assignments to thewhere most of the work was done in- struck visitors even more than the ex-whole class. Only after discussion withdividually, the concept of group work plosion into writing had done; childrenthe child who needs it, give him an as-and its attendant responsibilities must were walking about, seeking for worksignment, one that must be accom-be taught. Consequently all of the les- in freedom, each concentrating on a dif-plished. Only give one thing to do at a sons given to the elementary children ferent task, yet the whole group pre-time, not a long list of things. Once heshould be group lessons. Many of the sented the appearance of perfect disci-accomplishes this one thing, give himearly elementary presentations lend pline. So the problem was solved: toa chance to choose the next. If he can'tthemselves naturally to exposing the obtain discipline, give freedom."3 choose, choose for him again, and dochildren to the factors necessary for Our injunction has been given usso until he can; if he can make a choice,working with others, examples of to obtain discipline from the children, leave him free to do so, but he must do which are the creation of the noun give freedom. Spontaneous disciplineso, and he must work to completion.booklet and the needs of the plant ex- can easily be detected in those environ-Gradually with a child like this you canperiment. From these activities the chil- ments where the teacher is able to offerhelp him develop the same work ethicdren realize that working in groups is freedom balanced by responsibility. Itthat others exhibit in your class. the expectation, and is, in fact, legiti- really is no mystery. In a healthy work These children require much of themate. They also become aware of, climate, when the children are left freeteacher's attention and energy, but it issometimes painfully, the components to choose projects of their own inter-wise to make the exertion early in therequired for working in groups. Give est, they work spontaneously. Conse-year in order to help them to chooseand take are required. Compromise is quently they are responsible to their independently and responsibly. By en-a factor. Working with others requires choices of work. Children working spon- gaging in this course, you have askedthat at some point one must relinquish taneously on their freely chosen activitiesthe child to meet a standard of workhis personal preferences for the good

86 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis of the working group. Shared respon-these freedoms are granted, a hum ofsuch activity is not of the nature that sibility for the project is another essen-conversation should be the norm.needs completion of its cycle."' tial element. Cooperation and collabo-When children are planning, creating, The significance in her message is ration, both characteristics for the suc-deciding, debating, they are rarelynot ambiguous. It could not be more cessful accomplishment of an under-quiet about it. By working together chil-straightforward and clear. For their taking, must be developed and refineddren learn to communicate effectively,own sakes children with inappropriate over time. These two traits just don'tto express their personal ideas, onesbehavior must have it checked. And miraculously appear when the childwhich take form and shape during thethis task lies with the teacher. This is reaches a certain age. The child has the whole process. her responsibility. In most cases it is opportunity to develop these valuable usually unsuitable behavior that im- qualities when there is freedom in theRelated Responsibility to Thesepedes the constructive work of chil- class to work with others. Freedoms dren, and it must be curtailed immedi- To provide effectively an environ- Again, by being offered these twoately with "absolute rigor." Children ment that offers "group work" in itsfreedoms, the child can reap bounteousshould not be free to behave unfavor- truest form, a teacher must understandresults that only come from practice. ably. When this is the case, license has herself exactly what group work is and However, the corresponding responsi-been granted. what it is not. Group work is not threebility to these two freedoms is that the children sitting at the same table, eachgroup work and conversation, in fact,Discipline with his own bead frame, or some otherare substantial, meaningful and worth- Another benefit of providing an piece of material, doing parallel work.while. The teacher is the final arbiterenvironment with a balance between It is not a line activity, nor is it being inand must decide if the activity and con-freedom and responsibility resulting in the same lesson with each person do-versation is, indeed, constructive andthe child's spontaneous activity, is that ing his own follow-up activity. Groupdevelopmental. If, in her estimation,a child, engaged in his own real work, work is where children are working onproductivity falls short, or the conver-seldom has the inclination to test the one and the same piece of material, forsation is merely gratuitous noise, thenlimits, as he is interested and satisfied example the checker board, a grammarthese occupations must be interrupted,with his work and his endeavors. This box, a timeline, a science experiment,sooner or later. The freedom to workis the "spontaneous discipline" at work each of whom is taking turns, sharingand talk together does not mean thatof which Dr. Montessori speaks. both the work and the responsibility forchaos can reign and time can be wasted. The American Heritage Dictionary its completion. Group work is when, in For the teacher to act deliberatelydefines "discipline" as: "the training order to accomplish something, coop-sometimes requires courage. Again,expected to produce a specific type or eration, collaboration and communica-let's take our lead and guidance frompattern of behavior, especially training tion with others must be employed. Dr. Montessori's actual words when wethat produces moral or mental im- Decisions have to be made, and madeare faced with having to interfere withprovement." The teacher has done her by the group. This is noisy work, whichchildren's work and behavior. part to ensure the success of this kind is why your class will be abuzz if you She says, in no uncertain terms, inof training in her environment when in offer this freedom scrupulously. The Montessori Method, "When thethe first days of school with the help of Some people don't work well to-teachers were weary of my observa-the children, she clearly defines the gether. For this reason the childrentions, they began to allow the childrenfreedoms offered, and the limits and must have the freedom to choose withto do whatever they pleased. I saw chil- responsibilities associated with each. whom to work. If we allow them todren with their feet on the tables, orThe limits give the child guidance in make their own groupings, they canwith their fingers in their noses, and noregard to his actions and behavior. And, make a society in which they can func-intervention was made to correct them.because these limits ought never to tion favorably, exercising helpful andI saw others push their companions,change, because they are not capricious respectful behavior, attendant with re-and I saw dawn in the faces of these anand wavering, because they are applied sponsibility and reliability. expression of violence; and not theto each member of the class without slightest attention on the part of theprejudice, they provide the child with Freedom to Talk teacher. Then I had to intervene to showa sense of security and stability. The Intrinsic to the freedom of work-with what absolute rigour it is neces-order, limits and discipline established ing with others is the freedom to talk.sary to hinder, and little by little sup-in the class for harmonious relation- Without the freedom to talk childrenpress, all those things which we mustships become a standard by which the could accomplish nothing. If this free-not do, so that the child may come tochild can gauge his own behavior. He dom is withheld from children, notdiscern clearly between good and evil. can determine what is "right and only will the qualities generated by "If discipline is to be lasting, itswrong" according to the measure of the group work be impeded, but the child'sfoundations must be laid in this wayclass. ability to discuss, debate, argue hisand these first days are the most diffi- As this can be a lengthier process point of view, defend his position, crys-cult for the directress."4 of development for some children, tallize his thoughts, and articulate his And she also says in Education Forthere will be times when they fail at ideas would be seriously stifled.A New World, "Children who persist in their attempts to act and behave fit- Throughout the elementary class wheremolesting others must be stopped, astingly. During these occasions, for the 87 8 9 Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years sake of the child and for the sake of theclearly delineated by and for the chil-class. At the first instance that they run, class as a whole, the teacher must notdren early on. There is nothing new,they must be reminded of the request fail to act. She partially has done herthere are no surprises. Try to do it withand the reason for not running. De- part by initially establishing, with as-humor if you possibly can muster it.pending on the child, perhaps he sistance from the children, the laws andPerhaps you can develop the ability toshould be asked to go back and walk order governing the small society of the frown with a twinkle in your eye. Butto reinforce and remind him concretely classroom. Together they have createdmake sure that when doing this theof the expectation, and so he realizes a structure for acceptable conduct. Butchildren realize you mean what youthat ignoring the expectation will not ultimately, and to complete her respon-say. They must take you seriously,be tolerated. If the children are repeat sibility, the teacher must administer the thereby taking the expectations seri-offenders or recidivists, then something mutually and fairly established struc-ously, in effect, seriously recognizingmore must be done, otherwise the ture. their responsibility to the freedoms of-structure and expectations mean noth- fered them. ing. They must come to understand Administering the Structure After the child has fulfilled his con- that they are not at liberty to run. You In regards to success in this en-sequences, give him reassuring smilesmust deal with each and every situa- deavor, let me offer the following ad- and pats and encourage future success,tion without fail and take it to the device. The first piece is to always, alwaysso that he won't think that the mishapgree that is required. No inappropriate be consistent in administering thehas marked him as "bad." Everyoneaction is too small to be ignored. structure. Remember that the clearlymakes mistakes. Let him know that you A teacher does not have to be established laws and order of the classare working on his behalf, and that bothafraid to use the word "No." Some- are the foundation of the class's soci-you and the structure are there to helptimes when a point is expressed in the ety. You can change the structure of thathim see the importance of functioningnegative it is better taken by those chil- foundation when you are inconsistentharmoniously and successfully withindren who need to hear something more in administering it. By being inconsis-society. Remind him that you are com-forcefully. Elementary children are re- tent you invite the children to test the mitted to working indefatigably so thatsilient. You can't break them or their structure to determine the new limitshe will achieve success ultimately. Anspirits by telling them not to do some- for the day. implication within this remark, besidesthing. John Rosemond, family psy- However, when you are consistent,the obvious communication for thechologist in North Carolina, says, "In- the child knows without a doubt whatchild, will be that the expectations to-flicting temporary pain to a child's feel- to expect when he does commit an in-day will be the same as those of tomor- ings and destroying the child psycho- fraction. "This happened, we agreed itrow. You are telling the child, "I amlogically are horses of two entirely dif- wouldn't for these reasons, and sincedevoted to your success and so willferent colors. In fact, a fully operational it did, this will follow." Hence, what-never waiver." social conscience cannot develop with- ever consequences are imposed can be Never, never fail to administer theout causing a child occasionally psychic done so matter of factly, without anger,structure because you are too tired or pain, as in, shame, embarrassment, and debate or rancor. Once the child expe- discouraged. This is especially criticalremorse." riences the consequences of his actions,if the child knows that you know for To forgive continually the infrac- he is given another opportunity to suc-sure he has committed an infraction.tions that a child commits does him a ceed. Implementing the structure andIgnoring recognized breaches, no mat-disservice rather than a service. The limits becomes a simple matter of fact.ter how small, constitutes tacit message conveyed in this regard is that There should be no surprises and needcondonement. This gives the child per-he is above the law, and that the expec- not be any reprehension. Through themission to behave according to his tations set for others do not apply to him. teacher 's persistent consistency andwhims. This can be a destructive mes-Therefore he can behave however he follow-through, the children develop asage for the child. Also, it will serve to wishes without thought, consideration, confidence and security in how to op-undermine all of the hard work thator responsibility to others. However, erate within the class. However, whenyou already have invested in securingwhen you make the effort to follow- the structure is administered whimsi-a balance between freedom and respon-through consistently without fail with cally, capriciously, or erratically, it cre-sibility in your class. Never ignore anthe administering of the structure in a ates uncertainty within the children.infraction. You must somehow marshalfair and just way, the implicit message They cannot rely on an unstable set ofthe energy required to follow-throughfor the child is that the law and order acceptable expectations. Not only doeswith maintaining the standard for be-established in the class is important for inconsistency invite testing of the struc- havior. You can never throw up youreach member of the class, and as a mem- ture, it also undermines your efforts tohands and say, "They just won't listen."ber each person must be responsible to establish an environment where chil-Yes, they will listen, if they know thatwhat society asks of him, even me. I dren are free to function independentlyyou are serious. If you are half-heartedmust adapt my conduct to the reason- and harmoniously. and unconvincing, then this too will beable and protective laws of the group. Another piece of advice is alwaysconveyed to them, and again they willAs Dr. Montessori has said, if discipline to administer the structure firmly, butact accordingly. You choose. It is up to is to be lasting, its foundations must be fairly, and without anger. This is pos-you. A small example would be if thelaid in this way, and these first days are sible because the expectations werechildren were asked not to rim in the the most difficult for the directress.

88 0 0 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis

Teacher's Responsibility views the accuracy of some presenta-tell your stories using imagery and al- tion. To facilitate this enterprise it islegory. If you fail to appeal to the child, Lesson Giving useful to make detailed outlines of theyou will fail to excite him to work. To aid the child in his journey tocontents of each of the albums, and inTherefore, take great care that your les- construct a responsible member of so- the case of certain major presentations,sons are not pedantic and boring, but ciety is the goal of the elementaryit is profitable to outline the steps of theinstead interesting and imaginative, Montessori teacher. To do this shelesson. The point of this undertaking isalthough they are factual. needs to create an environment into be able to find quickly the required The lessons, to be effective, must which a balance between freedom andknowledge for those activities not yetbe clearly presented. Do not obscure the responsibility exists. This is a dauntingcommitted to memory. intended point by talking too much and task, but it is possible. Again, a first step Once you are prepared by know-too long. It is tedious for the children in effecting this goal is to analyze theing completely your albums, then youand you will lose their attention, and components required for success, andmust give the lessons. Your classroomconsequently their interest, thus under- then implementing each of them con-will be very exciting if you have amining your attempts to stimulate sciously. One such component of themyriad of activities going on at any one work. Always engage the children in prepared environment is the preparedtime. This can only be generated by the activities so that they are active par- teacher. Earlier I mentioned that in or-your giving lots and lots of lessons. ticipants of the lesson. To do otherwise der to help that child having difficultyThere are times when the intensity ofwould be to talk at them, and this never finding work to sustain his interest, andlesson giving is greater and most pro-arouses their interest, only their ennui. thus fulfilling his responsibility, the ductive. During the mornings in the fall We want them to assume responsibil- teacher must work to link the child towith a full complement of children, you ity for carrying on the work once we his environment. In this regard, besidesshould keep on the move consistently. leave the lesson, so we have to employ the suggestions I have to propose, Dr.It would not be uncommon on Mon-them at the outset, so they claim the Montessori has some definite advice today mornings to give enough groupwork for their own. offer on the subject. In Education For alessons so that each child in the class Another hint at permitting the chil- New World she writes, "The teacherwould receive one. Lessons should be dren to embrace the work as theirs is needs to be seductive, and can use anygiven throughout the whole day, notby limiting the amount of information deviceexcept of course the sticktojust in the mornings. After vacations isyou impart to them in any given les- win the children's attention. She can doanother time of intense lesson giving. son. A teacher only needs to give the what she likes more or less, because asAnd of course, throughout the year les-critical points of the concept that will yet she upsets by her intervention noth-sons are given very regularly. It would create understanding for the child. Be- ing very important, so a bright marmerbehoove a teacher to constantly moni-yond that she should limit her informa- in suggesting activities is the chief ne-tor for herself the number and variety tion, because then she creates opportu- cessity."' of lessons she gives. Giving lessons isnities for the child to further seek in- By saying the teacher needs to bethe secret to evoking from your chil-teresting information independently. If seductive, obviously Dr. Montessori isdren, all of them, an interest that willwe were to give all of the facts, rather suggesting that as teachers, when nec-in turn lead them to exhibit the charac-than leaving the children wondering essary, we must learn to entice childrenteristics of the "spontaneous discipline" about some unknown, then the chil- into work. If we were to embellish onof which Dr. Montessori speaks. It isdren would have nothing else to do. her ideas of a "bright manner," giventhen that they will really be responsibleThe work would be done, and not by the nature of the elementary child, itto the freedom to choose their work. him, but by us. Then we would be back seems that it would be useful to be en- at square one trying to connect the child thusiastic, and have a sense of humorHow to Give with a piece of work. Effectively what used judiciously with these children. Another matter of consideration iswe have managed to do unwittingly is Earlier I have said to entice that child,how to give these group lessons to theto scuttle our own attempts to motivate who as yet is reluctant to work, oneelementary child. As we take to heartthe child. By imparting all of the infor- must give many and varied lessons. InDr. Montessori's words to have amation we have in a lesson, leaving order to "suggest the activities," as she"bright manner" in suggesting activi-nothing unanswered and possibly in- puts it, you must be completely famil-ties, we must be enthusiastic in ourtriguing to the child, we become our iar with the contents of your albums.approach. No matter how many timesown greatest impediment. Your albums are the tools of your trade, before we have made the same presen- and you must know them thoroughly,tation to a myriad of children long What to Give so you will be prepared to act when you grown, we must remember that this is The lessons that are given through- see the child express some interest in the first time this eager, young, impres-out the day must come from all of the some area. sionistic mind will encounter this newsubjects presented in the training This familiarity only comes fromidea. We must do it justice. courses, the whole of Cosmic Educa- constant work on the part of the Of course you want to appeal to the tion. Children's choices should not be teacher. She must read and reread herparticular sensitivities of the age, thelimited by what we choose to present albums, and by so doing, possibly re-reason and the imagination, and soor not present. As one regards her class members lessons long forgotten, or re-when presenting any concept you mustat random moments there should be a

89 Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years complete array of activities observable.gest possibilities of work to children of To Whom to Give Children should be working in the ar-little interest and as yet unemployed. Of course you know that group les- eas of biology, geography, history, sons typically are the norm in the el- mathematics, language, art, and music.Teacher's Record Keeping System ementary class because of the operative One must observe her class, analyzing A component in the success of acharacteristic of this age child to seek it to see if there is a balance in the ac-teacher to link the child to the environ- others with whom to work. But due tivities in view. A teacher must makement efficiently and masterfully is herconsideration must be given to what sure that there is as much geography,ability to determine exactly what les-kind of groups. Lessons are directed to history and biology being given in thesons in all areas her individual childrensmall groups of two to six. These num- morning as are math and language.need and when. She must be well bers are only fixed by their efficacy. The Never should you create an environ-versed in their abilities, their interests, moment that a child within the group ment where only mathematics and lan-their weaknesses, their voids, and theircannot be personally engaged in the ac- guage are permitted in the morning,progress. To be responsible to 30 to 35tivity and loses interest because of the with other subjects relegated to after-children, an optimal number for an el-numbers, then the group is too big. If noons. Or, never should you assign aementary class, a teacher must be par-you can hold the concentration and fas- certain subject for a certain day of theticularly mindful of all these aspects forcination of each child in a group of week. And, never, never should you be each child, and have for each a plan forseven and eight, don't rule out those tempted to limit the child by limitingdevelopment. This suggests that shenumbers. However, in my experience, his exposure to what you feel is propermust have an efficient and workableit is indeed a rare teacher who can grip and fitting through fixed curricula, system for tracking each child carefully.the attention of each child and hold it such as spelling, reading, or math pro- This is her responsibility, and one thatfor the duration of the lesson with a grams and workbooks. If you succumbwill augment her abilities to offer thegroup that large. to these strategies, because you wantchild the requisite freedoms. If she Lessons given to the whole class to ensure that the children systemati-knows her plans for each child, then she should be limited severely for the same cally gain expertise in these "impor-can free him up to investigate topicsreason. That is not to say that they tant" subjects, then you yourself, havethat appeal to him, while keeping in her never happen, they do, but they are not become the greatest impediment to themind those other elements for whichtypical and they should not be the child's freedom to choose his ownthe child has a responsibilitybasicnorm. And of course, one person does work. In doing so, you also impede hisskills and requirements. The teachernot constitute a group. So unless there critical development of independencecan allow the child to work at his lei-is a particular reason, and there are and responsibility. You have becomesure and pleasure on the work of histimes when this is called for, one does the obstacle to the birth of spontaneitychoice, but at the same time help guidenot present solely to an individual. in the child by choosing what you thinkhim towards those necessary acquisi- Variety in the composition of the is important, rather than allowing himtions. groups should be the hallmark in the to choose that which appeals to his par- The system a teacher uses for track- elementary class. Groups should never ticular needs. ing her children should be easily usableremain static, and never, never, should When there is a variety of activityand sufficiently simple, rather thanthese groups be labeled for ease of call- taking place within your class at allcomplicated and overwhelming in or-ing people to a lesson. By doing this times, it will be dynamic and exciting. der to guarantee use. Also, it should notyou categorize the children, and in turn Children naturally will want to bebe excessively time consuming. Other-evaluate themselves according to the there. When a class is exciting and un-wise she may fail to use it regularly,group in which they find themselves, predictable, it cannot be boring andlosing her guide in granting freedomor in which they don't find themselves. tiresome for them, especially when theyto the child. People often resort to free- This can be a very limiting and devas- are free to pursue occupations of theirdom-impeding strategies to ensure thattating proposition for the child. You own choosing. groups of children as a whole accom-also fix your own perceptions about Also remember that children learnplish that which would be asked ofchildren, rather than viewing them as from each other. From the immediatethem in traditional school, when theydifferent and evolving individuals, ambiance they seem to assimilatedo not have an effective method forones capable of daily change and knowledge and information with facil-monitoring individual children. Teach- progress. To do this is a serious impedi- ity. With vibrant and pertinent conver-ers, too, are individuals, and so ament to extending freedom. sations transpiring, interesting factsmethod that works for one might not The groups should vary in age, and figures take flight throughout thebe effective for another. Each needs togenders, abilities and personalities. Al- class with the greatest of ease. Childrenfind her own personal system that isways include those people who indi- can't help but share with others thingsworkable, efficient, and efficacious.cate an interest in a lesson you might that excite them. Thus, they talk aboutThen she must use her system dili-be giving. Usually the interest demon- their discoveries and their work. Whengently and assiduously. This requiresstrated is very subtle and can be missed a greater variety of work is happening, an act of discipline on her part, and iseasily. It often takes the form of loiter- the children will have greater exposurecritical to her responsibilities as an el-ing on the periphery of the small group to many different subjects and ideas.ementary Montessori teacher. assembled. Be alert to these interested This exposure to variety also can sug- children and invite them to join. If the

90 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis lesson is beyond their capabilities that administration of the school. These twothis endeavor. Each school has differ- will soon become apparent, and theyare the bodies that need to understandent conditions to be considered, and so can leave gracefully. There will be nothe principles of going-out, becauseeach system for going-out will be dif- harm done. However, if the lesson isthese are the bodies that can either helpferent. But it is possible with energetic not beyond their ken and their interestor hinder the process. They are dueand creative thinking to implement is arrested, you have succeeded at youradequate education so they can act re-successfully going-out, no matter task. sponsibly in regards to this importantwhere one teaches. By varying your groups consis-matter. The responsibility of this edu- tently, you can orchestrate opportuni-cation falls to the teacher alone, as it isPublic School Curriculum ties for children working with peopleshe who knows the importance and Just as the notion of going-out they might not otherwise have chosen.relevance of going-out to the child'sneeds to be presented concretely to the You legitimately can separate unpro-development. children, so too, does the public school ductive combinations and unite un- When children go out into the en-curriculum. The public school curricu- likely partnerships. This is especiallyvironment they must be expected tolum, a concept I mentioned in my ear- effective when introducing new chil-manage themselves responsibly. This is lier lecture, is one of the three meta- dren into the class. Varying the groupsa process that is developed by degrees,phorical pieces of material that Dr. is also an effective means for breakingchoice by choice, and which begins inMontessori defined as limits to balance up destructive cliques. In this case,the classroom with the guidance of thethe freedoms offered the child in the el- since the composition of the groups isteacher. Therefore, another initial stepementary class. Children must be con- not static or determined, but always in the process is the introduction of thesciously aware of the limits or the re- unpredictable, there should be fewnotion of going-out to the children. Itsponsibilities asked of them in connec- complaints from the members who areshould be framed as one of the free-tion with the freedom granted them to unhappy with the separation. Further-doms related to the child's work, andselect their own work. They need to more, these members will have littleextended when the children exhibit theknow the expectations of society, and ammunition to sustain their objections,necessary responsibility that going-outthose expectations are delineated in the since variety is merely a matter ofdemands. These responsibilities mustbody of the public school curriculum. course. Many times it is a relief to chil-be delineated clearly and straightfor-Children also must recognize and ac- dren reluctant to speak out to be putwardly to the children, so that theycept that it is their responsibility to ac- with or separated from certain parties.know the expectations involved, expec- quire this body of knowledge at the Also, by diversifying your groups theretations that will serve as a goal to which same time as they pursue their personal is an element of excitement and sur-they strive and aspire. Also, if ever theypreferences. prise for the children. This elementare denied the freedom to go-out, they Hence, the teacher must present helps to keep the exciting dynamic go-will understand it is because they didthe curriculum to the children just as ing on in your class, and this is one ofnot meet the expectations. she would present a piece of material. the goals for Which we are striving. The emergence of responsible be-By doing this she makes them aware havior from the children signals a pro-of the requirements that society asks of Other Notions that Develop pitious moment for the teacher tothem and for which they are account- Responsibility present the details of going-out. It mustable. The curriculum can be presented be introduced much like a lesson to thetwice a year to small groups, once in Going Out children, giving them first the conceptSeptember, again in January, and then As one considers the elements in aof it as a reality, and then subsequentlyto individuals as needed. As the chil- Montessori environment conducive togiving them concrete ideas and sugges-dren peruse the curriculum they can the development of responsibility, one tions regarding places they can visit inappraise themselves of any voids they cannot overlook the concept of going-relation to their personal investigationsmay have, and accordingly schedule out that Dr. Montes.sori elucidated inand research. The children need to seetime to remedy the situation. her writings in From Childhood to Ado- going-out as an exciting opportunity of This responsibility is not solely that lescence, and to which I referred in mywhich to avail themselves. Initially toof the child. Ultimately the teacher is earlier lecture. For a number of valu-launch the project, the teacher mayresponsible for the child's learning all able reasons the child must be allowedneed to assist more than she ordinarilythat would have been asked of him tra- to explore the outer environment andwould. But after she has modeled itditionally. However, she does this in society at large. For the purposes ofsuccessfully, and groups begin to go-partnership with the child. To do this today's discussion we concern our-out, others will notice. Going-out is in-she first must provide a public school selves with how the notion of going-fectious; once one group does it, an-curriculum to place in the class, without fosters the development of respon-other will want to as well. out which the child would have no so- sibility. Just a cautionary word to reiterate: cietal guidelines to which to refer. The To successfully effect going-out, the success of one's ability to effect go-absence of this guide would be a seri- the teacher has the responsibility to ing-out depends on the foresightednessous deterrent to his efforts to meet his think through each and every step nec-and thoughtfulness of the teacher inpersonal obligation and responsibility. essary. One such initial step of that pro-anticipating all of the steps and exigen-Thus, the teacher 's responsibility is cess is the education of the parents andcies that may arise in connection withtwofold: she must provide a legible 91 9 3 Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years and usable local curriculum, and thenof this nature must be found so that youRegular Meetings with the Teacher she must present it in an effective andand your children can succeed in the The teacher 's efforts will be re- befitting way to the child. use of this tool. Initially this is not anwarded eventually, because these scru- Let me caution you by advisingeasy thing to accomplish, and its mas-pulously used books are put to use against ever letting the public schooltery requires consideration, determina-when the teacher has her meetings with curriculum take on a life of its own. Ittion, and perseverance from bothindividuals, the third metaphorical should never be embellished beyondteacher and child. piece of material suggested by what it states, otherwise the limits im- The children should be given theMontessori. It is at these times that the posed would be that of the person em-reasons for keeping these journals, so teacher and the child together peruse bellishing rather than the limits definedthey understand their importance inthe record books and the work of the by society. This in itself, imposes an un-relation to their free use of time. Thesechild to help the child evaluate, not necessary impediment to the child'sare limits to their freedom. They mustonly his productivity, but also the qual- freedom to follow his interests. Neversee them as tools for tracing and assess-ity of his work. It is a time for the two present it to the children in such a waying their work, as well as standards forto see if the child has been accountable that each child has his own copy, andmeasuring their responsibility and ac-to the freedom extended to him. uses it as a checklist to tick off each ac-countability. These books should never These meetings can be on fixed complished item. When this is asked ofbe used as an assignment journal indays of the week or they can be sched- the child it takes the joy out of learn-which children write what they areuled randomly. They need to be con- ing, and reduces it to a mechanism thatgoing to do for the day. This defeats and ducted fairly regularly in the six to nine controls what the child learns. distorts their purpose completely.class. An individual child should have When this is asked of children, theya meeting with his teacher at least ev- Record Books or Journals have been pinned down to prescribedery two weeks. As children display The child is helped to monitor hiswork, just as a butterfly is pinned inmore and more responsibility the own freely-chosen work by keeping captivity. teacher soon realizes who needs more track of what he does throughout the For children coming from the pri-frequent meetings and who needs day. All of his work and activities aremary class, the idea of tracking one'sfewer. Accordingly, she can alter her recorded in what are sometimes calledwork is a new notion, and it initiallyschedule. In the nine to twelve class one daily journals or record books, the sec-requires constant monitoring. At thewould expect the children to be very ond metaphorical piece of material rec-outset of the year, the record books ofpracticed at this task because of expe- ommended by Dr. Montessori to bal-all the new children must be checkedrience. Therefore, it is conceivable that ance the child's freedom. The recordregularly as a sign of encouragementfewer formal meetings would be re- book is a device by which the child canand reinforcement of the expectations.quired, but even at that, each child both monitor his own work and activi-However, before long it will become needs to be able to count on having rou- ties and assume responsibility for them. apparent who avoids the task, thus re-tine meetings with the teacher. And, of In these books he enters the time hequiring consistent support and moni-course, there will be those individuals begins an activity, the name of the ac-toring, and who doesn't. For those whowho require and need more frequent tivity, the amount of work he accom-don't require constant attention youmeeting than others, because as yet, plishes, and the time that he stops thecan rely on random and periodic in-they are still unable to handle the free- work. Each of these elements is re-spection. To foster the use of the jour-doms offered them responsibly. quired if this device is to be effective.nals, the teacher can use a little seduc- To the meeting the child brings his To a certain extent, when done correctly tion by encouraging the children tomost recent work, finished and unfin- the amount of work done can be quan-decorate them and by providing theished work, and of course, his record tified, giving the child a means by time to do so. Further, if the books pro-book. At this meeting both he and the which he can evaluate his productivityvided are beautiful and attractive,teacher together refer to the record or lack thereof. rather than commonplace or mundane,book to determine if the child is effi- One of the first steps in the child'sthey call to the children to be used andciently and wisely using his time. De- use of this valuable tool is a clear andvalued. pending on what comes to light, in precise presentation given him. As with Without commitment, dedication,some cases it will be during these meet- other elements in offering children free-ceaseless consistency and follow-ings that the child will redesign his dom in the elementary class, this toothrough on the part of the teacher, theapproach to his work and his free op- must be thought out very carefully.record books will not succeed. Andportunities. The teacher should guide Things to consider are: Does the child without the use of the record books, thethe child to create for himself solutions tell time? If not, how will he be able tochild is deprived of a fundamental in-and suggestions for his improvement, record his time? Where will he find thestrument that offers him an opportu-rather than imposing on him a plan and date? What are his handwriting skillsnity for self-evaluation and a means toa conclusion. This allows him to take like? Does he need a book with widerhandle responsibly the free use of timethe responsibility for his work and im- lines than the other children? Does hegranted him. For this reason theprovement. If a child doesn't recognize know the name of the material he hasMontessori elementary teacher must be his inferior work, then the teacher must used? Who can help him with thesecommitted and dedicated to makingmake him aware of it. This could be ac- dilemmas? The solutions to questionsthis system work effectively. complished by comparing the inferior

92 9 4 Phyllis Pottish-Lewis work to a piece of better work. Theof themselves and others in an environ- upkeep when they are allowed to es- child must first accept his deficienciesment replete with respectful actionstablish the system and take charge of before he can commit himself to im-and methods for developing and en-it. Adults do not need to impose the provement. gendering this ability. By carefully in-system for maintaining the class. They As these three ideasthe publictroducing these lessons and expectingonly need to free the children to do it, school curriculum, the daily journals,a thoughtful level of observance, weand then oversee in the end that it is and the regular meetings with the chil-enable the children to conduct them-being done. Ultimately the adult is re- dren are implemented in tandem withselves with civility and grace. In thesponsible for all that is in the environ- each other, they serve to create a foun-process we make them consciouslyment and, when needed, a judiciously dation in which that precious freedomaware of what is expected of them andplaced reminder will secure the suc- can be offered effectively to the chil- where their responsibility lies. In effectcessful result. dren, while the balance of responsibil-they have been given the means and the ity is maintained. tools for choosing the good. When theyExciting Environment fall short in their behavior, as they The classroom should be an excit- Ambiance of the Environment sometimes do because they are in pro-ing and alluring place to be. When the Children develop best in an envi-cess, they can be led to reason out forlessons of Cosmic Education are given ronment that meets their needs and onethemselves where their deficiencies lie,regularly, this contributes to the excite- they feel belongs to them, one for whichand then determine how to rectifyment ... imaginative stories,demon- they are responsible. When judiciousthem. strations, experiments, and explora- freedom is granted them in line with tions about the universe! What more reasonable expectations, children areChildren Should Have a Say impressive topic could launch the child eager to be there. Again, to create such An important element related tointo his work adventure? Nothing. It an environment is the teacher's respon-the respect that children feel, is for themjust must be offered. Once launched, sibility and its creation is a testimonyto know that they have a say in the hap- the children will have ideas of their to her artistry as a Montessori teacher.penings of their class, when that say isown to express in many ways. These To fulfill this obligation she must en-within reason. This is directly affiliatedways must be made available to them. sure that this classroom exhibits certainto the idea of freedom. Children should Frequently, expression of interest fi- qualities. be offered every rational opportunitynally manifests itself in large art to conduct themselves without interfer-projects. These are particular and indi- Safe and Secure Environment ence from adults. First and foremost vidual, relating to the child's work, not One quality worthy of immediatethey should be permitted opportunities activities in which the whole class sea- consideration is whether the environ-to solve their own problems. A teachersonally engages. To satisfy this need the ment feels safe and secure for the chil-needs to provide them with the timeteacher must make preparation in two dren. We have already spoken aboutand space for doing just this, and leaveways: she must prepare the environ- how clearly delineated guidelines forthem to sort things out if they can. Dr.ment by providing the required mate- conduct provide a security for childrenMontessori has said in Education for arials with different media, and sec- functioning in a classroom, but thereNew World, "Even if two children want ondly, she must prepare herself for are other important elements to ensure.the same material, they should be leftgranting the children a large- expendi- Children must feel that their ideas and to settle the problem for themselves un- ture of time, as well as enduring that opinions are valued and respected, andless they call for the teacher 's aid."7 which might be considered a big mess. are given due consideration when pro- When children are left to their ownHowever, when children are working posed. If an environment is adult-ruled,devices to find solutions, they are usu-consistently and responsibly on these it cannot provide the necessary regardally satisfied with the outcome, but fur-activities, all freedoms offered at this justly asked by children. The childrenthermore, they have a sense of impor-time are absolutely warranted. This must feel that the methods of manage-tance about themselves and they de-kind of freedom lends itself to the cre- ment are fair and equitable, and thenvelop the ability for problem solving.ation of a dynamic and living environ- they will respond positively. The childThese fruits have come about by thement. between six and twelve is especiallycreation of an environment that allows A classroom that is inviting to chil- sensitive to these notions of justice. the child to develop self-reliance, onedren is one where there is an element Children must respect and feel re-that has left the child free to seek hisof fun and joy. Fun is defined not as spected by all people who inhabit theown resolution. amusement and festivity necessarily, environment, adults and children alike. Since this environment belongs ef-but as something light and enjoyable. This quality, which can be given thefectively to the children, they must as-A component required in the imple- name of Grace and Courtesy, must besume responsibility for its care andmentation of this kind of classroom is preserved at all costs. Children flour-maintenance. When they are in chargethe teacher's sense of humor. Children ish when they spend time in situationsof devising the system and means forat this age respond positively to humor. where they are appreciated and cour-caring for the plants, animals and ma-Everything need not be deadly serious. teously regarded. Again, this is the realterials, they become consciously awareEven when a teacher must impose root of the development of self esteem.of all that needs doing within theirsome consequence for an infraction, she Children learn the fine art of taking careroom. They become the owners of thecan do this with mild pleasant humor,

93 85 Practical Applications of Freedom and Responsibility in the Elementary Years not derision, at the same time imparting a seriousness about the matter. This Phyllis Pottish-Lewis is an AMI elementary trainer, is an art and a skill, and its develop- consultant and teacher. She received her AMI primary and elementary diplomas in 1971 and ment is critical. 1977 respectively and has taught at both levels for 29 years. She holds a Bachelor's Degree in Zoology from UCLA and Is licensed as a Cali- Conclusion fornia Medical Technologist. Ms. Pottish-Lewis Dr. Montessori advises us to se- served as a past president of EAA. duce the children to win their attention, to employ any method, "other than the use of the stick" to captivate their interest, and thus ultimately evoke their involvement. When we create an attractive, lively, engaging, and exciting place to be, one fraught with fairness and justice, trusting the child's immense capacities and competency, the children will respond positively to us. With each child and personality we must develop a relationship and a rapport, one that encompasses mutual respect. When this is accomplished, the children will trust us, and it will be then that we can help them to connect with the environment, thus enabling us to offer them freedoms that will occasion the development of responsibility. 0

Notes

' Montessori, Maria, Dr Montessori's Own Handbook, p. 134: Sartre, Jean-Paul, "Freedom and Re- sponsibility," Freedom and Responsibility, p. 49. 3 Montessori, Maria, Education For a New World, p. 78-79.

4 Montessori, Maria, The Montessori Method, p. 92-93. 5 Montessori, Maria, Education For a New World, p. 88. 6 Ibid., p. 87-89. 'Ibid., p. 88.

Bibliography Montessori, Maria. Dr Montessori's Own Hand- book. New York: Schocken, 1965. Montessori, Maria. Education For a New World. Madras, India: Kalakshetra Publications, 1974. Montessori, Maria. The Montessori Method. New York: Schocken, 1969. Sartre, Jean-Paul. "Freedom and Responsibil- ity," Freedom and Responsibility. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1964.

9 6

94 Understanding the Nature of the Industry and the Special Opportunities it Presents Joe Vaz

Starting Your Own School: A Case early childhood education in yourties for disabled under ADA, new Study Approach area building or remodel houseall are ex- Jennifer Jones, AMI diploma holder with We understand that money is in shortpensive propositions. Further, there are six years experience at the primary level,supply and that options are limited.significant soft costs. You will need out- three years at her current position as a pri- This may really be a great blessing inside help: architect, engineer, contrac- mary teacher, is looking into the possibilitydisguise. tor, attorney. of starting her own school. She recognizes that she has limited funds and limited ad- RISK FACTORS + For the new operator, leasing/rent- ministrative experience, no credit history Demographic factors (ten year hori- ing is often a more viable option. and is looking for guidance. zon; benchmarks) If you are leasing, a wide range of Regulatory environment choices are available: churches, schools OUR GOAL Quality of management with excess capacity, community build- + To identify major risk factors and You must have a good sense of theings, commercial centers. Churches and other road blocks in our attempt toongoing demand by area parents; em-similar facilities are usually in excellent help this teacher set up a school. ployment patterns (localization); pre-locations. They have good visibility and The teacher, Jennifer, is now takingschool, after school and summer pro-are close to neighborhoods you have on the role of an entrepreneura risk-grams. targeted to serve. These facilities will taker. What is the profile of an entre- Be aware and informed of regulatoryprovide you access to an area that preneur? Some believe that entrepre-issues; safety programs. Exercise duewould otherwise not be open to you, neurs have inborn traits which includediligence; check those references. e.g., they may be in residential zones little or no anxiety, great self-image and Operate on the principle that repu-that will not have available childcare no self-doubt. Don't believe it. If true,tation is everything. The depth of ex-centers. these traits perhaps are typical of ex-perience is crucial. Do not open a new There is economy in investible funds perienced entrepreneurs. Today's suc-center with new teacher!! A minimumwith opportunities to expand or have cessful entrepreneur was, until recently,of three years experience working asspecial programs. a scared kid. teacher is strongly recommended. In most cases these facilities are ideal for your use as a Montessori school PRELIMINARY ISSUES FACILITIES/SPACE with some minor modification to pre- The pillars of management REQUIREMENTS pare for practical life and the outside + P.O.S.D.C. Stay focused. You are in the educa-area for outdoor environment. In most Industry description tional business. This is not an oppor-churches you can start small and ex- Fragmented industry tunity for real estate speculation.pand by leasing additional classrooms. Childcare centers are pre-school Buying property to sell on appreciation is not recommended. Rental arrangements can be tied to group care which vary from state to gross revenues. You can negotiate an state because there are no federal regu- agreement to increase rent as enrollment lations or guidelines. They are operatedLocation Location is the most critical elementincreases. In an ownership situation, as profit and non-profit with approxi- you will begin with a big mortgage pay- mately 50% falling in each category. in identifying and attracting customers. You will usually draw from a fivement without the enrollment to pay They can be structured as family for it. daycare, independent, one-site centers, mile radius. Don't let an offer of cheap or chains. space overshadow your need for a good location. Lease Terms SOME RECOMMENDATIONS Churches are not given to long term + See your Montessori school as a na-To Own or To Rent? leases. They may want to get out if they tional entity rather than local or re- Owning may be the ideal way to en-find that your program does not mesh gional sure control...but not necessarily thewith the church activity or they decide Start small best option. they would like to start their own pro- + Understand that this is not a get rich Building a new facility or convertinggram - say 10 years maximum. quick industry (it does offer personalan existing building is a monumental Overcome this barrier by breaking fulfillment and a reasonable steadytask and certainly not for those withdown the lease into shorter periods. income) limited resources. Zoning codes, fire,Perhaps a two-year lease with two two- + Aim to be the standard bearer fOTbuilding safety, occupancy and faci1i-year optionsyour optionsor a mu-

95 97 Understanding the Nature of the Industry and the Special Opportunities it Presents tual consent provision after two years.the sources? Good relationships are vital. Stay in 1. Personal savings close touch with the church organiza- 2. Family and friends tion. If it makes sense, participate in 3. Small unsecured loans their outreach programs, as an indi- 4. Leasing vidual and as a school. Avoid high risk lenders and consult- All playground equipment andants who will package your loan for a equipment belong to church at termi-fee and shop the financial institutions. nation. This is usually an exercise in futility, with few or no strings attached. How- Leasing Disadvantages ever, if you fail, the emotional cost can be high. Landlord-tenant relationships can be problematic. Joint use of space, park- Money from friends and relatives is ing, janitorial services, and cleanlinessusually a loan unless you choose to take are some of the problem areas. Somethem on as equity partners, in which conflict between Sunday school andevent they are venture capitalists with Montessori school staff is inevitable, sotheir repayment being tied to the suc- every week the materials must becess of the business. packed away and set up again on Mon- Whatever the question the answer is day morning. probably "cash flow." You are doomed Churches may be selective withto fail financially if: whom they do business. You may have you build or commit excessive to incorporate as a non-profit at the be- funds, ginning. See an attorney or accountant you do not control creeping costs, (CPA). you underprice your services Signage can be a problem. The If all this makes you uptight, keep the church may limit you to a small por-message of the serenity prayer your table sign or only allow you to shareguide to action: space on their marquee. This equates God grant me the serenity to accept to no curbside presence which is very the things I cannot change, important. the courage to change the things I can and the wisdom to know the difference. 0 ENROLLMENT Building enrollment The marketing of your school is crucial to building enrollment. Advertis- ing through yellow pages, brochures, open houses and conducted tours is successful in this regard. Videos can be Joe Vaz is administrator of the Montessori Cen- ter School in Phoenix, Arizona, a school he de- a valuable tool also. Remember, parents veloped with his wife, Nimal, nearly fifteen years are your salespersons in the field. Word ago. A former banker, he now teaches college of mouth is quite often your best ad- level economics and international business. vertising campaign. Enrollment period for the primary program occurs throughout the year. Do not use annual contracts or pro- visions if you do not plan to enforce the stated terms.

FINANCIAL MATTERS A small venture of the type that we have described will initially not qualify for bank financing. Why? The risk is excessive. Banks want a track record usually three years of activity with a history of profitability and other crite- 98 ria: liquidity and leverage. So what are

96 Freedom to Develop Silvana Montanaro, M.D. "The social question of childhoodlaws."' pursue a series of interesting objectives penetrates deeply into our inner lives, Children need people who canand thus channel his random energies rousing our consciences and stirring usremove the obstacles from their envi-into orderly and well-executed ac- to act. A child is not a stranger, one sim- ronment so that the progression alongtions."7 ply to be observed from outside. Rather,the path of their self-realization can be It is important to underline "the childhood constitutes the most impor-achieved. true needs" of the child and not the tant element in an adult's life, for it is "The inner force can't be stopped,needs related to our personal ideas in his early years that a man is made."' so if we do not help it go the right way,about education. So it becomes clear When the child finds obstacles to if we do not let the child use it in a posi-that "freedom to develop" will not be his development "the child does nottive way, this force will become a forcepossible without acquiring the knowl- lose one of his products: he loses him-of destruction, like a river stopped onedge of these needs in order to be able self. Because his masterpiece, the oneits course. The consequence is tragic:to distinguish between true and false he makes up in the innermost of hiswhen the child is hindered in his de-ones. creative genius, is the new human be-velopment, there is not only a devia- Today this choice is even more dif- tion but the child loses himself his mas-ficult because we have more money to We all must have freedom to de-terpiece!"6 invest in education, so we are bom- velop because we can develop at any The second component, the re-barded by propaganda/advertising age and until the last minute. But nowmoval of obstacles, requires goodpushing us to buy many unnecessary we want to talk about children in theknowledge of human development, an things that become immediately an first years of life, the period of time thatunderstanding of life itself. This is"obstacle" to development. Certainly is the foundation of personality as aclearly affirmed by Montessori in allmany of you are very conscious of the Japanese proverb says very well: "Theher books. "Childhood constitutes thechild's true needs but for the few who mind developed in the first three yearsmost important element in an adult'snever had the opportunity to think lasts 100 years." life, for it is in his early years that a manabout what it is usually prepared for a "The concept of liberty in the edu-is made." Medical knowledge teachesnewborn by good intentioned parents/ cation of very young children shouldthe consequences of the obstacles to theadults, let us see how easily, from the be understood as a condition most fa-physical development: malformationsvery first moment after birth, we put vorable to their physical and psycho-and even death. The same can happenobstacles to the "freedom to develop." logical development. A teacher (par-in the psychological development but Which are the true needs of a new- ent/adult) who is urged on by a pro-these consequences are not so evidentborn? The first and most important is a found reverence for life, while she islike the physical ones. person, the mother, to attach to in or- making her interesting observations, Let me try to explain this better.der to survive physically (protection should respect the gradual unfoldingAny development needs an environ-and special food) and psychologically of a child's life. And education is thement and this is the relationship we(emotional security of the human rela- active assistance required for the nor-find everywhere there is life: living be-tionship). It is to be remembered that mal expansion of this life."3 ings and their environments. no newborn mammal can continue to Who is a child? Montessori says The educational environmentlive without this special person, the that "a child is constantly being pushedshould be prepared by adults who havemother, with whom a preferential rela- on by his great mission, that of grow-love and knowledge. The freedom totionship can be established. Life, in its ing up and becoming a man. Because adevelop is possible only when there isgreat wisdom, has put together in one child is himself unaware of his missiona place, a family, in which exist thesehuman being, all that the newborn and of his internal needs, and adults aretwo conditions for growth. It is this re-needs in order to have "freedom to de- far from being able to interpret them,lationship that I would like to be ablevelop." This very special situation can- many conditions prevail both at hometo illustrate to you because after manynot be deeply understood unless we and in school that impede the expan-years of work and experience in thisthink about where the newborn comes sion of his infant life."4 This vision canfield I still find so difficult to make par-from, the period of life we call preg- give us a direct orientation in our taskents / teachers / adults (not Mont-nancy. Prenatal life is the special begin- of working with persons who are sup-essorians of course!) understand it. ning of our life, the time we call preg- posed to care for the child's develop- The first understanding is aboutnancy, and it is experienced only by ment. In this quote it is implied that: "the study of the secret needs of earlymammals. Such a situation was not Children have within a force, thechildhood in order to assist it. Such anpresent on our planet until mammals force of life, pushing them to grow andobjective demands, on the part of anappeared 130 million years ago. It is a this force cannot be resisted. "Life in-adult, greater care and closer attentiontime lived inside of a living being who creases, becomes manifest, and perfectsto the true needs of a child; and, practi-becomes a very special being especially the individual, but it is confined withincalVT, it leads to the creation of a suit- related to the new child. If we keep in limits and is governed by insuperableable environment where a child canmind the significance of evolution, we

979 Freedom to Develop come to the guideline that "Ontogen-can offer to children from the very be- esis recapitulates Phylogenesis:" in aginning. very short time we pass through all the We know how to prepare people phases of the History of Life and wefor their great mission as parents so that repeat it in our personal development. they can prepare the simple but effec- Is this perspective useful for find-tive environment for freedom to de- ing the true needs of human newborns?velop. In the prepared environment we I think so because the true needs arewill observe the miracle of unfolding the ones that come from life, the needslife that becomes possible because of developed during its evolution, and itour commitment to the Montessori vi- is in this frame of reference that we dis-sion of human development. 0 cover the importance of attachment, special food, active experiences in the environment. While oxygen, through respiration, Notes is provided by the external environment and a newborn has the necessary 1 Maria Montessori, The Secret of Childhood, Ballantine Books, p. 4. organs developed to function, food cannot be reached unless the mother (the 2 Maria Montessori, Autoeducazione nelle scuole elementari, Garzanti, Milano, 1962, P. 21. only person needed at this moment) accepts the child and guides him near the 3 Maria Montessori, The Discovery of the Child, Ballantine Books, Ch. 3, p. 61. breast. This shows clearly that while we respond to a true physical needfood 4 Ibid., p. 62 . at the same time we provide for a true 5 Ibid., p. 61. psychological need: to reestablish direct 6 Maria Montessori, Autoeducazione nelle contact and to experience the only well scuole elementari, Garzanti, Milano 1962. known person who must now become 7 Maria Montessori, The Discovery of the the necessary link and mediator with Child, Ballantine Books, p. 62. the new environment. In our western maternity hospital these true needs are completely unat- tended and a lot of wrongs occur at the very beginning of life with the danger of great and permanent damage for the body and the mind. The wrongs are: Silvana Montanaro, M.D. earned her degree in Medicine and Surgery, with a speciality in Psy- 1. separation from the mother who chiatry, from the University of Rome. In 1955 she is also in need of the contact with joined the staff of the Rome Montessori School for Assistants to Infancy, where she taught men- the newborn tal hygiene, child neuropsychiatry, nutrition and 2.artificial food producing aller- obstetrics. Dr. Montanaro is currently the Direc- gies and difficulty in digestion tor of Training for the Assistants to Infancy course in Rome and serves on the board of directors of and eaten in loneliness AMI. She has also been the Director of Training 3. restriction of movement because for the AMI Assistants to Infancy courses in Lon- of cribs and wrong clothes don and Mexico City, and was responsible for 4. lack of natural stimuli from the bringing this training to the United States. people and the environment

Let us briefly consider these mistakes that could be easily avoided and thus produce such an improvement in the human development. Montessori has understood, in depth, the first three years of life and recognized their fundamental importance in the construction of human personality. But she gave also precious and practical advice for dealing with newborns and toddlers: a low bed, an area for active and free movement, weaning table and chair, possibility of reaching the sink, etc. 1.00 These are the inexpensive materials we

98 Beyond Open HouseSharing Montessori's Perspective with Parents Carla Caudill-Waechter

Once parents become interested in although early academic developmentner energy which leads the child dur- Montessori education whetheris often one outcome of our work withing his development. through word-of-mouth, an openyoung children. Often, the Montessori environment house or other meansand decide to The real essence of the Montessoriitself provides the first glimpse to par- enroll their child, our initial communi-method is to help the natural processents of our vision. They come to visit, cation goal with them is clear: we de-of human development, to create inte-look around, and decide, "Yes, I want scribe Dr. Montessori's vision of child-grated personalities; that is, people who my child to be in this kind of place." hood as represented by our school andhave a sense of responsibility, whoThen the process of application and draw the family into sharing this vision. know their limitations, who have aenrollment begins; many schools have For example, think back to yoursense of duty toward themselves andin place a pre-enrollment process to first experience with your school. Whatsociety, and who, having a clear vision,acquaint parents with the operation was the impetus for your decision tocan make a positive contribution toand outlook of the school. If this is not make a commitment to this particularsolving social problems. done prior to enrollment, it is usually school? We all have our own reasons The essential factor in thedone during the first six weeks or so of and needs; yet, something drew eachMontessori outlook is that it is not thethe child's attendance. Often this proof us to this school, and something con-adult who creates the child; it is thecess includes viewing a video about tinues to keep us attached. In most child who, through his experiences, cre-Montessori education, observing a class cases, whatever our individual circum- ates a human being. Dr. Montessori didand an interview with staff members; stances, it is a common perspective, an not consider her work simply a methodmost schools follow this with varying outlook that we share with others at theof education, but rather a means ofdegrees of formality and intensity. school; this shared vision is what bindshelping the creative energy in the childThen, the child enters a class; parent us together into a community. So, whento reach its end. The central objectiveconferences are held once or twice a new families join us, it is important toof Montessori education is to assist inyear; parents are invited (or required) them as individuals as well as to ourthe creation of the man that God meantto observe; general parent meetings are community that we share the vision ofhim to benot the man who turns hisheld on occasion, which some parents the school. increased intellectual ability to pur-attend. Granted, this is an idealistic out-poses of destruction. We Montessori educators recog- look. We all know the reality that many American Montessori schoolsnize the need to relate effectively to parents choose a school because theyhave, in many instances, departed fromparents' concerns and needs in order are seeking quality services and pro-this ideal. They place their emphasis onto maintain on-going communication grams, academic excellence, a safequick and easily observed results. Butthroughout their child's years with us. place that will teach the "right" values. the heart of the matterthe integrated Of course, this also helps us resolve any Often, parents do not understand howpersonality - is often forgotten. Schoolsproblems that may arise during that a Montessori school differs from a tra-where this is true do no harm to chil-time and helps ensure continuing en- ditional school, and they worry aboutdren, but they give both children androllment for the school. how their child will "make the transi-parents far less than they have the right Let'sgo beyondthat.As tion." Thus, unless we effectively shareto expect. Montessori educators, we have skills with them Montessori's vision and our The sources of the problem areand training that can help us inspire quest to help children become respon- complex. Key is a mistaken impressionparents to provide the crucial emo- sible, caring, contributing members ofof Montessori that leads many parentstional atmosphere in the home that will society, we could face an ambivalentto see this as a way to give their chil-best empower their child's develop- relationship with these parents. dren a head start in the race to Harvard.ment. Most importantly, we have a vi- In 1966 Mario Montessori ad-This is exacerbated by the commonlysion of human development to share dressed an AM1 conference in Washing- weak role of the American parent inwith the world. This is not to say that ton, D.C.; these same issues were per-providing close guidance and moral/we should expect that all parents will tinent them. ethical education, in contrast to placesbecome experts on Montessori educa- The problem faced by Montessorilike India and Ceylon, where parent-tion. However, sharing our vision in an education in America is caused by thechild relationships are closer andinformative way will not only build the influence of the press and public opin- Montessori education is flourishing. trust and confidence we need in our ion on the process of education...This What Dr. Montessori offers is farrelationships with parents, it will help goal of producing accelerated earlymore than a curriculum leading to aall of us adults at our task. As Dr. scholastic achievement for its own sakerich intellectual life. She offers a key,Montessori said, "The relationship beis not part of the Montessori method, which gives clarity and focus to the in-tween adult and child is in the spiri- 1 0991 Beyond Open HouseSharing Montessori's Perspective with Parents tual realm; as adults, we have much tonothing; it depends solely on the emo- Is this not a template for under- learn from children." tional preparation of the adult." standing? This could be the foundation There is a window of opportunity "...The prejudice that condemnsfor a study course, which would en- for us when parents first enroll theirchildren to sleep is very popular amonghance understanding of child develop- child; it's at this time that we share notnorthern peoples and is without anyment as well as thoughtful participa- just the nuts and bolts of our Parentfoundation, but we accept it withouttion in the school community. Handbook, but also nurture in parentsargument. One time a child came to me Over the years, visiting AMI the on-going appreciation of thesaying that he wanted to see somethingschools throughout the country as a miracle of development. In The Secretvery beautiful, of which he had heardconsultant, I have noted certain trends of Childhood, Montessori states, "In themuch talkthe stars. He had never one being what many of you in this course of its psychological develop-seen them because he had to go to bedroom deal witha definite decline in ment the baby achieves things so mar- very early. It is easy to understand thatattendance at traditional "parent meet- velous as to be miraculous, and it isthe child condenmed to sleep must find ings," despite your best efforts to in- only habit that makes us indifferentthe inner work of construction ex-form people well in advance, provide spectators." Let us resolve to help par-tremely fatiguing because he is forcedchildcare, offer interesting programs, ents (and ourselves) maintain faith into struggle with the adult..." perhaps even require attendance in the child, in the special energy, the di- "...Until now, the principal train-some instances. Despite everybody's vine power, that manifests in the for-ing parents gave their children con-good intentions, only a few dedicated mation of each human being. sisted of correcting their inadequacies,parents show up regularly for these To this end, Montessori's book, Theteaching them that which appear to beevents. Child in the Family, is most helpful. Igood and right, although not so much It seems to me that an introductory propose that this book could becomeby example as with moral precept andstudy such as I've just mentioned might the basis of an introductory shortadmonition." help motivate people to attend future course of guided study for parents of "...The new education prepares anmeetings; at the least, we would have entering children, or even (for the am-adaptive environment for the child andprovided a basic foundation for under- bitious!) open to the entire community.recognizes in general that he lovesstanding Montessori education and Maybe you recall this book. It's rela-work and order for themselves." child development. Logistically, this tively short, easily read, and an inspir- "...Now let me enumerate thecourse would be repeated annually, ing view of family life. The chapters areprinciples that will help the mother find perhaps more often. It could be orga- entitled, "The Blank Page," "The New- the best way for her child. nized as a series of weekly discussions, born Child," "The Spiritual Embryo," "The most important is to respectpossibly open to the entire community "The New Education," "My Method inall the reasonable forms of activity inas well as new parents. It would be of- General," "The Character of the Child,"which the child engages and try to un-fered to parents in an inviting way, an "The Child's Environment," "Thederstand them... alluring way, rather than as a "require- Child in the Family," "The New "The second principle is this: Wement." Find a way to make this an Teacher," and "The Adult and themust support as much as possible theevent that people want to come to, not Child." child's desires for activity; not wait onanother one of those "have to's." Montessori outlines principles forhim, but educate him to be indepen- After this introductory study, it's effective parenting and illustrates themdent. important to continue to offer a well- with memorable anecdotes throughout "The third principle is that werounded variety of informative and this book. These could be guides tomust be most watchful in our relation-useful events. We all realize that most stimulate parents' discussion of theirships with children because they areparents come to meetings for one main home environments and situations. Justquite sensitivemore than we know reasonto talk about their child. Be to give you a sampling, here are a fewto external influences." sure to "touch base" with them in this quotes from Chapter 5, "The New Edu- "It is not absolutely necessary thatregard; weave anecdotes about the chil- cation," and from Chapter 9, "Thewe appear perfect in the eyes of ourdren into a presentation to illustrate the Child in the Family." children; rather, it is necessary that weabstract concept you may be present- "The adult must acquire the sensi-recognize our defects and patiently ac-ing, just as Montessori did in the pre- tivity to recognize all the child's needs;cept the children's just observations.vious excerpts. only thus can he give the child all theRecognizing this principle, we can ex- In building a program for parents help that is necessary. If we were to es-cuse ourselves before children when we(and here I'm referring to this introduc- tablish a principle, it would be thathave done something unjust." tory study course as well as on-going, what is necessary is the child's partici- " ...To follow attentively all thegeneral meetings), there are certain ba- pation in our lives, for in that period inspiritual expressions of a child is to freesic elements to consider, including which he must learn to act, he cannothim so he can manifest his needs andscheduling, format, and content. Par- learn well if he does not see how, justthereby guarantee for himself all theents, administrators, and teachers must as he could not learn language if heexternal means for his progress. This iswork together on these elements. Ev- were deaf. To extend to the child thisthe premise for his freedom and har-eryone has a role, a responsibility, in hospital4 that is, to allow him to par-monious development and the germi-implementing a program that will help ticipate in our lives, is difficult, but costsnation of his energies." all of us better serve the child.

100 Carla Caudill-Waechter

The following ideas represent sev- the children, are already acquainted. mention articles about the school in eral ways of building better community If this is an evening program, make the local media. This is also a good and communication. Of course, every sure that the plans are for appropri- place to include a thoughtful article school has its own circumstances to ate pre-bedtime activities. A "pajama on a parenting or pedagogical issue. consider, and this list should not be con- party," with kids attending in their More and more schools have their sidered mandatory or all inclusive! pj's, quiet games or stories will pro- own web page; be sure to link with These are simply some ideas to con- mote an easy bedtime when arriv- the AMI site! sider regarding scheduling, formats, ing home. Remember the anecdote Play videotaped highlights of your and content of your parent communi- about the child who wanted to see classes at general parent meetings. cation efforts. Not every idea will be do- the stars? How about arranging If parents are unable to observe, a able at every school, and there are many some stargazing? video profile of their child would more great ideas among you; so, con- Consider a variety of formats pan- certainly be welcomed and could sider the following as a starting point. els, roundtables, lectures, videos, also be used at their parent confer- Parent events should be included in study groups, classroom tours, dem- ence. your master calendar planning. It's onstration of materials, alumni vis- Remember to include parent partici- a good idea to first meet as a staff to its/talksthese are all tried and true. pation as classroom guests to present determine needs and priorities, then If you have a successful "tradition," a special event or program, and as survey parents to determine their use it, as long as it's effective. field trip or Going-Out chaperones. needs and priorities. Well in ad- Open some informational events to Again, it's important to set the stage vance, learn their preferences and the public; for example, when your with preparation and guidelines. needs regarding times and topics, AMI / USA consultant visits. Con- Parent education programs should then set up programs for the school sider asking some parents to help succinctly describe the nature of year. There are many approaches to with media publicity for this. child development, including the scheduling, such as the following Invite an outside speaker from the basic tenents of Montessori theory. examples: community; for example, network This would include topics such as Some schools require parents to with a healthcare provider to present the human tendencies, the planes of attend extensive orientation sessions a program on hygiene or wellness. development, the prepared environ- prior to their child's entrance; other Often, this can result in a mutually ment, a historical overview of the schools offer these sessions during beneficial partnering for the school Montessori movement, the role of the first six weeks of school. and outside speaker. the directress, development of inde- Some schools have parent events Participate in a local, regional, or pendence, abstraction, sensitive pe- at a regular time, for example, the national event, such as "Turn-off TV riods, freedom of movement, cosmic third Thursday evening of every Week." education, grace and courtesy, moral month throughout the year. Besides general parent meetings and development, discipline and will, Other schools schedule an inten- individual conferences, be sure to and the acquisition of culture. Re- sive seminar at the beginning of ev- encourage staff to initiate parent member that parents don't have to ery year; or, this could be over a contact through one-on-one conver- become experts, but the more knowl- weekend or three or four evenings sations or written notes, (especially edgeable they are about human de- during one week. to relate something nice that hap- velopment, the more ability they will In a large school, it may be nec- pened at school regarding their have to optimize their relationship essary to double schedule a program child) and responding promptly to with their child. to accommodate the numerous work phone calls; it's especially important Organize study groups for those schedules you're dealing with and to to greet parents warmly by name. who want to delve more deeply into give parents an option of which to Written progress reports may be ap- a particular area. attend. propriate at the end of the year. Include references and descriptions Schedule both "in-class" meet- Older elementary children may of the second and third planes in ings for the parents of each class and write a self-evaluation, go over it your discussion with parents of tod- "all-school" meetings. with the teacher for her comments, dlers and primary children, and re- Remember not to over-schedule and then present it at a family confer back to the first or second plane and to include social events (such as ference. Should you initiate such a in discussion with parents of older potluck suppers and holiday parties) plan at your school, be sure to first children. This will help them see as well as informational events. plan and establish guidelines with "the big picture" of childhood, and Plan to make childcare available your staff as to expectations regard- it will also provide a base for par- during the meeting; if parents know ing format and content. ents' commitment to your elemen- that they can attend the meeting and School newsletters are invaluable in tary program. feel secure about their child's activ- communicating not just news and Welcome toddler and children's ity at that time, they are much more information, but also the unique house parents into the elementary likely to attend. The caregivers character of the school. Be sure to in- class for observation. should follow established basic pro- clude a letter from each class, articles Be sure that your elementary staff is cedures; it's most helpful if they, and highlighting any school events, or involved in introducing cosmic edu- Icn 103 Beyond Open HouseSharing Montessori's Perspective with Parents

cation to those parents whose children are still on the first plane of development. Present the "cosmic drama" to parents, just as it is presented to elementary children, then explain the "how's and why's" of our approach to them. By repeating this often, we can enable parents to feel comfortable in making the inevitable explanation to friends and family about their choice of Montessori elementary for their child.

Parents and educators have the freedom and the responsibility to work together for the children. Our task requires a blend of idealism and pragma- tism, intellectual effort and spiritual preparation so that we may be prepared to assist our children's growth. In closing, here is an excerpt from the first chapter of The Child in the Family: "We adults, in our interpretation and treatment of children, not only have erred in certain details of education, or in some imperfect forms of schooling, but have pursued a course of action which is wholly wrong. And our mistakes have now generated a new social and moral question. The dissension between children and adults has ex- isted unchanged for centuries, but the young have now tipped the balance. It is this reversal that has impelled us to action, not only in the direction of educators, but toward all adults, especially parents." 0

Carla Caudill-Waechter serves AMI/USA as a school consultant. She holds a B.A. from Goddard College, AMI primary and elementary diplomas, and is a founding member of the Anderson Montessori Community Project, Inc., an urban school supported by private and corporate funds in Anderson, Indiana.

104

702 Some Conceptual Considerations in the Interdisciplinary Study of Immigrant Children Marcelo M. Suarez Orozco, Ph.D.

Since 1965 the United States has Indeed, we are not in Kansas anymore. quiring new categories of understand- formally admitted over 20 million new ing and conceptual approaches (see, immigrants. The rate of immigrationTheoretical Considerations in the inter alia, Basch et al., 1995; Levitt 1998). intensified in the 1990s to an average Study of the New Immigration A number of prominent sociologists inof about 1 million new legal immi- In recent years the study of immi-cluding Gans (1992), Portes and Zhou grants per annum. The vast majority ofgration has been dominated by labor(1993), Rumbaut (1996), and Waters new immigrants to the United Stateseconomists, sociologists, demogra-(1996) have further argued that a new are non-English speaking people ofphers, and to a lesser extentculturalhourglass "segmentation" in American color coming from the Afro-Caribbeananthropologists. While some topics,economy and society has been shaping basin, Asia, and Latin America. Newsuch as the economic causes and con-new patterns of immigrant insertion research suggests that there are be-sequences of immigration, have gener-into American life. tween 2 and 4 million "undocumented"ated a great deal of work, other areas This new research suggests what immigrants living in the United States. remain virtual terra incognita. The effectmight be broadly termed a "trimodal" It is further estimated that each yearof immigration on children is one suchpattern of adaptation. Some immi- some 200,000 to 400,000 undocumented neglected area. While in recent yearsgrants today are achieving extraordi- immigrants enter the United States.there have been a few excellent studiesnary patterns of upward mobility (National Research Council 1997) Thisof immigration and children, many ar-quickly moving into the well-remuner- post-1965 wave of immigration is theeas of the problem remain under-ex-ated knowledge-intensive sectors of the driving force behind a significant trans-plored and under-theorized. economy in ways never seen before in formation that will have profound im- In the area of theory-building, im-the history of U.S. immigration. On the plications for the remaking of Ameri-portant work remains to be done. Theopposite side of the hourglass economy, can democracy, society, and economy.foundational theoretical work on immi-large numbers of low-skilled immi- (M. Sudrez-Orozco 1998) gration to the United States has beengrants of color find themselves in in- Immigrant children are the fastestlargely based on the experiences ofcreasingly segregated sectors of the growing sector of the U.S. child popu-European immigrants entering theeconomy and society locked into low- lation. (Landale and Oropesa 1995)country in the earlier decades of thisskilled service jobs without much Roughly one in five children in the U.S.century. (Portes 1997) Much of thispromise of status mobility. (Portes and today lives in an immigrant-headedwork came to privileged concepts suchZhou 1993) In between these two pat- household. Immigrant children areas "assimilation" and "acculturation," terns are yet other immigrant groups now present in substantial numbers in(see, inter alia, Park and Burgess 1969;which approximate the norms of the school districts throughout the country.Gordon 1964; Alba and Nee 1997). As-majority population"disappearing" In California, for example, students ofsimilation, for example, was said tointo American institutions and culture limited English proficiency jumpedproceed along various paths on whatwithout much notice. from fewer than 500,000 in 1985 towas depicted as a generally upwardly This trimodal socioeconomic pat- about 1.5 million a decade later.mobile journey. As Robert Bellah oncetern seems to have an isomorphic rela- (Rumbaut 1995) They now make upnoted, "The United States was plannedtion to how the children of today's im- approximately 20% of the California for progress" (in Williamson 1996: 175)migrants tend to do in school. In the school population. While California and each wave of immigrants was saidlast few years there have been a num- leads the nation in terms of numbers to recapitulate the national destiny. Theber of studies on the performance of of immigrant students, no area of theargument was elegant in its simplicity:immigrant children in schools. The data country is unaffected by immigration. the longer immigrants were in the U.S.,suggest a complex picture. In broad In New York City public schoolsthe more Americanized they became,strokes, we can say that immigrant chil- today, 48% of all children come fromthe better they would do in terms ofdren today fit a trimodal pattern of immigrant households speaking overschooling, health, and income. school adaptation. Some immigrant 100 different languages. Even if immi- In recent years a number of distin-children seem to do quite well in gration tends to be highly concentratedguished social theorists have observedschools, surpassing native-born chil- in a handful of states (such as Califor-that the conceptual apparatus based ondren in terms of grades, performance nia, New York, Florida, Texas, and Illi- an earlier era of immigration may noin standardized tests, and attitudes to- nois), immigrant youth are found in all longer be adequate to address the ex-wards education. (Kao and Tienda areas of the nation and in diverse schoolperiences of new immigrants. Some1995) Other immigrants tend to over- systems. Today 42% of all school chil-have argued that immigration is nowlap with native-born children (see Wa- dren enrolled in Dodge City, Kansass,tructured by powerful but little under-ters 1996; Rumbaut 1995: 22-27). Yet come from immigrant backgrounds.stood forms of transnationalism, re-others tend to achieve below their na-

1031 Some Conceptual Considerations in the Interdisciplinary Study of Immigrant Children tive-born peers. (Portes and Hao 1998;A Paradox in Search of Explanation Asian youth showed the strongest Kao and Tienda 1995; Rumbaut 1995; The issue of variability in schoolnegative effects from becoming Ameri- Sudrez-Orozco and Sudrez-Orozcoadaptations and outcomes among eth-canized. For example, foreign-born 1995) nic and immigrant groups has receivedMexican youth are less likely than na- In general, studies examining pat- some attention in the scholarly litera-tive-born youth of Mexican parents to terns that lead to school success tend ture. (Ogbu and Simons 1998; Jacob andmiss school for a health or emotional to emphasize "the ideologies of oppor-Jordan 1993; Gibson and Ogbu 1991)problem, to have learning difficulties, tunity" and "cultures of optimism" thatHowever, there have been, to date, fewto be obese or to suffer asthma. They motivate immigrant parents to migrate.systematic comparisons examiningalso are less likely to have had sex, to (Gibson 1988; Kao and Tienda 1995;changes over time as different groupsengage in delinquent or violent acts or Sudrez-Orozco 1989; Sudrez-Orozcoof immigrant youth adapt to Americanto use three or more controlled sub- and Suárez-Orozco 1995; Tuan 1995) schools. stances. (Migration News 1998: 3) Some scholars have argued successful Yet some recent data suggest an In the area of schooling, Steinberg adaptations among immigrants mayunsettling pattern in search of furtherreports the findings of his national sur- relate to the patterns of cultural, eco-robust empirical and theoretical treat-vey of over 20,000 teenagers, " ...the nomic and social capital immigrants arement: among many immigrant groupslonger a student's family has lived in able to deploy in the new land. Othertoday length of residence in the United this country, the worse the youngster's scholars more specifically single outStates seems associated with decliningschool performance and mental health. immigrant "cultural values" said tohealth, school achievement, and aspi- ...Foreign-born studentswho, inci- promote educational success. (Sue andrations (see Kao and Tienda 1995;dentally, report significantly more dis- Okazaki 1990) Yet others suggest thatRumbaut 1995; Steinberg 1996; Sudrez-crimination than American-born some immigrant families succeed byOrozco and Sudrez-Orozco 1995;youngsters and significantly more dif- developing culturally-specific strate- Vernez, Abrahamse, and Quigley 1996). ficulty with the English language nev- gies which inoculate their children In the area of immigration andertheless earn higher grades in school against the hostilities and negative at-health, for example, we find a numberthan their American-born counterparts. titudes they encounter in the new cul-of counterintuitive results. Immigrants, " ...The more Americanized stu: ture. (De Vos 1992) Other studies notewhile they tend to share a number ofdentsthose whose families have been that successful immigrant parents are "at-risk" characteristicssuch as highliving here longerare less committed able to maintain social control by ori-rates of povertytend nevertheless toto doing well in school than their im- enting the children away from variousbe healthier than their non-immigrantmigrant counterparts. Immigrants negative interpersonal and cultural as-counterparts. (Brown et al. 1998) Immi-spend more time on homework, are pects of the host culture. (Zhou andgrant youth tend to be healthier thanmore attentive in class, are more ori- Bankston 1998) This line of work sug-non-immigrants from their own ethnic ented to doing well in school, and are gests that immigrant parents who aregroups. A recent national study ofmore likely to have friends who think able to maintain their own cultural pat- health among 20,000 randomly selectedacademic achievement is important. terns of social sanctioning and who ac- U.S. teens directed by Katheen Harris, "Differences between immigrants tively resist a whole array of distopichowever, reveals an alarming trend: and non-immigrants are also apparent cultural practices and beliefs in the host Foreign-born youth experiencewhen we look at various manifestations countryspecifically attitudes towardsfewer physical health problems, haveof mental health. Immigrant adoles- authority, discipline, homework, peerless experience with sex, are less likelycents report less drug use, less delin- relations, and datingtend to haveto engage in delinquent and violent be-quency, less misconduct in school, children who are more successful inhavior and are less likely to use con-fewer psychosocial problems, and less schools. trolled substances than native-bornpsychological distress than do Ameri- A number of studies have concen-youth. Findings of health deteriorationcan-born youngsters. trated on school failure among the chil-rather than improvement were remark- "The adverse effects of American- dren of immigrants. Scholars workingably consistent. Among foreign-bornization are seen among Asian and on the area of immigrant school under-youth, statistical analysis showed theLatino youngsters alike (that is, within achievement have explored a variety oflonger the time since arrival in theeach of the two largest populations of relevant factors. Some scholars haveUnited States, the poorer was the ado-immigrant youth in this country), with examined the structural barriers to ad-lescents' physical health and the greaterachievement decreasing, and problems vancement facing many immigrants ofthe likelihood of engaging in risky be-increasing, with each successive gen- color today. (Orfield 1998) Others have haviors. Specific health measures ana-eration. Instead of finding what one emphasized the sociocultural and lin-lyzed were general health, missedmight reasonably expectthat the guistic practices involved in the school-school due to health or emotional prob-longer a family has been in this coun- ing of children in poor and highly seg-lems, learning difficulties, obesity,try, the better the child will be faring in regated inner city schoolsthe schools asthma and health risk behaviors in-our schoolswe find exactly the re- many newly arrived immigrants, espe-volving sexual intercourse, unpro-verse. Our findings, as well as those cially those from the Afro-Caribbeantected sex, delinquency, violence andfrom several other studies, suggest that and Latin American regions, tend tosubstance abuse. Mexican, Central andbecoming Americanized is detrimental enroll. (Trueba 1998) South American, Filipino, and otherto youngsters' achievement, and ter-

104 106 Mo Marcelo M. Suarez Orozco, Ph.D. rible for their overall mental health."youth (eighty in each group) from Cen- Under "incoming resources" we (Steinberg 1996: 97-98) tral American (including El Salvador,include the usual predictors of school- Ruben Rumbaut working withGuatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua),ing outcomes such as SES, parental lit- Alejandro Portes found a similar pat-China (originating in Hong Kong,eracy, and education. Previous physi- tern in a survey of over 15,000 seniors,Mainland China, and Taiwan), the Do-cal and psychological health, as well as juniors, and sophomores in San Diego, minican Republic, Haiti, and Mexico. previous schooling experiences and California, and Dade County, Florida. Unlike previous studies of immi-English proficiency are also relevant to He writes, "an important finding sup-grant children - which often collapsean immigrant's subsequent adaptation. porting our earlier reported research,foreign-born immigrants and U.S.-bornA very powerful variable mediating is the negative association of length ofchildren of immigrants in the same cat-school outcomesa factor that incred- residence in the United States with bothegory the LISA project employs aibly is nearly always neglected in the GPA and aspirations. Time in thecarefully constructed set of controls.literature - is the child's immigrant le- United States is, as expected, stronglyInter alia, youth participating in thegal status. predictive of improved English readingstudy are 9 to 14-year-old recent immi- Under "host culture variables" we skills; but despite that seeming advan-grants (i.e., foreign-born and having include a series of factors known to be tage, longer residence in the Unitedspent at least two-thirds of their livesrelevant to the schooling strategies of States and second-generation statusin their country of origin). The study is youth. What are the occupational op- (that is, being born in the United States)structured around an interdisciplinaryportunities available to immigrants in are connected to declining academicpsychosocial methodology which de-their local settings? What structural achievement and aspirations, net ofploys a number of research tools bor-barriers do immigrants encounter? Are other factors." (Rumbaut 1995: 46-48,rowed from cultural anthropology and they penetrating the knowledge-inten- emphasis in the original) cultural psychology (see Suarez-sive sectors of the economy? Are they In a different voice, the ReverendOrozco and Suarez-Orozco 1995). recruited by co-ethnics into an ethnic Virgil Elizondo, rector of the San Any systematic study of immi-enclave? Are they finding work in the Fernando Cathedral in San Antonio,grant children that is non-reductionis- low-skill service sector? Are they find- articulates the same point: "I can telltic must contend with the problems in- ing work inthe underground by looking in their eyes how longherent in multilevel psychosocialeconomy? How does the changing re- they've been here. They come sparklinganalyses. (De Vos and Suarez-Orozco lationship between schooling outcomes with hope, and the first generation1990) Yet multilevel, interdisciplinary and the economic opportunity struc- finds hope rewarded. Their children'sstrategies are needed because single- ture affect the cultural models and so- eyes no longer sparkle." (quoted infactor studies seem doomed to reducecial practices deployed by immigrant Suro 1998: 13) While the work of Portes extremely complex processes to disci-families and communities? and Rumbaut (see Rumbaut 1995),plinary cliches. Reducing the experi- The recent work of Dowell Myers Steinberg (1996: 97-98), Kao and Tienda ences of immigrant children to the class (1998) suggests a worrisome trend. In (1995), and others independently reportbackground of their parents is a good an ambitious study of the Mexican-ori- similar findings, more sophisticatedexample. A class-based argument failsgin population in Southern California, longitudinal data are needed to exploreto address some critical questions suchMyers found that while Mexican immi- this important issue. While many im-as why some children from poor im-grant youth have in recent years made migrant children do brilliantly inmigrant groups do much better thanimpressive gains in their educational schools, others, over time, seem to dis-others (see Zhou and Bankston 1998).adaptations, they are facing a pattern play more distopic adaptations. Such approach also fails to explain why,of declining returns to education in when class differences are held con- terms of the wages they are able to com- Conceptual Themes in the Study of stant, immigrant children do constantlymand in the post-educational opportu- Immigrant Children better in schools than their non-immi-nity structure. John Ogbu and his col- In order to examine the multiplegrant peers. leagues have argued that when there paths immigrant children are able to Our current research is guided byis a de-coupling between efforts and make for themselves in their new coun-a multilevel conceptual framework thatoutcomes in schools and the reward try, we devised an interdisciplinary,takes into consideration both "incom-system in the opportunity structure, longitudinal, and comparative study ofing resources" as well as a variety ofsooner or later, many children give up the adaptations of immigrant children"host culture variables." The variables on schools as the principal route for sta- in American schools. The Longitudinaloutlined in our conceptual frameworktus mobility. (Obgu and Simons 1998) Immigrant Adaptation Study (LISA) in various ways and with various While the dialectic between school- was inaugurated in 1997 at Harvardforceare the major vectors that struc-ing and the opportunity structure is University with funding from the Na-ture the schooling experiences and out-highly relevant, other host culture vari- tional Science Foundation, W.T. Grantcomes of immigrant youth. These fac-ables must not be overlooked. Among Foundation, and Spencer Foundation.tors help mold the emerging attitudes,many immigrants today, neighborhood It is an experience-near psychosocialidentities, and behaviors of immigrantsafety is an important concern. For study of the factors involved in shap-students. They are co-determinants ofmany children the fear of violence is ing the changing lives of immigrantthe youth's evolving cultural modelsever present. children. Our sample consists of 400and social practices regarding schooling. A number of children participating

w5107 Some Conceptual Considerations in the Interdisciplinary Study of Immigrant Children in the LISA project told us of the vio- parental supervision, and family con- The peer group has been generally lence they had witnessed in their neigh-flict. As immigrant youth begin to at-neglected in the social science research borhoods since they had migrated tempt to navigate the complex, oftenon immigrant and ethnic minority chil- including several murders. As one 12-contradictory waters of "home" anddren. (De Vos 1992: 233-265) Yet in year-old Mexican girl told us: "If you"host" culture, socially constructed hi-many cases it is the peer group, not the go out in the United States, you are al-erarchies of authority are often dis-adult group, who is "in charge" in the ways afraid of everything." A 13-year-rupted. The paternal voice may be si-lives of youth. When immigrant par- old Chinese girl told us: "I have seenlenced. Gender scripts often need to beents are not available to their children gang activities near my house...I amrewritten. Family conflicts often resultbecause they face intense work sched- afraid to go outI don't feel safe." Aas immigrants deal with the stresses ofules and other stresses, the peer group 14-year-old Dominican boy said: "Iuprooting and resettling in the newcan become critical. For many youth, don't like being closed in. It is not safeland. the peer group not only is the primary to go out." For poor immigrants from A number of scholars have arguedpoint of reference for values and tastes; Latin American today, the statisticalthat new transnational impulses areit also provides social and emotional likelihood of enrolling in a hyper-seg-structuring the journeys of new immi-support, economic resources, and regated, deep poverty school is aston-grants in ways that are decidedly dif-safety. Peer group orientation can be ishingly high. (Orfield 1998; Truebaferent from the experiences of earliercritical in the schooling strategies de- 1998) The stresses associated with im-waves of immigrants from Europe andployed by immigrant youth. Is the peer migration (see C. Suarez-Orozco 1998;Asia (see Suarez-Orozco 1998). Newgroup supportive of school? Can a Smart and Smart 1995; Laosa 1989;technologies of communicationin- young woman turn to her peers for Padilla et al. 1988; Aronowitz 1984;cluding computers, discount telephonehelp with her homework? Can she turn Shuval 1980; Rumbaut 1977), especiallycards, and faxes; easier and more af-to them for advice on what school to when compounded by violence andfordable systems of mass transporta-chose? What courses to take? Or, con- poverty, make for less than optimaltion; along with new social practicesversely, is the peer group in an schooling experiences for many chil-and cultural models celebrating ethnic adversarial relation to school? Are good dren today. and cultural difference seem to subvertstudents sanctioned for doing well in Social support networks can playthe sharp break with the country of ori-school? Is doing well in school con- a critical role mediating the stresses ofgin that was said to characterize ear-structed as "acting white"? Being a "co- immigration. (Cohen and Syme 1985;lier waves of European immigration toconut"? ("Brown on the outside, white Willis 1985; Heller and Swinder 1983;the United States. (Ainslie 1998) Manyon the inside"). Being a "banana"? Cobb 1976) Such networkswhichimmigrants today are apt to remain("Yellow on the outside, white on the might include extended family, fictiveplayers both "here" and "there" circuit-inside.") Because of the emotional rel- kin, as well as cultural associations ing back and forth between the coun-evance of the peer group, the interper- can facilitate how immigrants navigatetry of their birth and the country of their sonal tone set by peers is an important their new environments. They can choice. (Portes 1998) variable in the adaptation of immigrant make available resources (ranging from To date there is no systematic re-children. emergency loans to free baby-sitting), search on how these new transnational Teacher expectations, likewise, are critical cultural information (such aspractices affect the experiences of im-quite relevant because of the iniportant about corporal punishment in the newmigrant children. In our conceptual"social mirroring" functions that teach- land or what courses are needed in highmodel, "maintenance of culture of ori-ers perform. Do teachers expect less or school to attend the better colleges),gin" refers broadly to the nature andmore from their immigrant students and job contacts. The emotional sup-intensity of these transnational activi-than from their non-immigrant stu- port generated by such social networksties. How is schooling negotiateddents? Do teachers have the same ex- is equally important, particularly dur-among youth engaged in intensepectations of all immigrant students or ing the earliest phases of immigrationtransnationalitysuch as new immi-are there group-specific expectations? when immigrants face the emotionalgrants from the Dominican Republic?Do they expect their immigrant stu- losses and cultural disorientationHow much contact is there with co-dents will go on to college? Drop out which always accompanies immigra-ethnics vs. members of other ethnicof school? Get into gangs? Do some im- tion (see Ainslie 1998; C. Suarez-Orozcominorities vs. members of the domi-migrant children benefit from a "halo 1998; Garcia-Coll and Manuson 1997;nant culture? How much television,effect"? Or, conversely, are some immi- Volkan 1993; Arredondo-Dowd 1981). video, computer, and radio exposuregrant children "brought down" be- Immigration is a process thatdo the children have to materials fromcause of negative teacher expectations deeply transforms the family system."back home" vs. English-only materi-towards his or her own immigrant (Shuval 1990; Sluzki 1979) In our con-als? Are immigrant youth maintaininggroup?' ceptual model, "family cohesion" refersthe language of origin or are they rap- While teacher expectations have to the interpersonal atmosphere oridly shifting into English-only? (Portesbeen singled out as important (see "ethos" in the immigrant family. Weand Hao 1998; Wong-Filmore 1991)Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968), the more include patterns of intergenerationalWhat structures are there in the child'sgeneral prevailing attitudes of mem- relationsparticularly important insocial milieu to support linguistic prac-bers of the host society toward immi- multigenerational immigrant familiestices in the first language? grants are also highly relevant to the

706 Marcelo M. Suarez Orozco, Ph.D. experiences of immigrant children.abuse publicly funded services thanHagan 1998). How public opinion and general atti-non-immigrantsthese prevailing be- In times of economic uncertainty, tudes toward immigration affect theliefs and sentiments have surely con-anti-immigrant sentiments are preva- children of immigrants has been ne-tributed to several dramatic anti-immi-lent and are often voiced with little glected in the scholarly literature. Yetgrant initiatives. sense of concern for either political fall- we know that in recent years attitudes Adults are not the only membersout nor the feelings of the targets. Anti- towards immigration have become in-of American society who share nega-immigrant xenophobia appears to en- creasingly charged. tive attitudes toward immigrants. Non-dure as the "last frontier" to openly Public opinion data suggest thatimmigrant, non-minority students in avent racial and ethnic hostilities with there has been a widespread concernpublic high school in northern Califor-little risk of sanctioning. While overt about the large influx of new immi-nia had these thoughts to share withand blatant racisim is today largely con- grants. Princeton University sociolo-educational researcher Laurie Olsen: fined to the fringes of society, anti-im- gists Thomas Espenshade and "They [immigrants] come to take ourmigrant sentiments seem to be more Maryann Belanger have noted that ajobs, and are willing to break theirfreely indulged in public opinion, "growing anxiety over the presence ofbacks for shit pay, and we can't com-policy debates, and other social forums. immigrants in the United States haspete." Another said, "These Chinese accompanied the rise in immigration." kids come over here and all they do isSocial Mirroring (1998: 366)A number of public opinionwork and work and work and work, The structural exclusion suffered polls reveal negative attitudes towards and all you have to do is look in the APby immigrants whether documented immigrants: by the mid-1990s overclasses and you'll see they are fillingor undocumentedis detrimental to two-thirds of respondents indicatedthem up. No one can compete anytheir ability to participate in the oppor- that they did not want to extend the in-more." Still another summed up a pre-tunity structure of their new society. vitation of the Statue of Liberty to newvailing fear: "They just want to takeFurthermore, we argue that hostile at- immigrants. (Espenshade and Belanger over." (Olsen 1998: 68) titudes and social exclusion also play a 1998: 367) In a highly sophisticated California's Proposition 187 toxic role in the psychosocial life of study of national public opinion pollswhich aims to ban undocumented im-immigrant children. How does a child by twenty different organizations overmigrants from a host of publicly fundedincorporate the notion that she is "an a thirty-year period, the Princetonservices including schooling for chil-alien," an "illegal," unwanted and not scholars found that historically theredren illustrates the explosive tensionsdeserving of the most basic rights such has been a very strong correlation be-generated by large-scale immigrationas education and health care? Even if tween anti-immigrant sentiment andin a state, which has undergone a se-they are not undocumented, the hos- economic anxiety, particularly around vere economic recession (see M. Sudrez-tility prevalent in the current climate ra- unemployment rates. It is no accident,Orozco 1996). The draconian 1996 Ille-diates to all children with accents and then, that the intensity of anti-immigra-gal Immigration Reform and Respon-darker complexions. How do these tion sentiment peaked during the eco-sibility Act is another policy initiative,charged attitudes affect the developing nomic slump when the unemploymentwhich some observers have argued willidentities of the children of immi- rate hit almost 10% (see Espenshadehave a harmful effect on large sectorsgrants? A first point to consider is and Belanger 1998: 367). of society. (Hagan 1998) The internal se-whether or not immigrant youth are Espenshade and Balinger (1998)curity provision of the new act mayaware of these hostilities. also found that the fear of the culturalusher in a nationwide effort at finger As part of the data collection for dilution of the country's Anglo-Saxonprinting, wiretapping, Immigrationthe LISA project, we asked our infor- institutions and values is an enduringand Naturalization Service (INS) link-mants what the hardest thing about concern. Citizens today tend to feelages with local and state law enforce-immigration was. The following state- more positive about immigrants fromment, and other measures supposedlyments are representative of the kinds Europe than they do about immigrantsdesigned to combat links between im-of responses we received. A 12-year-old from Latin America and the Caribbean. migration, the drug trade, and terror- Central American girl said: "One of the Immigrants who do not speak Englishism. The act has implications for themost difficult things about immigrat- and who "look" different from thecivil rights of immigrants and citizensing is that people make fun of me here. dominant Anglo-European make manyalikeparticularly those of color (seePeople from the United States think non-immigrants uncomfortable. , Hagan 1998; Sudrez-Orozco 1998). that they are superior to you." A 13- The Princeton team found that In recent years, we have indeedyear-old Chinese girl told us: "[Ameri- many perceive that immigrants 1) havewitnessed a range of policies aimed atcans] discriminate. They treat you a negative economic impact, 2) drainexcluding immigrants (especially un-badly because you are Chinese or Black. the social service system, and 3) con-documented immigrants) from access-I hate this Most." An 11-year-old Hai- tribute to crime with little prospect ofing a variety of publicly funded ser-tian girl responded: "The hardest thing assimilation into the mainstream.vices. Immigration controls haveis when whites yell at Haitians." A 12- Though not founded on empirical evi-moved slowly over the years from theyear-old Central American boy said: dence the vast majority of immigrantsborder to the classroom (Proposition"The most difficult thing about immi- in the U.S. are here legally, are less likely 187), the hospital (see Brown et al.gration is that we don't know the lan- to commit crimes, and are less likely to 1998), and the welfare agency (seeguage and that we are discriminated

107 19 Some Conceptual Considerations in the Interdisciplinary Study of Immigrant Children against." don't exist." [12-year-old Mexican boy] our understanding of the developing We also asked all of our informants These alarming data suggest thatchild, Winicott, like many of his psy- to complete the sentence "Most Ameri-immigrant youth are well aware of thechoanalytic colleagues, failed to fully cans think [people from my country ofprevailing ethos of hostily and anti-acknowledge the porwerful force of origin] are ." Mexican children immigrant sentiment. What do childrensocial systems and culture in shaping were asked: "Most Americans thinkdo, psychologically, with this recep-self-other relationships. Particularly as Mexicans are ," Dominicanstion? Are these attitudes ignored? Orthe child grows, the mirroring function were asked: "Most Americans think are they internalized? How so? is by no means the exclusive domain Domincans are "; and so forth. The British object-relations theoristof maternal figures. In fact, with the Strikingly, for Latino and Haitian im-D. W. Winicott (1971) articulated aexception of individuals falling on the migrants, the most common responsetheory of "mirroring" in self-other re-autistic spectrum, all human beings are was "Most Americans think that we are lations. Winicott focused much of hisdependent upon the reflection of them- bad." Overwhelmingly, the children writing on the relationship between theselves mirrored back to them by oth- perceived that "Americans" had nega-mother and infant, adding greatly toers. "Others" include non-parental relative perceptions about them. Below areour understanding of the significancetives, adult care-takers, siblings, teach- other responses we received: of this relationship in the formation ofers, peers, employers, people on the "Most Americans don't think wellidentity and the "sense of self." A criti-street, and even the media. When the of us." [14-year-old Central Americancal concept in object-relations theory isreflected opinion is generally positive, girl] that of "mirroring." According tothe individual (adult or child) will be "Most Americans think that we areWinicott, "...the mother functions as aable to feel that she is worthwhile and poor people." [9-year-old Chinese girl]mirror, providing the infant with a pre-competent. When the reflection is gen- cise reflection of his own experienceerally negative, it is extremely difficult "Most Americans think that we are to maintain an unblemished sense of ignorant." [14-year-old Mexican girl] and gestures, despite their fragmented and formless qualities. 'When I look Iself-worth for very long. "Most Americans think that we aream seen, so I exist. (Winicott 1971, p. These reflections can be accurate or stupid." [10-year-old Haitian girl] 134) Imperfections in the reflected ren-inaccurate. In some cases, the reflection "Most Americans think that we aredition mar and inhibit the child's ca-can be a positive distortion or what we very impolite." [12-year-old Chinesepacity for self-experience and integra-call a "false good." In such a situation girl] tion and interfere with the process ofthe response to the individual may be out of proportion to his actual contri- "Most Americans think that we"personalization." (Greenberg and Mitchell 1983:192-3) bution or achievement. In the most be- don't know anything." [14-year-old nign case, positive expectations can be Mexican girl] The infant is highly dependent upon the reflection of the experiencean asset. In the classic "Pygmalion in "Most Americans think that weshe receives from her mothering figure.the Classroom" study (Rosenthal & can't do the same things as them inThe mother provides clues about theJacobson 1968), when teachers believed school or at work." [10-year-old Mexi-environment. In determining whetherthat certain children were brighter than can girl] she need be frightened by new stimuli,others (based on the experimentor ran- "Most Americans think that we arethe infant will first look to her mother'sdomly assigning some children that good for nothing." [14-year-old Centralexpression and response. An expres-designation, unsubtantiated in fact), American boy] sion of interest or calm will reassure thethey treated the children more positively and assigned them higher "Most Americans think that we areinfant while an expression of concern grades. useless." [14-year-old Dominican girl] will alarm her. Even more crucial is the mother 's response to the infant's ac- It is possible that some immigrants, "Most Americans think that we aretions. Does the mother show delightsuch as some Asians groups, benefit garbage." [14-year-old Dominican boy]when the infant reaches for an objectsomewhat from positive expectations "Most Americans think that we areor does she ignore it, or show disap-of their competence as a result of being members of gangs." [9-year-old Centralproval? No one response (or non-re-members of a "model minority" American girl] sponse) is likely to have much affect but though no doubt at a cost. (Takaki 1989) In a less benign example of "false good" "Most Americans think that we arethe accumulation of experiences are thieves." [13-year-old Haitian girl] significant in the formation of themirroring, individuals who are sur- child's sense of self. A child whose ac-rounded by those who do not inform "Most Americans think that we them of negative feedback and laud are lazy, gangsters, drug-addicts thatcomplishments are mirrored favorably, is likely to feel more valued than theeven minimal accomplishments, may only come to take their jobs away." [14- child whose accomplishments are ei-develop a distorted view of their own year-old Mexican boy] ther largely ignored or worse still, deni-abilities and accomplishments. "Most Americans think that we aregrated. We are more concerned here, how- bad like all Latinos." [12-year-old Cen- Although the idea of "mirroring"ever, with the negative distortion or tral American boy] along with a number of his other con-"false bad" case. What happens to a "Most Americans think that weceptsis an important contribution toyouth who receives social mirroring that is predominantly negative and

108 1 1 0 Marcelo M. Sudrez Orozco, Ph.D. hostile? When the assumptions aboutthe study of identity was dominated bytion as ideal types. A single child, de- him include expectations of sloth, irre-a handful of subdisciplines dominantpending on her age at migration, race, sponsibility low intelligence, and evenamong them, developmental psychol-and socio-economic background and, danger, the outcome can be toxic. Whenogy. (Erikson 1968) Today significantvery importantly, the context of re- these reflections are received in a num- numbers of social scientists in anthro-settlement in the United States, may ber of mirrors including the media, thepology, sociology, political science first gravitate to one style of adaptation classroom, and the street, the outcomealong with scholars in the humanitiesbut eventually as her contexts change can be devastating. (Adams 1990) have begun, seemingly en masse, toand as she matures, may develop an- Even when the parents providecaliber their various disparate analyti- other dominant style of adaptation. We positive mirroring, it is often insuffi-cal tools to examine this most modem do not see these styles as fixed, mutu- cient to compensate for the distortedof topics. (Kagan, Appiah, and Noamally exclusive styles. We hypothesize mirrors that children encounter in their 1998) that contexts, opportunities, and net- daily lives. In some cases, the immi- Traditionally, psychologists theo-works act as powerful gravitational grant parent is considered "out ofrized "identity" in the singular.fields shaping the adaptation styles of touch" with reality Even when the pa-(Phinney 1998) On the other hand, theimmigrant children. rental opinion is considered valid, itnew work by anthropologists and so- may not be enough to compensate forciologists highlights the plural "iden- Ethnic Flight Styles the intensity and frequency of the dis-tities"underscoring a desire to dis- Youth clustering around the "eth- tortions of the House of Mirrors theytance their work from what they see asnic flight" style often struggle to encounter in their everyday lives. Thethe old Freudian / Eriksonian master"mimic" the dominant group and may statements made by the children in ournarrative depicting a unilinear devel- attempt to join them, leaving their own study demonstrate that they are in-opmental epic journey of separationethnic group behind. An earlier corpus tensely aware of the hostile receptionand individuation into maturity au-of social science research examined the which they are encountering. tonomy, and coherence. In the wordsrelated issue of "passing" among mem- What can a child do with theseof Kagan, "The error in the elaborationsbers of some ethnic minority groups. hostilities? There are several possibleof the Eriksonian concept of identityIndividuals who choose this route will responses. The most positive possiblewas to assume that each person had aoften have unresolved issues of what outcome is to be goaded into "I'll showfixed identity that remained relativelyErik Erikson called "shame and doubt" you. I'll make it in spite of what youunchanged across varied social con- (Erikson 1968: 110-114) which they may think of me." This response, while theo- texts and that this hypothetical struc-struggle to overcompensate. These retically possible, is relatively infre-ture was unified in some way" (Kaganyouth would tend to deny or minimize quent. Others might attempt to defendet al. 1998: 1) The one-size-fits-all ap-the negative social mirroring they themselves by denying the negative proach to identity ran its course as con-might encounter. Richard Rodriguez's attitudes and hostilities they encoun-cerns over reductionism and essential-(1982) autobiography captures many of ter. More likely, youth respond withism took center stage in the social sci-these issues in devastating detail. Many self-doubt and shame, in some casesences. immigrant youth who deploy this style setting low aspirations in a kind of self- In our research we situate themay feel more comfortable networking fulfilling prophecy: "They are probablystudy of identities in various fields ofwith peers from the dominant culture. right. I'll never be able to do it." Yet an-powerfields structured by the com-For these youth learning standard En- other response is one of, "You think I'mplex and often contradictory workingsglish may serve not only instrumental bad. Let me show you how bad I canof class, religion, race and color, gen-purposes but also often may become an be." der and sex, age, and disabilities. Weimportant symbolic act of identification approach the study of immigrant iden-with the dominant culture (see Identities and Styles of Coping tities in the context of contexts: as mul-Rodriguez 1982). Among these youth, It is clear then, that "incoming re-tiple and fluid constructions in constantsuccess in school may be seen as a route sources" and "host culture variables"formation and transformation as chil-for instrumental mobility but also as a help us a great deal in telling the storydren attempt to manage their dailyway to symbolically and psychologi- of the paths immigrant children are"migrations" from the world of homecally dissemble and gain distance from able to make for themselves in the newand neighborhood to the world of peers the world of family and ethnic group. country. However, that tells only a par-and schools and, eventually the world These are immigrants who travel tial story. Identity and agency, includ-of work. their journey with light affective bag- ing changing social practices and cul- We suggest that as youth attemptgage. The idiom that "making it" takes tural models, must also be factored intoto transverse these substantially dis-for these youth tends to be indepen- any satisfactory accounting of the im-continuous cultural, political, and eco-dence and individualistic self-advance- migrant experience. nomic spaces, they struggle to development. These students may "imprint" The LISA study is guided by newidentities gravitating towards one ofwith the cultural styles and attitudes of theoretical perspectives on the study ofthree dominant styles of adaptation: 1) their peers from the dominant society, identities. In recent years few scholarlyan "ethnic flight style,"2) anwhich may be a less than optimal strat- topics have attracted as much attention"adversarial style," and 3) a "bicultural egy for school success (see Steinberg as the issue of identity A generation agostyle." We view these styles of adapta- 1996; Suarez-Orozco and Suarez- lii Some Conceptual Considerations in the Interdisciplinary Study of Immigrant Children

Orozco 1995). on. The first hint of trouble and precon- pendence - but also important "expres- Among these youth, typically, theceptions proved true. So why not besive" meanings (i.e., making the paren- culturally constituted patterns of pa-proud? Why not be an outlaw? Whytal sacrifices "worthwhile" by "becom- rental authority lose legitimacyfornot make it our own?" (1993: 84) ing a somebody," etc.). To "make it" for them, parents are "out of it" and their From this situation typicallythese students may well take the idiom ways, moral codes, values and expec-emerge "gangs" structured around theof "giving back" to parents, siblings, tations are rejected as anachronistic andmargins of the dominant society andpeers, and other members of the com- out of current in the new country. Whileconstructing spaces of competence inmunity. this style of adaptation might have been the underground or alternative consciously and unconsciously de-economy and the counter-culture. JohnConcluding Thoughts ployed by earlier waves of immigrantsOgbu and his colleagues have argued In surveying the recent scholarship especially those from Europe for that in contexts of severe inequality andin the field of immigration, it becomes whom their phenotype allowed themethnic antagonism among many youthobvious that a critical but understud- the option of "passing" from the yan-staying in school, learning standardied and under-theorized aspect of im- tage point of late 20th century immigra-English, and school success may elicitmigration today is the experiences of tion we are witnessing, in the words ofsevere peer group sanctioning when itchildren. Immigrant children, many of George De Vos, "the passing of pass-is labeled a wish to "act white" or be athem poor, are entering American pub- ing." (1992: 266-299) For many immi-"coconut." (Ogbu and Simons 1998) lic schools in unprecedented numbers grants of color today this option is sim- when large inner-city districts are in ply not a "viable ethnic option." (Wa-Bicultural Styles crisissome, indeed, near collapse. ters 1990) Youths clustering around "bicul-Many immigrant children today tend tural styles" deploy what we haveto enroll in highly segregated, poor, and Adversarial Stifles termed "transnational strategies."violent inner-city schools. Many of Youth clustering aroundThese children typically emerge asthese schools are overpopulated and "adversarial styles" of adaptation"cultural brokers" mediating the oftenunderstaffed. Qualified teachers are structure their identities around aconflicting cultural currents of homeneeded. Bilingual education eternally schismogenic process (Bateson 1958:culture and host culture. These youthcontroversial in the U.S.has faced a 171-197) of rejection by the institutionsrespond to negative mirroring by iden-head-on challenge in Californiathe of the dominant cultureincludingtifying it, naming it, and resisting it.state most heavily impacted by immi- schools and the formal economy. TheseThese youth craft their identities in "thegration. While many immigrant chil- are children who are pushed out andhyphen," linking aspects of the discon- dren do extraordinarily well in schools, drop out of schools at a time when thetinuous, and at times incommensu-others are leaving schools before ac- U.S. economy is generating virtually no rable, cultural systems they find them-quiring the tools to successfully navi- meaningful jobs for those without for- selves inhabiting. Some of these youthgate today's bitterly competitive global mal schooling. (Orfield 1998) Amongwill achieve bicultural and bilingualeconomy. Many immigrant youngsters these youth the culturally constituted competencies as an integral part of theirwho give up on school before graduat- parental authority functionLacan'sidentities. These are youth for whoming will join their relatives in the eth- nom du 'ogreis typically severely cor- the culturally constructed social stric-nic economy and service sector, while roded. These youth, therefore, tend totures and patterns of social control ofothers may gravitate towards a gang have serious problems with their ownimmigrant parents and elders maintainculture ready to quickly socialize new parents and relatives (see Vigil 1988),a degree of legitimacy. These will bearrivals into a lucrative alternative and tend to gravitate towards thoseyouth who network, with equal ease,economy where drug taking and deal- sharing their predicament their peers.among members of their own ethnicing is a growing part of the economic In many such cases, the peer group, notgroup as well as with students andand cultural ethos. the elders, are in charge in the lives ofteachers of other backgrounds. When it comes to immigration to- these children. Among those who are successfulday, race and ethnicity matter. They Negative social mirroring may re-and "make it" in the idioms of thematter, first and foremost, because sult in an attitude of, "Let me show youdominant society, issues of "repara- nearly 80 % of all immigrants today are how bad I can be." Luis Rodriguez, the tion" often become important compo-from the non-European, non-English- child of Mexican immigrants in south-nents of their life trajectories. In somespeaking, "developing world." In the ern California recalls his early experi- such cases, when one's success appearsnew argot of American multi- ences in school: "You were labeled from in the context of the sacrifice of lovedculturalism, they are "people of color." the start. I'd walk into the counselor 's ones who struggled to give them op-Whether new immigrants have a cul- office for whatever reason and looks ofportunities in the new -land, feelings oftural category to conceive of them- disdain greeted meone meant for areparative guilt are quite common.selves as "people of color" or not is criminal, alien, to be feared. Already a(Sudrez-Orozco 1989) Among many quite irrelevant; that is the category that thug. It was harder to defy this expec-such youth, success in school will havewill be mirrored to them. tation than just accept it and fall intonot only instrumental meanings - for The color line is, as W.E. DuBois the trappings. It was a jacket I could tryexample to achieve self-advancement,prophetically described it over a cen- to take off, but they kept putting it backbetter paying opportunities, and inde-tury ago, the "problem" line in Ameri-

110 1 Marcelo M. Suarez Orozco, Ph.D. can society. Some of the questions thaton the transition to college and the Cobb, S. "Social support as a moderator of life need to be asked include: How do phe-world of work. But there is a lack of stress." Psychosomatic Medicine, 3 (5): 300- 314. 1976. notypicallybut alas, not culturallybasic research on a variety of problems. blacknew immigrants react to the Immigration will continue to be a Cohen, S. & Syme S.L. "Issues in the study and ever-charged folk racial categories inpowerful vector of change. We need a application of social support." In S. Cohen the American setting? How does a Do-better understanding of how immigra- & S.L. Syme (Eds.), Social Support and tion is transforming the United States Health. Orlando: Florida: Academic Press, minican child respond when she sud- Inc., 1985. denly discovers she is black? (Evenand the world. We need a major re- though her self-concept is not black, insearch agenda to examine the long De Vos, G. Social Cohesion and Alienation: Mi- the American sense.) What does itcauses and consequences of immigra- norities in the United States and Japan. Boul- mean for a Guatemalan boy to discovertion to the United States. We need bet- der, CO: Westview Press, 1992. he is now Latino? What happens in ater theoretical understandings of mul- De Vos, G. & Sudrez Orozco, M. Status Inequal- Mexican immigrant family when thetiple paths taken by immigrants in their ity: The Self in Culture. Newbury Park: CA. daughter tells her parents "I'mlong-term adaptations. We need more Sage Press, 1990. Chicana"? Does the panethnic "Asian"interdisciplinary dialogue. 0 label resonate with an immigrant child Erikson, E. Identity, Youth and Crisis. New York: W.W. Norton, 1968. from China? How do these transforma- tions in racial and ethnic self-identities Espanshade, 1'. & Belanger, M. "Immigration affect, if at all, the schooling of children? References and Public Opinion." In M. M. Suhrez- Is an immigrant youth who identifies Orozco (Ed.), Crossings: Mexican Immigra- herself as Haitian more likely to do bet- Adams, P. L. "Prejudice and exclusion as so- tion in Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. cial traumata." In Noshpitz, J.D. & R.D. 365-403). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- ter in school than one who self-identi- Coddington (eds.), Stressors and the Ad- versity Press, 1998. fies as African-American? Does it mat- justment Disorders. New York: John Wiley ter, in terms of schooling outcomes, if a & Sons, 1990. Gans, H. "Second-generation Decline: Sce- Spanish-speaking Dominican youth narios for the economic and Ethnic Fu- Ainslie, R.C., "Cultural Mourning, Immigra- tures of the Post-1965 Immigrants." Eth- identifies as African-American or tion, and Engagement: Vignettes from the nic and Racial Studies, 15 (April): 173-192. Latino? Mexican Experience." In M. M. Suarez- 1992. Like race and ethnicity, gender is a Orozco (Ed.), Crossings: Mexican Immigra- key factor in the schooling of immi- tion in Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. Garcia-Coll, C. & Manuson, K. "T'he Psycho- grant youth. How do the immigrants' 285-305). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- logical Experience of Immigration: A De- versity Press, 1998. velopmental Perspective." In Booth, A., cultural models and expectations of Crouter, A, Landale, N. (Eds.), Immigra- gender appropriate-behaviors fit or not Alba, R. and Nee, V. "Rethinking Assimila tion tion and the Family: Research & Policy on fit mainstream American cultural mod- Theory for a New Era of Immigration." U.S. Immigrants. Malwah, New Jersey: els and expectations? Do immigrant International Migration Review, 31: 826-874. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publish- parents have the same expectations, in 1998. ers, 1997. terms of schooling, for boys and girls? Andreas, P. "The US Immigration Control Of- Gibson, M. 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International Review of Migration, 18, 237-257, 1984. cans and poor whites. Since the 1980s, Grinberg, Leon & Rebecca Grinberg. Psycho- at a time when immigration to Ameri- Arrendondo-Dowd, P. "Personal loss and grief analytic Perspectives on Migration & Exile. can cities was intensifying, there has as a result of immigration." Personnel and New Haven, Conn.: Yale University been an erosion of progress in basic re- Guidance-Journal, 59, 376-378. 1981. search on urban issues. We know muchBateson, G. Naven. Stanford, CA: Stanford Hagan, J. "Commentary on The U.S. Immigra- about some topics and next to nothing University Press, 1958. tion Control Offensive." In M. M. Suárez- about others. Much of the work on im- Orozco (Ed.) Crossings: Mexican Immigra- migration today is superficial and con- Brown, E. R., Wyn, R., Yu, H., Valenzuela, A., tion in Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. tradictory such as the work on the fis- & Dong, L. "Access to Health Insurance 357-361). 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172 114 Marcelo M. Suarez Orozco, Ph.D.

Vigil, Diego. Barrio Gangs: Street Life & Identity in Southern California. Austin, TX: Univer- Marcelo M. Suarez Orozco, Ph.D. is a psycholo- sity of Texas Press, 1988. gist and professor of education in both the Hu- man Development and Psychology and Learn- Volkan, V.D. " Immigrants and Refugees: A ing and Teaching areas of Harvard School of Psychodynamic Perspective." Mind and Education. He is a member of the executive Human Interaction, 4 (2): 63-69. 1993. committee of Harvard's new David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies. He is now working on two major projects: the immigration Waters, M. Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities malaise afflicting various nation-states and inter- in America. Berkeley: University of Cali- disciplinary perspective on violence and trauma. fornia Press, 1990. He has also completed a major theoretical work on immigration and family life and immigration Waters, M. (1996). "West Indian Family Re- and school among Latino adolescents in the sources and Adolescent Outcomes: Tra- United States and Mexico. He is the author of jectories of the Second Generation." Pa- many works published In Europe, Latin America per presented at the Annual Meeting of and the United States. the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, Baltimore, Mary- land. February 10, 1996.

Williamson, Jr. C. The Immigration Mystique. New York: Basic Books, 1996.

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Acknowledgements

The research reported in this paper was made possible by generous grants from the National Science Foundation, W.T. Grant Foundation, and Spencer Foundation.

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