Global Variations in Erosion of Young Orogens: Swath Profile Comparison of Climatic, Erosional and Topographic Metrics to Long-Term Exhumation Rates

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Global Variations in Erosion of Young Orogens: Swath Profile Comparison of Climatic, Erosional and Topographic Metrics to Long-Term Exhumation Rates Pro gradu -tutkielma Geologia Kallioperägeologia, taloudellinen geologia ja geodynamiikka Global variations in erosion of young orogens: Swath profile comparison of climatic, erosional and topographic metrics to long-term exhumation rates Niclas Blomqvist 2016 Ohjaaja(t): David Whipp HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO MATEMAATTIS-LUONNONTIETEELLINEN TIEDEKUNTA GEOTIETEIDEN JA MAANTIETEEN LAITOS GEOLOGIA PL 64 (Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2) 00014 Helsingin yliopisto Tiedekunta/Osasto Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos/Institution– Department Faculty of Science Department of Geosciences and Geography Tekijä/Författare – Author Niclas Blomqvist Työn nimi / Arbetets titel – Title Global variations in erosion of young orogens: Swath profile comparison of climatic, erosional and topographic metrics to long-term exhumation rates Oppiaine /Läroämne – Subject Geology Työn laji/Arbetets art – Level Aika/Datum – Month and year Sivumäärä/ Sidoantal – Number of pages Masters thesis 02/2016 185 Tiivistelmä/Referat – Abstract The topography of the Earth’s surface is the result of the interaction of tectonics, erosion and climate. Thus, topography should contain a record of these processes that can be extracted by topographic analysis. The question considered in this study is whether the spatial variations in erosion that have sculpted the modern topography are representative of the long-term erosion rates in mountainous regions. We compare long-term erosion rates derived from low-temperature thermochronometry to erosional proxies calculated from topographic and climatic data analysis. The study has been performed on a global scale including six orogens: The Himalaya, Andes, Taiwan, Olympic Mountains, Southern Alps in New Zealand and European Alps. The data was analyzed using a new swath profile analysis tool for ArcGIS called ArcSwath to determine the correlations between the long-term erosion rates and modern elevations, slope angles, relief in 2.5-km- and 5-km-diameter circles, erosion potential, normalized channel steepness index ksn, and annual rainfall. ArcSwath uses a Python script that has been incorporated into an ArcMap 10.2 add-in tool, extracting swath profiles in about ten seconds compared to earlier workflows that could take more than an hour. Swath profile analysis is a relatively common method for geomorphological research. A swath profile is a rectangular extraction of a digital model to a cross-section, where statistical parameters (minimum, mean and maximum) are presented along the profile length. In previous studies swath profiles have been used to identify relationships between topography and major structures, to compare various climatic, erosional and topographic data across a given orogen and along strike, and to recognize fluvially and glacially eroded forms. An unambiguous correlation between the topographic or climatic metrics and long-term erosion rates was not found. Fitting of linear regression lines to the topographic/climatic metric data and the long-term erosion rates shows that 86 of 288 plots (30%) have “good” R2 values (> 0.35) and 135 of 288 (47%) have an “acceptable” R2 value (> 0.2). The “acceptable” and “good” values have been selected on the basis of visual fit to the regression line. The majority of the plots with a “good” correlation value have positive correlations, while 11/86 plots have negative slopes for the regression lines. Interestingly, two topographic profile shapes were clear in swath profiles: Concave-up (e.g., the central-western Himalaya and the northern Bolivian Andes) and concave-down or straight (e.g., the eastern Himalayas and the southern Bolivian Andes). On the orogen scale, the concave-up shape is often related to relatively high precipitation and erosion rates on the slopes of steep topography. The concave-down/straight profiles seem to occur in association of low rainfall and/or erosion rates. Though we cannot say with confidence, the lack of a clear correlation between long-term erosion rates and climate or topography may be due to the difference in their respective timescales as climate can vary over shorter timescales than 10 -10 years. In that case, variations between fluvial and glacial erosion may have overprinted the erosional effects of one another. Avainsanat – Nyckelord – Keywords Swath profile analysis, erosion, climate, tectonics, thermochronometry Säilytyspaikka – Förvaringställe – Where deposited University of Helsinki Digital Theses Muita tietoja – Övriga uppgifter – Additional information Tiedekunta/Osasto Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos/Institution– Department Matemaattis-luonnontieteellinen tiedekunta Geotieteiden ja maantieteen laitos Tekijä/Författare – Author Niclas Blomqvist Työn nimi / Arbetets titel – Title Global variations in erosion of young orogens: Swath profile comparison of climatic, erosional and topographic metrics to long-term exhumation rates Oppiaine /Läroämne – Subject Geologia Työn laji/Arbetets art – Level Aika/Datum – Month and year Sivumäärä/ Sidoantal – Number of pages Pro gradu -tutkielma 02/2016 185 Tiivistelmä/Referat – Abstract Maapallon pinnanmuotoihin vaikuttavat tektoniikka, eroosio ja ilmasto. Täten topografian pitäisi säilyttää merkkejä näistä prosesseista, jotka voidaan havaita myös topografisen analyysin avulla. Tämän tutkimuksen ongelmana on, edustaako nykypäivän pinnanmuodotkin muokannut paikallisesti vaihteleva eroosio pitkän aikavälin eroosiota vuoristoalueilla. Vertailemme pitkän aikavälin eroosionopeuksia, jotka ovat peräisin alhaisen lämpötilan termokronometriasta, erosionaalisiin arvoihin, joita on laskettu topografisten ja ilmastollisten aineistojen analyyseista. Tutkimus on tehty maailmanlaajuisessa mittakaavassa valitsemalla kuusi orogeenia: Himalaja, Andit, Taiwan, Olympicin vuoristo Luoteis- Yhdysvalloissa, Eteläiset Alpit Uudessa Seelannissa ja Euroopan Alpit. Tutkimus suoritettiin uudella swath profile -analyysityökalulla (ArcSwath), joka toimii ArcGIS -ohjelmassa, ja jonka avulla määritimme riippuvuussuhteita pitkän aikavälin eroosion ja nykypäivän korkeusaseman, rinteen jyrkkyyden, reliefin 2.5 km- ja 5 km halkaisijaltaan olevan ympyrän sisällä, eroosiopotentiaalin, normalisoidun uomanjyrkkyys indeksin (normalized channel steepness, ksn), ja vuotuisen sademäärän välillä. ArcSwath on kirjoitettu Python-koodiin, joka on sisällytetty ArcMap 10.2 add-in -työkaluun. Työkalu eristää swath-profiileja noin kymmenessä sekunnissa, kun aikaisemmin yhden swath-profiilin tekeminen on saattanut kestää jopa tunnin. Swath profile -analyysi on suhteellisen yleinen menetelmä geomorfologiselle tutkimukselle. Swath profiili on suorakulmainen eristys digitaalisesta mallista poikkileikkaukseen, jossa statistiset parametrit (minimi, keskiarvo ja maksimi) esitetään pitkin profiilin pituutta. Aikaisemmissa tutkimuksissa swath profiileja on käytetty tunnistamaan suhteita pinnanmuotojen ja merkittävien rakenteiden välillä, vertaamaan eri ilmastollisia, eroosionaalisia ja topografisia tietoja niin orogeenin kulkua vasten kohtisuoraan kuin myös kulkua pitkin, ja tunnistamaan fluviaalisesti ja glasiaalisesti erodoituneita muodostumia. Yksiselitteistä riippuvuussuhdetta topografisten tai ilmastollisten mittarien ja pitkän aikavälin eroosionopeuksien välillä ei ollut. Lineaaristen regressiosuorien asettaminen topografisten/ ilmastollisten aineistojen ja pitkän aikavälin eroosionopeuksien välille osoittaa, että 86/288 (30%) diagrammista on ”hyvä” R2 arvo (>0.35) ja 135/288 (47%) on ”hyväksyttävä” R2 arvo (>0.2). ”Hyväksyttävä” ja ”hyvä” arvot on valittu pisteiden visuaalisen sopivuuden perusteella regressiosuoraan. Suurin osa diagrammeista, joilla on ”hyvä” riippuvuusarvo, ovat positiivisia riippuvuussuhteiltaan, kun 11/86 diagrammilla on negatiivinen regressiosuoran kulmakerroin. Topografisille profiileille tunnistettiin kaksi erilaista muotoa: Kovera (esim. Keski- ja Länsi-Himalaja ja Bolivian Andien pohjoisosa) ja kupera/suora (esim. Itä-Himalaja ja Bolivian Andien eteläosa). Orogeenin mittakaavassa kovera muoto liittyi usein verraten korkeaan sademäärään ja eroosionopeuteen jyrkän topografian rinteillä. Kupera/suora muoto esiintyivät usein alhaisen sademäärän ja eroosionopeuden yhteydessä. Selkeän riippuvuussuhteen puuttuminen pitkän aikavälin eroosionopeuksien ja ilmaston tai pinnanmuotojen välillä voi mahdollisesti johtua keskinäisestä aikaskaala erosta, koska ilmasto muuttuu lyhyemmässä skaalassa kuin 10 -10 vuotta. Tässä tapauksessa fluviaalinen ja glasiaalinen eroosio ovat voineet vuorotella ja näin poistaneet toistensa erosionaaliset jäljet. Avainsanat – Nyckelord – Keywords Swath profile, eroosio, ilmasto, tektoniikka, termokronometria Säilytyspaikka – Förvaringställe – Where deposited Helsingin yliopiston digitaalinen opinnäytearkisto Muita tietoja – Övriga uppgifter – Additional information Contents 1. INTRODUCTION . 3-4 2. GEOLOGIC SETTINGS . 4-24 2.1. The orogens . 4-5 2.2. Himalaya and Tibet . 5-9 2.3. Andes . 9-12 2.4. Taiwan . 12-15 2.5. Olympic Mountains . 15-18 2.6. The Southern Alps of New Zealand . 18-20 2.7. The Alps . 20-23 2.8. Low-temperature thermochronometry . 23-24 3. MATERIALS . 24-25 4. METHODS . 25-34 4.1. The SRTM and rainfall raw data processing methods . 26-28 4.2. How to use the ArcSwath tool? . 28-30 4.3. Correlation plots . 31 4.4. The theory of normalized channel steepness and the settings . 32-34 used with Stream Profiler tool 5. RESULTS . 34-60 5.1. Overall . 34 5.2. Himalaya . 35-41 5.2.1. Marsiyangdi and Bhutan (Mb swaths) . 35-39 5.2.2. Sutlej . 39-41 5.3. Central Andes (Bolivia) . 42-45 5.4. Taiwan . 46-48
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