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Home , Brahminy kite, Forests of Australia, Raptor conservation

J. RaptorRes. 32 (1) :64-73 ¸ 1998 The Raptor ResearchFoundation, Inc.

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF RAPTORS IN ' S TROPI CS

NICK MOONEY Parksand WildlifeSet'vice, GPO Box 44A, Hobart 7001, ,Australia

ABSTRACT.----•Iof Australia's34 raptorsare found in the tropics.No full speciesand onlyone subspecies, an island endemic owl, are extinct. All of Australia'sthree threatened, diurnal speciesare endemic to the continent. One, the Vulnerable Red Goshawk (Erythrotriochisradiatus), is endemic to Australia's tropical forestsand is under threat from lossof , persecution,and egg collecting.Conservation efforts include legal protection, education, and keeping nest sitessecret. A secondspecies, the rare Square-tailedKite (Lophoictiniaisura) is widelydistributed and, exceptfor clearingof woodland,threats are not obvious.Many raptors from arid areas,including the endemic Grey Falcon (Falcohypoleucos), "winter" in tropicalwoodlands. For adequateconservation, critical habitatsof the Grey Falconmust be identified. Grey Falconsshould be helped in the long term by the anticipatedreduction of rabbitsin arid Australiaby rabbit calicivirusdisease, but widespreadclearing of tropicalwoodlands for agriculture continuesas does local, heavy use of .Although no speciesof owls are threatened, five sub- speciesare; two are subspeciesof the endemic RufousOwl (Ninox rufa, one rare and one insufficiently known) and two are subspeciesof the Masked Owl (Tyt0 novaehollandiae,both insufficientlyknown). Threats include lossof critical habitat to fire and agriculture.On ChristmasIsland, the smallpopulations of endemicsubspecies of the BrownGoshawk (Accipiterfasciatus) and MoluccanHawk-owl (N. squamipila) are Vulnerable and threatened by loss of habitat to urbanization and formerly mining. Besideslegal protection, conservationefforts have included educationand habitat preservation.The tropicalEastern Grass-owl(T. longimembris)is secure although some populationsare under pressurefrom agriculture (including rodenticides) and urbanization. Coastal, tropical raptors appear secure even though per- manent reductions in some populations have been causedby agriculture, urbanization, and coastal developmentssuch as aquacultureand marinas.

KEYWORDS: tropicalraptors; Australia; conservation; status.

Estadoy conservaci6nde las avesrapaces en los tr6picosde Australia RESUMEN.--Todaslas 34 especiesde avesrapaces de Australiase encuentranen los tr6picos.Una de las tres especiesamenazadas de Australia,Erythrotriorchis radiatus es end6mico a los bosquestropicales de Australiay esfftamenazada por la p6rdida de habitat, persecuci6n,y saqueode huevos.Los esfuerzos de conservaci6nhan incluido su protecci6n legal, educaci6n, y protecci6n de nidos. Una segunda especieLophoictinia isura esfft ampliamente distribuida, excepto por la deforestaci6n,las demas amenazas no son obvias.Varias avesrapaces de regiones gridas incluyendo al endfmico Falcohypoleucos emigran hacia los bosquestropicales. Desde el punto de vista de la conservaci6n,los habitatscriticos de F. hypoleucosdeben de ser identificadosdebido a que la deforestaci6npara la agriculturacontinfia al igual que el uso intensivo de pesticidas.Aunque ningfin buho ha sido identificado como amenazado,en Australia,dos rarasy poco estudiadassubespecies del end6mico Ninox rufa y dos subespeciesde Tyto novaehollandiaeesfftn amenazadas en las /treastropicales. Las amenazasincluyen la p6rdida de criticosdebido al filego y a la agricultura.En la Isla Christmas,las reducidaspoblaciones de Accipiter fasciatusy de N. squamipilaestrin amenazadas debido a la p6rdida de habitat por actividades•nineras y el desarrollo urbanistico.Aparte de la protecci6n legal, los esfuerzosde conservaci6nhan incluido educaci6ny protecci6n del habitat. Aunque aparentementeestables algunas poblaciones de 7: lon,•- memtm'sesfftn bajo presi6n debido a la agricultura (incluyendoel uso de rodenticidas)y el desarrollo urbano. Aunque las poblacionesde avesrapaces costeras esfftn estables, estas han tenido continuadas reduccionescausadas por la agricultura,la urbanizaci6n,y por desarrolloscosteros tales como proyectos de acuaculturay marinas. [Traducci6n de C6sarMarquez]

64 M_2mCH 1998 ST^TUS OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIAN RAPTORS 65

BACKGROUND Australia. Tropical areas also spread inland along Australia is a continent with an area totaling permanent rivers and and include some about 7.7 million km 2. It includes a few small is- areasof highlandssuch as the Atherton tablelands. lands, one of which is Christmas Island in the In- Adjacent islands off these areas including Christ- dian Ocean, approximately 1400 km northwest of mas Island are also wet and support . Australia near the Indonesian island of Java. Aus- The dry tropics are comprised of mainly savanna tralia is the driest continent and less than 15% is woodlands and a variety of permanent and tem- covered by tropical forests located on the north porary waterwaysand wetlands. They are located and northeastern coasts. Although people have south of the wet tropicsbut north of a line extend- slowly modified these forests using fire over at ing acrossthe continent from the mid-east to the mid-upper westcoast from about Brisbaneto about least 60 000 yr, it has only been in the last 200 yr Broome (Fig. 1). since Europeans arrived that this change has ac- celerated. While the size of the continent has shel- Raptorsare very mobile and most species are able to utilize a variety of habitats. Therefore, tered most raptors from threats to tropical forests, I was cautiouswhen assigningspecies to habitats small islands have not escaped these effects. The and used broad definitions. wet, tropical forestsof Australia showdistinct sea- sonality but have long-term ecological stability. USE OF AUSTRALIA'S TROPICS BY RAPTORS The occurrence of irregular, severe inland Presenceand Core Range. All 34 speciesof Aus- droughts make the continent's biogeography tralian raptors are found in the tropics. Of Austra- unique (Nix 1972, Flannery1994). This instability lia's 10 endemic raptor species, only two, the has resulted in many arid and semiarid birds, rap- monotypic Red Goshawk (Erythrotriorchisradiatus) tors included, becoming migrants during drought and LesserSooty-owl (Tyto multipunctata),are en- periods with many showing both inland-coastal demic to the tropicsas are four and eight subspe- and south-north movements (Baker-Gabb and cies of Falconiformes and Strigiformes, respective- Fitzherbert 1989). These local movements may be ly. One other monotypic species,the Square-tailed small in relation to the size of the continent but (Lophoictiniaisura), six subspeciesof Falconi- they are still large in absoluteterms and their ap- formes, and six of Strigiformeshave large portions parent dispersive rather than routed nature of their ranges in the tropics (Blakers et al. 1984, makes their study difficult. Debus and Czechura 1988b, Marchant and Higgins Another unusual movement is the irruptive ten- 1993). Australia is relatively close to Melanesia and dency of a few raptor species.This type of move- some raptors interchange between the two includ- ment usuallyfollows heavy rains marked by increas- ing Swamp Harriers (Circusapproximans), Austra- es in rodent numbers, and rapid breeding in pop- lian Hobbies (Falcolongipennis), and Nankeen Kes- ulationsof Letter-wingedKites (Elanusscriptus) and trels (F. cenchroides).Numbers of raptors that inter- Black Kites ( migrans)which then disperse change are not known but neither location is when dry conditions return and rodent numbers known to be a major wintering area for interchang- crash (Hollands 1977, Laveryand Johnson1993). ing species(Baker-Gabb and Fitzherbert 1989). This paper examines raptors in wet tropics (a Wet rs. Dry Tropics. More speciesof Strigifor- stronglyseasonal environment) and dry tropics (an mes rely on the wet tropics than do Falconiformes. environment stable in the short to medium term Seven species of Strigiformes are endemic while but unstable in the longer term). It is important only three speciesof Falconiformes are exclusively to make this distinction because tropical raptors found in the wet tropics.All told, 10 of Australia's may be largely dependent on a systemwith long- 19 speciesand subspeciesof Strigiformesbut only term stabilityand they may be slowto adapt to en- 10 of 28 speciesand subspeciesof Falconiformes vironmental changes. are either endemic to or a large segment of their The Australian wet tropics contain both open core ranges lies within the wet tropics. Conversely, and closedforests, including rainforeston the con- the dry tropics are more important to the majority tinent's northeast coast. Mainly coastal,these for- of Australia's tropical Falconiformes. Six species ests extend from nearly half-way down the east are endemic to the dry tropics while this area has coast and all the way to the northwest corner of no endemic owls. 66 MOONEY VOL. 32, NO. 1 MARCH 1998 STATUS OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIAN RAPTORS 67

Movements. In the Australian tropics, there are lower (coastward) catchments of the larger rivers 13 resident Falconiformes,10 regular "winter" mi- around the Gulf Region are particularly important grants, and one species,the Black-breastedBuz- since they support the greatestraptor diversityand zard (Hamirostra melanosternon),that moves to the share the greatest abundance (Fig. 1). Grassy tropics and other coastal areas in responseto ir- woodlandssupport mainly Brown Falcons,Swamp regular, inland droughts.Although two regular mi- Harriers, Spotted Harriers, Black Kites, and Black- grants, the Black-shoulderedKite (Elanusaxillaris) shouldered Kites while open forests along perma- and the are also irruptive, only the Let- nent waterwayssupport Red Goshawks,Australian ter-winged Kite appears to be adapted for such Hobbies (F. longipennis),Peregrine Falcons (F. per- movementsthrough its colonial and early breeding egrinus),and Grey Falcons (F. hypoleucos).Open for- (Marchant and Higgins 1993). Interpreting move- eststhroughout the area support many Brown Gos- ments for many speciesis difficult because their hawks (Accipiterfasciatus) and Collared Sparrow- extensive ranges include populations which are hawks (Accipitercirrocephalus). During this autumn/ residentwhile othersare migratoryon either a reg- winter dry period, White-bellied Sea (Ha- ular or irregular basis.This difficulty doesnot exist liaeetusleucogaster) and Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) for Australia'sStrigiformes. Although there are sev- sometimestravel far inland up permanent rivers eral irruptive species,the Barn Owl (Tyto alba), (Blakers et al. 1984, Marchant and Higgins 1993) possiblythe Grass Owl (T. longimembris),and the and Brahminy Kites ( indus) disperseinto Southern Boobook (Ninox novaeseelandiae)on Tas- the Torres Strait (Draffon et al. 1983). mania seem to be at least partially migratory Other areas of the tropics are important as win- (Schodde and Mason 1980, Blakers et al. 1984, tering grounds.For example, the developedgrass- Hollands 1991). lands of the Darling Downs area in southeastern After becoming concentratedin the best breed- support high densities of wintering ing habitats in spring, populations of some species Nankeen Kestrels (Baker-Gabb 1996) and any ar- barely leave inland breeding areas in the heat of eas of open forest where small passerinesare com- summer (e.g., Wedge-tailedEagles [Aquila audax] mon are used by Square-tailedKites (Debus and and Black Falcons [F. subniger];Marchant and Hig- Czechura 1988b). gins 1993). Other speciessuch as Black Kites and Except for a few large areas of along Brown Falcons(F. berigora)make partial migrations the north coast,most of Australia'stropical forests forming concentrations in spring to undertake and woodlandsare fragmented, with indistinct bor- northward and coastwardthrough summer and au- ders caused by combinations of soil fertility and tumn. Other specieslike the Nankeen Kestrel and fire regimes (Flannery 1994). Consequently, in Spotted (Circusassimilis) disperse in early most of the Australian tropics,raptors normally as- winter and rapidly return to breeding areas sociated with closed forests such as Rufous Owls through late winter. The Pacific Baza (Avicedasub- (N. rufa) and Grey Goshawks(Accipiter novaehollan- cristata)migrates altitudinally, making it inland and diae), may range far along rivers and between wet- coastal at the same time. This is best seen in the lands using riparian forests. north-south migration of the SwampHarrier where STATUS virtually the entire breeding population is in the far southeast (mostly in Tasmania) while non- Australia's small tropical islandshave dispropor- breeding immatures are concentrated in grassy tionate numbers of threatened (Rare, Vulnerable, woodlands to the north. or Endangered, after Garnett 1992) or insufficient- Habitats and Areas of Raptor Concentration. A ly known species.The only extinct Australian rap- higher proportionof Strigiformes(9 of 17 species) tor, the Lord Howe Island Boobook (N.n. albana), than Falconiformes(7 of 28 species)rely on trop- was endemic to an island as are five of Australia's ical closed forests. Conversely,woodlands support seven Endangered or Vulnerable raptors. The a higher proportion of Falconiformes (13 of 28 highest proportion of Australia'sthreatened or in- species)than Strigiformes(6 of 7 species). sufficiently known raptors are those that rely on During the dry season and during droughts, forests,particularly tropical forests (four of five Fal- tropical woodlandsbecome particularly important coniformes and six of seven Strigiformes). Austra- for both residents and wintering migrants. Inland lia's tropical woodlands contain most threatened grassy,woodland areas of the Kimberleys and the Falconiformes (three of four species) and closed, 68 MOONEY VOL. 32, NO. 1 wet tropical forests contain most threatened Stri- itat (Newton 1979). In the Australiantropics, this giformes (four of sevenspecies). losshas been mostlydue to agriculture. Draining Nearly all of Australia'sthreatened and insuffi- of wetlandsis an important issue.The Convention ciently known raptors are endemic to or have their on Wetlandsof International Importance Especial- core ranges in the tropics (three of five Falconi- ly as Waterfowl Habitat (the Ramsar Convention, formes and five of sevenStrigiformes; Baker-Gabb Davis 1994) lists several large Australian tropical 1994). Three speciesof Strigiformes are classified wetlandsfor conservationbut most are unprotect- as insufficientlyknown most likely becausethey are ed. However, wetlands have been successfullyre- difficult to survey (Clark and Mikkola 1989, Gar- stored by deliberate management (e.g., Anony- nett 1992). In reality, many speciesof raptors re- mous 1994) and changing public attitudes may garded as secureneed further surveysand actually give more such opportunities. Like many species, should be classifiedas insufficientlyknown. tropical raptors are heavilyreliant on remnant wet- Of Australia's four threatened, endemic and lands during the dry seasonor droughts.Acceler- monotypic species,only one, the tropical Red Gos- ated destruction is potentially harmful both to hawk, is Vulnerable (IUCN 1994). The other two, common species,such as the White-bellied Sea-ea- the largelytropical Square-tailedKite and the semi- gle, Brahminy Kite, (Haliastursphen- arid Grey Falcon, are both Rare. All three of the urus) and Barking Owl (N. connivens),and to al- species have naturally low population densities ready Vulnerable species, such as the Red Gos- (Garnett 1992, Marchant and Higgins 1993). For hawk. example, the current Red Goshawk population Perhapsmore than any other habitat, Australia's consistsof about 350 pairs as compared to its his- woodlands have suffered enormously since Euro- toric population of about 440 pairs spread over pean colonization.In temperate areas, 80% has nearly 1 million ha. Its population decline has been cleared (Robinsonand Traill 1996) and rapid been more the result of a range contractionrather inroads are being made into tropical woodlands than densityreduction (Aumann and Baker-Gabb for agriculture, especiallyin southern Queensland 1991b, Debus 1993). (Anonymous 1996). Square-tailedKites, Red Gos- Conversely,the Vulnerable Brown Goshawk(Ac- hawksand PacificBazas are the speciesmost at risk dpiterf natalis) and Moluccan Hawk-owl (N. squam- from this deforestation. pzla natalis), both endemic to Christmas Island, Dry tropical regions are also disappearingdue havehigh population densitiesbut very limited dis- to the development of irrigation in desert areas. tributions. There are currently an estimated 50- This practice has the potential to increasesaltation 100 pairs of goshawksand about 600 pairs of owls and change flooding regimes with widespreadef- on the 13 650 ha island (Hill 1996). The goshawk's fects on many thousandsof km2. Extensivemono- naturally small and very tame population is Vul- nerable in every sensebut the owl has the advan- culture cropsare susceptibleto pestsrequiring the tage of nocturnal seclusion.There is some ques- use of pesticides (insecticidesand rodenticides) tion as to the identity of the owl and whether the which may have consequencesfor raptors. How- goshawkis simply a subspeciesof the Grey Gos- ever, Australia's National Landcare Program hawk (Debus 1994a). These taxonomic questions (McLennan 1996) is slowing this and other large- must be settled in which case more attention may scale land degradation problems such as saltation and erosion. need to be given to the securityof these isolated raptors. Loss of Habitat Forestry.Forestry has had lim- ited effectson Australia'stropics but the increasing THREATS AND CONSERVATION demand for woodchipsfrom native hardwood for- Precaution and Prevention. Threats to Austra- ests may change this. Plantations of exotic pines lia's tropical raptors are similar to those which make areas unsuitable for most raptors (accipiters threaten raptors in other countries (e.g., Thiollay occasionally use them; Marchant and Higgins 1994). However,Australia has a great advantagein 1993) and, even if the original forest is retained, that much of the management necessaryto pre- often the structure and age is so altered that rap- serve these speciesis preventative. tors can no longer rely on them. This is a problem Loss of Habitat--Agriculture. Both productivity particularly for large owls needing large tree hol- and survivalcan be affected by lossof critical hab- lows such as the Rufous Owl (N. rufa), Powerful 1998 STATUS OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIAN RAPTORS 69

Owl (N. strenua)and SootyOwl (T. tenebricosa)(De- cies directly benefit from it, such as Black Kites, bus 1994b). WhistlingKites, and Brown Falconsthat forage in Codes of Practice have been established for most front of fires (Marchant and Higgins 1993), fire Australian forest operations (Anonymous 1993) occasionallykills nestlingraptors (Auraann and Ba- and contain protocols and recommendations ker-Gabb 1991a). However, more serious is fire's basedon specificresearch (e.g., Mooneyand Hold- attritive affects on remnants of closed forest that sworth 1991, Brereton and Mooney 1994). In Tas- are so important to raptors such as the Rufous Owl. mania, for example, state codes regulating every Not only can traditional nest trees be burned and operation selling timber has been effectivein con- nest standsreduced in size but they can also be servingnesting Wedge-tailed Eagles (Mooney and degraded by weedsand introduced predators (Ba- Taylor 1996). Surveytechniques must be improved ker-Gabb 1994). Fire is a traditional and necessary to make pre-logging planning effective (Kavan- land management tool in much of Australia (Flan- augh and Peake 1993, Mooney 1996). nery 1994) but it is not alwaysthe right tool. Loss of Habitat--Urbanization. The penchant of Disturbance. Disturbance can have severe effects to live on coastal and subcoastal resi- on raptor productivity.Tourism is now one of the dential blocks is a further local threat to raptors. most important industriesin the Australiantropics This type of land use is becomingincreasingly de- and amongstraptors its disturbing effectsare most structive to tropical habitats in Queensland and felt by breeding White-belliedSea-eagles on large and bringswith it all the hazards weftands and coastal rivers which are favorite tour of people beyond the initial alteration of habitats stops.The ground-nestingGrass Owl may be at spe- (e.g., pets, persecution, egg collecting, overhead cial risk from tourism (Gamauf 1994). National wires, vehicles, and fuel reduction burns). These park authoritiesneed to considertemporary zon- rural-residential developments are particularly ing restrictionsand tour operatorsshould develop problematic for large owls and aggressiveraptors, other tours that do not come into closeproximity the latter which occasionallyattack stock.Such ur- with nesting owls.There is a great deal of oppor- banizationshould be more conservativelyplanned tunity for innovation in such ecotourism. Inexpe- and education progrmnsaimed at reducing peo- rienced photographerscan also causenesting fail- ple's expectationsof what they can do in theseen- ures, possiblyeffecting marginal populations (Gar- vironments should be undertaken (Wood 1996). nett 1992). Living With Wildlife Programs(Anonymous 1988, Loss of Prey. The rapid spread of rabbit calici- Temby 1992) shouldbe more aggressivelypromot- virus diseaseis expected to decimate populations ed by wildlife authorities. of (Coman 1996). Rabbits do Loss of Habitat--Other Development. The occur in the dry tropics (Williams et al. 1995) but clearing of mangrovesand reclamation of coastal in far lower densities than in more southern weftandsfor aquaculture, marinas, and urban areas regions.Hence, they are far lessimportant in the are growing problems, most likely to affect Brah- diets of tropical raptors. Speciesmost likely to be rainy Kitesand White-belliedSea-eagles. Ospreys in affected are Wedge-tailedEagles and Little Eagles Australia, as elsewhere,seem remarkablytolerant (Hieraaetusmorphnoides), but the effects will prob- of humans and have adapted to many artificial ably be small and restricted to locally diminished nesting sites (Marchant and Higgins 1993, Ewins productivity.The effect of this diseaseon raptor 1996). Mining is potentiallya problem for raptors populations is being monitored both locally and through its resultinghabitat lossand pollution. For nationwideusing a road transectsurvey called example,25% of ChristmasIsland was badly de- of Prey Watch (Baker-Gabb 1996). In the long graded from mining (Hill 1996) and a large ura- term, the removal of rabbits should allow vegeta- nium mine (Ranger Mine) existsin Kakadu Na- tion to recover in large areas increasingits value tional Park, Australia'spremier tropical reserve. for wildlife (Mutze 1996). However,there are pri- Lossof Habitat--Fire. Fire is more a qualitative vate plans to increaselivestock grazing (the density problem than other more recent threats to habitat; of sheep and cattle) in these areasimmediately af- closedforest is turned to open forest, open forest ter the rabbits are eradicated, perhaps negating is turned to woodlandsand woodlandto grassland. some of the benefits for wildlife. Agricultural au- Fire is a fundamental ecologicalshaper in Austra- thorities should consider stocking restrictionsto lia's tropics (Flannery 1994). Although some spe- balance these pressures.Black-breasted Buzzards, 70 MOONEY VOL. 32, NO. 1

Black Falcons, Grey Falcons, and Letter-winged The effect of most pesticides,especially when Kites are the most susceptibleto grazing pressures. used as cocktails,is little known and perhapspre- Collecting. Egg collecting is a small but persis- sentsnew dangers for Australian raptors. This es- tent problem targeting uncommon species.Once pecially applies to cotton crops on which large nestsof speciessuch as Red Goshawksor Grey Fal- amountsof pesticidesare traditionallyused. cons become well known they may be robbed Some pesticides (rodenticides and insecticides) (Cupper and Cupper 1981, Hollands 1984, Garnett are highly toxic and raptors have been killed by 1992, Baker-Gabb 1993, Marchant and Higgins them in Australia. Experiences in Israel have 1993) and it is the responsibilityof researchersand shownhow catastrophicthe use of topical,organo- photographersto restrict this knowledge.At worst, phosphate rodenticides or insecticidescan be for it is a local problem for a few species.Recreational raptors (Mendelssohnand Puz 1977). A recent ac- falconry is not allowed in Australia and there is cidental kill of up to 20 000 Swainson'sHawks (Bu- little consequentnest robbing and no pet trade. teoswainsoni) by the organophosphateinsecticide Persecution. Australia is a member of CITES and monocrotophos on their Argentine wintering all raptors in Australia have full legal protection grounds (Krapovickasand Lyons 1997) showsthe under state and territory laws (Auraann et al. potential of organophosphate insecticidesto seri- 1989). However,wildlife authoritiesretain the right ously affect populations of Nankeen Kestrels, to issue special permits to control raptors. Perse- Brown Falcons,Little Eagles,Masked Owls (T. no- cution of raptors in the Australian tropicsis only a vaehollandiae),Barn Owls, Grass Owls, Whistling local problem. Beyond random vandalismthe big- Kites, Black Kites, Black-shouldered Kites, and Let- gest problems are associatedwith the defense of ter-winged Kites in Australia. The use of pesticides stock. Accipiters are commonly shot near poultry should be under severe restrictions in areas where and aviary birds; the Brown Goshawkwas heavily these speciesare likely to winter or concentrate to persecutedon ChristmasIsland (Van Tets 1967) breed. Even in establishedagricultural areas, large but this now has diminished. Wedge-tailedEagles concentrations of wintering raptors can be found are still reported to causelosses of lambs and even (e.g., Nankeen Kestrels on the Darling Downs), calves (Keough 1994), and are frequently shot, benefiting from limited agriculture,but the use of trapped, or poisoned. Such shooting is still com- highly-toxicchemicals must be controlled in these mon in western Queensland and severalstockmen places. Agricultural Codes of Practice along the shoot eagles from helicopters (Czechura, pers. lines of Forestry Codes of Practice could have ob- comm.). Persecutionmay be an important contrib- vious use. uting factor to the range contraction of the Red Dingo/feral dog (Canisfamiliaris) and feral pig Goshawk from northern New South Wales and (Susscrofa) poisoning programs use sodium mon- most of southeasternQueensland (Debus and Cze- oflouroacetate (1080), a chemical to which Austra- chura 1988a, Baker-Gabb1993). Besidespolicing, lian raptors are somewhatresistant (Mcllroy 1984, education (especiallyuse of peer pressure) is one 1980). Nevertheless,illegal baiting using organo- of the few ways to limit such persecution. Present phosphates(lucijet, a fenthion-ethyl derivative,and efforts (Holdsworth and Marmion 1993) should be phosdrin) can and does kill raptors (DuGuesclin consolidatedand expanded.Australia's new, strict, et al. 1983). national gun laws can only help reduce persecu- Exotic Species. Besides the risks of nontarget tion of raptors. poisoning,introduced speciespresent many prob- Pesticides.Pesticides can affect both productivity lems to raptors. The cane toad (Bufo marinaris)is and survivalof raptors. The effectsof some persis- highly toxic and it may have killed raptorsafter its tent organochlorine pesticides such as DDT and release. Today, it is a common prey item of the dieldrin are reasonablywell known (Riseborough Black Kite (Marchant and Higgins 1993). Foxes 1987) but today they are probablyof little conse- (Vulpesvulpes) and feral cats (Felisdomesticus) can quence for populationsof Australian raptors (Ful- compete with and prey on raptors and both are ler and Maples 1993). The increasing problem of found in the dry and wet tropics. Their potential malaria in the nearby brings effect is greatest for ground nesters such as the greatly increased use of DDT and if climates Grass Owl and small, colonial nesters such as the change, the possibilityof malaria establishingin Letter-winged Kite (Cupper and Cupper 1981). Australia exists. Such depredation may increase becauseof prey MARCH 1998 STATUS OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIAN RAPTORS 71 switchingwhen rabbit calicivirusdisease decimates contraction of range for at least one species,the rabbits. Red Goshawk. Fortunately, no raptor in Australia Beyond plantation forestry or agriculture, intro- is in need of intensivemanagement. Beyond mak- duced plants can change large areas. Afro-Asian ing deliberate efforts to preserve a few subspecific prickly (Acacianilotica) has changed nearly island populations, further researching insuffi- 50 000 km2 of grasslandin Queenslandto tall scrub ciently known and rare species,and confirming the (Anonymous 1990). Much of this was potentially security of most speciesthrough regular monitor- valuable wintering habitat for raptors. ing of populations and threats, aggressiveeduca- Under the federal Endangered SpeciesProtec- tion and development of Codes of Practice are tion Act 1992, researchand management phasesof probably all Australia's raptors need for security Recovery Programs for speciesthreatened nation- well into the 21st century. ally are funded by the AustralianNature Conser- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vation Agency.Funding to carry out follow-up re- commnedations is not guaranteed. Fortunately, I would like to thank Henry Nix, Richard Hill, Penny there is no remedial action urgently needed for Olsen, and Stephen Debus for their thoughtson raptors in Australia'stropics. Will Steele, Dave Baker-Gabb,and any threatened speciesexcept perhaps for the Red Richard Hill kindly let me use their unpublished data Goshawk in New South Wales and southeast Dave Baker-Gabband.Jean-Marc Thiollay kindly reviewed Queensland (Auman and Baker-Gabb 1991b). the text and the Raptor ResearchFoundation helped me Reserved Status. A common conservation mea- attend the conference in Boisewhere this paper waspre- sented. sure for wildlife is to protect land through the es- tablishment of reserves. For this to be effective, the LITERATURE CITED most important areasof habitat must first be iden- tified. Some rare species,such as the Square-tailed ANONYMOUS.1988. Living with hawks. Wildlife Note- sheet, TASPAWS, Hobart, Australia. Kite, have an enormous distribution, are migratory 1990. Atlas of Australian resources:vegetation. through dispersive rather than routed mecha- AUSLIG, Canberra, Australia. nisms,and seem alwaysat low populationdensities 1993. Forest practicescode. Forestry Tasmania, making accurate assessmentof their status and Hobart, Australia. identification of crucial wintering areas very diffi- 1994. Restoration. In D. Navid [ED.], cult. The large home rangesof many breeding rap- Ramsar Newsletter 17. tors necessitatesenormous reserves to support vi- 1996. Australia: State of the environment 1996, able populations(Thiollay 1989). About 5.9% of .ANCA, Canberra, Australia. Australia is under reservation for conservation, AUMANN,T. AND DJ. BAKER-GArB.1991a. The ecology comparedto 10.5% for the U.S., 7% for Canada and status of the Red Goshawk in Northern Australia. and a world averageof 4.9% (McLennan 1996). RAOU Report 75. RAOU, Melbourne, Australia. --AND --.. 1991b. A management plan for the Although Australia'sproportion seemssmall, pro- Red Goshawk. RAGU, Melbourne, Australia. tected areas in the north are well connected by •, NJ. MOONEYAND P.D. OLSEN. 1989. The legal relativelyintact habitat. Most of the islands,Christ- statusof birds of prey in Australia. Pages591-596 tn mas Island included, are now well reserved. Al- B.-U. Meyburg and R.D. Chancellor [EDS.], Raptors though all Australian raptors are found in at least in the modern world. World Working Group for Birds one reserve, Australia has no large reservesdedi- of Prey, London, U.K. cated to raptors similar to those found in Israel, BAKER-GArB,DJ. ANDK. FITZHERBERT.1989. An overview Spain, and the U.S. This is due to the fact that of raptor movement and wintering placesin Australia Australia's reservesare generally for the conserva- and New Zealand. Pages 159-166 in B.-U. Meyburg tion of mammals,a group in far more need of spe- and R.D. Chancellor lEDS.], Raptors in the modern cial attention than raptors (Flannery 1994). world. 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