Overview of terms

Term Description

English for professional oral communication - Understands a wide range of demanding, longer texts and recognises implicit meaning - Expresses him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions - Uses language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes - Produces clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices Professional language user

- (Kolb’s Learning Cycle)

- When new genres emerge due to technological development and Emerging when we have to work together across cultures due to increased intercultural genres globalisation

- Poor language skills - Weak understanding of issues in question - Lack of information Sources of noise - No understanding of genre conventions - Cultural differences - Not part of discourse community

Differences between sender and receiver regarding: • Power Sender-receiver • Authority relationship • Professional background knowledge

Symmetrical roles: Aligned regarding power, authority etc. Asymmetrical roles: Not aligned

Static relationship status or dynamic relationship status

Oral communicative competence Understanding, explaining and using language correctly (:grammar, Linguistic vocabulary, intonation) Correctness and oral fluency are not tested in this competence exam! Understanding, explaining and using language in a context (:use of speech Discourse and text acts, genre conventions, fillers and gambits, cohesion and coherence) competences making conversations work Pragmatic Understanding, explaining and using the rules and norms in a given competence communication situation (:rhetorical situation, audience relationship, intended outcome) Understanding, explaining and communicating within the cultural Cultural competence premises of the target culture Ability to understand, explain and solve communication problems – and Strategic competence reaching communicative goals - Ability to assess the rhetorical situation The professional - Idea of linguistic features needed for the situation communicator - Knowledge of cultural intelligence - Double voiced Discourse A communication style where you demonstrate a double orientation in Double voiced how you communicate, both your own perspective and the perspective/s discourse of the other/s with whom you’re speaking. When used appropriately, it reveals a core aspect of cultural intelligence—perspective-taking - Genre definition of case - Overall purpose – controlling idea - Main supporting points of the controlling idea How to summarize - Own vocabulary (practise synonyms when reading) based on Björk and - Objective approch – no interpretations or comments Räisänen - Coherent – coherence above chronology - Use of summary markers: ”The author/speaker argues, maintains, suggests…”

Analysis model – Bodil Helder

Listening strategies and interpersonal communication Reading vs. listening Understanding written texts requires: - Decoding info - Identifying genre - Understanding the framework/model (schemata) - Identifying structure, special phrases etc.

Understanding spoken language requires: - Same as above + - Coping with false starts (When people do not finish their sentences, but rephrase it while speaking) - Coping with no possibility of backtracking (One-shot listening) - Understanding the ‘noise’ of unfamiliar pauses, rhythmic groups, tone, pronunciation

Requires metalinguistic knowledge of the non-native speaker Metalinguistic Metalinguistic awareness refers to the understanding that language is a knowledge system of communication, bound to rules, and forms the basis for the ability to discuss different ways to use language. In other words, it is the ability to consciously analyse language and its subparts, to know how they operate and how they are incorporated into the wider language system. Listening strategies - Ignore specialised terms - Tolerate ambiguity (several meanings) - Guess meaning - Ask for paraphrase - Assume common sense - Estimate meaning from other speaker cues (identify intention) - Select nearest match (look for signs) - Ask for clarification - Assume speaker error (speaker slip of the tongue)

Bottom-up processing We listen to individual sounds, words and grammar to decode meaning from what we hear: - Listening for specific details - Recognising cognates (related words) - Recognising word-order patterns - Used for speech interpretation, analysts etc.

Top-down processing We listen for the overall meaning of what we hear, using our background knowledge and experience to create expectation about what it must all mean: - Listening for main idea - Predicting - Drawing inferences (conclusions) - Summarising

Strategic listening Use of metacognitive strategies to plan, monitor and evaluate listening: - Planning right strategy for a given situation - Monitoring comprehension and effectiveness of selected strategies - Evaluating whether goals were achieved and strategies used were effective

Internal and external Internal noise - Physical needs distract listernes - Talking on phone creates noise in the form of the people doing other things while talking. External - Audible distractions at a meeting - Messages on your computer etc. Jargon Technical jargon used by a specialized group Message overload Occurs when a speaker includes too many details, making it difficult for the listener to comprehend Receiver The fear of misinterpreting, inadequately processing and/or not being apprehension able to adjust to psychologically to messages sent by others. Bias Any assumption or attitude we have about the person, issue, or topic before we have heard all the facts. Listening types Informational listening - Focus on the content of the message to acquire knowledge’ Critical listening - When you evaluate the information being sent Empathetic listening - Listening to understand the speaker’s point of view without judgement Reflective listening - Listenes thoughtfully to the meaning of the speaker’s words - Considers the content of the message, both stated and implied - Thinks about the feelings associated with the message, attending to the speaker’s verbal and nonverbal cues - Makes every effort to reflect that message accurately

Active listeneer - Makes sense of the message and verify that it is correct - Will often paraphrase the message to the sender - Will ask questions to develop a better understanding of the speaker’s message Passive listener - Receives message and makes sense of the message without feedback or verification

People-oriented listeners - Interested in demonstrating concern for others’ emotions and interests, finding common ground and responding Action-oriented listeners - Interested in direct, concise, error-free communication that is used to negotiate and accomplish a goal - Easily frustrated by disorganized presentations Content-oriented listeners - Interested in intellectual challenge and complex information - Want to evaluate information carefully before forming judgments Time-oriented listeners - Prefers brief communication - Seek interaction that is concise and to the point

Listening categories Conversational listening - When the speaking role shifts from on person to another with some degree of frequency Presentational listening - Takes place in situations where a clear role of speaking and listening functions are prescribed. - Roles are often formal and defined as active speaker and responsive listener

Listening Is based on the following conditions: environment - Mode • Conversational or presentational - Environment • Formal or informal - Relationship • Social or business HURIER-model Framework for skill-based listening - Hearing - Understanding - Remembering - Interpreting - Evaluating - Responding The cognitive - Identify a sequence of phonetic units in a stream of speech approach - Identify attentional signals a speaker gives to lexical items and relate this to the principle of given – new information - Identify possible functions for tone contours to indicate e.g. shared information, new information or question vs. statement - Adjust to speaker variation in accent Oral Genres and the Rhetorical and Intercultural Situation Genre Can be formulated as a classification based on forms or topic Rhetorical genre A distinctive and recurring pattern of similarly contrained rhetorical patterns Genre in A typified communicative action in response to a recurrent action: organizational - Established practice communication - Social relations - Communication media - Similar substance – motives, themes, topic Resulting genre - Form – salutations, style etc. - Purpose (why): Most notably, a genre provides expectations about its socially recognized purpose(s). - Content (what): A genre also provides expectations about the The influence of content of the communication. genre on discursive - Form (how): A genre provides expectations about its form, norms including media, structuring devices, and linguistic elements. Yates and Orlikowski - Time (when): A genre often entails specific temporal expectations, although these may not be explicitly stated. - Place (where): A genre also provides location expectations, and these too are not always made explicit. - In structurational terms, genres are social institutions that are Structuration theory produced, reproduced, or modified when human agents. draw on Anthony Giddens genre rules to engage in organisational communication

- Our expectations regarding a text or an example of oral communication are what constitute the framework for our pre- understanding: - When we work within similar business communities, for example, we have the same idea about how to structure e.g. a press Emerging release. We expect it to look in a particular way.That is because intercultural genres we belong to the same discourse community and therefore

understand and agree on the rules and conventions that apply to this particular genre. - When new genres emerge due to technological development and when we have to work together across cultures due to increased globalisation, problems may occur. Formality refers to which style or tone of language will be appropriate according to the social context and the genre conventions:

High – middle – low (formal, semi-formal, informal) Levels of formality

Very formal – formal – neutral – informal – very informal

Frozen – formal – consultative (neutral) – casual - intimate Interviews, conversational styles and discourse Pragmatics It looks beyond the literal meaning of an utterance and considers how meaning is constructed as well as focusing on implied meanings. It considers language as an instrument of interaction, what people mean when they use language and how we communicate and understand each other.

The study of meaning as communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener: - What did the sender mean? - Why did the sender say it in this particular way? A shared knowledge of how language is used in real life. - Understanding the social context, rhetorical situation and relationship to the audience - Ability to produce and understand the utterances in different Pragmatic sociolinguistic contexts depending on factors such as status of competence participants, purpose of interaction, various norms and conventions - Speech acts (eg requests, apologies, thanks, invitations)

- Getting the floor - getting the right to speak - Controlling the floor - having a turn - Taking the floor - turn-taking - Overlaps – spekers speaking at the same time Conversation analysis - Attributable silence – communication significance - Backchannel signals – eh, yeah, mmm - Adjacency pairs – Hello – Hi, How are you – fine (Q -> A, Greeting - > Greeting, Compliment -> accept/refuse) Transition Relevance Change of turn point Place (TRP) Sender’s intention To successfully pass on a message to the receiver To understand the intended meaning of the sender’s message (not Receiver’s intention deliberately misunderstand)

High information richness

- Face-to-face interaction (dismissal, serious illness, proposal) Choice of - Spoken, electronically transmitted communication (telephone, communication videomeeting) medium - Personally addressed written communication (e.g. personal letter) - Impersonal written communication (new opening hours)

Low information richness Communication between people is not only a matter of producing utterances containing words and grammatical structures, it is also a Speech acts matter of performing actions through speech – of conveying communicative intention (e.g. apologies, invitations, thanks) - Declaration (a statement that causes something, changes the world – something official) - Representative (a statement of what the sender truly believes is a fact, description etc.) Speech act types - Expressive (a statement of what the sender feels or what the Searle sender personally thinks is right (personal opinion)) - Directive (orders, suggestions, requests etc. – a statement that should make receiver do something) - Commissive (a statement that commits sender to the truth of what is said) - Declarative sentence: used for making statements - Interrogative sentence: used for asking questions Sentence types - Imperative sentence: used for giving orders, (direct) requests - Exclamative sentence: used for making exclamations A direct relationship between structure and form: Would you like to go and see a film tonight? Direct speech act No, not really actually It’s cold. Close the window, please

No direct relationship between structure and form: Would you like to go and see a film tonight? Indirect speech act I’m not feeling very well Isn’t it a bit chilly in here?

- Words and phrases used in everyday speech and conversation. We use them all the time without giving it much thought. Gambits and fillers - Very short “non-words” (um; er; ah; mmm) to almost complete phrases (well now; let me see; now let me think; actually; you know) Adjacency pairs Automatic sequences with two parts: Hello -> Hi How are you -> Fine Preference structure Divided into prefered and dispreferred:

• As a rule, an interview reflects reality and is presented in the form of questions and answers. While holding an interview, one party – The journalistic the respondent or the interviewee, is the possessor and source of interview as genre some definite information; the other – the journalist or the interviewer – is the receiver and disseminator of this information. • An interview-as-genre must pertain to something topical and interesting for general audience, not just for the journalist who conducts it. It implies readership, listenership or viewership. • An interview, unlike all other journalistic genres, serves to show the opinion of the respondents but not of the journalists themselves. • An interview excludes discussion. • The time interval between the interview taking place and being published or broadcast should be as short as possible. 3 basic types of interview: - Hard exposure interview – investigates subject Different types of - Informational interview – puts focus on the audience interview - Emotional interview – aims to reveal an interviewee’s state of mind - Hard news – short, to the point, wh-questions - Informational – like short, but can further the hows and whys - Investigative – digging deeper into the the wh-questions - Adversarial – like cross-examination, war of words, often repetition of questions - Interpretative interview – reaction to some event or explanation of an event - Personal – often with celebrity (exclusive) intimate and penetrating Sub-categories of the - Emotional – to reveal emotions and facilitate listener/viewer 3 types of interview engagement and identification

- Entertainment – light-hearted, causing a smile - Actuality – a report from e.g. an eyewitness (the reporter does not appear) - Telephone – short, direct reports from a distance (actuality) - Vox pop – asking people in the street of their opinion (also used in marketing) - Grabbed – Few comments when no one wants to be interviewed – or haven’t got the time (disaster scene)

- Business meeting - Business presentation - Company video presentation - Motivational speech Examples of oral - Political debate genres - Formal address (The Queen, the president) - Public announcement - Lecture/presentation (scholars/experts) - Different types of interviews)

Blogs and texts for social media Coherence What is said or written should make sense in a normal, everyday context We develop an understanding of things based on background knowledge Cultural schemata and experience Discourse analysis in Focus on the (spoken or written) record of the process by which language a linguistic context is used in some context to express intention A discourse community is a grouping of people who share common Discourse community language norms, characteristics, patterns or practices as a consequence of their ongoing communications and identification with each other. - Obtaining genre status: when a type of discourse or Blogging as Social communicative action acquires a common name within a context Action - The kairos of the blog: An understanding of the situation and what is required Astroturfing is the attempt to create an impression of widespread grassroots support for a policy, individual, or product, where little such Astroturfing support exists. Multiple online identities and fake pressure groups are used to mislead the public into believing that the position of the astroturfer is the commonly held view The creation or use of new words or senses. E.g: • Brangelina: used to refer to supercouple Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie. • Metrosexual: A man who dedicates a great deal of time and money to his appearance. • Muffin top: This refers to the (often unsightly) roll of fat that appears on top of trousers that feature a low waist. Neologism • Stitch 'n' bitch: A gathering of individuals who chat or gossip while knitting or crocheting. • BFF: Stands for best friends forever. Used to state how close you are to another individual. • Chilax: To calm down or relax, it is a slang term used when someone is starting to get uptight about something that is happening. • Staycation: A vacation at home or in the immediate local area. An acronym is an abbreviation formed from the initial components in a Acronyms phrase or a word: - LOL, WTF, OMG, TGIF An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase: Abbreviation - O.lign. E.g. Etc. English as the European and global lingua franca - A language widely used over a relatively large geographical area as a language of wider communication is known as a lingua Lingua franca franca. - A common language which is native only to some of its speakers - A contact language where speakers do not share a first language ELF - Always a foreign language to some of its speakers - A type of contact that requires: o Knowledge of languages, culture, business environment, communication o Skills o Personal and interpersonal competencies

- Related to EIL, but with a specific focus on English as a communicative tool, successfully used between non-native speakers and seen as emerging independently from native speaker norms English as a native language ENL - ‘Standard’ English, conforms to native speaker norms, as it is spoken in countries with English as a first or second language English as an international language EIL - English as it is being used around the world, for international communication English as a foreign language EFL - English as it is taught and learnt in countries where it is a foreign language, with ENL as the learning model How does ELF differ from native English? - ”A contact language between people who share neither a ELF vs. native english common native tongue nor a common national culture. English is the chosen foreign language of communication.” The language used in the multicultral, multilingual area of continental Euro-ELF Europe (e.g. the EU)

Kachru’s circles of English

”Buffer zone” between inner/outer circle countries where English is the L1 – or almost - and the expanding/Business English circles where English The dual circle functions as the Lingua Franca (e.g. EU member countries)

Difference between EFL and ELF

Communication in the European institutions "United in diversity" is the motto of the European Union. - It signifies how Europeans have come together, in the form of the EU motto EU, to work for peace and prosperity, while at the same time being enriched by the continent's many different cultures, traditions and languages. The 12 stars in a circle symbolise the ideals of unity, solidarity and The European flag harmony among the peoples of Europe - Ensuring the highest possible degree of multilingualism - Linguistic quality of all laws is beyond reproach in all official languages - Highly efficient interpreting, translation, legal text verification - Dutch, French, German, Italian: 1958 - Danish, English: 1973 EU languages - Greek: 1981 - Portuguese, Spanish: 1986 - Finnish, Swedish: 1995 - Czech, Estonian, Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Slovak, Slovene: 2004 - Bulgarian, Irish, Romanian: 2007 - Croatian: 2013 The jargon of business The tone is associated with managers of large corporations, business management consultants, and occasionally government. Reference to such jargon is charactericed by the use of long, complicated, or obscure words, abbreviations (forkortelse), euphemisms (en omskrivning/politisk korrekt) and acronyms Corporate / • Some of these words may be new inventions, designed purely to management jargon fit the specialized meaning of a situation or even to "spin" negative situations as positive situations. • May be characterised by sometimes unneccessary elaborations of common English phrases, acting to conceal the real meaning of what is being said. It is contrasted with plain English.

Signature voice

Presence quadrant

Strategies to use: • Make sure that your general purpose is to inform. Develop a clear and specific purpose. Analyse your audience and the context in which you speak. • Make sure that you are informing, not persuading. Stay objective • Pay careful attention to your audience’s level of knowledge and Speaking to inform understanding when doing your audience analysis. Your presentation should fit the information level needed • Try to incorporate a variety of supporting material such as – Definitions – Examples – Statistics – Quotes – Visuals • To present with professional excellence, you must demonstrate credibility and help your audience believe you or your information/argument • Establish common ground with your audience. Show them that Speaking to persuade you share their interest/concern etc. Will increase your ability to persuade them • Make certain that the purpose of the presentation is to persuade • Develop a clear, easy-to-follow structure Communication across cultures The adult professional ELF user will need to posess knowledge of the factual background for the topic in question AND be able to apply Cultural competence relevant vocabulary, discourse type and cultural parametres. in relation to ELF On top of that he/she must be able to solve any communication problems that may occur in the process.

Hofstede’s Pyramid

The onion model Easiest to influence people in the outer layers of the onion model. Hofstede/Trompenaa rs

Hofstede

High context cultures: (Japan , south European , Arab., ) - Indirect approach - Lack of transparency - Context more important than words Edward T. Hall - Focus on interpersonal relations - Implicit communication Low context cultures: (Greek, USA, Denmark, UK) - Direct approach - High degree of transparency - Context less improtant than words - Focus on conveying information - Explicit communication Time perception - Monochronic vs. Polychronic – organised time perception vs. flexible time perception (e.g. engaging in one or several activities simultaneously) Proxemics - Perception of social and personal space

Gesteland Deal-focused or relationship focused Cultural intelligence • A vital intercultural competency that facilitates the job performance of expatriates in international assignments • A valuable competency to overcome culture shock

CQ DRIVE Learn how to increase your motivation for the challenges that often accompany multicultural relationships and work. CQ KNOWLEDGE Grow your understanding about cultures and gather creative ideas for how to continue learning about cultural differences and similarities wherever you are. CQ STRATEGY Improve your ability to be aware of what’s going on in a multicultural situation and learn how to plan accordingly. CQ ACTION Increase your repertoire of behaviors for use in a variety of multicultural social and work settings. Cultural challenges • Hierarchy vs. consensus culture – meetings and decision power • Centralisation vs. Decentralisation • Directness vs. indirectness • Time perception • Roles of department staff and secretaries in DK • Levels of formality • Social conventions • Ice breakers • Sense of humour

Styles of verbal Western society has a predominantly verbal culture where silence may communication often be interpreted as a failiure to communicate. Northern European languages: When A stops talking, B starts talking Southern European languages: When A talks, B frequently interrupts and vice versa Oriental languages: When A has finished speaking, B takes time to absorb what was said and to show A respect before he replies Business news and business features Conversational - Tell the story – how to breathe life into reporting English in the news - Plain English – straightforward and commonly understood language - Familiar words – speaking the language of lay persons (slang?) - Easy listening – few long words in sentences - Accurate English – some details may have to give way to clarity - Concrete statements – news information impressionistic rather than having complex abstractions o Convey the impressions you have from the situation - Interesting – the news criteria: New, important and relevant - Contractions – in conversation contractions are a must - Rhythm – broadcasting should sound good, not just read well Live blog • A liveblog is a blog post which is intended to provide a rolling textual coverage of an ongoing event, similar to live television or live radio.