CHAPTER VI
CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD
^ ' I MIDDLE GANGA VALLEY
In the Middle Ganga Valley a total of 134 Chalcolithic sites have
been discovered (Table 82, Fig. 31). Of these, 110 (82.09%) are
located in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) and 24 (17.91%) in Bihar. In U.P. one site each is located in Allahabad, Deoria, Jaunpur, and
Sultanpur, eight in Ballia, 13 in Basti, 18 in Ghazipur, 27 in
Gorakhpur, 16 in Pratapgarh and 24 in Varanasi districts. The
location of sites in Bihar is as follows : one each in Bhojpur and Vaisali, two each in Patna and Saran, four in Bhagalpur, five
in Gaya and nine in Rohtas districts.
Of these, 89 (66.42%) sites are located in the Ganga plain north and 45 (33.58%) in the Ganga plain south. In the Ganga plain north 45 sites are located in the Ganga-Ghaghra Doab, 43 in the
Saryupar Plain and one in the Mithila Plain. In the Ganga plain south 34 sites are located in the Ganga-Son Divide and remaining
11 in the Anga-Magadh Plain. All sites are located on river banks but precise location is known only for 31— one each on the
Gomati, Rapti, Chandraprabha, Karmnasa, Son and Jamunai, two each on the Durgawati and Manorama, four each on the Ganga, Ghaghra,
Kudra and Phalgu and five on the Kuwano.
Distribution of sites in the region suggests that the nature of
Chalcolithic sett 1ement-pattern depended largely upon topographic situation. Sites are found below 90 m contour line and are located on higher Bhangar land which is above the flood level. It is also noticed that sites are always found along the river banks
(Akhtar 1972:33-43). The Chalcolithic populations probably
154 selected river banks for their settlements because sufficient
supply of water for maintaining life and land for cultivation and
grazing animals were available. There is no evidence that
Chalcolithic people knew the use of plough. The alluvium
inundated by floods during monsoon could be cultivated without
the plough, and being fertilized by fresh annual silt deposit it
did not need additional manure. Thus, it was the river that
onriohod the yielding capacity of soil, and by its seasonal
inundation lessened the labour of hoeing and provided regular
irrigation for the growing crops. When the flood water receded,
farmers could sow seeds on the wet mud of the alluvial flats.
River-living creatures like fish, tortoise, carp and snail were
important source of subsistence. Since the rivers of the region
flow from west to east, Chalcolithic settlements are also
oriented in the same direction in a linear fashion.
Of the 134 Chalcolithic sites 13 have been excavated. A summary
of the finds in them is given below.
Sohagaura
o o Sohagaura (26 32’ N : 83 32’ E) is a big village located in
Banasgaon sub-division of Gorakhpur district (U.P.). The site is
situated at the confluence of Ami and Rapti rivers. The ancient
settlement occupies about 150 acres in area. The site was
excavated first by G.C. Pande in 1961-62 and by V.S. Pathak in
1974-75 (lAB 1961-62:56; 1974-7 5:46-4 7, Chaturvedi 1985:101-108).
Excavations revealed a total of 4.40 m cultural deposit divisible
into six periods: Period I-Neo 1 i thi c; Period II and H I -
155 Chalcolithic; Period IV-Early NBPW; Period V-Late NBPW and Sunga-
Kushana; Period VI-Medieval. The Chalcolithic period, with a
deposit of 55 cm, is represented by ceramics, structures,
hearths, copper, stone, bone and terracotta objects, and animal
remains.
Narhan
o o Narhan (26 19’ N : 83 24’ E) is located on the left bank of the
Ghaghra river, 28 km south-west of Sohagaura in Gorakhpur district of U.P. The ancient settlement comprises two mounds. Of
Mound 1 two-third portion has been washed away by the river and
the remaining one third is partly occupied by the present V village. Mound 2, known as Chindihar, is located 0.5 km to the north-east of Mound 1. Excavation have been carried out at both mounds by P. Singh, M. Lai and A.K. Singh from 1983 to 1986 (lAR
1984-85:89-90; 1985-86: 81-82; Singh 1989:243-247; Singh ^ al.
1985: 113-188, 1986:117-122). They have brought to light a sequence of cultures divisible into five periods: Period I-
Chalcolithic, II-Early NBPW, Ill-Late NBPW, IV-Sunga-Kushana, and
V-Gupta, ranging from the middle of second millennium B.C. to
6th century A.D. Chalcolithic period has an average 1 m thick deposit, and is represented by ceramics, structures and hearths, stone, bone and terracotta objects, and plant and faunal remains.
156 K h a ir a d ih
o o Khairadih (26 10’ N : 83 51’ E) is a Bmall village located on
the right bank of the Ghaghra in Ballia district of U.P. The
ancient mound covers an area of 710 m from east to west and 510 m
from north to south and rises to a maximum height of about 11 ra
from the normal level of the river water. The mound is partly occupied by the villagers and a Vaishnava math, and the
remaining part is under cultivation. The site was dug for five seasons (1980-81 to 1983-84 and 1985-86) by K.K. Sinha and B.P.
Singh (lAR 1980-81:69-70; 1981-82:67-70; 1982-83:92-93; 1983-
84:86-87; 1985-86:77-78; Singh 1989:28-34). Excavations revealed a sequence of three cultural periods: Period I-Chalcolithic, II-
NBPW, and III-Post-NBPW. The Chalcolithic period, dated c.lOOO
B.C., is represented by a deposit of 0.80 m to 2.40 lying over the natural soil. The deposit yielded ceramics, structural remains, copper, stone, bone and terracotta objects, and plant and faunal remains.
Sr ingaverpura
It is located on the left bank of the Ganga about 36 km north west of Allahabad city of U.P. The highest point of the mound is
10 m above the natural soil. The site has been excavated by B.B.
Lai and K.N. Dikshit from 1977 to 1980 (lAR 1977-78:54,56; 1978-
79:57-59; 1979-80:73-74; 1980-81:67-68; 1881-82:66-67; 1982-
83:91-92; 1983-84:84-85; 1984-85:85-86; Lai and Dikshit 1978-
79:1-7). Excavation revealed seven cultural periods dating from the end of the second millennium B.C. to the medieval times. The
157 earliest culture of the site is Cha1coIithic, marked by two
periods. Period I has 30-60 cm thick deposit and is dated to c.
1050-1000 B.C. It is represented by pottery and pieces of burnt
earth with reed impression. After Period I there was a short
break in occupation. Period II has 1.40 m thick deposit and is
divided into two; IIA and IIB. Period II dated to c. 950-700
B.C., yielded pottery, and stone, bone, gold and terracotta
objects, and plant remains.
Kakoria
o o Kakoria (25 3 ’ N : 83 11’ E) is located on the right bank of
the Chandraprabha river in Chakia sub-division of Varanasi
district of U.P. The habitation area occurs on both banks of the
Chandraprabha covers an area of 800 x 600 m. The site has been
excavated by G.R. Sharma, V.D. Misra and V.S. Dubey in two
seasons, viz., 1962-63 and 1963-64 (lAR 1962-63:39-41; 1963-
64:57-58; Misra 1977:81-84). Excavations revealed megaliths, ceramics, structures, microliths, stone and terracotta objects, copper and gold objects, and plant and faunal remains. The absence of iron and NBPW sherds and presence of crested ridged microliths, copper objects, Chalcolithic black-and-red ware and megalithic tombs suggested that it is a ChaIco1ithic-Mega1ithic culture site and has been dated this phase (Chalcolithic-
Megalithic) roughly from the mid of 2nd millennium B.C. to the
7th century B.C.
I Chi rand
o o Chirand (25 45’ N : 84 50’ E) is located in Saran district of
Bihar on the left bank of the Ghaghra near the confluence of the
Ganga and Ghaghra rivers. The site was excavated first by B.P.
Sinha and V.S. Verraa from 1962 to 1965 and from 1968 to 1971 and
then by B.P. Sinha and L.A. Narain from 1971 to 1973 (lAR 1963-
64:6-8; 1964-65:6-7; 1968-69:5-6; 1969-70:3-4; 1970-71:6-7; 1971-
72:6-7; 1972-73:7-8; 1980-81:9). Excavations revealed five
cultural periods, viz., Period I: Neolithic; Period II:
Cha1 CO 1ithic; Period III: Early NBPW; Period IV: Christian era and Period V: Pre-Mughul. Period II Chalcolithic has 90 cm deposit and is represented by ceramics, structures, hearths, burials, copper objects, polished stone tools, microliths, other stone objects, bone and terracotta objects, and plant and faunal rema ins.
Manjhi
The site lies on the left bank of the Ghaghra river, 19 km west of Saran district town of Bihar. The ancient settlement is 526 n north to south and 390 m east to west and is 14 m high than from the surrounding ground. Two seasons (1983-84 and 1984-85) of excavation were conducted at the site by T.N. Roy of Banaras
Hindu University (lAR 1962-63:67; 1983-84:15-16; 1984-85:12-13;
Roy 1987:29-32; 1990:214-216). Excavations provided a sequence of cultures from about the beginning of the first millennium B.C. up to the early medieval times. The earliest cultural phase is
Chalcolithic, has a deposit of 2 m above the natural soil and is
159 dated roughly to the beginning of the first millennium B.C. The
cultural materials of this phase include ceramics, structural
remains, bone, stone and terracotta objects and microliths.
Chochar-Kutubpur
It is located in Chechar village at the confluence on the Gandak
and Ganga rivers in Vaisali district of Bihar. A small excavation
was conducted by R.S. Basti (lAR 1977-78:17-18). It revealed
three cultural periods; Period I- NeoIithic-ChaIco11thic, II-
NBPW, and III- Post-NBPW. On the basis of ceramic features the
Neolithic-Chalcolithic period is further divided into three sub phases, i.e.. Period lA, IB and IC. Period lA and IB belong to
Neolithic and Period IC to ChaIco1ithic. The Chalcolithic phase yielded ceramics, structural features, and bone and terracotta objects,
Oriup
Oriup is situated on the right bank of the Ganga river, about two kilometres south-west of the famous Buddhist site of Antichak, and 10 km north of Colgong Railway Station in Bhagalpur district of Bihar. A small excavation was carried out in 1966-67 by B.P.
Sinha and R.C.P. Singh (IAR 1965-66:6; 1966-67:6-7). Excavation revealed four cultural periods, i.e.. Period I-Chalcolithic, II-
NBPW, Ill-Pala, and IV-Medieval. Chalcolithic phase is represented by ceramics, copper, stone, bone and terracotta objects, and microliths.
160 Manor
Maner is situated at the confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers
32 km west of Patna city. Excavation at the site carried out in
two seasons (1984-85 and 1985-86) by B. Narayan and A.K. Singh
under the supervision of B. Sahai (lAR 1965-66:9; 1984-85:11-12;
1985-86:11-12) provided three-fold cultural sequence. This
consists of: Period I-Cha1co1ithic, II-NBPW, Period Ill-Pala. The
C>m I CO 1ithic doposit, 1 m thick, lies above tho natural soil and
yielded ceramics, microliths, and bone and terracotta objects.
Sonpur
o o Sonpur (24 57' N : 84 56’ E) (also known as Sonepur or
Sonitpur), is a small village, is situated on the bank of
Jamunai river, five kilometres west of Bela Railway Station in
Gaya district of Bihar. The ancient mound (locally known as
Banasura-Ka-Garh) lies to the west of the village. The site was
excavated in 1956-57 by V. Misra, from 1959 to 1962 by B.S. Verma
and in 1970-71 by B.P Sinha and L.A. Narain (lAR 1956-57:19-20;
1959-60:14; 1960-61:4-5; 1961-62:4-5; 1970-71:5-6; Sinha and
Verma 1977). Excavations brought to light three-fold cultural sequence, viz.. Period I-Cha1co1ithic, II-NBPW, and Ill-Post-
NBPW. Period I assigned c. 1100-650 B.C., is represented by black-and-red ware and other associated wares, structures, hearths, burials, copper, bone, stone, and terracotta objects, microliths, and plant and faunal remains.
161 Tarad ih
The site is located near the famous Mahabodhi temple on the bank
of Phalgu river in Gaya district of Bihar. It was excavated by
S. R. Roy from 1981 to 1986 (LAR 1981-82:10-11; 1982-83:16; 1983-
84:12-13; 1984-85:9-11; 1985-86:7-9, Prasad 1984:92-93).
Excavations revealed seven-fold cultural sequence. The periods
are: I- Neolithic, Il-Cha1co1ithic, III- Early NBPW, IV-Late
NDPW, V-Kuahana, VI- Gupta, Vll-Pala. The Chalcolithio period
with an average 2 m thick deposit has yielded ceramics,
structural remains, hearths, copper, bone, stone and terracotta
objects, and plant and faunal remains.
Senuwar
o o Senuwar (24 56’ N : 83 56’ E) is located 7 km south of Sasaram
town in Rohtas district of Bihar on the right bank of the Kudra river which flows approximately 1 km away from the site. The ancient mound covers an area of 300 m from east to west and 360 m from north to south, and rises to a maximum height of 9 m from the ground level. The total area covered by the ancient mound is
60,000 sq. m. The Kaimur hills, approximately 10 km away from the site, must have been the source of lithic material and wild game for the population of the site. Two seasons (1986-87 and 1989-90) of excavations have been conducted at the site by B.P. Singh
(1990:6-18, 1991:83-92). Excavations revealed four cultural periods without any discontinuity. The earliest period (I) is
Neolithic-Chalcolithic. It is divided into two sub-periods, viz., lA and IB. Period lA is devoid of metal and is pure Neolithic
162 while Period IB is considered Chalcolithic on the basis of
occurrence of metal. Period II is Chalcolithic. It is represented
by ceramics, hearths, structural remains, copper, stone, bone and
terracotta objects, and plant and faunal remains. Period III is
characterised by the introduction of iron and NBPW and Period IV
is ascribable to Kushana times.
The material remains found at the excavated Chalcolithic sites in
the Middle Ganga Valley are shown in Table 55.
Table 55
Material Remains froB the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Va11ey
Site CS H B CO BO SO GST M TCO PR F
Sohagaura PP P — P P p —— P — P
Narhan P PP -- P p — - P PP
Kha i rad ih P P — - P P p — — PPP
Sri ngaverpura PP —— — P p — — P P —
Kakor ia PP — PP — p — PPPP
Chi rand PPPPP P p P P P P P
Manjhi PP — —— P p — P P — —
Chechar-Kutubpur P P — — — P — —— P — —
Or iup P — —— P P p — PP — —
Maner P — — — — P —— PP — —
Sonpur P P P P P P p P P P P P
Tarad ih P P P — P P p P — PPP
Senuwar P P — — P P p P P P P P
Abbreviat ion: C-ceramics; S-structures; H-hearths; B-buriais; CO' copper objects; BO-bone objects; SO-stone objects; GST- ground stone tools; M-micro1iths; TCO- terracottj objects; PR-plant remains; FR-faunal remains P=preaent; -=absent.
163 CeraaicB
The principal ceramic of the Chalcolithic period is b1ack-and-red
ware. Other wares present are: red ware, black-slipped ware,
black ware, grey ware, cord-impressed ware and rusticated ware.
Distribution of different ceramics at the excavated sites is
shown in Table 56.
Table 56
Distribution of Ceranic Types from the Excavated Chalcoiithio Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Site BRW RW BSW BW GW CW RUW
Sohagaura P PPPPP
Narhan P P P — — — —
Khairadih P P P P PP
Sringaverpura P P P P ——
Kakoria P P P — — — —
Chi rand P P P P P — —
Manjhi P PP - - — —
Chechar-Kutubpur P P — P — —
Oriup P PP — — — —
Maner P P — P — —
Sonpur P P PP -* —
Taradih P P — P ——
Senuwar P P P P P p
Abbreviation: BRW: black -and- red ware; RW: red ware; BSW:black slipped ware; BW: black ware ; GV: grey ware; CW: cord'-impressed ware; RUW: rusticated ware; P=present; -=absent.
164 Black-and-Red Ware (BRW)
This pottery has black interior and red exterior surfaces, and is
fired by inverted firing technique. It has been found in both
plain and painted varieties. This pottery is reported from all
the excavated sites, though details are not available for
Sringaverpura, Manjhi, Chechar-Kutubpur, Oriup and Taradih.
However, the clay used for manufacturing this ware is not well
levigated and contains grit and other tempering materials like
straw and husk. The fabric is generally coarse, although some
medium and fine fabric pottery are also present. The section
varies from medium to thick. On the basis of surface treatment
this pottery can be categorised into a) slipped; and b) unslipped
pottery. In the case of slipped pottery, the exterior and
sometimes interior surfaces of the pot are treated with either t red or black or brown slip. Distribution of shapes of black-and-
red ware at the excavated Chalcolithic sites is given in Table
57.
Table 57
Distribution of Shapes of B1ack-and-red Ware from the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Shape Soha- Narhan Khai- Kakor ia Chi rand Maner Sonpur Senuwar gaura radih Dow 1 P PPPPP P P Vase P P P P P P P P Basin P P - P - PP Dish - P - PPPP Dish-on-stand P P -- P - - P Jar P -- - PP -- Trough - - P - -- - Tumbler - - P ---- (funnel-shaped lid)
P=present; -=absent
165 Among these shapes, the bowl has many sub-types. The details are
known only from following sites (Table 58):
Table 58
Distribution of Different Types of Bowl of Black-and-red from the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Types of bowl Narhan Khairadih Kakoria Maner Sonpur Senuwar
Hemispherical P Ova I o id P Sub-ovaloid P Carlnated Pedes ta11ed P Ring-based P Lipped P P Straight-sided P P Convex-sided P P P Round-sided P P Channe1-spouted - P Perforated-1 egged - P
P=present; -=absent
I BRW at these sites is represented by both plain and painted varieties. The painted designs include rope designs, row of uniformly thick vertical lines, wavy lines, oblique strokes, and semi-circles. The pigment used for paintings is generally white.
The painting is generally done in pre-firing stage but occasionally, post-firing paintings in red ochre are also found in this ware at Chirand. A few sherds of this ware show incised
leaf pattern decoration.
166 Red Ware
This ware is reported from all the sites and is next only to BRW
in quantity. The details of this ware are not available at
Manjhi, Chechar-Kutubpur, Oriup and Maner. The clay of this ware
is not well levigated, contains calcium granules and grits, and
is generally ill-fired. The fabric varies from medium to coarse,
and rarely fine fabric also occurs. Majority of the pots are made
on wheel. A few hand-made specimens bear finger and dabber
impressions. On the basis of surface treatment this ware can be
grouped into a) unslipped; and b) slipped red ware. In contrast
to the unslipped pottery, the fabric of the slipped pottery is
more fine, the clay is well levigated and has usually thick
coating of bright red or orange colour slip. Some of the slipped
pottery is highly burnished showing glossy surface. The shapes of
this ware are given in Table 59.
Table 59
Distribution of Shapes of Red Ware froa the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Shape Soha- Narhan Kha i - Sr inga- Kakoria Chi rand Sonpur Taradih Senuwar gaura radih verpura Bowl PPPPPP P P P Vase - P P P P P P P P Bas in P PP PPP - - Dish - P -- PP P - Dish-on- -- - P - PP - stand Spout - --- P P - Jar P - PPPPP - Trough ---- PP -- Lid P P
P=present: -=absent
167 Of these shapes, the bowl has many sub-types. The details are
known only from the following sites (Table 60).
Table 60
Distribution of Different Types of Bowl of Red ware froa the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Types of bowl Narhan Khairadih Kakor ia Chirand Sonpur Taradih
Hemispherical - - P - -- Ova 1o id - PP - - P Sub-ovaloid -- P - - - Pedes ta11ed - PP - - P Per forated-1 egged - P - - - - Flat based P - - - - - Footed - - - P -- Ring based -- - - - P Convex-s ided P - - - -- Round-s ided P -- - P - Ver t ica1-s ided P --- P — Droop i ng-s ided P -- --- Channel-spouted P
P=present; -=absent
A few pottery of this ware are painted in black. The decorative patterns include incised designs comprising dots and strokes, chevrons, wavy, vertical, horizontal and oblique lines, criss crosses, zigzags, lattice patterns, diamond designs and floral patterns. Besides, some of the pots have been decorated with applique designs on the outer surface bearing thumb impressions and nail decorations forming cord or chain pattern (Pal 1986:125-
127) .
Black-slipped Ware
Except the three sites, namely, Chechar-Kutubpur, Maner and
Taradih, this ware is reported from all the sites. But the details are not available at Sringaverpura and Oriup. The clay of
168 this ware is comparatively better levigated than that of the red and b1ack-and-red wares. The fabric varies from medium to coarse.
This pottery is made on wheel and coated with bright lustrous
black slip on the exterior and interior surfaces. Distribution of
shapes of black-slipped ware is given in Table 61.
Table 61
Distribution of Shapes of Black-slipped Ware fro* the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Shape Sohag- Narhan Khira- Kakoria Chirand Manjhi Sonpur Senuwar aura d ih
Bow 1 P P P P P P P P
Vase — P — - — — P
Basin — P — P - — —
Dish — P — P P P P
Dish-on- PP stand
— VesseI P — P - - -
Jar P — — - - - — —
Tumbler — — P — — —
P=present; -=absent
169 Bowl has many sub-types. The details are known only from the
following sites (Table 62):
Table 62
Distribution of Different Types of Bowl of Black-slipped Ware froB the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Shape of bowl Narhan Khairadih Kakoria Manjhi Senuwar
Hemispherical P P Ova 1o id P P Sub-ova 1oid P P Car inated P P P Pedes ta11ed P P Flat based P Corrugated P Straight-sided P P P P Convex-s ided P P P P Round-s ided P Channe1-spouted
P=present; -=absent
This ware is found at these sites in both plain and painted varieties. The painted design comprises of criss-crosses, vertical and groups of slanting or oblique lines, concentric arches and solid dots, applied by finger tips. White and creamish pigments are commonly used for painting.
Black Ware
This ware is reported from six sites, namely Khairadih, Chirand.
Maner, Sonpur, Taradih and Senuwar. The details of this ware are not available at these sites except Senuwar. At Senuwar this ware is represented by small number of sherds. Generally it is of medium to coarse fabric. The clay is not well levigated. The colour of core varies from grey to black. A few pots of this ware have black slip and burnished surface. Generally, the
170 surfaces of the pots are smooth and glossy. Bowl is the only
shape found in this ware. On the basis of surface treatment this
ware can be grouped into two; a) plain; and b) painted black
ware. The painting is done by white pigment in the pre-firing
stage. A solitary specimen of red ochre painting is also found.
Painted designs consist of groups of parallel, vertical and wavy
lines, sigmas, groups of short vertical wavy or slanting strokes,
small dots, rope and lattice patterns.
Groy Ware
This ware is reported from four sites, namely Sohagaura,
Sringaverpura, Chirand, and Chechar-Kutubpur. The details of this
ware are not known from the reports except for Sohagaura and
Chechar-Kutubpur. At Sohagaura this ware is well burnished and is
represented by fragments of globular vessels and bowls. At
Chechar-Kutubpur, it is generally made of well levigated clay.
The fabric varies from fine to medium and coarse. The common
shapes are small vases, small to medium sized jars with sharply carinated neck-joint and outgoing flared rim above the neck, dishes-on-stand, spouted vessels, bowls with globular or avoid body, and out curved or featureless rim, and sometimes having a ring base and shallow and deep dishes.
Cord-impressed Ware
The cord-impressed ware is basically of Neolithic tradition and it occurs in the Chalcolithic phase in small quantity only at
Sohagaura, Khairadih and Senuwar. At Khairadih only a few sherds were found on b1ack-and-red ware and red ware. At Senuwar it is
171 found in various patterns in bold relief on red ware bowls and
small-sized pots. The upper half portion is treated with thick
slip to cover the rough surface and the lower portion is covered
with cord strokes. It is of medium section and has a coarse
fabr ic.
Rusticated Ware
Similar to cord-impressed ware, it continues from the Neolithic
to the Chalcolithic phase and is found in limited quantity. It is
reported from Sohagaura, Khairadih and Senuwar. At Khairadih and
Senuwar it is found on black-on-red ware, red ware and black-
slipped ware. The rustication is done on the outer surface by the
application of a thick coarse-grained solution.
Structures
Structural evidence, represented by post-holes, floors and burnt clay lumps with reed impression, is available from all the sites except Oriup and Maner. The walls of the huts were made of perishable materials like reed or bamboo and plastered with clay mixed with straw or rice husk. The walls and roof were supported by wooden or bamboo posts as suggested by the presence of post holes of varying sizes at these sites. At Chechai— Kutubpur post holes are of two sizes. At Senuwar four post-holes are reported.
The diameter and depth of these post-holes varies from 10 to 15 cm and 10 to 34 cm, respectively. The floors of the houses are well-rammed with burnt earth, terracotta nodules and potsherds.
At Senuwar the maximum dimension of two exposed floors measures
172 7 m north to south and 6.5 m east to west and maximum thickness
of 20 cm indicating that houses were circular in shape. Circular
floors have also been reported from Chechar-Kutubpur and Sonpur.
A few shallow depressions and fire places are reported from
Chechar-Kutubpur. The former ones were perhaps caused by the
constant placing of water-jars while the purpose of latter ones
is not known.
At Kakoria two houses built of mud blocks were partly exposed.
The exposed part of one house plan consisted of a court-yard
enclosed by rooms of different dimensions. Two fully exposed
rooms measured 2.48 x 2.84 m and 2.79 x 3.47 m. A floor rammed
with lumps of burnt clay and potsherds was also exposed. The
other exposed portion consisted of a full room measuring 2.74 x
1.98 m and part of an adjoining room.
At Khairadih evidence of mud-huts has been found in the form of
poet-holes, reed marks in burnt clay lumps and fragmentary
remains of a mud wall. The height and width of the mud structure
was 1.06 m and 0.62 m respectively.
Hearths
Hearths are reported from Sohagaura, Narhan, Chirand, Sonpur and
Taradih. The hearths at Narhan, Chirand, Sonpur and Taradih are
represented by circular pits. The diameter of the hearths at
Sonpur varied from 1.82 m to 2.44 m and the depth did not exceed
8 cm. The pit-hearths at Chirand and Sonpur contained ash, ceramics, bones of animal, bird and fish, and microliths. At
Sohagaura two hearths are reported one of which is an underground
173 hearth, bridged side-opening, for inserting fuel and the other is
clay-lined. The width of the burnt clay lining of the latter
hearth is uneven. The maximum thickness is 10 cm. Its shape is
oval at one end and almost straight at the other. It measures 60
cm at the straight end and 44 cm in width. The hearth was filled
with charcoa1-mixed ash. An oven used for copper smelting has
been reported from Taradih.
Technology
Evidence for technology consists of copper and bone implements,
ground stone tools, microliths, other stone objects and
terracotta objects. The details of these objects are as follows:
Copper Inplements
Copper objects are reported from Sohagaura, Khairadih, Kakoria,
Chirand, Oriup, Sonpur, Taradih and Senuwar. Of these only four sites, viz., Khairadih, Sonpur, Taradih and Senuwar have yielded
implements like flattened bar, arrow-head, fish-hook and miniature bell. A round copper rod with a slightly bulbous end and a copper piece have been reported from Sohagaura. Copper arrow-heads are reported from Khairadih and Taradih. The arrow head from Khairadih is of sock^ed variety having two perforations. Copper implements from Sonpur comprise one flattened bar and one miniature bell the latter probably tied to the neck of cattle. One fish-hook each is reported from Taradih and Senuwar. Besides, an indeterminate object is found each at
Khairadih and Senuwar.
174 Implements of Organic Materials
Bone, antler, and shell made implements also played an important
role on the Chalcolithic technology. They include chisels,
scrapers, borers, arrow-heads, points, stylus and fish-hooks.
Except Kakoria these implements are reported from all the sites.
Distribution of these implements is given in Table 63. Bone
chisels are reported from Taradih and Senuwar and borer from
Senuwar. They may have been used for manufacturing tools. A
tortoise shell, probably used as a scraper or knife, is reported
from Oriup. Hunting implements like arrow-heads and points are
roported from all the sites. Stylus or needle which might have
been used for knitting, especially to make fishing nets, is
reported from Sohagaura, Chirand, Oriup, Sonpur and Senuwar. Only
Oriup yielded a bone fish-hook. Antler implements are reported
from Chechar-Kutubpur but details are not available.
Table 63
Distribution of Bone, Shell and Antler Tnplenents fron the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Site Chisel Borer Scraper Arrow Point Stylus F i sh- ant 1 ei head hook too 1
Sohagaura -- - P - P -- Narhan -- -- P --- Kha i rad ih - -- P ---- Sringaverpura - - - PP --- Ch i rand --- P - P -- Manjh i - -- - P --- Chechar- ---- P -- P Ku tubpur Or i up -- P - PPP - Maner ---- P --- Sonpur --- P - P -- Tarad ih P - - PP --- Senuwar PPPPP
P=present; -=absent
175 Polished Stone Tools
These comprise axes and celts, probably used for agricultural purpose. Axes are reported from Chirand, Sonpur and Senuwar. But
the details are not available for Chirand and Senuwar. An axe
found at Sonpur is triangular in shape and well polished. It is made on basalt. Its cutting edge is more or less straight with rounded sides and shows signs of long use. A slight concavity on one side suggests that the specimen was hafted. The medial cross- section is ovoid or triangular. Celts are reported from Chirand,
Taradih and Senuwar. But the details are not available for
Taradih and Senuwar. The celt from Chirand is fully ground, and has pointed butt-end and almost straight cutting edge.
Other Stone Objects
Other stone objects include sling balls, hammerstones, querns, pestles and mullers or rubber stones (Table 64). They can be broadly categorised into three functional groups: a) hunting implements: sling balls; b) tool manufacturing implements: hammerstones; and c) food processing equipment: querns, pestles, mullers and rubber stones. Sling balls are reported from Kakoria,
Chirand, Sonpur, Taradih and Senuwar, hammerstones from Chirand and Senuwar, querns from Chirand, Taradih and Senuwar, pestles from Kakoria, Taradih and Senuwar, and mullers and rubber stones from Sohagaura and Senuwar. Besides, two fragmentary stones of indeterminate purpose have been found at Manjhi and a few stone sharpeners, discs and ukha1i are collected from Senuwar.
176 T a b le 64
Distribution of Polished Stone Tools and Other Stone Objects froi the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Middle Ganga Valley
Site Axe Cel t Stone Hammer Quern Pes 11 e Mu 11er Other Bal 1 Stone Object
Sohagaura - -- — — — P —
Kakor ia — — P — — P — —
Chi rand P P P P P — —
Manjhi — —— — — — — P
Sonpur P — P — — — — -
Taradih — P P P P ——
Senuwar PP P P P P PP
P=present; -=absent
Lithic Industry
Llthic artefacts are reported from seven sites, viz., Kakoria,
Chirand, Manjhi, Oriup, Maner, Sonpur and Senuwar. They are
represented by fluted cores and waste flakes except at Kakoria
and Senuwar where evidence for the existence of blade industry
has been found. The lithic industry of Kakoria consists of
finished tools, para 11e1-sided blades, blunted back blades,
points, lunates and scrapers along with blanks, cores and
debitage. Employment of crested ridge technique is seen on a
number of cores, flakes and finished blades. The thin parallel
sided blades constitute the overwhelming majority of the assemblage. The artefacts are fashioned on chert, chalcedony and aga te.
177 The artefacts from Senuwar comprise retouched blades, backed
blades, points, lunates, scalene triangles, drills, scrapers,
bladelets, utilized flakes, flake cores, blade cores and debitage. Chert, chalcedony, agate and quartz are used for manufacturing the implements.
Terracotta Objects
Terracotta objects include a pipe possibly used in fishing net and a few balls perhaps used in hunting. The former is reported from Oriup and the latter from Maner and Narhan.
Other Material Renains
Several other materials have been found at these sites. These can be grouped under the following headings:
Ornaments
Beads: Beads the most common article among the ornaments reported from the excavations, are fashioned on various materials like stone, copper, gold, bone, ivory and terracotta. Stone beads are reported from all the sites except Manjhi, Chechar-Kutubpur and
Maner. They are made of chert, chalcedony, agate, jasper, camelian, soapstone, faience and steatite. The beads made of the steatite are always of disc form. At Khairadih beads are mostly cylindrical in shape, while at Taradih they are of various shapes like barrel, cylindrical and disc. They are well finished and are strung in necklaces.
178 Copper beads are reported from Chiratid and Sonpur, a gold bead
from Sringaverpura and six beads made of bone and ivory from
Sonpur. Terracotta beads are reported from all the sites except
Kluiiradih, Chechar-Kutubpur and Oriup. Shapes of the beads are
not given in excavation reports but at Chirand they are of pear
or ft ha t a shape.
Bangles: Bangles are found in copper, gold and bone. Copper
bangles are reported from Chirand, Oriup, Sonpur, Taradih and
Senuwar. Kakoria and Senuwar yielded, respectively, gold and bone
bang Ies.
Ear-rings: Ear-rings are found in copper and bone. Copper ear
rings are reported from Kakoria and Senuwar. A bone ring is found
at Sohagaura. Besides, a few copper wires which might have been used as ear-ring were also recovered from Sonpur, Chirand and
Senuwar.
Pendants: Pendants made of bone are reported from Sringaverpura and of copper and shell are found at Senuwar.
Toilet and Miscellaneous Objects: Pins, which might have been used as hair pins or antimony rods for decorating eyes, are found in copper at Senuwar and in bone at Taradih. Besides, an ivory spoon fragment is reported from Sonpur, a bone talisman from
Orlu]) and a copper needle-like object and a fragmentary rod of lead rectangular in section from Senuwar.
179 The chemical analyses of a copper wire and a lead rod from
Senuwar (Tables 65-66) have been done (Singh 1990:13). The copper
"was made of almost pure copper. 'Considering other elements
present in this object purity comes to around 99%, however,
neglecting the presence of oxygen and sulphur in the metal’. It
is interesting to note that almost all Chalcolithic metals
analysed from Bihar and West Bengal are more or less alloyed with
tin or arsenic. 'Microstructure indicated that the specimen was
in single phase with the total absence of dendritic cast
structure. Hence it was not a cast object. There is no evidence
of annealing and the wire of Senuwar was manufactured by cold
forging alone’ (Singh 1990:13). Further, on the basis of the
trace elements present in the object it has been suggested that
copper was not extracted either from Singhbum or Rajasthan
cha1copyrite.‘Senuwar copper has similarities with Rakha ores
with reference to the common presence of silver, zinc, nickel,
molybdenum, magnesium, lead and common absence of bismuth, gold,
zirconium, tungsten and titanium. Hence it is suggested that
there is possibility for getting ore from Rakha mines’ (Singh
1990:13). ‘The fragmentary piece of lead rod contained high amount of silver (0.20%). The metal was perhaps extracted from
o argentiferous galena. From Phaga area of Bhagalpur (24 46 N
o fl6 56’ 15" E) existence of lead ore is noted which contains silver, copper and zinc’" (Singh 1990:13).
180 T a b le 65
Chemical Analysis of Copper Wire and Lead Rod from Senuwar
E1 ement % composition % Composition of Copper wire of lead rod
Si 1ver Ag 0.05 0.20 Iron Fe 0.01 0.01 Arsenic Sb 0. 10 - Lead Pb 0.05 Base Nickel Ni 0.05 - S i1i con Si 0. 50 0. 10 Magnes ium Mg 0. 10 0. 10 Copper Cu Base 0. 20 Z i no Zn 0.05 - Tin Sn ■“ 0.002
After B.P. Singh 1990
Tible SS
Prefence ot Trace Eleienti io Copper Hire iid Leid Bod Speciient froi Senuvar
Lg Fe As Sb Pb Bi Cu Sn Ni Zn Mn Co Au Al Cr Ho Zr V Ti 1 1 ^ Cd P. Si
Copper f + f t- f - f - f + - - nt
Lead rod*' - ntnt +
<-=pregent: -=ab»ent; nt= not tried (After B.P. Sinjh 1990)
181 F igur ines
Excavations at theae sites also yielded a few terracotta
figurines of human, animal and bird. A human female figurine is
found at Oriup. Terracotta bull figurines are reported from
Chirand, Taradih and Senuwar. At Taradih a few animal heads are
also found. At Khairadih a large hand-made animal figurine has
been reported. Bird figurines are reported only at Senuwar.
Miscellaneous Terracotta Objects
Among the other terracotta objects, Sohagaura yielded potrest and a fragmentary clay object shaped like a saddle quern and a
terracotta wheel. Khairadih yielded a few dabbers, whirl-wind and hop-scotch. A conical terracotta object and a pottery disc are reported from Taradih and Manjhi, respectively. At Narhan a dabber and a toy-cart wheel have been found. Senuwar yielded a few objects like dabber, hop-acotch, pottery disc, whistle, indeterminate rectangular broken object with two perforations, circular burnt clay, miniature rectangular cake and edge-ground potsherds, the last being in various shapes, viz., triangular, rectangular and oval. The dabber was used by potter’s for making pot, and the whirl-wind, hop-scotch, whistle and toy-cart wheel are considered as toys. riunt Roma ins
Plant remains are reported from Narhan, Khairadih, Sringaverpura,
Chirand, Sonpur, Taradih and Senuwar. At Khairadih, Sonpur and
Taradih, rice is represented by impressions of burnt husk in the
182 section of potsherds. At Chirand grains of rice, wheat, masoor
and moon^ are found. The cereal grains from Narhan (Saraswat and
Sharma 1985:165-176), Sringaverpura (Saraswat 1983:79-89) and
Sonuwar (Singh 1990:6-18, 1991:83-92') cotisist of six-row barley
(llordeum vu 1 gar e ) , club wheat (T\. compac turn ) , bread wheat (T.
) . dwarf wheat ( L sphaeorococcum) . cultivated rice
(Oryza sat iva) . sorghum-mi 1 1 et or .iowar (Sorghum bicolor) . pea
(Pisum sat ivum). field-pea (P i sum arvense). gram/chick pea
(Cicer ar iet inum), green gram (moong: Vigna radiata), horse-gram
(Do 1i chos b i f1o r u s). lentil (Lens cu1i nar i s). and khesar i
(Lathyrus sat ivus). Besides, mustard oil seed, sesame or t i1
(Sesamum i nd i cum). linseed (L i num us i ta t i ss i mum). cotton
(Gossyp i um herbaceum-arboreum L.), seeds of jackfruit (Ar tocarpus
•'VLQgC_i f o ! i pus ) , wood and wild taxa of wild jujube ( Z i z i phus
nummu1ar i a). vetch (V i c ia sat iva). a grass belonging to Cenchrus
c i1 laris and seeds of a wild shrub Per i1 1 a oc imoides have also
been found.
Faunal Remains
Faunal remains comprising animal, bird and fish bones, have come
from Sohagaura, Narhan, Khairadih, Kakoria, Chirand, Sonpur,
Taradih and Senuwar. But except in case of Sohagaura, Narhan,
Kakoria and Senuwar their identification has not yet been done.
At Sohagaura a lower jaw of buffalo and reptilian vertebrae were found while at Kakoria a bovid (cattle) species has been reported. At Khairadih faunal remains showed cut marks caused by a sharp instrument. At Narhan (Chattopadhyaya 1985:177-184) a
large number of charred animal bones and antlers have been found
183 and some of them have cut marks. Only a part of the collection
has been identified and this includes bones of humped Indian
cattle (Bos ind icus). sheep/goat (Ovis/Capra). remains of a wild
ruminant like doer or antelope (Axis sp.) and horse (Euuus sp.).
Faunal remains of Senuwar include domesticated cattle, buffalo,
shoop/goat, and pig, and some of the wild forms like corvids,
antelope, gazella and turtle (Badam 1992:125-132).
Bur ia1s
Burials are reported from Kakoria, Chirand and Sonpur. At Sonpur
a few pit-burials are found. These pit-burials were circular in
shape with diameter ranging from 1.82 m to 2.12 m and depth being
0.91 m. The pits contained ash, charred bone pieces and potteries
of red and b1ack-and-red wares. A post-cremation burial is
reported from Chirand. At Kakoria, of twelve megalithic monuments
excavated, there were eight cairn circles, three cists and one a
cist within a cairn. Of these 10 were situated at the foot of
Hathinia hill and two at the Bhadhawan hill.
The cairn circles were prepared by digging a rectangular pit in
the hard natural soil to an average depth of 1.37 m. The dead
body was placed on the floor of the grave and a cushion of red
sand was invariably provided. Burial goods comprise pottery,
terracotta beads, microliths and gold bangle. They were placed
either near the corner of the pit (Meg.IV and VIII) or in the
centre along the southern edge of the grave I (Meg.IX) or in the
centre itself (Meg.XII), Grave goods in Meg. VIII, were placed at different levels from bottom to top level. Generally, the pit was
184 covered with the same dug out earth, but in case of Meg. I and XI
black soil was brought from somewhere else to fill the pits.
After filling the grave, a hemispherical cairn of boulders
bounded by a stone circle of varying diameter was erected.
For preparing cists a pit was dug into the hard natural soil.
Thereafter orthostats were put to form four side walls of a box
like chamber. In some cases, a secondary packing of small stone
pieces was provided from both sides of the orthostats to prevent
their collapse. Finally, the tomb was sealed by a massive
monolithic stone slab resting directly on the four uprights. The
orthostats and the capstone often enclosed by a stone circle
generally rose above the ground.
Cist within a cairn (Meg.X), looked like a low-rising cairn of
untrimmed blocks before excavation. The excavation disclosed a
cist tomb within a grave-pit, almost in the centre of the stone-
circle. The cist was oriented east-west and measured i.82 x 0.91
m. The four sides of the cist were made of small stone pieces
resting directly against the four side walls of unlined grave-
pit. Though the cist was found in well preserved condition, the
bottom stone and capstone were not encountered. Inside the cist
four stone slabs of indeterminate use and a few potsherds were
f ound.
Of the twelve monuments, only five yielded skeletal evidence.
The skeletal remains are represented by a few fragments. In Meg.I and Meg IV cattle teeth were found. Meg.V yielded a fragmentary human tooth and Meg. VI fragments of a human skull and an animal
185 bone piece. Meg.IX yielded powdered impressions of a shaft of luimerus, three molar teeth and parts of scapula, rib and clavicle o f an i nd i V i dua1 .
C h r o n o I
The chronology of the Chalcolithic culture of the region is not
14 yet securely fixed. Of the thirteen excavated sites, C dates are available only from six sites (Possehl 1988:169-196, Singh
1989:28-34, 1990:6-18). These are shown in Table 67.
Table S7 U C D&tei froi the Eiciyaled Chilcolithic Sitei in the Middle Ci b ||& Vtlle;
Site No 3SI8 BC 5730 BC Calibration Cultural itia
Sohagaurt PBL-178 1240f-li(]1 BC 1335^-113 BC 1670-13751 BC Chalcolithic Sohagaura PRL-179 BC I235f-I34 BC 1580-1225 BC Chalcolithic Ehairadih BSIP ll20f-90 BC Chalcolithic lhairadih PfiL-1049 I030t-I60 BC Chalcolithic Khairadih 940f-!50 BC Chalcolithic Sringaverpura PRL-669 670+-I30 BC 750t-l34 BC 895-595 BC BBV Chirand TF-445 !550f-l00 BC 1655^-103 BC 1990-1695 BC Chalcolithic Chi rand TF-1030 H80f-I00 BC 1585^-103 BC 1910-1665 BC Chalcolithic Chirand TF-1028 l440f-90 BC l540f-93 BC 1880-1595 BC Chalcolithic Chirand TF-1029 965f-85 BC I050+-88 BC 1345-1020 BC Chalcolithic Chirand T F - m 6(0f-105 BC 720f-i08 BC 830-745 BC Chalcolithic Chirand TF-336 690f-95 BC 770+-98 BC 885-760 BC BBV k Iron Sonpur TF-3T5 560^-105 BC 635+-103 BC 800-425 BC Pre-HBPS Senuwar 1770t-I20 BC Chalcolithic Senuvar I860f-120 BC Chalcolithic Senuifar I500f-ll0 BC Chalcolithic Senuvar I40l)f-I10 BC Chalcolithic
186 T a b le 68
Thormo1uminosconco Dates from Sringaverpura
TL 3015+-280 BP Per iod I TL 2855+-270 BP Per i od I TL 2900+-380 BP Per iod I TL 2743+-300 BP Period IIA TL 2769+-400 BP Per iod IIB TL 2690+-280 BP Per iod IIB TL 2660+-280 BP Per iod IIB
14 On the basis of the above C and thermo 1uminescence dates, the
Chalcolithic culture in the region can be placed within the time range of circa 1900 B.C. to 700 B.C. LOWER GANGA VALLEY
In the Lower Ganga Plain a total of 72 Chalcolithic sites have
been reported (Table 82, Fig. 31). Of these, 33 are located in
Dirbhum, 23 in Burdwan, 8 in Bankura, 7 in Midnapur and 1 in
Murshidabad districts. Sites are distributed 47 in the rarh plain
and 25 in the delta proper. In the rarh plain sites are mainly
concentrated in Birbhum-AsansoI rarh (37), and sporadically
distributed in Bankura rarh (8) and in Midnapur rarh (2). In the delta proper sites are mainly concentrated in Mature delta (24) and sporadic occurrence in Moribund delta (1).
Fifty sites are located along the river valleys -- 10 on the
Bakreswar, eight on the Ajay, seven on the Sal, five on the
Rupnarayan, four on the Kunoor, three each on the Damodar,
Dwarakeswar and Khari, two on the Tarapheni and one each on the
Kansabati, Kopai, Kumari, Mayurakshi and Silawati. The water source of the remaining 22 sites is not known.
As in the Middle Ganga Plain, the nature of Chalcolithic settlement pattern in the Lower Ganga Plain also depended upon topographic situation. Distribution of sites shows that
Chalcolithic people preferred to settle along the river banks but away from flood prone landscape which is roughly below 50 m contour line (Nag 1987:267). The following factors appear to have been responsible in the selection of settlement along the river banks.
188 a) During rainy season the river banks usually get flooded and
new alluvium which is fertile for crop growth is deposited.
b) The land along the river banks remains under water roughly for
four months (June to September) which prohibits the growths of
permanent vegetation in the flood levee and so the land is
available for easy cultivation.
c) Even after flood, the flood levee remains muddy for a few
weeks. During this time the levee can be cultivated without
ploughing. Farmers in the region cultivate moong. masoor and
mash in the muddy levee without ploughing.
d) Useful raw materials like clay for making pottery is available
from the marshy area, and pebbles for making stone tools are
available in the river bed.
e) Finally, aquatic creatures like fish, tortoise, carp and snail
provide useful food to the population.
In a recent spatial study of Birbhum district N.C. Ghosh and S.
Chakrabarti (1990:207-213) have suggested that Chalcolithic
villages were at a distance of 5 km from each other, extended over not more than 4 to 6 acres area and were arranged in a
linear fashion. Modest thatched huts 10 to 12 in number -are
seemingly in ’chaotic agglomeration’.
Of the known 72 sites 12 have been excavated. A brief account of finds on them is given below.
189 Mahisdal
o o Mahisdal (23 52’ N ; 87 34‘ E) is situated on the left bank of
Kopai river in Birbhum district of West Bengal. The site measures
230 X 135 m and rises 5 m above the surrounding fields. A small
excavation conducted by R.P. Das (lAR 1963-64:59-60), revealed 2
m deposit divided into two periods: I-Chalcolithic and Il-Iron
Age. The Chalcolithic phase is represented by ceramics, remains
of structures, copper and terracotta objects, micro!iths and
charred rice.
Bahiri
o o Bahiri (23 49’ N : 87 46'E) is a village located approximately
7 km east of the large market-town of Bolpur in Birbhum district
of West Bengal. The Ajay river now flows about 6 km to the south
but there is a possibility that it was less distant in the past.
The archaeological site consists of three mounds in the village.
One of them roughly measures 90 m north-south and 70 m east-west.
The circumference is roughly 250 m and the height is about 3 m
from the surrounding plain level. The second mound is very low, hardly a metre above the plain level but it is quite extensive, roughly 300 m in circumference. The third mound, locally known as Chandra Hazar Danga, roughly measures 80 m north-south and 70 m east-west. Its circumference is roughly 250 m and height above
2 m. This mound, excavated by D.K. Chakrabarti and S.J. Hasan
(Chakrabarti and Hasan 1982:111-124; Chakrabarti ^ al. 1978-
79:25-32) brought to light three cultural periods: Period I-
ChaIcoIithic, Period Il-Iron Age and Period Ill-Historical.
190 Chalcolithic period is represented by pottery, structures,
hearths, microliths, bone, terracotta and iron objects, and
anima1 reraa i ns.
llara i pur
o o llaraipur (23 38’ N : 87 46’ E) is a village located in Birbhum district of West Bengal. The archaeological material is found at
Solkhana, situated on the western edge of a tank in the village.
A small excavation conducted by R.C. Kar (lAR 1964-65:46)
revealed a 3.5 m thick deposit containing Chalcolithic to
Historical material. The Chalcolithic phase is represented by ceram i cs.
Hat i kara
o o Hatikara (23 29’ N : 87 35’ E) is located nearly 24 km north west of Bolpur Railway Station in Birbhum district of West Bengal on the right bank of Bakreswar river. The site covers an area of above four acres and is 2 m high from the surrounding surface.
The top of the mound measures 170 ra north-south and 150 m east- west. The mound is distinctly marked by dark ashy and reddish brown colour soils. The site was discovered by V. Sen (lAR 1967-
68:68), and was excavated by N.C. Ghosh and S. Nag (1986:116).
Excavation revealed a 2.55 m thick habitational deposit of continuous occupation from Chalcolithic to the Iron Age. The
Chalcolithic phase with a deposit of 1.30 m is represented by ceramics, mud floors, stone objects, terracotta objects and animal remains.
191 Nanur
o o Nanur (23 38' N : 87 46’ E) is located about 20 km north-west of Bolpur on the Bo 1pur-Kirnahar road in Birbhum district of West Bengal. The site measures 100 x 50 m and has a height of 8 m above the plain. A small excavation conducted at the site by R.P. Das (lAR 1963-64:60) revealed a cultural sequence from Chalcolithic to Historical times. The Chalcolithic phase is represented by pottery.
Bharatpur
Bharatpur is situated on the left bank of Damodar river, about 7 km south-east of Panagarh Railway Station in Burdwan district of West Bengal. Four seasons of excavations were conducted at the site by S.K. Mukherjee, S.C. Roy and S.N. Samanta (LAR 1971- 72:50; 1972-73:36-37; 1973-74:32-33; 1974-75:51; 1975-76:58). They revealed a sequence of four periods: I-Chalco1ithic, Il-Iron Age, III-Gupta, IV-Pala. The Chalcolithic phase is represented by ceramics, structures, hearths, copper, stone, and bone objects and m i cro1i ths,
Barabelun
o o Barabelun (23 24’ N : 87 59’ E) (also known as Baneswar-danga), is located 29 km north-east of Burdwan town on the bank of Khari river. The site, discovered by D.K. Chakrabarti in 1972, was excavated by P.C. Dasgupta in 1974 (Chakrabarti 1989:52-53; lAR 1972-73:36; 1975-76:58). Excavation revealed three periods: I- Chalcolithic, Il-Iron Age and Ill-Historical. The Chalcolithic
192 period is represented by ceramics, raicroliths, and copper and bone objects.
Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi
o o Pandu-Rajar-dhibi (23 35’ N : 87 39' E) is situated on the right bank of Ajay river in Burdwan district of West Bengal. It is an extensive site, measuring 200 x 170 m. Five seasons (196i- 62 to 1964-65) of excavation were conducted by P.C. Dasgupta (Dasgupta 1964; lAR 1961-62:59-62; 1962-63:43-46; 1963-64:61-62; 1964-65:46-48) and one season (1984-85) by D.K. Ray and B.N. Samanta (lAR 1984-85:97-98). Excavations revealed a sequence of five periods: Period I and Il-Cha1co1ithic, Period Ill-Early Iron Age, Period IV-Late Iron Age and Period V-Historica1. The Chalcolithic phase is represented by ceramics, structures, hearths, burials, copper, bone, stone and terracotta objects, and plant and faunal remains. Iron slag is also reported to occur at the upper level of this phase.
Manga 1kot
o o Mangalkot (23 32’ N: 89 54’ E) is situated at the confluence of Ajay and Kunoor rivers in Katwa sub-division of Burdwan district of West Bengal 30 km south-east of Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi. The ancient materials are spread roughly on 2 sq. km surface. An excavation conducted at the site by A. Ray (1990:131-140) revealed a long history of occupation consisting following periods: Period I- Chalcolithic, Period Il-Iron Age, Period III- Maurya and Sunga, Period IV- Kushana, Period V-Gupta, Period VI- Muslim. The Chalcolithic deposit is 2.50 m, and it has yielded
193 ceramics, structures, hearths, copper, iron, bone, stone and terracotta objects, and plant and faunai remains.
Dihar
o o Dihar (23 07’ N : 87 21’ E) is located on the bank of Dwarakeswar river, roughly 6 km away from Vishnupur town in Bankura district of West Bengal. It rises some 7 m from the river
bed. Two seasons of excavation were carried out by A.C. Pal (lAR 1983-84;92-93; 1984-85:92-95) revealed 2.5 m deposit divided into two cultural periods: I-Chalcolithic and II-Early Historic. Period I is characterised by ceramics, structures, copper and bone objects, and microliths.
Tu1B i pur
o o Tulaipur (23 24’ N : 87 27’ E) is located just below the confluence of Kansabati and Kumari rivers in Bankura district of West Bengal. A small excavation conducted by Mrs. Birmingham and S.K. Mukherjee (Chakrabarti ^ ai_^ 1982:39-48; lAR 1967-68:49-50) i revealed three cultural periods ranging from Chalcolithic to Late Iron Age. The Chalcolithic phase is represented by ceramics, remains of structures and hearths, and iron slag.
Tan 1uk
Tamluk is situated on the right bank of Hupnarayan river in Midnapur district of West Bengal. The site excavated by M.N. Deshpande (lAR 1954-55:19-20) and by S.K. Mukherjee (lAR 1973- 74:33) has yielded the following cultural sequence: Period I-
194 Neolithic, Period II-ChaIco1ithic, Period Ill-Early Iron Age, Period IV-Late Iron Age and Gupta. The Chalcolithic phase is represented by ceramics, a small polished stone celt and a variety of bone implements.
Table 69
Distribution of Material Equipaent from the Excavated Chalcolite Sites in the Lower Ganga Valley
Site CS H B CO GST M SO BT TCO IRO PR
Mahisdal P P —— P — P — — PP
Bah i r i P P P — — — P — PPP —
Hara i pur P —— P — — — —— ——
Hat i kara P P — —— —— P — P —
Nanur P
Bharatpur PPP — PPPP — ——
Barabelun P — — — P - P — P — —
Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi P P P P PPPPPPPP
Manga 1kot PPP — P —— PPPPP
Dihar P P —— P — P — P — — —
Tu1s ipur P P P —
Tara 1uk P — — — P — — P —— — Abbreviation: C:ceramics; S.-structures; Hrhearths; B:bu rials; CO:copper objects; GST:ground stone tools; M:micro1iths; SO:stone objects; BT:bone tools; TCO:terracotta objects; IRO:iron objects; PR; plant remains; FR:faunal remains; P=present; =absent.
195 Coranics
Chalcolithic ceramic industry of the region consists of the following eight wares:
Table 70
Distribution of Ceranic Types fro« the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Lower Ganga Valley
Site BRW RW BSW BW GW RSW BFW LRW Hahisdal PPPPP P — — Bahiri PP P P — “ P — Hara ipur PPP — PP ——
Hat ikara PPP ——— P —
Nanur PP — — P — —
Bharatpur PP — -—- - Barabe1un P P P —— — — — Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi PP P — PP — P Manga Ikot PP P — P P — Dihar PPP — P P P — Tu1s i pur P P — *“ — P —
Tam 1uk P P — ——— — — Abbreviation: BRW: b1ack-and-red ware; RW: red ware; BSW: black- slipped ware; BW: black ware; GW: grey ware; RSW: red slipped ware; BFW:buff ware; LRW: lustrous red ware; P=present; -=absent.
Black-and-red Ware
This ware is common in all the sites. It has black interior and red exterior surfaces and is fired by inverted firing technique. The clay of this pottery is well levigated. It is wheel made and
196 well-fired. The fabric varies from medium to fine. It occurs at these sites in both slipped and unslipped varieties. The exterior surface of the slipped pottery has a coating of red slip and is occasionally burnished. The common shapes of this ware are as fo11ows (Tab 1e 71).
Table 71 Distribution of Shapes of B1ack-and-red Ware fro* the Excavated Clialcolithic Si ton in the Lowor G&nga. Valloy
Site Bow 1 Vase Bas i n Dish d i sh-on- Channe1 Jar VesseI Hand i stand Spout
Mahi sda1 P - P - -- P - P Bahi r1 PP ------Haraipur P - P --- P - P Hat ikara P - P -- - P - P Nanur P - P --- P - P Bharatpur P - P --- P - P Barabe1un P - P ----- P Pandu-Rajar - P P - PP P PPP Dhibi Manga 1ko t P P P PPP P PP D i har P - P --- P - P Tu1s ipur P - P - -- P - P Tamluk (not avaliable) P=present; -=absent
197 Of these shapes, the bowl has the following three sub-types:
Table 72
Distribution of Different Types of Bowl of Black-and-red Ware from the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Lower Ganga Valley
Site Channe1-spouted Carinated Convex-sided bowl bowl bowl
Mahisdal P P P Bahiri P P P Haraipur P P P Hatikara P P P Nanur P P P Bharatpur P P P Barabelun P P P Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi P . - MangaIkot P - - Dihar P P P Tulsipur P P P Tamluk (not available)
P=present; -=absent
It occurs at these sites both in plain and painted varieties. The
painting designs include groups of^wavy, straight, vertical and oblique lines, dots, intei— connected loops and herring bone designs. The herring bone design is found only at Bahiri. The painting is of white on black or black on red surfaces.
Rod Ware
This ware is reported from all the sites. Generally, the clay of this ware is not well levigated, the core is gritty and porous, and is ill-fired. The fabric varies from medium to coarse.
Majority of the pots are made on wheel. A few hand-made specimens bear mat, finger and dabber impressions. When comparing to the wheel made pottery, hand-made pottery is coarser and has paddy husk Impression in the core. It is found in both unslipped and
198 slipped varieties. In case of slipped pottery, different shades of red slip have been applied on the exterior surface. A few
sherds bear lustrous surface produced by burnishing. The
following shapes are common in this ware (Table 73).
Table 73
Distribution of Shapes of Rod Ware from the Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in the Lower Ganga Valley
S i te Bow 1 Vase Basin
Mahisdal P P P 13a h I r I P P Haraipur P P P Hatikara (not available) Nanur P P P Bharatpur P P P Barabelun (not available) Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi P P MangaIkot P P Dihar (not available) Tu1s i pur P Tamluk (not available) l’=p r rs i M i I ; -=absonl
or I ho.so sluipr.s , bowl hn.s many .sub-typo.s but t hr detnil.*? are not ava i1a b 1e .
The red ware occurs at these sites both in plain and painted varieties. The painting designs include wavy lines in group, vertical and horizontal bands, and oblique strokes. A flower design painting along with ladder motif is found on a potsherd only at Bahiri. The paintings are done by white, black and sometimes buff colour pigments.
199 Black-slipped Ware
This ware has been reported from Mahisdal, Bahiri, Haraipur,
Hatikara, Barabelun, Pandu-Rajar-Dhib1, Mangalkot and Dihar. The
details are not available from these sites except Bahiri. At
Bahiri this ware is made on wheel and is coated with bright
lustrous black slip on exterior and sometimes interior surfaces.
The main shapes are bowl, vase and lid.
Black Ware
This ware is reported only from Mahisdal and Bahiri. The shapes
are represented by bowls and vases. Other details are not
available for this ware.
Grey ware
This ware is reported from Mahisdal, Haraipur, Nanur, Pandu-
Ra jar-Dhibi and Dihar. The shapes are represented by bowls, vases
and basins. Other details of this ware are not available.
Hod-slipped Ware
This ware is reported from Mahisdal, Haraipur, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi,
Mangalkot, Tulsipur and Dihar. The sherds of this ware have red
slip on both the surfaces. The main shapes are represented by
bowls and vases. It occurs at these sites both in plain and painted varieties. The designs are painted in black, consist of
triangle, vertical and horizontal bands, group of slanting and vertical lines, intersecting oblique rows of bands, multiple wavy
lines, ladder motifs, interconnected loops and sigmas (Ray
200 1 9 9 0 : 111).
Buff Ware
This ware is reported from Bahiri, Hatikara, Mangalkot and Dihar.
The details of this ware are available only from Bahiri. At
Bahiri, the surface colour of this ware is dirty buff or coarse
buff. The clay is well levigated and the fabric is fine. In few
cases a red slip has been noticed. The main shapes are bowls with
incurved rim, oarinated bowls with splayed-out rim and dishes-on-
stand.
Lustrous Red Ware
This ware is found only at Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi. It occurs at the
site in limited quantity. The clay is well levigated and well-
fired. Its exterior surface is highly burnished. Bowl is the only
shape found in this ware. A few bowls are found perforated at the base and painted in black below the rim.
Besides the above eight wares, a few other wares have also been reported from Mahisdal (cream colour ware), Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi
(chocolate and orange colour ware) and Tulsipur (micaceous ware) but the details are not available.
Structures
Structural evidence comes from Hahisdal, Bahiri, Hatikara,
Bharatpur, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi, Mangalkot, Dihar and Tulsipur. The remains include post-holes, remnants of burnt clay chunks with reed impression and floors. The evidence suggests that the walls
201 of the houses were made of watt1e-and-daub, the roofs were
supported on post and floors were of well beaten earth with
soling of rammed terracotta nodules and lime. Regarding the plan
of the houses at Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi P.K. Banerjee (Dasgupta
1964:26) has reported that these were round, square or oblong in
shape. The presence of ashes on the floors of these houses
suggests that there were frequent conflagrations which might have
destroyed the houses.
Hoar ths
Iloarths are reported from Bahiri, Bharatpur, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and Mangalkot. At Mangalkot they were found at times in a group of three together on the floor of the houses. The hearths contained charred bones, stone saddle quern and a large number of potsherds.
Techno i ogy
The technology of the Chalcolithic period comprises copper
implements, ground stone tools, other stone tools and objects, bone tools and terracotta objects. The details of these are as follows:
Copper inplementB: Copper implements consist of one flat celt with convex cutting edge from Hahisdal and three fish-hooks, one each from Mahisdal, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and Mangalkot. The celt might have used for filing trees and cutting wood while the fish-hooks were obviously used for fishing.
202 Ground stone tools: These tools comprise one axe from Pandu-
Rajar-Dhibi and two small celts one each from Bharatpur and
Tara Iuk.
Lithic industry: Lithic industry is reported from Mahisdal,
Bahiri, Bharatpur, Barabelun, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and Dihar. Of
these only Mahisdal, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and Dihar have yielded
finished tools while other sites have yielded only flakes and
cores. Pandu-Rajai— Dhibi had one point-cum-scraper and one flake
with crested ridge, and a few flakes and cores while Mahisdal
assemblage included crescents, scrapers and short blades, and
Dihar yielded scrapers and short blades. One scraper made on
fossil wood is reported from Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi.
Bone tools: Bone and antler tools form an important part of
Chalcolithic technology. They have been reported from Bahiri,
Bharatpur, Barabelun, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi, Mangalkot, Dihar and
Tamluk, but details are known only from Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and
Dihar. At Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi the assemblage is represented by
points, arrow-heads and awls. At Dihar the assemblage includes
chisels with broad and narrow end, picks, scrapers, awls and
needles. On the basis of function the implements can be
categorised as follows: points and arrow-heads for hunting,
scrapers for food processing, picks for cultivation and awls,
needles and chisels for manufacturing purposes.
Terracotta objects: Terracotta objects are reported from Bahiri,
Hatikara and Mangalkot. They include net-sinker and spind1e-whorI which might have been used for fishing and weaving, respectively.
203 Besides, an interesting feature is the occurrence of iron slags
in Chalcolithic context at Bahiri, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi, Tulsipur
and Mangalkot. Except Mangalkot, iron slag occurs at the
remaining sites in the upper level. At Mangalkot, a few ingots
and iron tools like arrow-head, point and spearhead are found
from the lowest stratum of Chalcolithic period. S. De and P.K.
Chattopadhyay who studied the iron objects from Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi
(Chattopadhyay 1991:167-68) are of the opinion that the
Chalcolithic period should be leveled with "ferrocha1co1ithic".
Ornaments
Ornaments include beads, bangles, rings and wires. The details of
these are as follows:
Beads: Beads are fashioned on semi-precious stones, copper, shell
and terracotta. Beads of semi-precious stones like camelian,
agate, lapis-lazuli and steatite are found at Mahisdal,
Bharatpur, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and Mangalkot. At Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi
of the two beads one is leech-shaped and etched in white and the
other is barre 1-shaped. Beads of copper are found at Pandu-Rajar-
Dhibi and Mangalkot. A milk white shell bead has been found from
Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi. Only Hatikara and Mangalkot have yielded
terracotta beads.
Bangles: Bangles are made of copper and bone. Copper bangles are reported from Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and Mangalkot and one bone bangle
is found at Mahisdal.
204 Ear-rings and wires: A few Ear-rings and twisted wires of copper
have been found at Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi while a ear-ring has been
found at Mangalkot.
Toilet Objects
Toilet objects comprise nail-parer and eye pencil of copper, pin
and comb of bone. At Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi both nail-parer and eye
pencil have been found. At Dihar an eye pencil has been found. A
few pins and one decorated comb have been found at Mahisdal.
Hi see 1laneous Objects
Besides the above mentioned categories, some miscellaneous
objects are reported from different sites. From Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi
a stone disc and a terracotta seal with star motif have been
reported. Mahisdal yielded a terracotta ritualistic phallus and a
weight. A few plain and perforated pottery discs and
indeterminate fragments of terracotta are collected from Bahiri.
From Hatikara a few terracotta convex-sided discs 'decorated with
notched design and a hopscotch are reported. At Mangalkot only a
terracotta toy-cart is found.
Figurines
A few terracotta human and animal figurines are reported from
Bahiri, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and Mangalkot. A terracotta torso of a
human figurine, probably representing mother goddess, in dancing pose is found at Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi. The figurine 8 cm in height
is grey in colour. A highly generalized terracotta image of a human form decorated with applique design is reported from
205 Mangalkot. Among animal figurines, a few terracotta heads are
reported from Bahiri.
Plant Remains and Agriculture
Plant remains have come from Mahisdal, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and
Mangalkot. At Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and Mangalkot they comprise burnt
rice-husk embedded in potsherds. At Mahisdal a large quantity of
charred rice was found on floors.
Besides, there were two barns (circular pits) partly below the
ground level and having plastered inner face were found at
Mahisdal. They were probably used for storing food grains (Ghosh
1984:16-17). The barn which was fully exposed measures 1.28 in
diametre and 1.25 m in depth. It is necessary to mention that at
present the settlement covers 800 sq. m. but previously it was
extended 8000 sq. m approximately 0.80 hectare, before being damaged by earth quarrying for laying a railway line. In the site as a whole there would have been twenty (8000 sq. m. % 800 Sq. m.
= 10 X 2 barns = 20 barns) such barn at one time in this settlement. The volume of one barn was 1.6 cu.m and it would have coiiLained 900 kg. (9 qt.) of paddy. It is, therefore, not very difficult that the settlement in a normal condition could store
180 qt. of paddy. The yield per acre of paddy in rain fed alluvium of Birbhum before the introduction of shallow pump, manure and high yielding seeds, was nearly 2.5 qt. To produce 180 qt. of paddy at that rate at least 2.5 X 180= 72 acre of land was cultivated at one time at Mahisdal during Chalcolithic per iod.
206 Faunal Remains
Only four sites, namely Bahiri, Hatikara, Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi and
Mangalkot have yielded animal remains. Animal remains from Pandu-
Rajar-Dhibi consisted of humped bull (Bos indicus Linn.), Sambar
(Cervus unicolor Kerr.) and domesticated pig (Sus scrofa
Cr istatuB Wagner) (Dasgupta 1964:24). M. Ghosh (1990:135-147) has
identified, remains of goat, humped cattle, buffalo, deer, pig,
jackal, jungle fowl, tortoise and fresh water fish.
The faunal remains of Hatikara showed chopping and roasting marks. The species comprise humped bull, buffalo C Buba1ua bubal is Linn.) and pig. The cattle percentage was higher than
that of other species. Excavation at Mangalkot revealed a large number of animal bones, mostly of bovine species, fox, pig, deer, bird, tortoise and fish.
Bur ials
Evidence of burials has come from Haraipur and Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi.
Nine burials wore excavated at Pandu-Rajai— Dhibi. They fall into three categories: primary or extended, secondary or fractional and urn burials. In the case of first two burials, the dead were buried in east-west direction, the head lying towards the east and in the last case, human bones were kept in a plain pot and covered by a hemispherical lid of black-and-red ware. The grave goods consisted of ceramics, copper objects, lithic implements and beads. At Haraipur ten extended child burials were found. The dead are buried in north-south direction, the head lying towards the north and slightly inclined towards the west. None of the
207 burials yielded grave goods.
Chronology
Of the twelve excavated sites only four sites, viz., Mahisdal,
14 Hatikara, Bharatpur and Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi have provided C
dates. Tible 74 li C Dilai froi ths Eicivited Chilcolitkic Sitei in the Lovsr GtR|a Vtlltf drier Pofiahl l>88;l$M9S)
Site No 5568 BP 5730 BC Calibration Cnitnral inn
Hahiidal TF-391 3235f-l05 BP 1380<-I08 BC 1690-1405 BC Early Chalcolithic TF-392 2950t-l05 BP I090t-I08 BC 1370-1035 BC Earl7 Chalcolithic TF-390 2J25f-IOO BP 855f-103 BC 950-795 BC Late Chalcolithic O&lIlAraRtf iLaaa riLDDi.11ai Uoi 2950f-l20 BP Chalcolithic Bhar&lpur PBL-15 3290^-135 BP 1440+-139 BC 1770*1410 BC Chalcolithic PBL-IB7 3040f-l50 BP 1I80+-I55 BC 1545-1110 BC Chalcolithic PBL-1881 2770+-140 BP 905»-l44 BC 1120-795 BC Chalcolithic Pandu-Bajar-Dhibi I012f-120 BC Chalcolithic
It is seen that dates from Mahisdal and Bharatpur are fairly
consistent. The Chalcolithic phase at Mahisdal gives a maximum
spread of c.1300-800 B.C. (Agrawal and Kusumgar 1974:118) while
Bharatpur shows a time bracket of c. 1500-800 B.C. Thus, the
beginning of Chalcolithic phase in the region can be placed
around mid-second millennium B.C. TF-390 from the late phase of
Chalcolithic at Mahisdal indicates that Chalcolithic culture
14 lasted up to the later half of the first millennium B.C. C
dates from Bharatpur (PRL-188A), Hatikara (PRL-1191) and Mahisdal
(TF-389, 690+-108 B.C., obtained from Early Phase of Iron Age)
also reiterate this view.
208 ,l !•»
I !i
h' < t 0 I 2 3 4 ^ ■ ‘ ‘ ■ CM
0 i_ CM © - £ 10 II
# ...7 %
17
0 1 2 3 l _ i ___CM1— 1
Fig. 11. Senuvtr, Ch&icolithic Bone Tools i-9; Bead of Seiiprecioas itooe 10 aod TerncotU Beadi 11-17 (After B.P. Sinjh 1990). 0 1 2 3 <1 5 6 I ‘ ‘ ■ CM
Fi^. 12. Senu»ar, Ground Slone Tooli froi Chalcolilhic Phase (After B.P. Singh 1990). I
/ ■
13
U
15 /
V 16
10 SCALE OF ? ! ? M I ICM
17
Fig. 13, Narhan, Chaicolithic Bowls of Blick-and-red lare (ifler P, Singh et al. 1965), 0 I 2 3 * 5 10 15 20 SCALE OF I I f ■ ■,I■ _l__ I _JCM
Fig. 14. Narhan, Chalcolithic Basing of Blacl-and-red Vare (After P. Singh et ^ 1985). 1 1
M2
0 I j T / 510 15 20 S C A L E O F I. ! 1 M r _i_ -I------ICM
Fig. 15. Narhan, Chalcolithic Vajes of Black-aod-red 1/are (After P. Singh al^. 1985). Fig. 16. Narhan, Chalcoiilhic Bowlg of Black Slipped V&re (After P. Singh el 1985). \ J ( { /
20 0 12 14 5 10 i— _j c m 1 I I I I ■-
Fig. 17. Narhaa, C h a l coliUic Bo«ls of Bed i'are (After P. Singh et 1985). V ■ \ ._.y
zi V y
■
6 S CM L. ■ L. 5 10 li 20 /N. _l-- 1— J
Fig. 18. Sonpur, Chalcolithic Dishes and Bowls (After B.P. Sinha and B.S. Vena 1977). (biack-and-red irare I and 10-18; black irare 2-4, 19-21; red »are 5-9) S-
— tdoa —^
rv
CO \a cr» * / ✓/ c k- •---
✓
" yy
12 / - - I V a
w '■ y i n / “ / / i r y
* / x" 1 ✓
\ / X K l / '■ , /
Fij. 20. Senuvar, Chalcolithic Plain and Painted Black-and-red Vare Bovli (After 6.P. Singh 1990). 13
u 15 ( 16
\ /y m 17 m \ y/ 18 ^ )
/ ,9 /
20
1 1 21
% 22 A r ( I 23 / 24 \ (## V 25 \ A "II A " *2 \# 26 \v »\ 27
Fig. 21. Senuwar, Chaicolithic Plain and Painted Bo»is and Vases (After B.P. Singh 1990). (burnisiied biacii »are 1-12; blacli-and'red itare 13-18; black slipped »are 19-27) /
10
Fig. 22. Bahiri, Chilcolilhic Biici-ind-red ^ire P o l U r y ( k d e r O.S. Chiltribiirli tnd S.J> H a * m 1982). f :
I /
12
/ ------( ir. 10 CU
Fig. 23. Bahiri, Chalcolithic Blick-and-red Vare Pottery (Ifter D.I. Chakrabarti and S.J. Baasan 1982). 7
---- — ------■ ,
10
13
------
15
/ 18.
17 19
5 0 10 20 I 1 1 I 1 1. CM /
Fig. 24. Bahifi, Chalcolithic Black 1/are Pottery (After D . L Chakrabarti and S.J. Basian 1982). 7 T 3
I I
I /
5 10 _ l_ _J CM.
© Plate VIII. Cultural Asseiblage at Pandu-Bajar-Dhibi, Chalcolithic (After P.C. Dasgupta 1964). (white painted chocolate ware I; fragient of a creaiish bowl painted in whitish balck 2; copper ornaients 3-4; licroliths 5,7 ; bone arrow-head 6)
Plate IX. Bone Tools of Pandu-fiajar-Dhibi, Chalcolithic (After P.C. Dasgupta 1964). PUte X. P&ndu-R&jar-Dhibi, Chilcolithic, Terracotta Torso of fluiao Figure (After P.C. Dasgupta 1964).
Plate XI. Pandu-Rijar-Dhibi, Chalcolithic, k Coiplele Bowl of Lustrous Bed Hare Bearing Painted Designs in Blacii (After P.C. Dasgupta 1964). Plate XII. Pandu-R&jar-Dhibi, Chalcolithic, A Close View of Ura-burial After Reioval of It* Lid of Blick- and-red It'are (After P.C. Dasgupta IS64). V «.
■.;•■ <-f. ■> \
.,-. . .-- -7;V. • • ■ '/ ■ •
,:V
Plate XIII. Pandu-Rajir-Dhibi, Chalcolilhic, A View of Huian Ceielery (After P.C. Dasgupta I960.