MODERN ASIAN LITERATURE AND ITS ROLE IN EDUCATION ACROSS AND BEYOND

Ali Mustofa English Language and Literature Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Universitas Negeri Surabaya E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Modern Asian literature is all works of literature produced in Asia and those which talk about Asia and beyond. When discussing Asian literature, it will also signify the works of literature that have been written by Asian writers and also by other writers from other countries which of course, about Asia. Today’s trend for Asian literary studies has shifted from a postcolonialism perspective to cultural studies since the latter has developed very fast in the rapid changing of cultural, regional, and multinational diversities. The issues in Asian literature have also touched the grounds of transnational and multidimensional problems which give more room toward different interpretations of nations and identity. Those issues will also bring up the ideas of the role of Asian literature in education across Asia and beyond since they contribute directly and indirectly to the development of the educational curriculum in Asia and other neighboring countries. The paper will briefly share some insights into the nature of Asian literature and its position in the English language studies curriculum in Asia and beyond. It also discusses some issues related to the role of Asian literature in Asian education which specifically addresses the issues of nation-building through the understanding of “the self” and “the other” in a postcolonial perspective, and at the same time rediscovers the very nature of “Asia’s sense” as well as “Asian eyes” in the scope of language and cultural studies. Keywords: Asia, Asian Literature, Transnational, Multiculturalism, Diversity, Identity

INTRODUCTION Discussing Asian literature, it will certainly also refer to literature written by writers from Asia and also writers from various other regions which of course, is about Asia. Asian literature refers to the dimensions of space and time, where the literature revolves around the region— Asia and beyond. Of course, this Asian literature was written and produced with a specific purpose. Asian literature covers various genres and vehicles, from narrative literary works, poetry, drama, performance art, films, songs, video clips, literary criticism, film criticism, art criticism, and so on. However, if we look in more detail, Asian literature includes all literary and artistic works in parts of the Asian region. Then, what is meant by Asian literature? Asian literature is all literary works produced in Asia and which speak about Asia and its environment. The Asian region of course includes , , West Asia and . Literally speaking about Asian literature, it will certainly also refer to literature written by writers from Asia and also writers from various other regions, which of course is about Asia. Asian literature refers to the dimensions of space and time, where the literature revolves around Asia and beyond.

Asian literature refers to the literature that was written over a period of thousands of years, in a variety of countries in Asia. Asian literature encompasses East Asian literature that includes Chinese, Japanese, and ; Central Asian literature comprising of Bengali, Indian, Pakistani and Tamil literature; West Asian Literature that covers , and and southeast Asian Literature that is comprised of the literature of the Philippines… Asian literature can be divided into a host of different labels, categorized according 403 SECRETARIAT OF NATIONAL COMMITTEE d.a. Grha STR, Jalan Ampera Raya Nomor 11, Telepon (021) 7813708, Jakarta Selatan 12550 Website: http://hiski.or.id Bank Mandiri Account No: 142 00 1614854 - 5

to religion, zone, region, ethnic group, a literary genre, historical perspective, or the language of origin [questia.com/library/literature/literature-of-specific-countries/ other-asian-literature/asian-literature#].

Many well-known universities in the world have opened Asian studies study programs. It also includes various disciplines and knowledge about Asia, which includes language, literature, customs, traditional arts, and the way of life of its people. This working paper briefly describes some of the understandings of the nature of Asian literature and its position in the language and literature learning curriculum which specifically describes the problems of understanding nationalism through the explanation from a postcolonial perspective, and at the same time regarding findings, back to the essence of “Asian meaning” and also “Asian point of view” in the scope of linguistic and cultural studies.

ASIAN LITERATURE IN THE CIRCLE OF GLOBAL CHAIN AND MULTICULTURALISM: FROM CULTURAL IDENTITY TO NATION-IDENTITY The current trend for Asian literary studies shows a tendency to change direction from a post-colonial perspective to the area of cultural studies because this term shows such rapid development and touches on culture, territory, and diversity of identities. Various problems in Asian literature have also intersected with problems between nations in Asia. The multidimensionality recorded in these literary works also provides a broader space for the interpretation of national and identity issues. Phillip F. William, in his introduction to Asian Literary Voices: From Marginal to Mainstream, “Introduction: Asian Literary Voices” pp. 9-12, explicitly stated that Asian literature …

“… suggest that the marginalization of Asian literary and artistic voices will continue to shrink in the twenty-first century, and perhaps even become a footnote in history eventually. The contributors to this volume have each done their part to articulate and uncover the literary and artistic dynamism that northeast and have embodied over the past several centuries and up to the present day.

Phillip F. Williams’ words imply and at the same time predict that Asian literature and artistic voices from Asia will continue to be marginalized until the end of this century, and are likely to be made into insignificant footnotes if they are not immediately written down and presented to the world public. Williams’ statement at the same time confirms the opinion that Asian literature cannot yet be juxtaposed with first-class such as Shakespeare, Goethe, Kafka, and Twain. However, it does not rule out that the revival of Asian literature will strengthen the argument that Asian literature can be juxtaposed with the first world literature and is even far greater. In a review about an interesting book which is edited by Tony Day and Maya H.T. Liem, Cultures at war; The Cold War and cultural expressions in Southeast Asia about the cultures in Southeast Asia, Melani Budianta (2011: 224-226) discusses the “cold war” that occurred unconsciously by the people of Southeast Asia. The “cold war” here can also have a signification of the suspicion and cultural sentiment carried out by people between countries in the Asian region. This sentiment may originate from cultural incomprehension and insensitivity to crises experienced by countries that are considered not to be more advanced. Budianta wrote:

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“… the ideological division and internal split caused by the Cold War are still deeply entrenched within people’s subjectivities. One way to de-Cold War or to attempt at reconciliation is to “compare or relate historical experiences throughout third world Asia” (p. 125). It is only through “regional reconciliation” that Asian nation-states can “break out” of the deeply rooted sentiments within each national structure.

The role of reconciliation and ideological unification which is segregated in the Southeast Asia region makes the countries in this region ideologically and historically separated. Therefore, a history-based unification effort is needed that can erode deep sentiments between peoples in Southeast Asia. This is none other than due to the Cold War’s impact in the past which caused ideological tensions to last until now. Concerning Tony Day and Maya HT. Liem in the book has opened the eyes of literary and cultural scholars in the Southeast Asian region that the disharmony in people’s lives in this region was caused by personal sentiments between individuals in the region which was triggered by the cold war in the past and also the differences in colonialism memories which were experienced and felt by the state - countries in the Southeast Asia region. For example, Indonesia and Singapore are former colonies. However, the two countries experienced different colonialization processes. These differences result in different psychological effects as well as different life experiences. Historiographically, the state of colonialism in the past has led to differences in the literary and cultural representations of countries in Asia. This occurs in all countries in the Southeast Asia region, for example, Malaysia and Indonesia. For example, people in both countries, Malaysia and Indonesia, also hate each other through social media or what is commonly referred to as hashtag wars. This is evidence of these sentiments and suspicions. In an article entitled “Hubungan Konsep Negara Bangsa dengan Susastra Lisan Asia Tenggara”/”The Relationship between the Concept of a Nation-State and Southeast Asian Oral Literature” in a book entitled Adakah Bangsa dalam Sastra? (2003: 31-44), Ayu Sutarto writes that the difficult problems faced by Southeast Asian nations are due to internal problems within their own countries. What was conveyed by Sutarto was in line with Budianta’s thoughts sometime later (2011: 224-226), that although in many ways ASEAN member countries have a similar history, cultural similarities, and manifestations in diversity and dynamism, they still cannot be united. Because their nationality is different. Historiographically, the nations of Southeast Asia finally have to face each country’s sentiments in the region. At the same time, they face internal problems that are complicated and difficult to overcome. Nationalism is a strong bond, namely the notion that individual loyalty must be submitted to the nation-state, as a close bond to its bloodshed. The desire to unite, equality of fate will give birth to a sense of nationality which results in the emergence of self-confidence, a feeling that is indispensable to defend oneself in the struggle for a better condition. Two factors cause the emergence of nationalism, namely, internal and external factors. A first factor is a dissatisfaction with the invaders who cause popular resistance in the form of rebellion or war. While the second factor is the feeling of being awakened which is considered a symbol of confidence in one’s abilities (Susanto, 2016: 144-155). Thus it can also be said that to have a strong nationalism, the citizens of a nation must have specific ties to explain their identity together as a nation. Ideology, for example, is the binding of these ties. With ideology, one individual and another in a country will feel they have something to hold and fight for together (Susanto, 2016: 144-155; Adha et al., 2019: 16-28). According to King and Wilder’s (2012) review, the formation of national identities for countries in the Southeast Asian region, especially Indonesia, begins with a process of ethnic unification or reconciliation. Ethnicity in the view of King and Wilder is not only prioritized to the perpetuation of the biological self but also in the membership of the field of interaction and 405 SECRETARIAT OF NATIONAL COMMITTEE d.a. Grha STR, Jalan Ampera Raya Nomor 11, Telepon (021) 7813708, Jakarta Selatan 12550 Website: http://hiski.or.id Bank Mandiri Account No: 142 00 1614854 - 5

shared communication based on shared values and behavior. This process occurs in different patterns on the pillars of Southeast Asia. According to Anderson (2008: 8), the process of unification begins with the feeling of being together as a nation. This image of togetherness then embodies the spirit of nationalism. Nationalism is one element in nation-building. In the process of national development, all members of the nation’s community are formed so that they have a national perspective and have a specific pattern of behavior that reflects both culture and ideology (Susanto, 2016: 144-155). The concept of a nation that has been owned by society to date is a continuation of the concept of a nation according to the nationalism of the nation’s founder. The founders of the nation formulated the vision of Indonesian nationalism during the period of the national movement and the struggle for independence as a thought orientation for the struggle to realize Indonesian independence from the shackles of Dutch colonialism by establishing a unitary state, both the unity of the homeland, the nation, as well as its language and culture. Therefore, the characteristics and spirit of nationalism during the movement period were an anti-colonial character, and the spirit to build the unity and integrity of the colonies’ peoples from their plurality to become national unity. A fact that needs to be considered in the arena of Asian life as a whole is that Asian citizens are multicultural. The large and varied diversity within the Asian region causes countries in Asia to become increasingly open to differences and diversity. This special value is in living in Asia, especially for citizens who have migrated to the Asian region. Why is that? Because they are accustomed to differences, people in the Asian region tend not to question ethnicity and race. This is evident from the political and cultural life in Asia which tends to show similarities since ancient times. Much evidence has shown that there are similarities in history and past experiences. Hilmar Farid, General Director of Ministery of Education and Culture of Indonesia (2017) has acknowledged this bond (https://news.okezone.com/read/ 2017/08/08/65/1752087/mantap-negara-di-asia-memiliki-keterikatan-kuat-lewat-sastra-ini- buktinya). This fact, according to Hilmar Farid, needs to be used as a strong reason for the unification and understanding of ideology in the Asian region. He gives an example that the same history in the past has given birth to literature with the same breadth and the same style. One of the shreds of evidence is the characteristics of mystery and ghost stories in the region of Asian countries, especially Southeast Asia. According to Hilmar Farid, this could be derived from historical roots and experiences of the same contemplation in the past or borrowing the Levi-Strauss’ term. The ancestors of the Southeast Asian nations had a similar unconscious which was manifested in the representation of similar cultural symbols. With similarities in cultural materials, more productive collaborations in education and culture are likely to erode sentiment in the Asian region. So far, economic and technological progress has become a deep gulf for countries in the Asian region. East Asia and Southeast Asia, for example, have vast differences in information technology and industry. The East Asian region which was built and developed earlier because it has been shaped by the experience of colonialization and a history of civilization that is more established than the West Asia and Southeast Asia region, as a simple example, can be evidence and a model in technological and industrial development. , , and can be the leading models in industrial and technological development. Meanwhile, West Asia and Southeast Asia can become models for cultural development. All of them can complement each other and unite in a framework of cooperation and unified communication. From here, the “cold war” will gradually be eroded (Susanto, 2016: 144-155; Adha et al., 2019: 16-28) Southeast Asia has implemented a visa-free area for all Southeast Asian citizens to visit each other and thus there is an open mingling of culture and transnationalism. From here, access is increasingly open to communicate and collaborate. It is not impossible that the mixing of two

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nations in the form of marriage between nations also occurs or what is commonly called hybridization. Sari K. Ishii (2016: 1-23) in the opening of the book Marriage Migration: Emerging Minorities at the Frontiers of Nation-State has argued that marriage between nations in Asia will further strengthen geographic strength and also emphasize the involvement of the diaspora in the formation of identity. Transnational marriage will give birth to individuals with a strong cultural hybridization. This will also expand the communication wings between individuals and between countries to get to know each other in a broader regional area. Although not without problems, for example, divorce and recognition of custody of children from marriage and citizenship claims (Ishii, 2016: 1-23), diaspora marriages in the Asian region have opened access to cooperation and to get to know each other’s cultures. In connection with the preceding issues, Anggradinata (2020: 25-33) suggests cross- cultural studies of Asian countries, particularly in the Southeast Asian region. This is because countries in the Southeast Asian region have the same history and fate during the colonial occupation. The colonial pattern has changed the development and way of thinking of people in this area. However, this should not be a gap and jealousy because different experiences will enrich the way of life and culture. The cross-cultural study mentioned by Anggradinata is in line with what Hilmar Farid has initiated to continue and deepen to achieve harmony and harmonization in terms of culture and regional identity. From this point of departure, the diversity and dynamics in coexistence can be realized together.

POSTCOLONIAL PERSPECTIVE IN EDUCATION AND CHARACTER BUILDING Asian literature is expected to contribute significantly to education and culture, both directly and indirectly in the Asian region and its surroundings. One way that can be taken is research on educational curricula in Asia and also neighboring countries. The use of literature from the Asian region in English should be promoted as a reference for curriculum as well as teaching. In the discussion and reading of Asian literature, Floris (2005) suggests, “Students should be exposed to local cultural content so that they can enhance their local and regional cultural identities and value systems while learning the language”. Floris’ idea implicates the truth for literary works from Asia are no less interesting than literary works from English- speaking countries such as England, America, Canada, and Australia. Besides, according to Floris, students can learn about their cultural characteristics. Meanwhile, in English departments, to have a concrete example for this idea, English is only used as the medium of instruction in communicating and delivering messages. Jansen (2012) made a detailed comparison of postcolonial based teaching and literary learning in general. He found that postcolonial-based literary learning had different impacts on students’ responses. With a background as a white teacher, Jansen hoped for something more from his studies with his students, who mostly came from the indigenous population. While he came from a country where the majority of its citizens were white. This brought a different perception from students who hoped that he brought more knowledge about literary works from western countries. It turned out that he used literature from local , and this had caused different responses from his students. According to him, as a literature teacher, he did not dare to involve himself too far within the pedagogical reach of post-colonialism. This could have a bad impact on students’ responses because he came from a colonial country, while his students were from a former colony. He did not want to place himself as a colonial subject among colonial objects. Herein lies Jansen’s ambivalence as a teacher. However, it is also realized that he did not want to put himself as a subject that could cause psychological problems for his students. Jansen (2012) provided an example of Stephen Slemon’s (1992-1993) writing “Teaching at the End of Empire.” In the paper, Slemon argues that in postcolonial learning it is possible to reconcile two opposing critical approaches. It contains questions about the subject’s voice, 407 SECRETARIAT OF NATIONAL COMMITTEE d.a. Grha STR, Jalan Ampera Raya Nomor 11, Telepon (021) 7813708, Jakarta Selatan 12550 Website: http://hiski.or.id Bank Mandiri Account No: 142 00 1614854 - 5

then juxtaposed with an anthropological approach to recognizing local voices and knowledge. Slemon concludes that postcolonial pedagogy should question, “… the subject by or for whom the postcolonial text claims to speak — that is, the colonized — and the subject to whom the text is addressed within the circuit of postcolonial pedagogy: that is, the student subject within the discipline of organized literary studies “. Although Slemon does not discuss the position of the subject in colonialism in detail, the effect of using structured language has explained for himself that the colonial subject will be more dominant over the colonial object. This is a distortion in the real postcolonial pedagogical realm. The role of binary opposition was so dominant in the placement of colonial subjects and objects. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak had thought of this way long ago. In her writings “The Making of Americans, the Teaching of English, and the Future of Culture Studies” (1990), Spivak suggests incorporating “otherness” elements into literary and linguistic teaching. To the extreme, Spivak suggests including literary works that discuss oppressed women, homosexuals, different races or skin colors, immigrants, and also include writers from countries other than the west. Spivak welcomes the current trend in language and literature learning which increasingly leads to a way of looking at oneself inwardly, and she calls it a “transnational study of culture,” which is accompanied by various other compatible disciplines. This is because Spivak personally predicts a new form of discipline which will become a new literary canon study that strengthens the opposition labeled “Third World Literature (in translation)” which she calls “new orientalism.” With respect to a learning model like this, there will be a dialogue between western and eastern learning that complement each other and can be a means of controlling each other in its development. With his deconstructive point of view, Spivak sees that the provision of “out of the box” learning materials will automatically validate a value whether it is westernized or originates from local traditional values. By paying attention to the voices of “others”, according to Spivak, it will further open the horizons of diverse and democratic national thinking. In this way, the domination of western culture towards the east will shift (Jansen, 2012). The first world-oriented curriculum and literary learning materials may be a form of white domination that automatically injects western values with various images that keep young generations in the Asian region from remaining distant and foreign in recognizing their cultural roots. Asian literary works can be used as an alternative source of literary learning and to unify perceptions of the fate of the same Asian nation. This is because have lived side by side in the Asian region for a long time and they lived in harmony without disturbing each other. A joint project could be undertaken, for example, by carrying out a comparative literary analysis project between regions in Asia. This is beneficial for the members of Asian countries because by this project there will be a symbiosis of mutualism between researchers from various regions in Asia. This is also an effort to find the grassroots of cultural uniformity that stem from the same experiences in the past. As a concrete example, the study of how the existence of the epic Mahabharata in India and Indonesia needs conducting. The two storytelling models of the classic tale are indeed sourced from the same experiences and contemplations in the past. However, due to changes in the location and context of the story, the story of Mahabharata has a different narrative when it was narrated by Indian writers, and similarly, there was a shift in the narrative when a writer from Indonesia rolled out the epic. A joint study comparing works of this kind is an interesting project and it will inevitably produce both intersections and differences in the regional context in which these stories are composed and narrated. Again, this project is an attempt to find a common cultural identity rooted in the experiences of the same unconsciousness in the past. Differences will indeed occur and will always exist in every nationalism narrative in its struggles and the movement of life. However, this does not mean that this difference becomes a wide gap for Asian nations to be able to sit side by side to promote unity in dynamic diversity

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to achieve the dreamed regional peace. Therefore, it is high time for national education in Asian regions to determine its color and style in formulating the curriculum and history of the nation. Asian literature is born from the deep contemplation of a writer armed with rich experiences in color and identity as Asian citizens. Therefore, in the literature curriculum, cooperation in the education sector in determining the curriculum needs to be aligned with Asian-based regional standard references. This is because many Asian literary works have also been translated into foreign languages. Besides, studying Asian literary works, especially those in English, will also enrich students’ knowledge of the diversity of English because they are written and have an Asian cultural background that is different from native English speakers. Thus, students can learn about variations in English (Floris, 2005). In line with Floris’ thoughts, Anggradinata (2020) makes a comparison of literary works in one Southeast Asian family. It is a beneficial study when viewed from a historical perspective as well as the collective experience of people in the Southeast Asian region. Experience as a colonized country also teaches people in the Southeast Asian region to be able to strengthen and support each other for mutual progress, especially through postcolonial-based education [postcolonial pedagogy] as previously mentioned by Jansen (2012). Therefore, there is no more reason not to use Asian literary works in language and literature learning in the school and college curriculum. By using literary works from the Asian region, the strengthening of Asian character and culture is increasingly visible and entrenched. Students will naturally understand the culture where they come from and hence they more and more love their own ancestral culture. Through education based on Asian literary works, it is also hoped that character strengthening will be obviously achieved because identity is increasingly being formed (Anggradinata, 2020; Dewi, 2019; Floris, 2005; Sutarto, 2003).

CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON MODERN ASIAN LITERATURE It has been mentioned earlier that the current trend for Asian literary studies shows a tendency to change direction from a post-colonial perspective to the area of cultural studies because this term shows such rapid development and touches on culture, territory, and diversity of identities. Various problems in Asian literature have also intersected with problems between nations and multidimensionality. This also provides a wider space for the interpretation of national and identity issues. It has been also mentioned previously that the position of Asian literature and its position in the language and literature learning curriculum, in particular, offers multidimensional problems that can be understood as study material in classrooms to strengthen a sense of nationality. This can be done through the introduction of “selfishness” and “manliness” from a postcolonial perspective as mentioned by Spivak (1990), and at the same time concerning rediscovering the essence of “Asian meaning” as well as “Asian point of view” within the scope of studies in language and culture. From the above discussions, it can be clearly explained that in understanding Asian literature in general, we should not be trapped by the hegemony of sentimentality. This sentimentality is a form of the establishment of colonial objects that tend to be hegemonic. Asia is a complex civilization that is much more established and developed in terms of humanism earlier than in western countries. Therefore, the inferiority and feelings of marginalization as nations in the Asian region should be eliminated. To lead to a new civilization that is more developed and established in the Asian region, its cultural representation must naturally become the soul and support of its citizens. The cultural representation referred to here is their literary works. By exploring the richness of Asian literature that has the nobility of culture and values as well as the diversity of life patterns of its people, arts, language, literature and cultural education must start from Asian literature. The teaching of language and literature, then, can depart from the richness and peculiarities of Asian literature themselves. This is in line with 409 SECRETARIAT OF NATIONAL COMMITTEE d.a. Grha STR, Jalan Ampera Raya Nomor 11, Telepon (021) 7813708, Jakarta Selatan 12550 Website: http://hiski.or.id Bank Mandiri Account No: 142 00 1614854 - 5

Richard Rorty’s ideas in his book Linguistic Turn (1992). Because in language, according to Rorty, there is a social-individual struggle. A subject is constructed by language. By prioritizing language and communication discourse-space, the meeting between individual, social, and historical problems can be resolved. This is in line with Slemon’s thoughts in one of the previous sections in the present study. Because humans are linguistic, social beings, then humans have been constructed by the language they use. Therefore, to become a successful subject, humans need to cultivate how to communicate with the medium of language and make it a subject capable of speaking, voicing aspirations, and knowledge. Cultural studies or the humanities, therefore, must set their feet firmly on the roots of language and culture. Literature is a cultural product that uses language as a medium. Thus, literature can shape and construct humans to become better and more human.

CONCLUSION This paper attempts to recall the critical role of literature in its role as a unifier and activator of culture. It begins with the premise that literature is a representation and projection of people’s lives in general. For this reason, it needs to be emphasized again as an effort to place literature as a source of learning in the life of the nation and state. It is necessary to have the strength to return to the rich and virtuous cultural treasures to become a great nation. Asian literature has been around for a long time and is rich in the dynamics of life and humanity. However, the position of Asian literary works is no less interesting than in learning arts and culture. More in-depth research and studies need conducting on the role and function of Asian literary works so that their manifestation can be realized in language and literature learning in schools and universities. This can be realized through cooperation across fields and nations in the Asian region to explore the riches of each culture and civilization. Asian literary works are equally rich and interesting when juxtaposed with literary works from the first world. Therefore, its translation into international languages will strengthen its position as part of world literature. Therefore, the curriculum of cultural, language, and literature study programs needs to incorporate the richness of Asian literature into the curriculum, with the hope that Asians will learn their cultural values that come from artistic experiences and contemplation of the previous generations, uphold traditions, and ancestral heritage. This is one of the steps to strengthen the position of Asian literary works so that they are not considered unimportant and will only continue to be used as footnotes for research and in-depth study of language and culture.

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