Islamic Identities As Positioned Power Relations

CEU eTD Collection

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of of degree the for therequirements of In partial fulfillment The Caseof andIran Turkey Positioned Positioned Power Relations: Supervisor: Professor Matteo Fumagalli Professor Supervisor: Master Master Islamic Identities as Islamic Identities Department of Political Science Political of Department Central European University University European Central Navid Yousefian Jazi Yousefian Navid of Arts in Political Science Arts Political in of Budapest, Hungary Hungary Budapest, Submitted to Submitted B 201 Y

CEU eTD Collection

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our CEU eTD Collection Appendix II Appendix I Bibliography 6 Chapter 5 Chapter 4 Chapter 3 Chapter 2 Chapter 1 Chapter Abstract TableofContents 3.2 Power, History,Political and Islam 3.1 TheDynamic and Reactionary Character of Religious Identities as Positioning 2.2 Political Defining Islam 2.1 TheMainstream Distorted Picture of Political the Islam 1.2 Research Question 1.1 Secularism Resisting Table 7 Table 6 Table 5 Table 4 Table 3 Table 2 6.2 Power Struggles Masked Behind Identities 6.1 Islamic asIdentities a Heterogeneous Set of Positionings 5.3 A Discourse Analysis on Muslims’ Narrative of Politics 5.2 Muslim Identity’s Dimensions 5.1 TheInterviewees 4.2 A Theoretical Assessment of Dramaturgical Interviews 4.1 A Response to Possible Methodological Critiques 3.4 A Summary of Theoretical the Framework 3.3 TheMisleading Logic of Identity 3.1.1 Post3.1.1 5.2.5. 5.2.5. Muslims’5.2.4 Level of Political Toleration 5.2.3 PoliticalThe Connotations ofMuslim Identity 5.2.2. RecognitionThe of Other Typ 5.2.1 The Non 1 Table Multiculturalism3.3.1 as the Hallmark of Liberal Identity Politics

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Schwedler, Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth,menace, or mobilizer?." - Western doctrineIslama sensefear of broughtfor that about ofmind has the Western By originated only aand secular developed inthetra perspective, Christian Although September theincidents of -

Introduction rship in EU, Samuel Huntington statedrship inEU,Samuel thatTurkey, Huntington could doa ineffect, - political andpo political

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Asad Connolly, William E. Fish, M. Steven. "Islam andauthoritarianism." Huntington, Samuel P.

(1999): 191.

, Talal. "Religion, nation 3 This particularIslam presupposes between typepolitics ofseparation the and same InspectionIslam onthepossibility vastly aworks has of secular appeared of inthe

mostly Furthermore, bee has it

ism.” aiming to answer whether a reconciliation of democracy and Islam answer ofdemocracya whetherreconciliation aiming to and is 2

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Why am I not asecularist

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World Politics . U of Minnesota Press, 1999: 22.

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55, no. 01 (2002): 22. 5

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Foreign Affairs

(1997): e firmly 178 –

CEU eTD Collection Berkeley,[Calif.]: Mizan Press, 1981: 30. 10 9 States." 8 University Michigan of Press, 2009: 7. 7 Press,JHU 2009: 28 6 religious areof Abrahamiana constructing religious notcapable texts institution. states, “It is oftime theprophet, necessary is it t oflaws.”amounts toacomplete system thereso too affairs arethe society laws, andgovernment practices, norms and for of which in Najaf, thesame just way “In setting thatthereare laws for claimedIslamic tobe law. the Islamicgot thegovernment the chance jurists ontheby head tosit andtorule of they what atypical.” politicalIran power in,say, mayand be Taliban joined introduces th authorities isunthinkable dueIslamic characteristics tothe fixed ofthe Elizabeth Hurd cont aproposesIslam thepossibilityseparationsame andthe of between state.argument, With between re historyIslam apart that ofsetsit from oth historyIslam different in of regions,that“Thereinsist nothing is,therefore, uniqueinthe view, lead tofailure.”

Fish, Fish, M. Steven. "Islam andauthoritarianism." Hurd, Elizabeth Shakman. "Political Islam andforeign policy Europe in and the United Ayoob, Mohammed. Asad, Talal.

Algar, Hamid.

However, as Abrahamian Ervand argues, Islamism,However, thereof importantlyIran,are most versions inShiite that Foreign Policy Analysis 9

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Islam and revolution: Writings anddeclarations of Imam Khomeini - 29. ends, theclaim betweenends, that the distinction political religious and

The many faces of political Islam: religion and politics in the Muslim world 6

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Schwedler, Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth,menace, or mobilizer?." Soares, Benjamin, andFil Therecomesamong totheir political when variation ideologies isavast it Muslims : “An overemphasis ontheological andhas religious sometimes : “Anmilieus debates overemphasis 16

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Göle, Nilüfer. "Secularism andIslamism Turkey: in Themaking and elites of counter ion and mostly labeled Muslim in Muslim labeled ion andmostly

Islamism havemainstreamfalsely been inthe andfundamentalism tobesimilar taken Therefore,asGole Nilufer indicates, The ‘Muslim’ use ofword of the po -

LiteratureReview pulation in bothcountriespulation in does denybutdonot not identities their Muslim

(1997): 47.

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CEU eTD Collection Press, 2009: 4. 21 20 Joshua Cohen and Martha Nussbaum. B 19 Orient at Western is theofcultural heart political hegemony: the and salvation andemancipation. The process ofOtherness orc inferior accounts this for for tothe OccidentWestern and the for intervention East’s a basis and dominativeand exploitive violent doctrineis presented isof character. The tobe Orient TheIslam as equation of political fundamentalism with Orientalism unders interpretations have been have meant importantIslamIslamist aspects thatNew these from ofmainstream that flow gapcritical understandingIslam...language inthe Western of and barrierscul for everyon countrie Islam;political intenseIslamic theory interest an “While postcolonial in developed has Western the‘Orient’, knowledgenot beenon theidea enough over of therehave studies between i different Islamtend toreadpolitical ofdifferentiate way. all forms thesame in Thenot did West short, against mo

Baker, Raymond Young, Robert JC. "Postcolonial remains." Himmelfarb tanding about the Muslim Muslim tanding about the which isaberrant, inferior.dogma aboutAnother undeveloped, the isthat abstractions between isrational, developed, theWest, which and superior, humane, the “Principal theabsolute dogmas and ofOrientalism...[are] systematic difference However, the postcolonial theory isr Even s, in 2001 Islamwas asunreadable theoristsas intheWest just mostpostcolonial s, in2001 for e else.” , points out to out , points theincentives behinda presenting ofthe distorted picture Orient. , Gertrude. ‘‘The Illusions of Cosmopolitanism.’’ In ForLove Country? of edited by in the p

dernity.” William. nterpretations of Islam,nterpretations of nor 20

ostcolonial framework that concernedwiththe shortcomings ofthe is As RaymonBaker argues, “

largely ignored inthe West.” 19

Islam withoutIslam fear: Egypt and the new Islamists

Due o toalack

m ajority Edward book, countries. classic Said,inhis oston: Beacon Press. (2002): 76.

New Literary History f accurate study of the political Islam, studyf accurate political ofthe Westerners i ch enough to explain theroots the explain of ch inadequate enough to 10

between different types of Muslim identities. identities. Muslim between different types of

There arereasons nosoundscholarly for the 21 a

backward, uncivilized, in backward, uncivilized, onstructing the‘Other’ ofthe

43, no. 1(2012): 30.

. Harvard University tural differences

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CEU eTD Collection Anthropological Institute 24 12. 23 22 AlthoughIslamIslamic of differentviews onthe versions adaptation have rules distinct of to Islamreinforced ofpolitical static, and as theimagination rigid oflaws. a solid, system presentationIslamas of representations religionas oftheir own unitary, timeless, andunchanging. viewsIslamemerged have from alsointerpretations within viaMuslims’ and itself, Western media alike prod have corrupted. women theremodern extremely are economy,is sense isno suppressed, and highly of politics Orient homogeneousIslamicintroducesaas and theOrientpart backward. as countries, of the governments, media, public and popart, etc. universities, toproduce theknowledge that arguments,all social, hasemployed political, West andc fundamentalism,would termina which tothe fact out to point Islamists that onlyofviolence aimto a majorityand small hegemony.worn to obscure Western threatensis thatit toreveal that the apparent ofglobalizationin fact is universalism amask

Soares, Benjamin, andFilippo Osella. "Islam, politics, anthropology." Schwedler, Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth,menace, or mobilizer?." Edward.Said, "Orientalism. 1978."

However, Benjamin andargue Soares Filipo “Whileacademic Osella and discourse SchwedlerJilian “In Falk’s explains, the [Richard] Islamic “menace” identity view, of possibl (by research and pacification, development, outright yellowfeared or (the the Mongoldominions) tobecontrolled Peril, thebrown hordes, d realities. of thattheuniform, Orient andincapable dogmaeternal, Athird is is Orient... are modern always todirectevidenceOriental from drawn preferable are regions w efining itself; ... A fourth dogma is that the Orient is at bottom something atefining dogma is bottom fourth either isthattobe the itself;...A Orient

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New York: Vintage ” 23 te theof ‘Others.’ construction

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n life, religious tolerance does not exist, n life, does religious exist, not tolerance

1994 (1979): 301. ultural such institutions as occupation whenever

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2 (2001): CEU eTD Collection University Michigan of Press, 2009: 11. 27 22. 26 25 democratic values partiesEgypt, Malaysia,Indonesia, inTurkey,Kuwait Pakistan, have and internalized versions ofpo conform, elaborateconstitutional it indetail nordoes a theory.” t political ordinances lay ofQuran andanyof Sunnah...dostate: not specific form downthat is used asset a oflaws comprehensivegovernance. forAsMuhammadargues, “The Asad objective set ofru emphasize ontheengagement of Shariabutalso presentsas inpolitics, and a Sharia fixed Islamistgroups, suchasand parties AKPinTurkeythat donot and inEgypt, Wasat party Islam which one to ce specific type, IslamismIslamHowever, of thisdefinition orpolitical reduces ofpolitical forms various who advocates agenda aof political application where the ItexactlyIslam be? politicalthat “ would hasbeensuggested Defining Political 2.2 Islam Islamicthe schools. the equationwith Islamism of ideological hardened schools,have diverseIslam. creation ofTherefore interpretation the of the modern li o say, prescribeIslamicany does theSharia definite not towhich pattern an state must

Ayoob, Mohammed. Asad, Muhammad. Schwedler, Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth,menace, or mobilizer?."

Moreover,as woul it Now thequestionif isrecognized West a distorted pictureIslam, ofpolitical what fe,generalIslamic conservative the of any approach schools, like sort of other litical Islam arelitical adapted highlyprerequisites life: of themodern “Islamist tothe les that could keep its meaning in different times and contexts, andcould differentbe couldkeep meaningcontexts, les that its in and times

to avery extent.” significant

The principles of state and government in Islam

The many faces of political Islam: religion and politics in the Muslim world

d be arguedd be (3.1.1) inthe section

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12 27 has been by a reciprocal process th

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CEU eTD Collection 31 30 University Michigan of Press, 2009:1. 29 13. 28 Islampolitical take ondifferent easily different can contexts. faces based unproblematic desc un should political project. wide variety of Islam,allows “Islamism, aunderstanding more pluralistic ofthe orpolitical term: toa refers contemporary and implemented insome world fashion.” Muslim hasto something important S nation democracy, thehegemonic but to ofglobalcapitalis structures power Islam:the traditional Islamic “Thechallenge ofliberal thevalues to identityisnot reaction withinthe IslamicWestern from wayrather than tothe discourse oflife a of revival haria law inthe state.

Armando, Salvatore. Schwedler, Ayoob, Mohammed. Schwedler, Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth,menace, or mobilizer?."

- states.” ByIslam adefinitionof political broader be said thatafaith “Islam could it body of as derstand political Islamderstand political asa “ Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth,menace, or mobilizer?." 28

often competing politicaloften movementsIslam that treat central tenet as the ofa

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ription ofaription clear phenomenon.” However, it should be noted that, asHowever, be Armando itshould notedthat, Salvatoreargues, we

The many faces of political Islam: religion and politics in the Muslim world Islam andthe political discourse modernityof

say and how politics society be about should ordered inthe

conceptual andand symbolicconceptual neveras construct, a 13

This ideahowand explains why ifferent from actualization of fromifferent actualization

. Vol. 4.Ithaca, 1997: xxvi.n1) SAIS Review SAIS Review 29

This broad definition, m and thesystemm and of

21, no.2 (2001): 5. 21, no.2 (2001): n .

CEU eTD Collection 35 34 33 no. 1(2005): 2. 32 “[Cultural identity] isamatter'becoming' ofas 'being'. well asIt of belongsas tothefuture aconstitute partcollective of ag mentality,a beingaffectedand by shaped social factors. numerous circumstances.” reinterpretation inlight andreconstruction ofu discourses, continuous andstruggles.argues, “Identity power As Schwedler issubject to constructed by political violence.” Islamic thatnot show the world hasbeengrossly siteofa the disproportionate relationship be countriesMuslim arepoorer underdevelopmentthe and than far thereforeexplains that others study between nolink elucidates, “ThereIslam democratic and is se deficit per butthat ahistorical Nicola claims “ as essentially individuals, abnormal, anti Positioning 3.1 Chapter3

Schwedler, Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth,menace, or mobilizer?." Ibid: 17. Fish, M. Steven. "Islam andauthoritarianism." Nicola.Pratt, "Identity, culture and democratization: the cas

The Dynamic Religious identical identities, other cultural to categories of iden There anIslam, effort been topresent intellectual astheMuslims, has ideology, and

and essentialized.”

twe

social interactions, historical circumstances, cultural hegemonies, dominatingsocial interactions,historical cultural circumstances, hegemonies, There has been anThere overwhelmingten has 35 TheoreticalFramework

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roup’s intersubjectivity roup’s World Politics 14 nfolding even

Moreover, states, he evidence “The does dency culture as Arab/Muslim topresent - democratic, and anti They can be only meaningful e of Egypt."

55, no. 01 (2002): 16. ts and changingts and

SAIS Review - reaching quantitative reaching

. dentities as New Political Science

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CEU eTD Collection 40 39 38 no. 1(2005): 10. 37 36 shows thatthe‘meaning’ the and in ‘culture’ world. varies according Muslim tothe context done onefirst ofthe 1996 andevenin 1999,but inAfghanistan Iran within at the time.” identityIranian1978, for meant example, differsonly in not meant fromBosnia it in what in movements seek tochallenge Western hegemon civilizations.” formationpolitical andeconomic owes more tosome to struggles than countriesresponse Muslim Therefore, totheWest. from could“Islamic it beargued, identity the nation.” contradistinction theWest necessarily to difference suppression of entail internal the wi practices homogeneousidentityessentialized and seek nationalin an to reproduce that construction as and dominativeexploitive, WesternNicola identity.“The asserts, ofidentity As process Islamicstrong collectivea sense ofresistance form identityas of against thecolonizing, Islamic the monolithic identity andIslam.monotonous unchanging voicereason Oneproduction of presentation for and of and culture. Cu Itmuch as tothepast.something transcending not is whichexists, place, already history time,

Schwedler, Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth,menace, or mobilizer?." Ayoob, Mohammed. "Political Islam: image reality." and Schwedler, Jillian. "Islamic identity: myth, Nicola.Pratt, "Identity, culture anddemocratization: the case of Egypt." Stuart.Hall, "Cultural identity anddiaspora." (1990): 225. Islamist/secular identities take different indifferentcontexts: shapes Nevertheless, reciprocally, have tothe Muslims creation also of contributed a 37

38 As a result, identity theuniform a Muslim defensive could as beunderstood

ltural identities come fromltural somewhere, identities histories.” have

a means of resistance tothecontainsa West ananti means This idea that“Many isanalogous Ayoob’s to [Islamist] these point of

anthropological studies on anthropological studies

lies behindreactionary its had toshape nature.Muslims a menace, or mobilizer?." 15 Muslims, presentedMuslims, i yin international relations.”

World Policy Journal

SAIS Review SAIS Review - democratic logic.democratic Cultural 40

New Political Science n

Clifford GeertzClifford has

Islam Observed 36 clash of clash

(2004): 10. 21, no.2 (2001): 4. 21, no.2 (2001): 9. 39 “ What IslaWhat

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27,

CEU eTD Collection Anthropological Institute 44 43 Studies of South Asia, Africa a 42 University Chicago of Press, 1971: 16. 41 identity,Muslim differ eachonly Muslims from other social intheir alsoin beliefs, not but problematic. and withwhata mechanism self definitions ofbeinga Muslim. indifferentMuslims social andhistorical herefrainsaccepting contexts, from one’s informants critique ofel meaning’ ov own web any and ofmeaning, attempt throw at will ‘aof synthesis points webfrozen of Islam el but of contexts, based ondifferent Islam.”essentialized universal much ofhe ideas, sees Geertz’s too,was thatGeertz, ultimately seduced by ofanthe idea el on further studi comprehensiveness; an notto intensity butalarg setting”IndonesianIslam, whereas pretend “didnoteven pretended topurity,it to theface on purified,in this, unpromising canonical,completelycreed anduniform ofit, markedreligious apersist strain andmoral of perfectionism, ByIndonesia,and“MoroccanIslam focusingembody a onMorocco argues he to came

- Soares, Benjamin, andFilippo Osella. "Islam, politics, anthropology." Ibid: 658. Anjum, Ovamir. "Islama discursive as tradition: Talal Asad and his interlocutors." Geer Zein “While el AsadAnjum explains, andTalal Ovamir criticized have it. tz, Clifford. However, empirically itis thetheoreticalregardless on the apparent that disputes GeertzWhile

er the otherwise fluid,dynamicer otherwise of meaning the web inhabits.” thatthesubject -

Zein, Asad directedZein, Asadcriticism harsh against that“Islamwas theidea whatever es on Muslims, other prominent es onMuslims,

said that it was.” it said that Islam observed: Religious development in Morocco and Indonesia ’s

anthropological hasbeen research extremely influential onMuslims 15, no.s1 (2009): S16. nd the Middle East

42 Therefore, onwhocan questions be considered the a Muslim, -

It distinguishes among thatGeertz versions different true is identification of beingidentification ofcan Muslim 44

Although Asad accountsAlthough o for Asad versions different - Zein

27, no. 3(2007): 657. 16

theorists and scholars such astheorists AbdulHamid and scholars such

claims ofspirit. eness

“Each expression of Islam“Each creates of expression its ing determination toestablisha ing determination ” 41

Journal of the Royal be legitimized are legitimized be - Zein accepts

all Comparative . Vol. 37.

self f - claimed 43

In CEU eTD Collection 48 47 46 45 moderniza Islamist totheFor torights,out fromduties points the himthe turn term which characterizes that post groups,as opposedtoconsidering them Islamiccontemporarygroups signify movementsto and social character themodern these of politics/Islamism. some scholars Asa result, usethe word post Islam’‘spirit of canget infused inpragmatic and practices,from penalties, some food, specific codes drinks related todress, social the and practice.” politics “relateMuslim a widely shared, although notdoctrinally to defined, political connotations ofbeing asa well. Muslim Accordingand Piscatori, toEickelman 3.1.1 enoughreturnthe ‘holy tothese practices pleasurable once m younggive drugs, during menand updrink, otheractivities they illicit Ramadan, often S Muslim’. ‘God’s ittransforms time, law’.At thesame from theindividual a ‘Good Muslim as identity, a asense denial Muslim usually ignoring of about for the ofshame bring the anti effectively sociality. kindof a new fashioningand concerned withtheIslam, correct of only practice part is this of one is what practices:“Although todayaree Muslims many

Bayat, Asef. "What is post Eickelman Ibid: Ibid: - Islamic ofa acts t part as

Post S S The variation among Muslim identities necessitatesThe identities variation amonga Muslim variationand inthe social 12. 11. - IslamismIslamists a is departure from the of - tion oftion thepolitical life.Iran’s Hepost alludes to Islamism

oares a good provides

, DaleF. and James Piscatori 47

Therefore, since thereIslamic sociopolitical concrete rules, isno setof aside

- islamism?." heir of culture. activities, withoutbeingconsidered sort These

example ofthese type ofnon ” 45

Muslims sometimesMuslims internalize some non . ISIM Review

Muslim politics as a of revival traditi

politics and transform it as Islamic andas it transform politics 17 ngaged in various kinds of ethicalngaged invarious of self kinds

16 (2005): 1. . Princeton University Press, 2004: 4 jihadi jihadi - war era,war theemergenceal of onal Islam.onal and onth’ isover.” - -

Islamism describe to the Islamic performances: “While Salafi Salafi doctrinesIslam. of Assef BayatAssef suggests 46

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CEU eTD Collection (2002): 174. 51 50 Univers 49 genealogical out how religious religion, approach topoint toward hetries ideology is SystemReligion aCultural as 3.2 means ofpower. numerous types ofbeliefs,and traditions, making practices, to beused more as it proper a in order has become but concerning principlesfoundational the imaginary, addressed politicalnot raising questions solely questions, new thereby toMuslim “ Islamism. a abandoned viewsvalues and radical adopted theirhave such rights, more as human in though Islamistssince totake havethe failed Islamizationopposed to of the state by thepost political legitimation. partyIslamism authoritative its examples ofhowand feature lost AKP, have as as Wasat party1990s,and mid theriseIslamic of inEgypt in partiesas Refah such inTurkey,

InsteadasIslam ofdisappearinga reference, social penetratesand fiber evenmore the into

conservative perspective. Gole, Nilufer. "Islam public: in New visibilities and new imaginaries." Roy, Olivier. Bayat, Asef. Power,History, and Islam Political ity Press, 2007: 10 Other scholars, Roy,of ontheprivatization asIslam Olivier emphasized such have as Talalcriticized Asad Geertz’s has well to permeate into politics to permeate into 50

However intertwined with politics inaIslam broaderwith politics sense. Political flexible intertwined more became

Making Islam democratic: Social movements and postthe

The failure of political Islam

, manyfind claimpremature.scholars this According Nilufer Gole, to 49

- 11.

Inpost understanding, this

for its rigid and ahistorical conception of religion. Byfor rigidof andahistorical conception its religion. a ,

and

political they power ofthe inmost states, have thereby . Harvard University Press, 1994. of collective life ingeneral.”

18 gained thepotent - - known definition of religionknown definition prese Islamist ideasRoy and groups. argues that

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Ibid: 243. Ibid: 247. Ibid: 240. Ibid: 241. Asad, Talal. "Anthropological conceptions of religion: reflections on Geertz." nowledge, ofthe at theanguish oppressedand butexpressing once Asad asserts thattheologytends toobscuretheoccurrenceevents of ( Asad’s main , Asad claims that this interconnection thatthis Asad claims byHowever, occurs , means ofdiscourse.

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(1983): 247. ”

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CEU eTD Collection 59 Papersional Series. Washington, DC: Georgetown University, 1996: 7and 14 58 57 formsinstitutionalized oftheology inducereligious particular forms authorities and of strugglesand dominative discourses. theinstitutionalized and Nevertheless, non Islamist/preservation of created relations and social by themeansandcircumstances. formation historical The of and socialtime, and political interests playinproduction,p persuasion, arole huge obliged toundertake are were involved Individuals’religious beliefs are conditioned by inwhichthey socially social relations the religionare andpower historical power, as theold Heidentities. reminds usthat the religion ino inpolitics onlyabused not is embodied insymbols;” from understanding Geertz’s ofculture eventsgivethe social connotationsIslamic meaning that of By tothe dispositions. departing Islamtheologicalfocus on andideologicaldisputes and onthe historical circumstances and

Asad, Talal. "Anthropological conceptions of religion: reflections on Geertz." Asad, Talal. IdeaThe of an Anthropology Islam. of for Contemporary Center Arab Studies Ibid: 238. propagationreligious beliefs. of The Asadappropriate provides theoretical anfor framework the ofMuslim study sense this sayIslamicMuslims Islamic Nor isan toan in tradition. belongs discursive tradition referenceIslamic toaparticular practice Clearly,everything inthe present. not discours knowledgeIslamic discursive …An traditionsimply is a tradition ofMuslim manipulation ofpopulations(or theproduction resistance and of toit), appropriate “ A discursivethat connectstheformationselves, tradition ofthe variouslymoral with

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address the t want nds. Itnds. has - CEU eTD Collection 62 15, no.1 (2004): 155. 2006 SkytteJohan Prize Lecture." multipli assigns tosocially identities culturally various anddifferent whether groups and discusses the presumptions ofthistype ofarguments The are problematic. identity framework politics reveals scanty surprisingly diversitycountervailsevidence that open politics.” There between and negativecorrelation isno democracy: diversity “ arguing the empirical that and Bulgaria?” maintainingis going inMacedoniarule is tobeeasierand popularinPoland Slovenia thanit homogeneity facilitatesdemocra follows. inferred the morethe less racially that thesociety, diverse degreethat ofsocial trust democracy. hasdone a Robert Putnam larger reductionistgrasp and the fails heterogeneitytheconcrete to of politics. sort of categorical est identities, section, will it the Christianthat dismisses asa foundationHo political of theory. secularism fromIslam the involvement relies of thepublicsphere in ona IslamicTalal demandfromcountries Asad, thattheWestern tobecome and secular break been section, discussedbyreferring in the introduction of MichaelConnolly tothe works and 61 60

Ibid: 155. Putnam, Robert D.. Pluribus "E Unum: Diversity And CommunityIn Tw The Fish, Fish, M. Steven, Robin and S.Brooks. "Does Diversity Democracy?." Hurt Regardless ofthedemoc Social and have cultural diversities long considered been as enemiesto big city ofidentitieshelpful a is in society. ofwe However, what themean question by 60

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be arguedthat employingIslamist/secular also notonlybut any the identities, 61

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data does from supportPutnam’stheory. not around world the

ablished inthe literature is politics, ofliberal identity Scandinavian Political Studies ratic consequences of the social and cultural diversities, thesocial and consequencesratic cultural ofthe diversities, cy that make simply to seems sense. doubts Who academics, includingFish, notion Stevenhavethis opposed esearch on forty American communities andesearch onforty American communities 22

30, no.2 (2007). The thatgreater notion ethnic flawed understanding of Islamflawed of understanding Yet closer inspection closer Yet Journal of Democracy

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CEU eTD Collection 65 64 ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002: 345. and preplannedandgroups. ‘Chinese’ a ‘Indian’ result, As although claims multiculturalism heterogeneous people, various holdingdifferent on infixed spectrums positions ofidentities, makefundamentalmulticulturalism the of premises state obliged t employgovernance’ asa multiculturalism ‘neutral of The different identities. system toward criticize thelogic o as for provides theliberalidentities dealinga good prescription withvariousframework to consistent anddisadvantages, with, required even as and by, sojustice.” unfair forms privilegeso orinvidious that distinguishother citizens. However, “we themfrom can as not multiculturalism see family soon.” and identities, size, indistinguishable from native more tothe expectedmajority’s cultural tobeexisting “become assimilated normsand opposed toilliberal ethnicnations at is the heartmulticulturalism. of Kymlickaand Will cultural As identities. the idea explains, ofcreatingcivi a 3.3.1 falls address shortto questions concerning the diversi to someofthe showthat to mainarguments the essentialist approach identities cultural of social constructionist framework topost areare thecreation different constructed.There thatexplain approaches of identity hasaddressed asociological hardly been with account sufficiently ofhow identities 63

Ibid: 365. Ibid: 354. Kymlicka, Will. "

Multiculturalismas theHallmark of Hypothetically,India want usimagine thatChinaand becomeand to let country one Liberalism asthesolution multiculturalism haspresented for including social diverse

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Multiculturalism, Multiculturalism,

identities fromidentities c nation as . 2nd CEU eTD Collection dreamyourself absurd.you pathetically You that is dream of beingwhennothing better have identify byBaudrillard AsJean themselves certaingroup. argues belonging “ toa certain thatidentifies features, consideredare a more but alsocentered topromote thesame, homogenous invited society, on thesame with individuals identity.not only People belonginggroup totheare same At thesame neglectsthe divisions. time, it the multiculturalismsocial clearly division, is ofsocial a conflict. source Ifcan boundaries. blurtheaccepts one fixed society’sa result, avoidsthe multiculturalism dynamic As interactions tendencies. social that The salienceaspects ofparticular arbitraryand iscompletely ofculture determinedby the questioned whydoes divide it people not basedtheir artistic taste or on of identities doestolegitimizeIt these is asofdivision. dimensions thevalid axis couldbe by multicul practices.sexual are People between notobjectively issuggested as divided it theidentities orientation;rather,isthe sexual it feminist, and queer are theory,not people relevant divide people. Asissuggested to it than theothers inthe post differencesgroups diffe bytreating onlyAnd inthelong not reinforces it divisions, the run, multiculturalism produces people betweengroups different basedonexactlythesame identitieshasrecognized. thatit peopleto unite by agiving sensecollective of ide Multiculturalism proposesMulticulturalism superficialand internalize asks differences to individuals One crucialwhy questionis some characteristics of logic finds identities more turalism; butitturalism; thesocial is practices logic What engender thiscategorization. that

them as a specificPeople culture. alsogood have to incentives society rently and indiscourse inpractice.

that gives salience to skin color, sex organs,that gives salience color, to skin sex and different merelydifferent race, and topicsgender, of onthe that one of the sources of social tensions is is tensions ofthethat one sources ofsocial 24 differences inoneunitby single all labeling

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political attitudes. attitudes. political Identity isa CEU eTD Collection 229. 68 Press, 1990: 98. 66 principle under the self perceivable similarity. conceals by of Nonetheless, thelack multiculturalism the otherness is always tobeing deferred, staggered, open serialized.” difference, couldoccur.representation thenconstitutedwithinBut is what norepresentation identify as something tobe from themselves different LuceIrigary:Adorno, and Jacques Derrida, Young critique summarizesthepostmodern significance,and tothe conformist, identity Iris homogenous,and aimless crowd. Marion economic exploitative versus project “them.” the “othe ofconstructing While Theoutcomemulticulturalism. of of policieshas“us” multiculturalist beencreation the process.this become moreandfake More more distinct. After singularity,people losing classify need themselves innarrower to identitycategories to to d 67

Hall, Stuart.Hall, "Cultural identity anddiaspora." Baudrillard, Jean. Young,Iris Marion. o. You dream of yourselfyougainingo. Youdream and recognitionwhen of singularity.” have all lost

Multiculturalism uses thelogicgiveMulticulturalism meaning of to can identity People toindividuals. complete orshared absencerelationship of attributes.” noticed only through dif in certain respects, similarity but and isnevercan thesimilar sameness, be entities, events,are opposed. identical meanings, can neither They nor be linked meaning unl stands asdifferentiated. whichitis background,from Noutterance have can “Any identifiableagainst somethingpresupposesa else something which it The theWestern in process makingcountries’ ofdivision ismore significant

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and arbitrary Identity: Community, culture, difference

of the logicof the of by referring toTheodor identity 25

52.

the other thing: “ . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University

rs” in the colonialism erars” inthe colonialism 68 divisions aredivisions the

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he content. people Sometimes he type of discourse thathe hem. Inhem. - CEU eTD Collection Abbreviation Table Iran.the ones in for the‘I’s eachabbreviationsand theme.‘T’refer to totheinTurkey refer The interviewees political toleration. However,I theorder resort the notto preferred interviewees’ of narratives ingeneral,the unityIslamand of politics p deformed the initial the analysis part, the multi extremelyIslamist to them from extremely anti political affiliations. Tohaveof the interviewees’ apresentation better narratives member of activists inTurkeyIran.and some ofthem While explicitly classified as a themselves As itwas ment The Interviewees 5.1 Chapter5 3T 2T 1T 4T 3I 2I 1I

–

Interviewees’Information agroup,preferred ora theothers political party withtheir toidentify themselves

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Interviewee’s Name FindingsAnalysisand Here the interviewees isashort about introduction thisresearch: of Zahra Abolhasani Nihat Hatipoglu Taghi Rahmani Saim KurubasSaim Ihsan Eliacik Dilan Kupeli Hosein Mir order

. That for is, example,thefirst persona radicalabout that had idea - dimensional character identityof the Muslim different on issues

student ( making. ina She currently works named National in Iranin that is known for its Leftist foris known its view ofpolitics andmodern its Taghi the well knownpolitical most one activists is of Ihsan and activities. Hegroup ofan isamember influential Zahragot PhDinscienceand her technology policy Saim worksSaim a in recentlyestablished Think Dilan called Anti Nehat is a famous TV host in aNehat in religious TV a host is famous sho becomeTurkey. controversial in show hasand ideas his aofviewers lot sometimes Hosein international studies relations andalso is a resented a questionof moderateresented onthe view 38 is themainfigureagroup recently of influential

- is a Kurdish girl who votes for AKP. She is agirl votesforis aKurdishAKP. who is She Talabeh) Islamist. However,as wil it

Istanbul that publicly has spent years injailfor hispoliticalviewhas spent government - Capitalist Muslims thatwereCapitalist Muslims extremely OccupationActivities and understandingIslam. of - Religious ( Religious , the interviewees were, theinterviewees all political

in an institutionalized Islamic in aninstitutionalized school. veiled youngveiled girl. AKP supporter. research institute. Melli

supports AKP. supports - conservative pro and Mazhabi).

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CEU eTD Collection follow the analyses. references are ofmyextract arguments underlined partsmake order easier inthe in it to to and dynamiccontextualized frameworkresearch of tounderstandempiricalto have us the how a the can findings help identityIran.heterogeneity the I Muslim and would employ inTurkey of theoretical the extract andcomparing to them Icited important themost parts as ofthetranscriptions ‘DatareflectingByeach Extracts’. on identity,‘Research presented inthe Question’ Eachfocuseson one particulartheme table based onone beI politicallycategorizedtables. insix Muslim.” version thetranscribed of theinterviews I order thematicmain research “what analysisto used toansweris tothe it in is questionthat 7T 6T 5T 7I 6I 5I 4I

Tirdad Bonakdar Banafsheh Ranji Hesam Salamat Zeynep Mustafa Polat Farhad Jafari Ahmet Firat

Altiok

conception ofpolitico individuals’ the otherI interviewees’ the narratives, can depict

Hesam sociology and studied teaches inasocial science institute. Heinstitute. frequently for writes some newsp online journals.as himself He a identifies secular social liberal whosupportsthe political figure afterhissupportfor Ahmadinejadthe in presidentialidentifies as himself election. a He Farhad isafamous nov Communication abroad.Communication She works for a newspaper Kurdish He rights going was activities. from banned to also theCHPparty theviceIstanbul of president inthe considers himselfconservative as Muslim asocialist writes politicala websites. forand He newspapers is Zeynepis of isamember Turkey’sparliament.She Ahmet a is political inasocialist activist group. He Mustafa been isKurdishand has i Tirdad has political studied science.He frequently Banafsheh and has Media Global studied 39 section. InI, inthe Appendix tables,section. presented

close tothe Reformists in active Protests. during the Gezi university a for while. of the dimensions of the Islamicof the ofthe dimensions secular nationalist. against AKP. democrat. elist. He becamea controversial - branch. religious identity. The main “ American systemofpolitics.

n jailfor hispro Iran.

apers and apers secular -

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CEU eTD Collection define identity. their Muslim “Belief/faith inGod, theProphetare andQuran,” thekeywords (1T, 2T,andallthe exclude of their political 3T) aspects understanding Islam of they when state as int explained moralrather Thisconceptionand issues. grounds provides forIslamic the thanonspiritual an 2I main that responsibility the thinks religion’s giveguidance isto worldly matters onthe shea the even priorityl Valie’s(Religiousfor sets leader level conformity inthe same as rules. table, As inthenext tothenoticeable Quran’s order todefinebea1I what it and obedience Muslim, is political tothe religious the puts advocated sect, Shiite institutionalized necessary by the todefine the Muslim IslamIran political meanings. ofits in regardless Islamists seepolitical readingIslam, the of the supporter governmentIran 2I)Islam, refer ofand (1I aspectsunderstanding tothe political oftheir of iden aspects, associationIslam intheirconception thefirm of suggesting politics Muslim and narrative the non of was onthe political connotat themselves from thepolitical intheir country,part, issues which and tothe second leave it conversationI intheir everyday thatthey distance needed life, toemphasize should of theiridentity. Muslim Since all theintervie political concerns aaside for perception while,and of think their thenon InfirstI interviews,intheput explained TopicGuide, partasked to the ofthe as them N 5.2.1 The MuslimIdentity’s 5.2 Dimensions tity. The was first observation Islamic obvious thefact the supporters of that while the The data extracts can be found on Table 2 in Appendix I. can2 inAppendix TheTable extracts be data found on on s ofthe so - PoliticalCharacteristics of - political identification, some found it inevitable identification,it torefer some found tothepolitical heof AKP following parts. Turkey hand, in Onthe other thesupporters - called Islamicgovernmentcalled Turkey in narrate their of understanding ions of beingions of However,a Muslim. whileco

Muslim Identity 40 wees wereconstantlyengagedwees withthe political

eader) ruleQuran‘s rules. before Similarly,

- constructing their - political aspects identity. Inidentity.

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It also revealing tosee was thefacttodefine order that in identity, theMuslim the identity.extreme Theanti cases of - political aspects identit political oftheMuslim different from the ‘real Islam.’different the‘real from - Islamist “non n ofbeing 41 nfluence of the teachings of AliShariati, an nfluence teachings ofthe of

vernment,” yeasily. more a Muslim. “Equality,”a Muslim. “peace,” - believers” (6I, 7I, 6T, 7T)believers” also (6I, 7I,

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42 in the extracts presented in Table 3 extracts presentedinTable in the

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al/true Muslims’ relates Muslims’ al/true toleration tothequestionson level and of the atives (4T,were 3I) concerned ofmodernization withthe projectof The data seen extracts be inTable can 4.

the Sunnis Caliphate asthe Sunnis thesource inthe historycorruption of of caliphates ms were alwaysandms were deprivedoftheir distressed and be applied some tothe modernWhile and life. be 43

. TheIslam rejection of other of sects is - believers hold that there is no certainbelievers isno holdthatthere set

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practice thesociety; in aforIn thereneedIslamic them an is state. lamists claim that the Prophet was that claimthatthecreated theonlyprophet lamists a resulting in various sorts of Muslim identities. sortsofMuslim resulting invarious

44 slamic government: “ slamic

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less, it could besimply could less, it how all Muslims observed 45 “ all philosophers or social scientists tobeableall philosophersor social scientists Islamic law,

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level of tolerati level of d be prohibited. Therefore,d be prohibited. only isnot it theradical 48

on.

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Some extractsSome canseen be inTable 6. - capitalist Muslim they - neo jected the binary of Muslim and EuropeanMuslim the jected binary identities. of - werewith empowering notconcerned theMuslim sive response (1I),all theother respondents sive response stated that liberalist and antiliberalist and 49 A Muslim should be should differentMuslim from a A ’

(4T) respondentsexpressed their resentment - imperialist agendaperceives the

stern countries.stern

ion CEU eTD Collection powersome extracts status.be would Reviewinghelpful: recognize theway the politicalIslamist/secular role ofinthe framework identities relatio ofpower There Table narratives of 7. isaselection these presentedin interpretations ‘distinct ‘religiousIslam’, dispositions’, of ‘Is or narrativesgenerally based‘interest’, ‘benefit’, on‘power’,and were ‘expediency’rather tha that wason politicalcentered mainlyinterests rather The thanreligiousfocus disputes. ofthe about the political situatio thepolitical eachwould explain ofthe While countries. context narrative atosay lot has inTurkeyIranpolitics tosee and howmy interviewees’experienced ADiscourse ofPolitics AnalysisNarrative 5.3 onMuslims’ ------Islamist aradicalAs itcana to radical be observed,all from interviewees secular, se After aspect thevarious capturing

themselves as they believer; as it a(7T) tool. use IReligion usedby that is believeare people non a It groups] disputeapparent between has political roots intheir moreinterests [the At thetimecare ofAKP Muslims about moremoney.“AKP (6T) isCalvinist.” about their religious used a thatis beliefs,just by tool butit’s theAKP regime… IslamicAKP isonly Of that at level.course thereare people discourse TheIran] differencetwo major [betweenpolitical groups in iseconomical. (5I) They onlyreligion winthepolitical to power. use [AKP] (5T) economic interests. (4I) Islam, irreconcilableare they but politicalgroups with twodifferent TheyIran] groups majormight political in [two have different of understandings AKP usesIslamgetting symbols only of for (4T) votes. interpretations (3I) and interests. andis The principlists betweenfounded dispute reformists onb accordance and get tothat their values beliefs changed.(2I) thethe powerpeople’s Men like power about sohein other and world… talks Onegainso want to power employed rule.(2T) AKP under better It’s thatto show theyReligious for people beneficial can get are Muslim. IIslam of thebenefits that onegets think endorsessome being by(1I) a Muslim. AKP makes a nd benefits. (6I) in which holding identityin which certain Muslim orhurtwould benefit someone’s

sense ofempowerment.sense (1T) n inTurkeyIran, and

he talksabout freedom, people’s toget want the other s of the Muslim identity, I identity,s ofthe Muslim actual turned tothe

50 Iput my attention on thecommon

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lamist vs. secular’ vs. struggles. lamist

centered narrativecentered

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CEU eTD Collection narrative research 77 strugglesand myconclusion wouldbe that interviewees’ identity by political ishighly affected thepower there,the political situation political identity. butalsoabout theirapparent own The experience the imbrica with power relations. be easily identitiesare tracked inthe narrativesreligious inareciprocal howthe connection

Squire, Corinne. "Experience same as the Remembering ofGeertz’sconceptioncritique ofreligious Asad’scanit dispositions, - ted innarratives.”

- opportunity in life that youopportunity lose if in life that IranI Tranquility in theremightbenefits a think Muslim. be tobe isan centered na elements of domination and domination elements subordination. of narratives

1 (2008) As

rratives ofpolitical inTurkey activists Iran, and aboutonly speaks not

Squire 77 : 43. :

that he identifies with. Therefore himself be argued could the it that

T - he interviewee’s beliefs personality, character,and are views, centred centred and culturally

suggestse onthe 51 you’re (7I) notaMuslim.

xperience - oriented approachesoriented to narrative."

- centered narratives, centered

“Humans are

Doing CEU eTD Collection 79 Middle East Journal 78 the government thenecessity realized of ofdismissing some fundamental aspects sense,this thepost Islamictraditional di canRevolution also affectsof the themeaning word ‘secularism’. Iranianand toreferbetween secularismis FrenchAmerican tothe the and differences ones. than inTurkey. Ir Therefore,politics. in beclaimed could that it secularism inTurkeygovernmentissues, but used for onreligiousa is it Inreligion Iran politics. other from words,isused in thea term neutral todemand Iran ofreligion inTurkey theseparation andpolitics, implies entails it became prototype reform the for moderni ofTurkish Anglo French two beshould clarified term sociopoliticalthese ‘secular’connotations in thatthe different has of the theoretical framework. Islamic Identities a6.1 Heterogeneous as of Set Positionings Chapter6

Göle, Nilüfer. "Secularism andIslamism Turkey: in Themaking and elites of counter Ibid: 48. countries. As Gole points out, “ out, countries. As Gole points - Saxon liberalism, Frenchwith Saxon highly Jacobinism, its centralizedmodelof change, In thehistoricaladdition to reasons In part, this word ‘laiword

- not

A very good framework forA very understanding thedifference between theTurkish Conclusion cite’

be cons (1997): 48. revolution period in Iran period in revolution more was pragmatic ideological. than Gradually, I try will inthe toreadtheanalyses presented scourses; contrary, it hasscourses; contrary, it retained manyIn secularfeatures ofthe past.

than it is to theword isto ‘ it than

ideredreligious as one a

In tostudy order

The Turkish political concept l for this distinction, thecurrent situation thisdistinction, for political secularism. 52

the Muslim identities inTurkey identities Muslim Iran,the and it

Nikkie Keddie claims . She states that it was not areturn. She states was thatit to not sts ’” .” 79

Therefore, whilesecularism in an has aan more has liberal The reason is that The reason that is claim previousin the light section aiklik is closeraiklik is tothe

to eliminate religion from the

that the Islamicthat the exclusion of exclusion “ Rather than - implication elites."

The

CEU eTD Collection Middle East Journal 81 Review 80 theAKP’s secular opposition, are demands radical more compared to Since in T “ in Turkey secularsbeen hasrecentlychallenged just by the framework. anti appealsget T easily blocked. in follow that allpolitics IranIslamic an have character; on it Iranall formal intake politics governmentIslam a with referenceof tothe firm interconnection and politics. nature. T markIslamic been Republichas has happened through governmental expediencies. decree thateven prayer Quranicrulescould inwhichhe like stated besubordinate repeated thereligiousauthorities. A several good by examplewouldb times IslamicIranoverIslamic notion thelaws isanexplicit practicethathas Republicof been of conserv There isapotentia

Keddie, Nikki R. "Secularism state: andthe towards clarity and global comparison." Göle, Nilüfer. "Secularism andIslamism Turkey: in Themaking and elites of counter - urkey, Islamic demand.IranIslamic Therefore, outofthe seculars claim cannot topolitics in , contraryIran, to

226 (1997): On the other hand, Turkey However, since ative Islamic inorder rules ative tostrengthen state. the he secular reformists have reformists alwayshepolitical secular faced are always the idea of secularism/the idea of

24.

(1997): 48. l conflict ofinterestl conflict betweendemocracyand secularism

maintained

exclusion of the exclusion

an appeal byIslamican of ispossible outside politics the to the discourse the 1979 Islamic Revolution in IranIslamicthe 1979 in Revolution

he priority expediencydoes allow anyreligious not of over rules

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Islamic non and sing democraticfor sing demands - I 53 slamic

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political groups. The historypolitical groups.The ofthe - 80 obstacles Islamic sides. ,

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created

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As Gole argues,As ones in Iran. in ones Atthe

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The CEU eTD Collection Islam and of fixed absolute image on abase well their understanding IslamistsIslam, they notnecessarily of did expressmoderateversion political amore didnot a ‘True interpretationsIslam.It wasIranian of Islamists hada clearthatunderstanding more of rigid section 5.2.2,where same availableIran. extent in section (Section 3.1.1), the in the political demands andasissuggested behaviors it Post inTurkey, the inTurkeyinstitutionalized Faqih) reference topolitics. couldHowever,Islamists theeasily Turkishtheir understandingIslam address of a without identity,the Muslim was it the political sphere contexts. identitythese forMuslim differencesfaces diverseaccount can ofpolitical indifferent evenproductionlegal andalcohol for banonany consumption non and inpublic, pursueIranianalcohol a consumption ban on Islamist has As ithasbeen suggested same time, might even supersede the authority of Quran. even theauthoritymight ofQuran. supersede The essentialist As presentedidentity 5.2.1,Muslim takes insection different also shape Islam’ fr that distinct is

Turkish . When Islamists’ politicalIslamists’ requests are les the interviewees were asked whetherendorse werethe interviewees asked they different For an IranianForanIslamist, the authority ( radical Supreme ofthe Jurist

and institutionalized and institutionalized as an example

re and fixed essential isno asked thoughts for their thenon presenting on as it is in Iran.Islam of Although the spirit as isin ca it unimaginable

om the other versions.’ ‘worldly

- is defined and articulated formulation of Islam.articulated formulation defined andof also in section 5.2.4, while an Islamist5.2.4, whilean Turkey in section might

in line with Soaresin line for IranianIslamists separatefor to understandingIslamIran shown in was of also 54

However

doctrine ofa politicized s extreme compareds extreme theones i to ’s

, and Osella’s ideaand on Osella’s

Is Although Turkish the lam is not as not lam is - pr acticing Muslims. already n easily getn easily infused - political featurespolitical of Islam from politics.

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Valie Iran. ny in CEU eTD Collection Anthropological Institute 82 Islamiststhe called a of certain extent positionings. the theoretical framework, their beliefIslamic intheresearch concept asthis broad ofBut state. religious and toass andpolitical identities reductionist inthe sense that identity among and similarities ignoresgroups. the themembersofdifferentThe logic is arguedpart, the inthe theoretical logic ofidentityoverlooks thedifferencesdismiss of members invariousgroup. identitywas Asit aspectsineach catego identity, theMuslim on thefivenarratives dimensionsof identity Muslim the of reductionist presented of thisresearchcritiq ofthe inthe perspective views was i already presented on differentIslam ofthe points b adaptation time. themodern to has reinforced presenting a “unitary, etween the Islamistsetween in the

Soares, Benjamin, andFilippo Osella. "Islam, politics, anthropology." rized in fixed binaryrized infixed groups It is The diversityamo

in section in section

interesting to note that even the most extreme cases of Islamism cases eveninteresting have extreme tonotethemost that int of to presentcomprehensive identities theMuslim a of picture

the

reified pictureIslamas of an pheno essential democratic attitude. IndemocraticIslamic attitude. ofthegovernment of defense

it the“most democraticit inthegovernment world 3.3

timeless, andunchanging”

15, no.s1 (2009): S2.

reconfirms the extent to which the Islamist/secularreconfirms towhichthe theextent framework is Turkey ng Muslim identities is not is identities merely ng Muslim Muslims identifyMuslims ina set heterogeneous of themselves it asks todisregardit us themulti n the

ist

and Iranand - secular spectrum. The clear variationsecular spectrum. among Muslims’ . Even theterms ‘ Findings and AnalysisFindings and .

On various issues, Muslims positioned Muslims issues, themselvesOn various ume that Muslims areume that Muslims only based differentiated on

55 ue of the ‘Misleading Logic of Identity’Logic the‘Misleadingue of of

view of Islamview of by Muslims ‘ IranianIslamist ’

section

- limited tothedifference limited the differences inoneunitof the differences dimensional character of menon, incapable of

. Reviewing the findings. Reviewing the Journal of the Royal ’

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CEU eTD Collection definition of theMuslims’ non narrativesMuslims’ Islam.In definition of section was oftheir 5.2.1,it outhow pointed Islamism. However, the worldsystem only declinethe power is theof functions onepower of of political means concept, produceda used hasbeen as and instrum of su thereidentities, Islamicestablishment of of were an supporters the international Although theinterviewees almost all dichotomy European rejected the and ofMuslim inte formationIslamicmovements mostly oftheorder is tochallenge hegemony in theWestern in Power 6.2 contr be argued there that isnothing religious have andallowingIslamists to at courses TV schools, programs. Therefore, could it also their expressed dem Islamists. onlyamong tothe The limited radical not are theMuslims seculars/non wi govern thefinding thea society.result, As identitythe Muslim depicted also Islamicthe government disappearwill people as donotwant soonas it.

rprisinglythe non among even th fundamentalism. Another remarkable was thatthe non observation the rnational relations, rather thana astingbeliefs. and practices

interviewees sought the Islamic the interviewees itsexpressive function, sought butasan for unionnot The reciprocalrelation an between power Ita reference by Falk,thatthe Schwedler,and hasbeensuggested toNicola, Ayoob ent reverse to

Struggles Masked Behind Struggles IdentitiesMasked the andscertain onareligious ban on such as teaching acts veiling, Western and capitalistic

- unique about Islamic identitiesunique abouttomake themintolerant to political aspects of Islam with their political political aspectsof interconnected is -

believers. The socialist andbelievers. The anti socialist a high level of belief indemocratica ofbelief inorder level mechanisms high to revival of an Islamic nostalgia ofrevival an s of this research s ofthis 56

d Muslim identity Muslim seencould bealso inthe d

hegemony.

falsify the equation of Islamism of theequation falsify attaining political benefit. Islamism, toany similar other - neoliberal of attitudes some

(Sections 2.1and 3.1) (Sections - Other narratives of tolerant attitudes attitudes tolerant

union, - believers .

CEU eTD Collection 246. 83 Islam.Islamist clashesbetween Therefore, andsecular the i the framework of economi political and (Section 5.3). Myinterview their countries religiousand isfundamentally practice theory a …Thediscourse connexion does necessarilybetween not religious induce dispositions struggles withinthe society, ratherthan interpretationsIslam: different “Theological of result, that one i political life experience might Marx as religion 3.2), t (Section suggests that one ishighly holds correlatedwith understandingIslam. of political identity mostly were based their agenda religious ratherthan ontheir on political identity. The respon Islamno meaningfuldefinition of relation between theinterviewees’ andtheir Musl the keywords that, respectively, Muslim, a a peace socialist Islam. wasfoundationsit ofsuggested, “e As agenda. see Muslims the

Asad, Talal. "Anthropological conceptions of religion: reflections on Geertz."

im t Theanalysis discourse oninterviewees’ experience he formation ofdifferent of sorts Consequently presented asofthe central one aspect determinative s involved in s involved

could also be understood by Asad’s sociological be understoodcould of by Asad’s religion also perception s es , it could be claimed that the power position andthe claimedpolitical identity could that, it position be the power

, shapes (/and is

on thequestion whether a Islamon they think prescribes

basic their defining politicalas attitudes concepts a of part of the ee s all viewed dispute thepolitical s

he are religiousfrom dispositions notdetachable o c than on interests based rather

shaped by) therel by) shaped advocate her identity. religious Islamic identities quality,” “peace,” quality,” 57

matter ofmatter power.” . The socialand relations thepower. struggles

igious identity that oneholds.Asaigious that identity

is highly tothe power related - - centered narraticentered s seeking Muslim, and a Muslim, liberalseeking

of Islam.In there of addition, was As Asad’s conception ofAs Asad’s s intheircountries more inthe

dentities inTurkeyIran and and “human intellect”“human were and 83

different interpretationsdifferent of

Man ves of politics in politics ves of ny of sort

(1983): 243 and political ne’s CEU eTD Collection 84 different ofreferencepoints power forwhich relations, get positioned h beliefs, v includingIslamist/secular the essencea but identificationwhic or suture, Hall argues, one’s identity everyday practices necessities. life and The theolog interviewees’ narratives Islamof was and Asit politics. claimedthe performative earlier on natureof expressive nature an ratherinstrumental one. than Islamicdevoted TheIslam Muslims. character ofIran political ismore Turkeyandofan in were tobe seen

Hall, Stuart.Hall, "Cultural identity anddiaspora." (1990) People are not social theorists toconsciouslyPeople are theorists formulate notsocial

alues, andare performances positioned social and politicalsocial contexts. “Cultural are identities theunstable of the pointsofidentification, points positioning by means of social struggles,and interactions. relations, discursive power by means As

rooted inpowergarooted

(Section 5.2.3) (Section .” 84

h are culture. thediscoursesand within Notan made, ofhistory Therefore, various types of multidimensional Muslim identities, identities, Muslim Therefore, ofmultidimensional various types

ones, o points are thedynamic mes

, Muslims , Muslims bypresent conditioned their ideas their before being originated from Islamic commitmentsof beingfrom originatedbefore 58 .

Accordingly : : 226.

ical discourse only gets internalized discourse ical only

n which individual , Muslim identities are identities , Muslim the eterogeneous shapeseterogeneous based on their theoretical s conceptions ’

set of in CEU eTD Collection Bayat,"What post is Asef. Stanford University2007. Press, Bayat, Asef. Baudrillard, Jean. University 2009. Press, Baker, Raymond William. world Ayoob, Mohammed. Islam:Ayoob, "Political Mohammed. reality." image and Occasional Pap IdeaAsad,anIslam. Talal. Anthropology ofCenter of The for ContemporaryArabStudies Europe andAsia Asad,"Religion, Talal. nation Islam Asad, Talal. 237 reflectionsAsad,"Anthropological Talal. ofreligion: conceptions onGeertz." 1961. Asad, Muhammad. Armando, Salvatore. resource examples with Arksey,and T.Knight. Hilary, Peter (2007): 656 interlocutors." Anjum, Ovamir.a "Islam discursiveAsad as tradition:Talal and his Berkeley,[Calif.]: Mizan Press, 1981. Algar, Hamid. Context andMethod.Oaks, Thousand CA: Sage Adler, P.A."Adler.'The (2002) P. reluctant respondent'." 1993. Abrahamian, Ervand. Bibliography - 259. . JHU Press, 2009. . JHU

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Doing

CEU eTD Collection Table Appendix I Respondent Number 3T 2T 1T 5T 4T 2I 1I 4I 3I 2

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neo Data Extracts -

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is whobelieves intheprophet iswhobelieves andShiite intwelve

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now finally we have the Velayat Faqihnow finally have Velayat we the earn that stealing is bad when we are born. After 9 years stealingwewhen that earn are born. 9 isbad After

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On Muslim and European Muslim European Identit and The more is powerful West andweIfculture. are their doing weare Islam Capitalism protects destroyed.Islamic need world this. thegapTheyfinish the exploitation; between classes should be should Therea unionamong be should countries. Muslim world more is important for me. be will heaven.border, it I war, exploitation, believeinafterworld this but bewill inthe world.In Notafterworld. when theworld class, there no isno IItThere ofexploitation. Muslim. islots as thesamebelieve not is heaven EuropeanIslamic are really values But values. close they are to capitalist beshould based rights onthenational andinterests. countries) basedonthe make should We theregion foreignrelations withcountries (Muslim in globalization, what weglobalized. ismaking have something is alsodifferentWesterner. a There anything from isnot such as necessarily culturalreligious,it’s geographical and identityTheMuslim differences between identity and Western isnot powerful the one one;theywhoisright. support InIslam ofhave morality some terms criteria. be isto a personMuslim that God Islam people. kill to want against use that.Tobe to nuclear bombs a is Islam. againstModernism not is Islam Islam doesn’t such have a war. doesn’t To be means a be Muslim to Islam notagainst good Modernism. person. is are But Muslims. Sunnis Muslims. Allah and theProphet. However, countries, especially Because thereare some Syria. things like incommon with that countryIslamic not.There withIran all to unite or for isinterest question of whichalldepends countries; there onwhether isa Iran’sgovernment its for differenthim thatdoesn from one Idifferent, don’t know! bedifferent should A Muslim but whethera Westerner, they from are Therearecultural some differences. Theyare differen the first step. IIslamhavegoal tohave our it. and think worldwide, havingnationis is this now thereIslam contradictory of and are different definitions I ideal it’s have think to course theydifference. a have massive ideologicalyou matter. But Western if mean thinking, of which ismaterialist, be as aoneis well. geographical Muslim That and issue theother isan one I separate being being don’t European from governmenthis voice. raise should areMuslims treated badly. IIfforIsrael,I’d Palestine. had send power troopsto my England… where to IYeahI want nations, Muslim united want powerful, they obey.will follow, they will

t because they havet because religion. different national Cause has a some frameworks, Muslim which makes an Islamic an block/nation

stability If isexecuted,my my inEgypt brother 74

interest.

Data Extract we Wahhabis don’t consider among

’t have it.

ies needs to unite with some countries. uniteBut with to needs the desire.

Instead they of ashould ofbeing EU, part

Any type ofunionAny making type policy

Caliphate

Muslim because Muslim a European can

Muslims don’t support don’t the Muslims ; it’s our; it’s wish.Though

There be should no as well

… I … doanything can’t

. A Chinese person . AChinese person , it’s still great still , it’s to

mutual benefit

border. border. right .

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It’s inevitable to have a block of IslamicIt’s of a tohaveintheregion block countries inevitable foreign in which means can these each reconcile two identities with other. them by character.a bipolar But we having theEuropean have still Muslims, I European categoriesare and being think Muslim twodifferent Islamicdo something unit. for which I which knowithappens! and callssex might herself This benarrative aIranian ofan Muslim. Muslim, Therethat goes besomeone might drink a ofalcohol, lot toanightclub, have There incompatibility isno betweenand being being Muslim European. countries. identityThe make Muslim not Turkeygetcloser should toother Muslim A lotofgoodIslam. messagesare in It’sa modern tobe possible Muslim. Iconsidera myself European. the eggssayIslamicand we inonewant basket investon just to international relationsismeaningless, it and illusionary. MaybeIslam makes the senseand world cultural inthe religious in sense, but how modernized they got. each TheIslamists other. fact thatbecamerevolutionary isanindicat Islamconflict modernism, betweenpractically and they approached have practically iftheoretically happened. Even and epistemologically thereisa you modernno, mean by Western, beingWestern and have being each Muslim with some frictions other, Modernism,globalized though today. having Western more origin, is Maybe separation. fragmentput pressure.and thesociety Coloni want puttheir hegemony to ontheothers. decided is Politics by USorby the theEurope each bett other Islamicgetclosercountries toeach should other becauseunderstand they differences. Theyarethere different eatingBut in small food,are just inwearing. between sects. different huge resistance against it. Ia tomakeunionbased think onreligion a is wrong idea. aboutit’s collapse. to asis not easy have as the theorists assumed resisted and people tothat,and The experience ofthe European see acontrast these huge twoidentities. between objectionWestern. against being haveIn being anyI with sense, problem this Western. don’tany have goingwife, t girls totheater ofpicking up on instead If being have Westernto your means theEuropeanstyle life by respecting evenMuslims differsIzmir between and Diyarbakir. There is policies rather identities. thanthe Islamicthe blockget might character. an makeshould relations ontheir based interests, policy.Itas thesame t is a difference in terms of life style, belief, anda interms of practice. difference life style, belief, The of style

They should unite againstThey it. should

er. (Givinger.example ofKurdish people the that unite) should

he European Union.

As we seea can ofconflict lot thereare media in

Union showed thatmakingaUnion showed political block

ButI being if Western means be to immoral,

I reconcilable they think are

I interest think foreign shapes the

It’s ofEuropepolitics the to The countriesThe intheregion zers do the Shiite and dothezers Shiite Sunni

. They are. Theycolonizersand they but sinceIslamic, they are allbut

heI streets andetc. don’t

We shouldn’t putall shouldn’t We

There wouldbe . It. has . We know . We

countries. or of or of but if but if

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On the On republicans ( Thevery majoritywas treated badly byduring theminority thetime of Men like powerand inaccordance tothat and theirget values beliefs expediency Islamicsystemenact the that doesn’t sometimes for law. the However, aboutmightOne is the judiciary toocritical.critiques sound ofour main IslamicIran’sI the government, wantI talkabout parts to because don’t of havetheir and funtogether business together w doas men’s world this andthe both they other world. they each When see other get talksaboutworld. sohe the people’s theAndthey power destroy other One want to merely a struggle. power believe inthe current factionalism. II’mI but I principlists, Islamist.extremely an hate reformists. don’t hate IranThere in tobeMuslim. benefit isno getemployed AKP rule. better under It’s thatto show they for people beneficial are Mus IslamicI Erdogan rhetoric uses. like the money thereispeace. economy important thing Because isthemost people. forwhen the thereis AKP raise I’mcorrupt. AKP 100%. notsupporting So so differentMuslim being from Corruption by AKP damaged me. theycangovernment, change their feel peoplewant sinceno c whenever don’t it, there is Iran’sI democratic government isthemost government believethe Islamic levels losesits character. it leadershipIslamic, also is completely we butthe tothe more lower come I ofgovernanceIslamicIran believethemain theory inis now religion ora issue social a one. is private of religion politics. in understanding Iin the groups’ have disputes the roots political believemany of extra money, the beingIslamic the for under state, examplethesafety, they pay should some Islam force anyonetobecomeifsomeone doesn’t but Muslim, benefits from and someMuslim, ourduties thathe has.therights So come withduties. ofSome thebenefits be about might thatonegets the legal rights being by IIslam of thebenefits that onegets think endorsessome being by a Muslim. women near leadergo every girls wefeel our can scarfed AKP makes aofempowerment. sense “self EuropeanHe’sI in say awhen talks Union,wow,a leader, he he’s leader. Ifdictator. Therearealwaysnewspapers that aof Erdogan, curse lot he’s butthey say republicans doanything didn’t ethnicities for other Erdogan ismor relation between p relation between Islam and actual d theeconomic level,people that’s whyvoteAKP cause some for

he was a dictator no one could call him a noone dictatorwas could callhe a him dictator

of the Islamic the so of gain power headscarf ban

of Islam; levelof in ofbelief their e democratic. He gavee He democratic. (Waq Jazzie.

Especially IEspecially result believeit from whetherthey think

so he talksabout freedom, people’s to want the other

). Of course people would get). Of coursewould people angry. ciety, some non 76 . They being introduced and being Muslim

Data Extract

They say we are newsThey religious we this is but say

The conflict between thefacti

- f) to Armeniansf) and to others reliance” - Islamic things are done.

olitics in Turkey Iranand Velayat, Velayat, . lim. Religiouslim. people can

ell.

When we see a see scarfed we When oercionagainst people, their ideas onthe role

where.

, the general, the

ons is ons is

cause Icause

but the but

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people. They well. knowpeople People vote for they AKP against because are notfighting thesociety, against Turkish the AndAKP peoplepeople. arecan religious. understand reformists are more about And careless religious they issues. bullshit changed political andeconomic interests. understandings, they but are political groups twodifferent with irreconcilable differentto dowith Islam. understandings of I theclash think between theReform don’t Iran’sexpressive function for inpolitics the‘others’. excluding I process,modernization So Islam and renovation progress, etc. an think has intechnicalseculargovernment, matters, in example andcivil for part getsan only expressive gesture.It function a andan just it’s like acts therefore, Iran’sgovernment any like government other tickledwith everyday is and life happened of ofexclusion by means ofthepolitics.limits adon’t think get secularcangeneralIranacceptance idea inbecause ofthe (I Islamicperson has authority,ofthe cameFiqh an therules classic out Islamic don’t haveIslam,I aIran’s perspective normative government is toward think It Revolution. pol hasinfluenced social, thelegal, and IIran’sgeneralIslamic politicalatmosphere think become has afterthe people can’ttheir practice religion how requires them. S not Sunni. Sunnis andMuslims, Shiites. Forgovernor example are the ofthe parts Sunni senserights. oflegal I between thereisdifference and think non Muslims after sayI People are that stealing butthey they didn’t. are wor TheygivenareI roads, money,etc. for service, andAKP voted 2002,but AKP usesIslamgetting symbols only of for votes. Islam.aIn capitalist system. thereis turkey, philosophers. someone interests, his and thinks, thecircumstances. Peopleare not interpretations and interests. andThe prin between dispute reformists veilingchangeare notstable ormusic, whichas and passes. thetime However, anygovernment intolike religious that makes stick some taboos would change basedontheexpediency. thelaw wheneverthe constitution/parliam theand Sharia The Council Expediency Discernment Iran’sgovernment acts based ratherthan sometimes onexpediency Sharia. Islam.I believe don’t init. I Velayat thetheory think Faqih of don’t close is you’resupport thegovernmentor not, ratherornot. Muslim thanif government a favors particular ideology. Ina country t middle. No, AKP is not Islamist No, AKP not is slamic jurisprudence), and the clerics have the upper hand in politics. Iandslamic jurisprudence), hand theclerics haveupper inpolitics. the ; but some Muslims might not find it the true Islam. might thetrue findit some Muslims not ; but first political The

, and goesand the However, ideas the, for most. him thatbenefits the sometimes there is nothing very Islamic thereabout isnothingsometimes it. very o thedifferences thesense are political. Evenoflifestyle, in some hat 90% are Muslims, it it a Muslims, isnot plus are to beaunlessthe hat Muslim, 90%

Even there disparity isalegal of Even between types different Islamic Republic’s identitymaking process has ; theyButareconservatives. this

Therea between isalwaysrelation what 77

People don’t like radicalism.People don’t inthe like AKPis

the secularist groups.

is agood that of thesis this indicator ciplists is is ciplists founded onbothreligious So what matters is that if youmatters thatif whatis So ists and Principlists have and Principlists ists anything

They mightThey have different

ent conflict, the Council to the Shiite conception theShiite of to

- Muslims in Iran in Muslims inthe itical systems.

of course includes

So the Islamic the So king.

Since I Since

more! y

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laws inTurkey tothe modern then they according EU laws but 4+4+4 started only political use power religion winthe to completelyAKP isnot Islamist. democracy. I dem as identifya myself social MandatoryIslam. Youcan possible. ge More educationof child labour is They education, oflaw.are taking control of taking control themselves as they believer; as it a tool. use IReligion usedby that is believeare people non extreme. AKPIslamic isfurtherIslam.It’s party. beyond They everything bring in together. interests and So benefits. between and reformists principlists. IslamDifference of sources one is ofthe conflict ininterpretations ofthe Iran’sItIslamicIslamicIgovernment asan a of lot one. features. know has Islamicrepublic),and etc. compulsorypolitics, veiling one isnow apparent (which ofthe aspe IslamIran’s thebasis extent ofthe tosome is foreign policy, domestic people’s religious beliefs. Iran’sgovernment a legitimacy is theocraticthathas its founded one onthe that thegovernment s youIslam tobelieve inorat inevitablytobelieve have inthe least pretend betweenIslam andpower Iran in The andpolitics Islam relationmore like theconnection between is At thetimecare ofAKP Muslims about moremoney.“AKP isCalvinist.” embracesAKP usesall athesociety. discourse that main issue. make apeople. bourgeoisie differenceSomoney between and poor isthe AKP tries tomake a bourgeo regime. candid used a beliefs,thatis just by abouttheirreligious tool butit’s theAKP IslamicAKP isonly at level. discourse family ties between them. Iran’sRightyears factions last ofthe30 history. They strong very have aregroup. names same different for the andI Thoseconflict principlists. seeessential between reformists any don’t Iran thatpeopleobvious in don’t Islamic.from otherand sortsnot theworldis ofpolitical systemsin secularization of thepolitical system. Islamic principlism? How does theExpediency thecreation the of fitinto Council Discernment you theservices receivewe won’t any provide. of AKP created dependencyamongsay elected,AKP isnot hisvoters. They if as theywork services) (provide vote we’ll for the years(engaged theTurkishcorruption).So people thinkfor 60that in aslong The right notworkshould inpublic and stay at home. to getdo is labour market womenoutof years.system begirls outofschoolto where4 after the What they can intend

- They are a party. fundamentalist

wing parties alwaysgoods althoughwing parties investedinpublic they stole

There andit’sa forin it tool isnothing the religious in upports. upports. . Forenteringand sphere thepolitical the conflict ofall a these is result mixture of

The difference iseconomical.

isie society in the Kurdish society. inthe Kurdish isie society 78

ocrat. I don’t think Islamocrat.I think don’t asocial is threatto TheyIslamist as but definethemselves

want religious government. Itapparent hasmore ro So the Islamic Republic thedoes differ So not

Of that course thereare are people They are both governmental Left governmental and are both They -

because in their perspective, in because

. For they example, . changed the

- believers, butintroduce m, nomatter if they steal.

ots in their ots in

power circle power They want to wantThey to cts of the cts ofthe It’s very

women women they t

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Tranquility is an opportunity in life that youTranquilityyou’re isanopportunityinlife that lose if nota good economicsituation. Ifor people think vote AKP economically don’t Turkey because a in isnot you’remarried 13. when haveIslamic the ones. obligatetheyetc.;some sort veiling and ofideas. tojustify need on They it fo Islam.the truegovernment onsome pillars Every needs ideas, its base to the Islamic.IIran’s government is believe Islamictruegovernance. have tobe ofReformists think religion more as thing a necessarily private thatdoesn’t Iranpolitical in disputes are the If IIran in theremightbenefits a think Muslim be to

und it on Islamic onthey When und it rules. segregate to want woman and men, we’re say cynical to nottoo games, all thatit’s political

political; some of them believe that the current somepolitical; ofthem the believe not is system that

79 resultsIslam understandings ofdifferent of

I likenot Reformists thatit’s don’t say .

we say can the Muslim. Muslim.

. CEU eTD Collection Part 3 Part 2 Part 1 AppendixII - - - -

Do youDo Islamic party? AKP isan think IyouCan ask whatorideology party do politicallysupport? How identity does theMuslim the politicalMuslim? views and relatetobehaviors? tobepolitically it is What areWhat thepoliticalMuslim? connotations ofbeinga tobea it is What Turkey o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Why AKP wins the elections? IsWhy IslamicAKP winsthe elections? AKPbenefiting its from rhetoric? religious/secular youDo over thedispute think Does identity theMuslim matter inforeign relations? Islamiccountries ( youDo try Turkey/Iranshould better think the relationswith toestablish youHow isdifferent do Muslim being being from think European/Western? elective? Islamic/antiCan there be you people do What Should about think education? be educated tobe Muslim? have and thesamelegal roles social rightsasmen? you aboutwomenrolesWhat and social Do legal rights? they think should you?toleration for Islamistsand tohave radicalis of What beable channel? the limit a TV you do What ofthepublicmedia? aboutShould think the limits the athei you typeWhat or religiousdo ofsecularismgovernment want? thereShould be anybased law onreligion? thereShould be any employment of How thestate should be?t How it should Etc.?Social classification? youto Being matters society? think inthelatter? born inMuslim If we between being as distinguish andbecoming Muslim born what Muslim; non Where for being isthelimit distinguishesWhat a a from Muslim? a Muslim others? Isthere different ofbeing ways Muslim? one interpretation superior tothe you AreDo Islam of havecan what everyone think interpretation hisown is? areWhat of being themain a characteristics Muslim?

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. . - TopicGuide Muslim?

the main factorfor popularity? AKP’s (Religion econ vs. yourBased experienceyou formaround, on do people what is think positions? the veiledShould girls able toget be employed inthe governmental you do What about think veiling? Do youDo Islam? thetrue it call

Muslim? How do you HowMuslim? do definebeing a Muslim?

nature?

in a Islamic theWesternUnion),in a ratherthan countries?

- Islamic Man schools? courses inthepublic

supporting orrejectin supporting 80

Sharia

reatIslamic seculars and people Should Should beit allowed/compulsory?

law?

ga AKP has

omy)

Education? datoryor

sts sts

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Do youDo themeaningIran? think religiouschanging of being is in you do What about think the rest DotheyIslamic ofthecountry? an want state? youDo Iran’sIslamic?government How? think is Iran’syouDo Islam think politics? affects youAreIslamist/secular IyouCan yourselfgroupask what with? political identify IranIs in tobea any there Muslim? benefit makesWhat someone religious in you Do being ofischanging theidea well? think during Muslim thetime as modern? youyou? doesmodernizationmeanDo What Turkeymore to isbecoming think Iran o o o o

How Iran’sgovernmentHow affects religious identities? Islam?different of understanding youDo between have thedispute and think reformers rootsin princplists Islamic? makesWhat it Be How AKP isaffecting thereligious identities?

Iran? specific and name the aspectsspecific the and name 81