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Overview of Terms Overview of terms Term Description English for professional oral communication - Understands a wide range of demanding, longer texts and recognises implicit meaning - Expresses him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions - Uses language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes - Produces clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices Professional language user - (Kolb’s Learning Cycle) - When new genres emerge due to technological development and Emerging when we have to work together across cultures due to increased intercultural genres globalisation - Poor language skills - Weak understanding of issues in question - Lack of information Sources of noise - No understanding of genre conventions - Cultural differences - Not part of discourse community Differences between sender and receiver regarding: • Power Sender-receiver • Authority relationship • Professional background knowledge Symmetrical roles: Aligned regarding power, authority etc. Asymmetrical roles: Not aligned Static relationship status or dynamic relationship status Oral communicative competence Understanding, explaining and using language correctly (:grammar, Linguistic vocabulary, intonation) Correctness and oral fluency are not tested in this competence exam! Understanding, explaining and using language in a context (:use of speech Discourse and text acts, genre conventions, fillers and gambits, cohesion and coherence) competences making conversations work Pragmatic Understanding, explaining and using the rules and norms in a given competence communication situation (:rhetorical situation, audience relationship, intended outcome) Understanding, explaining and communicating within the cultural Cultural competence premises of the target culture Ability to understand, explain and solve communication problems – and Strategic competence reaching communicative goals - Ability to assess the rhetorical situation The professional - Idea of linguistic features needed for the situation communicator - Knowledge of cultural intelligence - Double voiced Discourse A communication style where you demonstrate a double orientation in Double voiced how you communicate, both your own perspective and the perspective/s discourse of the other/s with whom you’re speaking. When used appropriately, it reveals a core aspect of cultural intelligence—perspective-taking - Genre definition of case - Overall purpose – controlling idea - Main supporting points of the controlling idea How to summarize - Own vocabulary (practise synonyms when reading) based on Björk and - Objective approch – no interpretations or comments Räisänen - Coherent – coherence above chronology - Use of summary markers: ”The author/speaker argues, maintains, suggests…” Analysis model – Bodil Helder Listening strategies and interpersonal communication Reading vs. listening Understanding written texts requires: - Decoding info - Identifying genre - Understanding the framework/model (schemata) - Identifying structure, special phrases etc. Understanding spoken language requires: - Same as above + - Coping with false starts (When people do not finish their sentences, but rephrase it while speaking) - Coping with no possibility of backtracking (One-shot listening) - Understanding the ‘noise’ of unfamiliar pauses, rhythmic groups, tone, pronunciation Requires metalinguistic knowledge of the non-native speaker Metalinguistic Metalinguistic awareness refers to the understanding that language is a knowledge system of communication, bound to rules, and forms the basis for the ability to discuss different ways to use language. In other words, it is the ability to consciously analyse language and its subparts, to know how they operate and how they are incorporated into the wider language system. Listening strategies - Ignore specialised terms - Tolerate ambiguity (several meanings) - Guess meaning - Ask for paraphrase - Assume common sense - Estimate meaning from other speaker cues (identify intention) - Select nearest match (look for signs) - Ask for clarification - Assume speaker error (speaker slip of the tongue) Bottom-up processing We listen to individual sounds, words and grammar to decode meaning from what we hear: - Listening for specific details - Recognising cognates (related words) - Recognising word-order patterns - Used for speech interpretation, analysts etc. Top-down processing We listen for the overall meaning of what we hear, using our background knowledge and experience to create expectation about what it must all mean: - Listening for main idea - Predicting - Drawing inferences (conclusions) - Summarising Strategic listening Use of metacognitive strategies to plan, monitor and evaluate listening: - Planning right strategy for a given situation - Monitoring comprehension and effectiveness of selected strategies - Evaluating whether goals were achieved and strategies used were effective Internal and external Internal noise - Physical needs distract listernes - Talking on phone creates noise in the form of the people doing other things while talking. External - Audible distractions at a meeting - Messages on your computer etc. Jargon Technical jargon used by a specialized group Message overload Occurs when a speaker includes too many details, making it difficult for the listener to comprehend Receiver The fear of misinterpreting, inadequately processing and/or not being apprehension able to adjust to psychologically to messages sent by others. Bias Any assumption or attitude we have about the person, issue, or topic before we have heard all the facts. Listening types Informational listening - Focus on the content of the message to acquire knowledge’ Critical listening - When you evaluate the information being sent Empathetic listening - Listening to understand the speaker’s point of view without judgement Reflective listening - Listenes thoughtfully to the meaning of the speaker’s words - Considers the content of the message, both stated and implied - Thinks about the feelings associated with the message, attending to the speaker’s verbal and nonverbal cues - Makes every effort to reflect that message accurately Active listeneer - Makes sense of the message and verify that it is correct - Will often paraphrase the message to the sender - Will ask questions to develop a better understanding of the speaker’s message Passive listener - Receives message and makes sense of the message without feedback or verification People-oriented listeners - Interested in demonstrating concern for others’ emotions and interests, finding common ground and responding Action-oriented listeners - Interested in direct, concise, error-free communication that is used to negotiate and accomplish a goal - Easily frustrated by disorganized presentations Content-oriented listeners - Interested in intellectual challenge and complex information - Want to evaluate information carefully before forming judgments Time-oriented listeners - Prefers brief communication - Seek interaction that is concise and to the point Listening categories Conversational listening - When the speaking role shifts from on person to another with some degree of frequency Presentational listening - Takes place in situations where a clear role of speaking and listening functions are prescribed. - Roles are often formal and defined as active speaker and responsive listener Listening Is based on the following conditions: environment - Mode • Conversational or presentational - Environment • Formal or informal - Relationship • Social or business HURIER-model Framework for skill-based listening - Hearing - Understanding - Remembering - Interpreting - Evaluating - Responding The cognitive - Identify a sequence of phonetic units in a stream of speech approach - Identify attentional signals a speaker gives to lexical items and relate this to the principle of given – new information - Identify possible functions for tone contours to indicate e.g. shared information, new information or question vs. statement - Adjust to speaker variation in accent Oral Genres and the Rhetorical and Intercultural Situation Genre Can be formulated as a classification based on forms or topic Rhetorical genre A distinctive and recurring pattern of similarly contrained rhetorical patterns Genre in A typified communicative action in response to a recurrent action: organizational - Established practice communication - Social relations - Communication media - Similar substance – motives, themes, topic Resulting genre - Form – salutations, style etc. - Purpose (why): Most notably, a genre provides expectations about its socially recognized purpose(s). - Content (what): A genre also provides expectations about the The influence of content of the communication. genre on discursive - Form (how): A genre provides expectations about its form, norms including media, structuring devices, and linguistic elements. Yates and Orlikowski - Time (when): A genre often entails specific temporal expectations, although these may not be explicitly stated. - Place (where): A genre also provides location expectations, and these too are not always made explicit. - In structurational terms, genres are social institutions that are Structuration theory produced, reproduced, or modified when human agents. draw on Anthony Giddens genre rules to engage in organisational communication - Our expectations regarding a text or an example of oral communication are what
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