Scientific In,, t~ ument Society
Bulletin September No. 74 2002 Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society ISSN0956-8271
For Table of Contents, see back cover
President Gerard Turner
Vice-President Howard Dawes
Honorary Committee Gloria Clifton, Chatrman Alexander Crum Ewing, Secreta~ SImo¢l Cheifetz, Treasurer Willem Hackmann, Editor Peter de Clercq,Meetings Secreta~ Ron Bristow Tom Lamb Tom Newth Alan Stimpson Svh'ia Sumira T'revor Waterman
Membership and Administrative Matters The Executive Officer (Wg Cdr Geoffrey Bennett) 31 High Street Stanford in the Vale Farmgdon Tel: 01367 710223 Oxon SN7 8LH Fax: 01367 718963 e-mail: [email protected] See outside back corer for information on membership
Editorial Matters Dr. Wiilem D. Hackmann Sycamore House Tel: 01008 811110 The Playing Close Fax" 01608 811971 Charibury OX7 3QP e-mail: [email protected]
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© The Sc~nt~c Inset So~ty 2002 Editorial
Who Has Litz Wire? case, the two limiting factors are lack of ports of the SIS's nahonal and interna- skill and lack of the right material. A tional visits also fi~rm a useful record for A journal's editor divides up his year not separate newsletter to cover our needs the future. in seamms but when the final copy is due would be probably too expensive and at the printers. Ah yes, it must be near the labour intensive, but certainly an 'ama- After nearly nineteen years as a curator end of August as the pile that will make teur's page' would be well worth a try. In of the University Museum in Utrecht, up the third i,~sue of the year is reaching the past we have had reconstructions Jan Deiman is moving to the exotic maturity! At the same time glancing into under the rubric of the 'Facsimile File' island of Bali, Indonesia. His successor the garden he becomes aware that there with contributions by Ralph Barrett, at Utrecht will be Klaus Stauhermann, is an indefinable tinge of autumn in the Klaus Staubermann, and Allan Mills who will be the curator of the scientific air, which means that he will soon have who has been especially active in this uxstrument collection and also of the to start to plan the winter Bulletin. area. So come on you 'dabblers' - we are medical collections. I am sure that you looking forward to your suggestions. would like to wish them both the Ix~t In the letters' section of this issue our for the future. Finally, it is g(xx] to know member Chris Dyos makes a most Judging by the report, this year's visit to that both the displays and depots of the interesting suggestion. A 'dabblers' North Germany was very successful. scientific instruments were evacuated in branch' would be great fun, especially Such reports are useful as it gives those time in the recent di~strous fltx~ds in as I am an inveterate dabbler myself, who could not attend an impression of Dresden. We wish the staff our corn- always with a couple of restoration and the location of instruments in which migrations in the clear up that now has reconstruction projects on the go. in my they are especially interested. The re- to take place.
Cover Story Instruments Shape the World Willem Hackmann
lnga Elmqvist's paper in this issue the p(~sibilities of the new sciences and engravmgs have been identified as hav- brought to mind an evocative engraving scientific instruments for the impn~ve- ing been by his hand. Many of these were by Maarten van Heemskerck ~mtitled ment of mankind. Navigation and sur- engraved by Dirck Volke~z. Coornhert, Human Instruments as Part of the Created veying had helped with opening up the Philips Galle, Herman Muller and Cor- World, published in 1572. There is a New World, and within the next thirty nelis Cort, and reproduced by the preponderance of agricultural imple- years the invention of the telescope, Antwerp print publisher Hieronymus ments, but among the other identifiable followed by the microscope, would Cock. From the l,V~ffls, many of these instruments are a set square, hororary dramatically open up the mind as well prints were adorned with verses in Latin quadrant, sand glass, diptych dial, and by the humanist Hadnanus Junius, who possibly a compass and an alchemical Van Heemskerck, tram in that town in al~ lived in Haarlem. Van Heemskerck the Netherlands in 1498 (and who died in flask. [X~mesticated animals - another of was much influenced by Raphael, Miche- man's triumphs - are peaceably grazing. nearby Haarlem in 1574), was one of the langelo and Giulio Romano. In this print All this invention has led to a fruitful most productive of the Renaissance he combines a classical pastoral scene nature symbolized by the woman suck- artists of the Low Countries. About 100 ling her child. Van Heemskerck was paintings and the same number of with the instruments that in time would known for his muscular Venuses. By the drawings (the latter fix~m his pen(~ in transform the world radically. 1570s, society had become intrigued with Rome) have survived, and about 600
Mystery Object
The following item to exercise your brain cells was emailed by Julian 14olland, Curator of Scientific Instruments at the Macleay Museum of the University, of Sydney. The photo (Fig. 1) shows a leveling device 3.5 metres long. it is made of steel and was apparently used at a metal processing plant in Sydney to .set up machinery. There are two linear bubble levels mountt~ in the 'blade'. There art, three 'pins' that can apparently Ix, set at different Im~sitions along the blade which al~ has nt, mhered gradua- tions (in feet?). It is clearly a precision device with its carefully made ca~. Has anyone encountered this device befort'? Fig. l hh/,tc~,,t~- Ic,'clm~' d,',',c
Bulletin of the ~ienttfi¢ Instrument ~wietv No. 74 (2002) Announcements
MINUTES OF THE 19TM ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING of the Scientific Instrument Society held at the Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House, London W1V OLQ on Wednesday 10" July 20(}2 at 4.00 p.m.
Dr ~ ChUm m the Cha,r. h~m~d by. five cwators. Thm was ~ollowed I~ • ~ md w~ m aim ~ ~ r.d.ce we~.~ Ch~mma~ wek'om~ 31 membe~ to the AGM at ~het~'s (Wvmpa, wah • pm~; e~ m our cum.rd ~ where ~. I. Ajx~m mr al~ence wer~ re,wed m~m Dr Wdk.m ~'rumems to I~ auctmm~l •! thor k~rthc~nmg Mle Ha~kmann, Mr H~'a~d D~w~, Mr Tn~'~wWa~rman, 6 I I~-I~ * May ~WI2: The Annual Conk.mnce v~t was ~A~Tm~'r ad~d i/the" wm curer, rim on th~ Mr Mike Cc~vham. Mr Alan .~m~m. Dr Allan Mills to N,a.th t.~manv, based m Hamburg, w,~ v~ to 2- TheMmu~m~theAnnuaiGener•lMeeem~beld~m II~" k~. Wmgst Bn-nm4w~n. Ldmathal and Oki~nl~ . . t~ u~..eama~,e Adan~ I~, the Tre~m~.r J~dv ~.1~1 and p~l~/~,d m ~ Bulletin ,~th¢ .~'m~t~" Alth~gh the number of delegate~ was lower than m al a I~.duced and Ulmr ~t alm~l~ I,utmm~m S~'a,~ ."~Nt~nber ~W'H were taken as pr~,-mus ctmma.n~ VL.~tSthe pnq~'ammr was d~n~d Ad~n of the Mmute~ ~.m moved i~ Mr ~tuart to ~ very n~c~'m~l. Denwm~rat~rm and lectu~ ~e~ wnttm off Mr Hawkms a~ed ~ the B~lktm could l'•il~. ~.c~w~l by Mr h~m Dmk'ock and appr~'ed included t~ m-~. ho~ and cnflcal aptera•a] of hmstonc s~d uuts~ tbe Son~ as happened w~ other unanlmoush. experiments ~ exlm~dmn~ ~ ~t sc~nflfic work ~-~. ~' :-~ ,, ~ "~,~,J Fair T~ m g~d~y ~ m~'ro-gravdy, m addition to the nalrman tam u~s mum Ix. cocm&rrd and also mm~luc~ms to museums and a¢chw~ vmt~d ]'he The ge~. ~l~-h ~Wk,v.-s was read I~,' the F.xmuUve was It.d by Pn~w Gudnm Wolf~chmtdt ~x,cnetarv Mr H R Brmw,w w~h me Cm~.mn~ Umm,r Aaon/v,~bn, 5 F~mve ~.,ms a~]1)e,m ~ me ~'-nre bhee~ and Accruing. wh~-h T,~al meml~v,d'up ,~a~ ~ at 31" Decrmber ~t]~l c~mpart.d w~th 5'~ tot the pre~mus ~ear The ment~ at the /'mvmdv L~brarv, the {L Al~dm~M d Amlii~s L,wmm,t~te~ bel~-~e that fallows b~.hmd ~ ,J.ghth" Camera Ob~u~a m C hfton, and the Industrial M u~-um. r~du~d rnembersh,p I~ure~ may include the ~xmom/c where Dr Almm M~'rL.me~L,aW wall talk an BrL~ep~ .T~ J~uvr nm~ t~t u~ conduct ~nd ~v,or dwna~ c~'~t,'rm over m~'nat~mal travd, and In.~'rum~m me ^u~ c n~. had b~n o~ a h~gh mmdaM ~md ~.~n~y of am ,,~ er,,~, conl~,~'e mp during fllu* ve~r very cost H~ve. He ~ that Ihev be re- At ~" Aprd. ~ member~ had m~! nmewed ~r 2 ~P N,wember 2tWr2: The IOth Annual lnv~t*~m appomted k~r the ca•rag ye.r n~'nbershnp tot the year 3W~2 ~W)3 me~,~r (~.rard I.'E Tumor. ~ of the Sc~.nt~ffc %k~n~',vr,,h~p at l" lm~ ~a~ 527 A '.~tal ot 5~ members ~.namman, seconded by Mr Jelx..my Co'ms an~] d~d rww renew their sub.,cnp~ms but 21 new membe~ un*n~ ha• • Iow~.d .I. In the second half of Mav 2(103. the Annual C~. vma ~ plan~ to take pi~-e m Scotland s. EJedlen ef O~em~ ~ ~. ~ The C¢~nnirR,~e me~ ~m sesen uccasam~ C~ two wilt %'|$l~ to sclentdl¢ CO fffions and slte~ in ,~'ca~ms durmg the year tt~ F~ecum'e S~cmtan- was Edmburgh. Glasgow. Dundee and Aberdr~n. Dr. u~l~p~ed a_ndcomn~m.e membe~ .'~'hla Sumu:a and l'he Co•mare neemme~m Ior 2002-20~ we• as Alh~m M,~ns~m-~.~w at the Nat~mal Mmeums o~ io~lows: Ah'~ander Crum E~mg acted as" deputies The Scotland has undertaken the mana~.mem of the vmi~ .'~cr~tary w~,~ to record h~s thanks |or thmr . providing t,'nlfluma~c ~q:~:m~Soc~ ~ will be• Chammm Dr. Gk~r~ Chmm as~stance Due to an accm~-nt, the Fd,tor has he,m ~'e~. •~mlmat~ for twentieth unable to attend C~um~ me~m~s since February year T~ Mr. Sum• Chede~z but ha~ k~tunaleh' ~ a~le m om~mue to penduc~ the Edaor Dr. Willem I'ha'kmann Bull~m and to pro~,~ other ed,m¢~al m•¢Wer~ The Comm~flee welc~m~e.~ sugMmm~ ~rom aU mem- Execuhve ~ Mr./Uequmd~ Crum Ewm~ k~r ~en~ and actwlbe~ At [he last Annual ln a~m~ du rm.~ .~ )1-20o 2 G~m.t•l ~g Dr Allan Mdl~ mvnk~:l the C~ffe~ I ~wl~mns o~ CD ROM to co~*ader arran~n K weelumd k'~um a~ conk.renor Other Commm~ Mr. Ro~ Dri~mw ,~ at the pr,,p,,~.d ~,du,'t~m of the vm~ •! prm'mcml umv~t v ~k's •nd ~b,~emlv .p~m.~k,d turther u~m~tmn The C,mmu~,~ will I~v(, Mr Tom Lamb m on ~.~ g,~-n was prel~md I~" Ihe E~ecuhve Mr. Tom Newth ~.~c/~'.and pr~a.m~l by ~. £a.tor to the Comm].ee mu~ s~'~mn m mmd m c~-adermg ~m~ r,ver~ ~,,m'W ~ Tkmb Mr Alan Stamps(m m~ ~ that ~ne refl~t~ were ck.v,~abk, but that Ms Sylvia ~nura the conc~ was sound It wouM allow the Balletm to be The Executwe Officer. Geoff Bennett. has again a•adabke as an alternatwe or an addttm~ foe members Mr. rrevor Watennm~ who d~.~md d prov~k.d dedicated a~*L.qanor m the admmmeratmn and ,~ra~ o~ the ~fl. thn~h the ve~r It would No o~-r nommatmm had been recm~ed. The Comm~ 2 .4s~e.,,mmt of R~c~ tee no•mamas we• pro~md I~ Dr S~e~ ~e~ and ~ Comn.m~. w~ m ~ ~ ~Fa~eful s~k,d by. Mr Bruc~ [~as amd"a~,d ~sl~nou~y m~,uc,~ aria apt'ne~t~n ~r ~us a~m~anoe ~nan~" comm,~,,mners th~ the Trustees (Commit- Th~ elect~m ~ Pr~ Tum~ as I~ and i~. ~ .Men~k'~) assess and rq~ ,m d~e r,.~., to w h~ch d~. 4. Tre*mree'~ I1~ ,~rv m existed The S~,¢~,fl," has always been a~ard Dawe* m Vk'~'~ was pmpmed by Mr. I. Treasurer't itep4qrt iof lke year Endinl; 31" ~m~k.d by Mr. Stuart Taib~sf and Denml~r • anve accounnng ana awareness of habt ties The accounts foe the year endm~ 31" Elec~m~oer ~IO1 me annual r~ to the C(wnmmsmne~ will include a Ma~-nx-m and details vemus e~ix.nd~tu~ Thin was a sw~ into the The C haman tl~m~ ~. Co•tatar wamdy ~r me~r red~nem£t~er~ev mus Year. wl~nch had shcnvn a work ~um~g the y~r. 1"he nm~mg q,p~uded. The S~.~,. has m pre~-~ vea~ ~ m havu~ Mr. Dyas ~-..~,d ~hat ama~ur make~ ut m ~k~a~j work. pu~i.shed, n~abh,., the ~n~c~V # It ~ be mx~d thai m 20OOthmre were a numix.~ro~ •acto,~ w{'ud, {~,~,mtodmcomo, such as ~of thelohn ~a. tS wouki app~mato Ibe mclu.~e m the ~L-~n o/ :~-~ntm< ~m..xtrume.t ~ ~ of Fbrf St,err ~te tur~ such a~ drawm~s (of a~uolaix~ for e~m~.), ,xtd,~m, as~stance hal bern ~pvt~ to m's ~w~k o~ (.;~a'ge Adams, • ck.ar-out of aid In students s. ~ • surplus on the overseas vmt. d~.lq~., ma.t~als ~1 mum~. The Chairman uid'th~ ~r~a~e~ u[~m relevant re.arch k'a~mg to pu~hcah,~ not apply m 2001, and there were no o~x-r ma.t ~ tast year's r~'enu~ m the same ~e~aPn~, accord~0v • sub-c,,mmmee .'as tanned to ay It ~OId be r~, how~eT, that wh~q th~ Mr. Hawlam sug~mkd that ~'erv member ~ n cummate~ m m~t Complacent wah • situation where our ~rn arm mm ~ as hr~t r~port m th~ Comrmt~e costs e~ct~ded our n,',,enue~ when k~r,ed at on a shouM eWe•your to mtrod&e a new memix~. 4 Meetm~ kqd h~l ba~as ~ have bee~ a number of years when me cnamn~n a~,ed that *he Ed,tor couJd be ~d~,d to luly Annual General Meeting ~as hem • radar defk~ occu,rreci and the raw commlttee will be marne • ~ of this, and the Commifl~ would I II ~ 2001 The commue io uy to make fl~e Saoety better knave. at the .,~-~.~. ,W Ant~luar~, and was pmc'~led by the mmdenng ml~ to m~dv the ~. Kdk~,'mg papers, Other ~ we•. ~.unple B~,flm w be m~t to ~'t~.~a f,um ra .tl~l Am~her Sp~e O~v,,sev /~ • ,~a ,m~.~-npnon income was down by une C,nw,';w~,, # Cd,,&,~ " " ~ve members; advesrtisemen~ to be taken m ihe to the k~,~ a4 anmnd twenty membed versus Sundial Society, NewcomenSociety, I'~ter d~ Clercq Rd~'~ # .Scmmcr at the 5T,ecml _[~l~al~s, o4 the Lxh~b~t~ PHer HmKley: T~ Hu~.n~ # tk~ [n ehsk T¢lescq~ ,Vk,~nlmf t wdfl rafting memberd~ numbers ~ cou~ revenue wdl be pursued ~ ..... ?' nu~nc~, a king week~nd vml! to sl~cant mle~ m Basic runnmg or administration cm~s we,re, UI ould a~m be ~ but it did not ~pl~,,r to Chh~-d and envm~ was arranged, w~th vL~ts to the ~J~'~_~: ~'~L .~k"~,l to ~ ~---~..=. cot. ~u~ tbe malonty ~ mm,mb~. M~z~'um of the H~ston~ of ~ m Oxh~rd, and two Vr~. u~ num,nn wee~actually m ~ lower. l°hn .Lawrmce suS~',ml tat .ome Soc~.um lu,d Nahonalrt • [ru~t --prop~rtws ' Snowshdl Ma~.~-. near ~•~ the pro~'amme o~ m~,hn~s, vmts ~ as B ~ad~.av and ~add~ton Manor near Avk,sbun,,both mr ~,xn',ro vm! covered thmr cm~, ~ut overall then. p ubnQtmns produced at no co~ to tbenv,elves. L~bbsh~m Ix~nn~ the cats and be~ ~lowed to hang ~d scwnflhc mstrm~.nt co~le('hom At ~e was • small def~t ~aume ~ of the AGM ~d • a hands,-~m ,~ was atra~l~.d a~mual k'ctum am nof paas~d an to attonde~. the pubhcatmm on the market. The C~liflm.m Mid 2~ No~en~,qer 2~1 The 9" Annual Medal Lecturer Tumm~ to th~ balanc~ sh~ ~or 2001. n~ as~ ended m camammg the ~ull~in co~ was K~en at the S~.tv ~ Ant~ua~ by Dr Mu-I~ ~ •t.~S.7~. the drc9 ~rn tfl~ p~v~o y~0r ~.nnt on me u~ne ~.. exlx.ndau~ ~ s,ua- T.~ .,op~...d ,h. ,..d to p,~,., ,~ m,~u~w. Thin was hdlowed I~ the annual droner. ~ount AH of these nmen,tm am held as bank or m~m vem0n of the ~.l~ms ~ it would be a l~ch was held at the Oxford ~ CambndRe Club, -ean~.r and m any case back nund~n were no ,u~ th. g~ o~es of our Prmdmt The k,rt.re comnuttee had ~ cw~.eiv at way~ of Ix~ avad,d~ke. ~ Chau'n~an Nated that there was na sm~equ~r~ h. been published m the Bulletin ~ve~n~n.~ uwome, wh~ md&~,d ~ ~v,ce from but pm~ress h~ b~,~.n se~u~y aflr~ed 4 Z'~ Februaw 2002: Attem~m vat was made to the toward Uawm, our Vw-e-p~, ~ (omm~ w/ nw's mlury R,n'a{ Amlh'w" Mus~am at W~adwa:h. at two k)camm~: m~vvUm~t pb~'mg some hmds in.the stock market, hr~t • hand..-cm ~m m tile Ro(unda. theft • vmt to vamv of ~ u~'ertam~ decided to May out - m Mr. ~rt T,flb~ pmlx~d, v~ ~ th~n~s to ~ m~- the newh, opened 'F,reT~ower" ,.lff,~l~¥ m ~ Rov•l retrospect • wise decision However, a suitable A~ena] " - • 12" Aprd 2002 Al~rno~n vuut to the Scmm'~ me•meal lor ~ when ma Mmeum ~eserve Co[k~tmn m Blvthe House was thee bem~ no ram an o~,/. •ltflough ~ ~mr now i~wer than
Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT SOCIETY Statement of Financial Activities for the year ended 31" December 2001
Unrestricted Funds Total 2001 2000 £ £ income Resources
GENERATION OF FUNDS Membership Subscriptions 21,582 22,347 Publications Bulletin 223 2,901 Adverts 1,760 2,181 FURTHERANCE OF OBJECTIVES Conferences 6,351 18,923 Investments 2,228 2,032 Donations 82 85 Sales - sundries 151 186 Adams Book Sals -324 10,767
Total incoming resources 32,053 S9,4~
Resources expended
COSTS OF GENERATION OF FUNDS Bulletin 14,683 24,924 Publicity 1,377 !,101 Audit Charges 999 999 Purchase of Medals 401 - Insurance, charges 1,034 1,408 CHARITABLE EXPENDITURE Conferences 6,883 16,753 Management Trustee Expenses 348 444 Executive Officer 3,991 3,741 Office 4,899 5,484
Total resources expended
Net (Outgoing)/Incoming Resources -2,s62 4.sc,3
NOTE:
There are no restricted funds.
The above accounts are extracts from the audited accounts which were approved by the Committee on 11u' June 2002. Members wishing to see a full set of accounts should contact the Executive Officer (address on back cover).
Bulletin of the Scientific lm0rument Sociel7 No. 74 (2002) Virtues and Vices: Scientific Instruments in 17 th Century Art
Inga Elmqvist
Scientific instruments are depicted in spectators, invited to join the sitterin an many paintings of the 17'" century, important moment in his work. We meet espt~ially ~*rtraits. Often the instrument the old man in his study with an open was included to show a scientific and book and a tt~l of his profession in his learned environment or the instrument hand: dividers. Beside him, on the table, was sup~cl to indicate the specific are a Ixmk, ink for writing, a pen, a scientific interest of the i~rtrayt~d person. penknife, a straight edge, an armillary Instruments were, however, al~ u.,~t in sphere, and behind, a quadrant and an other kinds of paintings and engravings astrolabe. The instruments define his to imply other meanings such as virtues specific mathematical interests,and it is and vices. In thi~ paper I am mterested in also worth mentioning that Clavius had which contexts instruments were de- written well-known texts about how to picted and in what way instruments construct these instruments. The type of were shown as attribute, and what portrait resembles depictions of learned moral implications the presence of an or holy men such as St. Augustine or St. instrument can have in a work of art. 1 Jerome, a tradition especially desirable to am concerned with human nature, espec- be associated with for a learned Jesuit. ially virtues and vict,'s, with which I mean Clavius is the typical scholar seized by admirable qualities (e.g. leading a vir- his work; he is alone with his serious tuous, hard working or religious life, or thoughts. Many learned men are de- having ptvsitive qualities such as genius picted studying by candlelight in the or being learned) or failings of character silence of the night. At night contemplat- (e.g. being over presumptuous, misuse of ing the vanity of life is often suggested, Fig.1 The natural phih,~opher m I,~ studu power or being religiously deceived). and biblical passages that treat this with his instruments. Portrait of Clmstopher subject could be alluded to? Melancholy Clavius, engraz~d by, E. de Bouhmois after a In most art galleries, there are not very is often the mtx~ in this kind of portrait. l,~rtrait by. Francesco Villamena in about many paintings depicting scientific in- A seated man holding dividers recalls 1606. Collection of the Royal Swedish struments. Instruments, which are rather Diirer's Melancholia. Here the melancholy Academy of Sciences, inv. no. Hasmlberg easy to use, for example scales, dividers, 4:25. mood is connected to genius, philosophy rulers, gl(~'~es, watches or other time and the mathematical sciences. Certain measuring devices, are more frequent, famous philosophers such as Plato, whereas astrolabes or other instrument, the martial arts, as Stiemhielm for a Socrates and Aristotle were during the which demand more specific training to period was appointed Councillor of Renaismnce thought to have been melan- u~, are unusual in paintings. More War, and he also designed military cholies? Both Clavius and Stiemhielm complicated instruments are more likely instruments. The cube looks quite like seem possessed by melancholy, and some to appear in paintings in a particular one of his cubic measures. He tried to of their attributes are similar to Dtirer's .~:lentific ~ttmg. In this paper l have introduce a system for decimal standard Melancholia. Melancholy is holding a pair cht~,~en to concentrate on a few ~'pes of measure of weight, length and volume of dividers. How should we then inter- m~truments, especially dividers, the described in his book Archimedes Refi~r- pret the presence of dividers? Are they magnetic compass, the telescope, and nmtus (Stockholm, 1644). The ruler is also merely an indication of mathematical time measuring devices. a direct reference to this decimal system. interest or could they imply something It resembles preserved Stiernhielm deci- more? Some of the following examples mal rulers found in Swedish collections. ' In.qruments are often found in portraits. will show some additional allusions of Dividers are a further reference to his Here the aim of the artist is to explain to the dividers. interest in geometry, as one of the liberal the beholder who the sitter is and about arts. However, dividers are present in his ~pecific interests through attributes. portraits of many categories of pro- ~lentific instruments are expected to be How to make moral decisions and how fessions: master masons, architects, found in portraits of mholars, where the to lead a righteous lifewas an often used painters, sculptors, geographers, astron- attnbute is directly connected to the theme in 17'h-century culture. [ suggest profession of the sitter. A typical portrait omers, merchants, noblemen or others that a study of contemporary allegories with an interest in mathematics. There- of a learnt~t [r~,r~m is the Swedish Court and books of emblems are specifically h~re it is difficult to ascribe a more painter David KI0cker Ehrenstrahls' por- useful. It was usual to think in images trait of georg Stiernhielm painted in specific reference than just the attribute and to let certain concepts take concrete It~3: 1-he earnest man clad in black is of the learned to the sitter in this case. In form in personifications and allegories. the following paragraphs I examine the set against ruins. Stiernhielms' interest in Books of emblems were very popular, use of dividers. the cultural life of antiquity as well as the and many were even printed in the -";~tMish cultural heritage is revealed vernacular. The books contain collections through the ruined column in the back- of representations of objects followed by In some portraits dividers are not lying epigrams with a written explanation, ground On the table to the right are unused but are held in one hand, as in some geometrical forms: a cube, a normally a moral imperative. Text and the portrait of the famous Jesuit mathe- image could not do without each other. I:,dyhLxiron (probably an icosahednm), matician-astronomer Christopher Cla- and a sphere, further dividers, a ruler Both were needed to understand the vius in the engraving by Francesco message. The emblems were often used and a staff. The gts*metrical forms are an Villamena made in about 1606 (Fig. I).4 obvious reference to his interest in as a didactic trick with both word and The artist has portrayed Clavius as if he image. Subjects of such books would be geometry. The sphere looks very much is just contemplating a serious problem, like a cannonball, and as such represents how a prince or ruler should behave and in a concentrated frown. We are, as which qualities he should have, or more
Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) Fig.2 A pair of broken dividers with incomplete circle signifies incompetence. Emblem no. N v b from Giles Corrozet, Hectacon Graphie (Paris, 1543). general advice on how to lead a Christian and righteous life. Artists often used these booLs of emblems, and therefore when we look at paintings, a clue to understand and interpret them can be by using such sources.7 Fig.4 An example of the Su~edish kin c, One emblem shows a pair of dividers Fig.3 The Jesutthzatural phih~pher as a Charles Gustavus X as protector of the arts drawing a circle followed by the words creator of the cosmic system. Titlepa~¢ to and rightful heir to the throne, unknown 'Lahore et constantia' - work and con- Athansius Kircher, Iter Extaticum (Herbipo- artist, engramng. Photograph: The Royal stancy. The upright arm represents con- li, 1660). Photograph: The Royal Library, Library, National Library of Sweden. inv. stancy, whereas the arm, which draws the National Library of Sudden. no. SvP52CXG. This motif also exists in a circle, represents work - This was used as painted version (see footnote ]3). the emblem of the famous Plantin printing press." The circlewas considered perfect, being without beginning and without describes an imaginary cosmic voyage. of the arts. It was part of the King's role end. It was considered complete, or could There is a dialogue between Theodidac- to show himself as such, as it was one of symbolize the constant presence of God. tus, and the angel Cosmiel, the heavenly the virtues of kingship. There are This emblem recalls Ciavius' portrait. guide on the voyageY2 They are depicted different objects from the martial arts, on the frontispiece. Theodidactus has the music, agriculture, and to the right there On the contrary, a broken pair of dividers traits of Kircher, carrying the dividers. are a Jacobsstaff, dividers, a sector, a is unsettling, as in Giles Corrozet's Hecaton Behind is the semi-tychonic system of compass, a marine astrolabe, and a globe. graphie (Fig. 2). In this emblem the circle is Kircher. Here the natural philosopher is In portraits of kings or other powerful not complete and the dividers are broken. shown as the artifex, the creator of a persons it is rather usual to find several The text says that to plan something above cosmic system. instruments in trophy groups on paint- your powers is like he who forces his spirit ings or as sculptural decorations alluding to the role as protector of the arts. over his might. He who tries more than he Not only natural philosophers were can understand, is like the person who portrayed with scientificinstruments. In wants to do something above his ability the elaborate apotheosis to the Swedish The actual instruments found in these and power; it is presumptuous and to King Charles Gustavus X, several instru- trophy groups would exist in collections over-appreciate one-self? On the other ments are shown (Fig. 4). '~ Its design of prominent persons." In Jan Brueghel hand to be able to use the dividers resembles a title page or epitaph. In the the elders' 'Sight'in the Prado, the kind of properly was to gain knowledge of divine middle is the portrait of the King with his instruments found in such collections can geometry, and a great skill. motto: 'In God my hope'. To the left is the be seen. ~' The painting is part of a cycle of first Swedish King, Gustavus l (Gustav five depicting the five senses. Here Several personifications are depicted Vasa), to introduce the hereditary throne. instruments are on display. The painting with dividers, such as Mathematica, He personifies Atlas carrying the celestial is about consumption, eroticism, luxu~' Prudentia, Geometrica, Aritmetica, Philo- globe on his shoulders. On the other side and learning. One of the new instruments sophia, Theory or ideas and even Lex and is Hercules personified by Gustavus of the 17~' century was the telescope- and Justitia. '° The dividers being the instru- Adolfus [I. He has just slain the hydra, is here naturally displayed in the painting ment for proportion is there to show that to be understood as the Catholic Church. on sight. Telescopes were initially quite it is not just about ideas, but also about He is holding the terrestrial globe; all the expensive, and were at fi~t used rather correctness, justness, and that things are earthly might that he won in his battles in for military, purposes than astronomy. in balance. Germany. Here the reigning King is being referred to as the third in the line of The telescope as a military aid - and as Even God is sometimes portrayed with Gustavus' - rather unusual. As it was such it was very u~ful - could be used as dividers as in the famous Bible Moralis~ later in the 18'" century that King the attribute of the monarch. In a I~ditical from the end of the 13d' century in the Gustavus 111 exploited this theme. In the caricature from 1656, two eagles symbo- National library of ViennaY Here God is upper part of the picture, Minerva is lizing Sweden and Poland are fighting shown as the architect of the world. A driving a coach in which the King is each other. I" Men representing other 17" century image which recaiL~ God as crowned by Fame. Personifications and nationalities are standing around the 'Artifex mundus' is the title page to angels are alluding to the King's deeds combattants: the Austrian, the Cossack. Athanasius Kircher's lter Extaticum from and positive qualities. Below we can the Muscovite, and the Tartar are trying 1660 (Fig. 3). In this book Kircher behold the King's role as the protector to interfer in the battle. The Dutchman is
Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) Fig.7 The set square with a plumb line in the middh" sign!ties virtue. Emblem no. 90 from Sehlstian de Couarrubias Onwzo, Emblemas Morales, Vol. ll (Madrid, 1610).
the characteristic of the compass to always point in the same direction, just as the thoughts of the right faith ought to do; the compass would be the guide to the true and Christian life. Or it could also be the instrument to designate true love, as the thoughts of the lover would Fig.5 the tdl~-ol~, can both enhlr,ce and always be directed towards the belovedY' ,hmmtsh. Embh'm no. 7 from D/ego de Fig.6 A compass helps the kin,~ steer the S,lavedra Falardo, Idea de un Pnncipe court' of his acti, ms. The frontispiece of PoIiIoco Chnstiano ~Amsterdam, 1t,59~. Konunga- och Hofdinga Styrilsi ¢Shwk- In a political caricature of Gustavus holm, 1o69~ signed by. the inz~,ntor David Adolfus li defeating the Pope, the King Kl&-ker Ehrenstrahl and the engralvr Dio- is also guided by a compass. The King tt3ing to keep his lion calm. To the left is nusius P,Idt-Bru~,~e. Phoh,~raph: The Rl~.al runs a pole into the belly of the Pope, who the Swedish king Charles Gustavus X Libnlru, N, itional Library. of Su~'den. is spitting out all the towns Gustavus watching the scene trough his spy glass. Adolfus won in battle against the Catho- Behind, is a dais where famous people of lics, from Strahlsund to Creutznach. 2' The tative is the buming mirror. Whereas the Europe are ~ated, for example the Pope's sword and key are broken, his sun warms the earth, the representative, former Queen Christina, and Turenne. power is destroyed. Behind the [a~pe is a ,~,~me of the people in the audience are when he misu.~s power causes burning and destruction. Jesuit whispering 'peace, peace'. Gusta- iust hke the King watching the scene vus is accompanied by a strong and brave through teh.~opes and glassy. Here the lion holding a compass, which is pointing u~ of optical aids such as the telescope The ruler is often guided by a compass to towards Gustavus, who also comes from indicates that the per~m is not personally help him steer the course of his actions. the north. The compass points in the actively participating, but Ls a passive direction of the righteous. The pope is so ob~,rx er of the exents. On the frontispiece to Konun(a- och Hofitm,c,a St vrilsi (Stockholm, 1669) de- disoriented and does not wish to be signed by David Klocker Ehrenstrahl and corrected. He actually says 'keep the in a contempora~' emblem in Mea de un engraved by Dionysius Padt-Brugge, the compass far away from me'. l~rlmq,c Politico Chrlstiano by Diego de young Swedish king Charles XI is shown Saa~edra Fajardo is shown the dual steering the rudder of the ship symboliz- quality of the telescope: its ability to It is naturally not only the ruler who is ing the country Sweden (Fig. 6). From displayed with instruments. Very usual enlarge and diminish (Fig. 5)." The above, a woman, Diz,ma providentia gives diftcult position of the prince is ex- are personifications of the arts, antique him the crown and sceptre, the insignia gods or goddesses or different qualities. plained: flattery of the court might be of power. A putto holds forth a compass nu~h,ading. To avoid the pitfalls caused The watch or other time measuring to help steer in the right direction." Here devices are very often reminding us of by flatte~', the prince is advi,,~-,d to get a the compass, as a navigational instru- glx~t education in the arts. He is even all kinds of aspects of passing time. An ment, shows the King the right way to emblem from Guiilaume de la Perriere's urged to arm him, elf against all thi~ie lead his country. The text m the book also who ~.~lsh to come at him through flatte~, book of emblems-" shows the misuse of stresses the absolute importance for the time by youth. Youth is sitting on a round in order to misuse him. Here the King to lead a righteous and virtous life telt,,.cope is the symbol of the prince's ball and is only thinking about how to let uninfluenced by vices. For a Swedish time idly pass by. The round ball shows ntx,d to .,,ee clearer than others in the king, the compass would be an unusually greater compa~,s as well as in small how fickle she is in her wishes. She does go(~ attribute, since the needle of the not think about work, only about her details The abthtv of the lens to enlarge compass points towards the north. a~ ~ell as to diminish is referred to. wishes. Youth d(~s not think that old age Swedish kings, because of the location will follow. On a wall decoration at of the country in the north, would be Ihe theme of misu.,~, of power is further Drottningholm palace a watch in pieces likened to the Northern star and even symbolizes that nothing will move unless illustrated in the emblem of Couarrubias' chose emblems with this star. The Fmblcma~ Morales...." A land.~ape is all parts in its perfection are tt~gether; as compass is the guide of navigation, just so Bulletin of the Sci,mtific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) them all. z' Most often time-measuring situated between two extreme vices. 12. ! would like to thank Harald Sieb~ fe¢ a devices, however, are there to indicate When the plumb line falls in the middle the transience of time. fruitful discussion on Kirchem' frontispiece the artisan is happy and proud. The and the con~,nt of the bouk. virtue is the appropriate guiding line and The objects connecUed to a learned man the set square the human heart. When the 13. Inventory no. Grh 2521, S~tens komlmu- Jeer, the collection of Gripshoims slot, Sweden. such as instnunents and books as we saw plumb line goes off in the one or the earlier in the portrait of Clavius, devel- other direction then the vices are ruing, 14. In Sweden such a cofiectkm is pre~.rved at oped into its own genre of still-life and virtue diminishes. A set square with Skoldus~ Castle as a representative example. paintings, especially in the Netherlands. a plumb line could also be used to signify 15. Klaus Ertz, lan Brueghel der Altere (K6in, Also in the still life objects have been a Christian life. And a plumb line in the 1979), pp. 328-3626. For a discussion about Ihe interpreted as loaded with meaning and hands of Amor signifies true love: true instruments, ~e also .~lvio A. Bedini, Science it is rewarding to look further than just at love never leaves the right path. So virtue and Instruments in Seventeenth-Century Italy the beautiful objects per se. Old age and is geometry and a way to go there is (Aiderahot, 1994), pp. 169ff. brevity of life, and the vanity of life are through the golden mean, never to 16. Carl Snoilsky, 'Svenska historiska the main themes of many a still life. The wander off the right path. planscher', Kongl. Bibliotekrts ~amlin~ar (Stock- Thirty Years War and all its deaths have holm, 1894), p. 125, no. 1. The Royal Library, often been seen as the explanation for this Notes and References National Library of Sweden, inventory no. HPCXGB17. specific interest in the 'prepatio ad mortem' in the 17~ century. The still life 1. ~ article was presented as a paper on 17. No. 7, Diego de Saavedra Fapardo,/dea de with astronomical instruments in the The 20~ Scientif~ Instrument Symposium of un PrincipePolitico Christwmo, (~gen 1659), Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts the IUHPS Scientific Instrument Commission see Arthur Henkd and Albrecht Sch6ne, in Stockholm painted by Christian Thum in Stockholm on the 17th of October 2001. £mblemata (note 9), p. 1426. the elder (-1696p~, include several objects 2. Inventory number: Grh 972, Statens 18. No. 69, SebaMgm de Couan'ubiaul Orozco, that are direct vanitas symbols: the watch, konstmuseer, the collection of Gripsholms Emb/emas Mom/es (Madrid, 1610), see Arthur the candle just burnt out, the skull slo~. A discussion on the attributes is found Henkel and Albm:ht Schime, Emb/em~ (note 9), p. 1352. crowned with laurel.There are also in- in C,6te Ask, 'David Kl6cker Ehren~ahls struments: a telescope, a set square, a portraitav Stiernhielm',pp. 11-19,and Gunnar 19. Allan Ellenius, De Arte l~nxendi: latin Art 'Georg Stiemhielm and his sector, measuring-tape, two theodolites, a Pipping, system of Literature in Seventeenth century Sudden and its weights and measures', pp. 173-178, both in celestial globe, books, and documents. International Background (Uppsala, 1960), pp. Stig Or)an C)hlsson and Bernt Olsson, eds, On the drawing in the opened book we 213ff.; Martin Olin, Def karolinska portr#ttet Stiernhielm 400 dr (Stockholm 2000). (Stockholm, 2000), pp. 84-86. can see a church, but also a defence system. The instruments are mainly of 3. Preserved copies are found at Statens 20. See some examples in Arthur Henkel and provning~ och forskningsmstitut in Boris astronomy, building, surveying and geo- Albrecht Sch6ne, £mblemata (note 9), pp. 1471 and at the Royal Swedish Academy of ft. See also Mario Praz (note 7), pp. 64, 108, 124. graphy. What is it that we see? is it the Sciences. victory of time and death over the 21. The Royal Library, StockhoLm, inventory sciences? Are we told that even the study 4. James M. Lattis, Between ~/cus and no. KB" GIlA B74, see SnoiLsky(note 16), p. 48, Galileo. Cristoph Clavius and the Collapse of no. 32. of the heavens and earth is vanity? Yet Pto/ema/c Cosmology(Chicago, 1994), pp. 24f. again the message of the painting is dual. 22. No. 68, Guillaume de la Pernere, /~ Although we are told about the vanity of 5. E.g.another portrait of Ciavius modelled Theatrede Boris En~ns (Paris,1539), see Arthur riches, learning and our worldly striving, on Villmenas' engraving on the titiepage to Henkel and Albrecht Schone, Emblemata (note we are still invited to admire the beauty Opera Mathemutica (Mainz, 1612) is accorn- 9), p. 1535. panied by the ~ to the Book of Wisdom of the expensive objects, especially the 7:18-19. 23. The decoration is found in Hedvid Ek,- shining brass instruments. noras' bedchamber. The artist explains the 6. On the four temperaments, see Raymond emblem and epigram in David Ki0cker Ehr~- Klibansky, Envin Panofsky, Fritz Saxl, Saturn strahl, Die sch#nste Schild~. ... (Stockholm, In the Swedish National Museum of Fine and Melancholy: Studies in the History af Natural 1694). Arts is another painting with instruments Philosophy, Religion and Art (Cambridge, 1964). and other objects of interest,z* It is 24. Inventory no. NM 6871. Gorel Cavaili- attributed to the Flemish painter Thomas 7. See Mario Praz, Studies in Seventeenth I~rkman and 13o NiL~on, Stilleben, National- Century Imagery. (Rome, 1964) for a presenta- Willeboirts Bosschaert (1613/14-1654). museum utst//liningskatalog (Stockholm, tion of the different kinds of books, and for a 1995), p. 139; ~ Cavalli-l~-kman, 'Hier- But here it is not death triumphant but definition of the terms, see pp. 22L onymus in der Studierstube und clas Vanitas- love. In the painting Amor with his sbileben', Leselust: Nwderlilndische Maleri t~n 8. Leon Voet, The Golden Compasses: The arrows sits triumphantly on different Rembr~tdt b/s Vermeer (Frankfurt, 1993), pp. ob~cts representing the arts. Them are History of the House Plantin-Moretus, Vol. I, (Amsterdam, 1972), p. 31. Sift. ob~cts alluding to warfare, music, painb 25. Inventory no. NM 410. Karin S/d(m, ed., in& sculpture and scientific instruments. 9. No. N v b, Giles Corrozet, Hectacon 'Musiken i konsten: Det klingande 1600-taler', The richly decorated instruments for Graphic, (Paris, 1543), 'Entreprendre par dessus sa force. Celluy qui stm esprit efforce, Et veult Nationalmusei drsb0& (Stockholm, 2001), pp. astronomy, navigation and geometry 152-154; Anna Holgen, Amor triumfrrande bland found on the painting are a celestial globe, plus qu'il ne peult comprendre, C'est comme qui veult entreprendre, Oultre son pouvoir, et kngets ach lamstens emblem, thesis publ~ at an astrolabe, a Holland circle, a pair of sa force', see Arthur Henkel and Albrecht the Institution of History of Art, Urne i callipers with a plumb line, and a sector. Sch6ne, Emblemata: Handbuch zur Sinnbildlmnst University, 1987. I would like to thank Karin Perhaps we should understand in this des XVI. Und XVII ]ahrhunderts (Stuttgart, Sicl~nat the Swedish National Museum of Fine painting that love of the am - not death- 1967), p. 1419. Arts for help with important information concerning the two paintings. conquers everyflfmg. Omnia vincit Amor! 10. See more examples Engeibert Kirschbaum Bandmann, 26. - Arthur Henkei and Albrecht Schone, and Giinther eds, in L~/kon der Erablemata p. I titled my pape~ 'Virtues and vices'. So Ckristlichen lt~tolo~, Vol. W (Fmiburg, 1994), (note 9), 1422. what is a virtue and what is a vice? An pp. 572-573. Author's address: emblem from Couarrubias' Emblemas II. National Library,V'~nna, Cod 2554, fol 1. Obsenwtormnuseet Morales... from 1610 a set square with a There are further examples in h,a~con der Drottnmg[¢atan 120 plumb line tries to explain this difficult Christt~cg,n #a~ao~ (previousnote), pp. iv, 113 60 Stockholm, Sweden question (Fig. 7)/' Virtue is found 572-573. ln~,aOta~.se Bulletin of the Scienti~ Immanent Society No. 74 (20O2) 7 Analysing Experiments with Two Non-canonical Devices: Jean Paul Marat's Helioscope and Permdom6tre Peter Heering I'A P, I Marat's work on natural philosophy) L~ basically focusing on Marat's '.scientific thought', my focus in this paper will be on some of Marat's instruments as well as his style of experimentation.: For my analysis I have employed the replication method, con,,~'quently I will discuss in particular the actual practice with recon- structions of some of the devices Marat described." Introduction [S~rn in 1743, Jean Paul Marat was raised in southern France. He left home in 1759 and, after visiting Montpel]ier, Toulouse and Bordeaux, he arrived in Paris in 1762 where he stayed for the next three years. [n 1765, Marat immigrated to Great Britain where he remained for the next II years. He practised as a physician - a fact that can be inferred from two minor medical tracts published by Marat in 1775 and 1777~, as well as from a doctoral degree he received in this field from St. Andrews University. However, in gen- eral, little is known about Marat, his formal training as well as his life before his return to Paris in 1776.1° Back in Pa~s, Marat quickly managed to establish himself as a fashionable physi- cian. He obtained a position at the court of the Comte d'Artois and was able to Fig.l CU~.'s solar microscope. ¢origmall~ coloured; copper plate charge his patients comparably high fees. published in Martin Frobenius Ledermiiller, Nachlese seiner [n 1779, Marat started his attempt to mikroskopi.schen GemUthsverfassung und Augenergotzung establish himself as a natural philosopher ~I 7t,2~. l,lat¢ 1, Ph,,t,~ Deutsch~ Museum Mimchen. The upper part publishing his first monograph. I~ shows h,,w the instrument z,~s to be used in a darkened r,~,rn, the Through the Comte de Maillebois he chairs ithli(ate that the dt~,ice u~as to be u.q'd m dem,,nstrati, ms.[~,r an submitted this memoir to the Paris d[ldletIce. Academie Royale des Sciences, the most eminent institutionand ultimate scienti- Foreword has gained - the ideas which were fic authority in France, requesting a originated by this monster in human report on it. The Academy asked de Jean Paul Marat is typically known for society, Marat .... ': But these accounts Maillebois, de Montigny, Le Roy and his role during the French Revolution. of Marat's works in the field of natural Sage to prepare the report which was |towe~er, before becoming a political phik~a~phy, which are clearly influenced read on 25 "~ April 1779. C)verallthe report ioumalist he attempted un.,,uccessfullv by the political i~itions of their authors, was positive with the experiments rated to L~tablish him~,lf as a natural phil(~o- are not limited to Marat's contempor- to be 'new, accurate, and carried out in a pher Even though Marat did publish his aries. They can al~ be found in accounts manner as well ingenious as proper',t: monographs and articlt~ in the field of of 20'h century historians of science: Although the commission stated that natural philo,,ophy before entering the Characteri~tions of Marat as 'one of the they - in accordance with Marat's tleld ot l~ditics, his later career had a m(~st blcK~dthirstv of the French revolu- specific wish - did not referee the theory ,tgnlficant tmpact on the evaluation of tionaries" and his 'pathological craving included in the publication, this relx~rt the~, earlier works. The influence of for fame '~ are found as well as a labelling could be considered as being a first Marat'~ political role can ~, seen both of his monographs as 'fantastic treatises'." successful step towards a career in m his contemporane,~' accounts of his A i~ssible rea~n for these characteri~- natural phik~-~phy. work as well as in til¢,,e written by tions has been offered in a recent Marat Consequently, Marat rushed to present hi~,torians of ~ience: I-he (;eh;:an Carl biography: 'The traditional depiction of his next monograph" to the Academy, (,ottlob Kuhn characterized Marat in Marat's ~ience as charlatanism or pseu- asking for another report. Again a 17~:~ as '... a man, w'h~, name is most d~,cience, however, has long served as a committee was charged with its prepara- prai,,eworthy among the electrical re- weapon wielded against the revolution- tion. This time, however, things did not ,,catchers as well as the natural philoso- a~, phantom. If Marat's scientific thought go so smoothly. After several months the phers - ...'.' Eleven years later the ,,,ame was simply fraudulent, why should report had still not been read in the author made the foliow|ng statement: '1 anything better be expected of his Academy. Therefore, Marat began to put am tar from counting among these I~flitica] ideology?" Whilst Connor in pressure on Jean Baptiste Le Roy, the explanations - by which science really his remark (as well as in his analysis of member of the committee resl~)nsiblefor 8 Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) with the same instrument: a device that Marat claimed to have developed himself de f and wifich he named the helioscope. The Helimcope Fi g.9" ...... In basic terms the helioscope can he described as a modified solar mk~3scope. £ @ .,,'"" This device is ascribed to Nathaniel Lieberkiihn, who gave an account of the O, i...... instrument in 1739. '7 in the second half of the eighteenth century, this instrument .. became very popular. Instrument makers such as George Adams, Benjamin Martin, "".. and Edward Nairne offered several different solar microscopes at acoM bum £5 to £217' The instrument was used in a darkened room in order to demonstrate magnified objects to an audience (see Fig. 1). Fig.2 Working principle of the solar microscope. Plate from George Adams, Lectures on Basically the instrument (see Fig. 2) Natural and Experimental Philosophy (London, 1794), courtesy of the Bakken Library consists of a mirror AB which was placed Minneapolis, MN, USA. outside the window shutter NO and reflected the sunlight on a locus lens CD with a focal length of some 200 ram. On the inside of the shutter, the ob~ct El:, which was to be magnified, had been placed into the light cone between the first lens and a second one, GH, that terminates the ms~t. The instru- ment was placed in the shutters of a darkened room. With the help of two screws, a toothed wheel and a toothed rack, the mirror could be adjusted from the inside in order to compensate the (apparent) movement of the sun. The image of the ob~ct was p~ onto a white screen?' The second lens, together with the support for the ob}e~, can be understood as a Wilson pocket microscope. It was this part of the device that was removed by Marat in transforming the solar micr~ scope into his helioscope.This new device basically produced a light cone into the darkened chamber. By placing heated objects into the light cone Marat claimed he had made visible the 'fluicle ign~' (as he named it) emanating from heated bodies. 3° Moreover, according to his own claims, he was not only able to visualize the 'fluide ign~' but also manipulate it in a Fig.3 Representation of the shadow projection of a glowing piece of charcoal He~t), a burning controlled manner. It has already been candle (middle) and a hot metal ball (right). Plate published in Jean Paul Marat, Recherches observed by Hankins and Silverman that physiques sue le Feu (Paris, 1780), courtesy of the Bakken Library Minneapolis, MN, USA. Marat used this device 'for the first time as a research instrument'. 21 the report, demanding the same finally enter into the great detail that would be Marat's description of the device was not be finished. As these effortsturned out to necessary to explain them'? ~ Conse- very detailed, basically because it did not be fruitless,Marat then began to write quently, the Academy refusecl to give seem to be necessary for his purposes. He notes to Condorcet requesting him to their approbation to Marat's publication. stated explicitly that he was not giving a arrange the publication of the report. description of his apparatus as 'the whole These attempts were also in vain." The Despite this discouraging report, Marat equipment could be found at Sikes report was finallyread on May I0~, 1780 decided to publish his monograph and (Opficien du Roi, place du Palais Royal and probably turned Marat's impatience an additional one on heat, which also Paris) ...'.'" Instead of giving a detailed into frustration as the report was nega- appeared in print in 1780." When first description, Marat simply gave the five. The experiments 'appeared not to glancing through these three publica- retailer'saddress, sufficient for his con- prove what the author imagines that they tions, two aspects in particular are temporaries but a problem for historians. prove, and because they are in general striking: each of the three works contains Therefore, it is not clear exactly which contrary to the moat familiar parts of more than one hundred experiments; and instrument served as a basis [or Marat's optics, we believe it would be useless to most of these experiments are carried out helioscope. However, the CNAM keeps a Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) After starting to repn~uce the experi- ments described in Marat's publication, we realized that they could not be carried out as easily as we had anticipated.[n the first trialswe were unable to (~,erve the effects described by Marat. It turned out that they were only reproducible with perfect weather conditions. This means that the sky had to be perfectly blue, since even very minute high fog or haze turned out to have a significantinfluence on the experimental effects. We learned to per- form an initialcheck at the beginning of the experimenting: a match placed into the focal point of the light cone should be lit within three .seconds (most of the experiments were carried out in spring), otherwi~ the weather conditions were deemed insufficient.As Oldenburg is well known for its cloudy sky and rainy weather we only had few days during Fig.4 Reconstruchon ef the lu'h~ciV,'. Photo W. (.~lh't z. which the conditions were adequate. On these days Marat's results turned out metal ball were placed into the light cone. ,,~flar micro.,~'ope that had been u.,~d by to be repn~ucible. Thus when a wooden The shadow pn~ctions thus produced one of Marat's nvals, Jacques-Aiexandre- cylinder was placed into the light cone its were very similar to the copper plate Cesar Charles.:' Therefore, it is not shadow showed coloured borders, de- implausible to supp l0 Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) I'~ III /., ,~. they are .~parated by a small cok,urle~ area which expands, becoming broader and /( n~u~Kied, the yellow and the n~ crz~,~'ent~ / are reduced, the blue colour becomes weaker, the violet disappears, hnallv the colourle,,~.~ area is almost circular. Then tree / • clearly ~ the upper edge of the hole being summnded by a red crescent being ck~e to a yellow one while the lower edge i.~ sum~unded by an indigo one being next to a blue ~ne.'~ The richness of these (~,ervations was only reproducible when Marat's text was consulted during the actua[ experiment - with this guidance the description could be confirmed. in order to summarize the analysis of Marat's experiments as discussed up to \ now two aspects of the style of experi- mentation can be identified: The experi- ments were designed to visualize the ,., ii iml~mderable fluids as well as their manipulation. The experiments were de,signed to be demonstrated in front of an audience. Fig.5 R,'presentation of the s/uu/,m, proj~xtions of the electric fluid enmnating from the prime conductor tou~rds a red hot sphere (lefl), from a point to the h~k ~f a L~. den jar (middh') and However, I~)th aspects could be ex- from a sphere (~ a Leyden jar hm~rds another sphere (right;. Plate published in Jean Paul plained by the dominance of the hello- scope in Marat's research - in other Marat, Recherches Physiques sur I'~iectricitd (Paris, 1782L a~urtes'y ~¢ the Bakken Libra~ words these characteristics are not ne- Mmneal,ffis, MN, USA. ces.~rily significant to Marat's style of experimentation but could be a result of I the instrument he used. This argument could be questioned by saying that scientists would m)t perform experiments that are in contradiction to his or her sWle of experimentation. However, I thinl~ it iml~)rtant to show that these character- istics are m)t limited to experiments that are carried out with the heli~vscope (or prisms like several of the optical only), but that they can ai~ be identified from analysing experiments with entirely dif- ferent devices. This topic is addres.',~d in the next section. Marat's Electrical Researches After having been reacted by the Par- isian Academy Marat did not stop publishing monographs in the field of natural phihv~phy, but pre~nted his next treati~ to the public in 1782.:: Again Marat described experiments in which he u,~-M the helio~ope to visualize the electric fluid, to manipulate it and to compare it with the 'fluid ign~' (,,~ee Fig. 5). However, the helioscope is no longer such a dominant device as in the Fig.6 Some of the da,ices Marat described tbr his electrical researches. Plate published in Jean earlier publications. Marat described Paul Marat, Recherches Physiques sur i"l~lectricitt~ (Paris, 1782), courtesy of the Bakken several other apparatus that he uL,,'d in Libra~ Minneapolis, MN, USA. his experiments, some of them being modifications of standard instruments in electrical exl~,riments, whilst others image becomes shorter and shorter, after- two crescents leaning towards each i~her were newly developed. Some of the~ wards the green stnpe becomes weaker and and being only separated by a small ~range instruments were displayed in a copper narrower whilst the yellow line become~ line, When it is the turn of the yellow line plate (.see Fig. b). Three of these five rounder and broader, then the green stripe this be~ bright, more prominent than instruments can be taken as being disappears completely. By now the blue ~ne the red and the blue lines, atterwards the modified Leyden lars (items !1, IV and ix)rders on the yellow one, s~n the red and blue tree become~ more vivid and the V). Instead of di~ussing Marat's u~ of the yellow one will form only one circle of yellow one weaker still, ~d~'tlv afterwards these devices, I will concentrate my Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society. No. 74 (2iXY2) ll .-,.'e FUZ.7 Y,c~on~trmtmn o( ta'(, ,h,char~cr, .%larat ,t,'~crll'c,t. Flit' ore" on tilt' ]d:t was ,t,lde eutm,lu ,'o,t ,OI,l'cr the ore" ou the rty, ht ls nta,tK f:rO,! ,t k'l,t-" ttd,c m ;chKh ~,'rtt~;~; rq~']~; ~l~t' I~h,crtt'd i~'I~l~h tc'rmlthlh" O~l tit( outside lit ~'r,l';~ ~[~ht't'(. Pitoto ~i' tk~t|D;t 12 Bulk.tin of the %ientific In.strument ~:iety No 74 (2002) source material. Under these circum- stances it seems to be acceptable to use a 'm(xiern' material. The perm~)m~tre was placed ch~se to the conductor of a rectmstructed electro,static generator, the rc~m was darkened, the axis of the wheel was turned and I saw - ... - nothing. ! changed to a stronger machine, turned the axis and again ! did not see anything. Finally I started to work with a small Van de Graaff generator, this being the most l~werful device in our department for the pnxtuc- tion of static electricity. Very quickly small sparks could be observed between the prime conductor of the generator and the tin foil at the bottom of the phial. After several minutes some greenish light could be seen creeping over the phial from the tun foil towards the brass stand. At about that time little sparks could also be seen between the inner end of the rod and the bottom of the phial. A few minutes later a greenish light could aLso be seen forming expanding circles, start- ing from the middle of the bottom of the phial. ! was still not able to see any luminous appearance at the end of the rod outside the phial. However, a small Fig.9 Reconstruction of the perm~om~tre. Photo iN. Knust, courtesy of the museum 'Men~h und Natur' Oldenburg. spark could be seen and felt when a finger was brought close to this end. and - according to Marat - some through the glass onto the rod. Having seen the effects the experiment luminous appearances are to be seen, was comprehensible to me - as was Marat's description. His description of some of them are depicted on a plate (see When attempting to rebuild the perm6~ the effects, which initially seemed so Fig. 8). Even after carefully reading m~re (Fig. 9) we had to face the problem strange to me, made perfect sense if one Marat's description of the effects, l was that this was neither a successful instru- attempts to describe the surface dis- not sure to have understood properly ment nor a modification of a standard charges l observed with a concept of an what should be happening - and device such as in the case of the electrical fluid. Moreover, Marat's argu- certainly not why. Some additional re- helioscope. Marat's description was very mentation became even more plausible marks he made did not help me to vague in several respects, in particular develop a better understanding. Marat as l could observe the 'electrical fluid' with regard to the metal stand. However, moving on the outer surface of the phial spoke of the necessity of covering the this is explicable, as the stand is only a towards the metallic stand. On the other bottom of the phial with tin foil in order for the imFa~rtant part of the support side of the stand, no such observation to minimize the 'kind of gleaming sun '~ device - the phial - so it does not need a could be made. Thus it is absolutely which should be generated from the specific description. I decided that the plausible to argue that the fluid could not electrical stream coming from the prime stand should be made of brass, basically have passed over the surface of the phial conductor. Otherwise this effect would of the metals which because this was one towards the rod. As is the case in prevent identifying the phenomenon that had been used to produce devices for diffraction of white light, our modern was to be observed at the pointed end of electrical experiments. The glass sphere explanation is different, but again it can the rod inside the phial. turned out to be problematic: Marat was be stated that Marat's argument is very specific in respect to the glass he consistent. Basically the conceptual idea of this used: 'flingt(sic)-glass, de verre chrystal- experiment can be taken to be compar- lin, de pirette, de chambourin, ou de Conclusion able to the ones carried out with the verre/b bouteilles'Y Unfortunately these discharger: Marat was attempting to materials were not available to our glass From analysing Marat's practk'e in the case of his electrical experiments the two demonstrate that different types of glass blower, in order to be able to carry out did not defer or retard the passage of the the experiment, I decided to start with a characteristics that had already been electrical fluid. According to his argu- phial made from a tandem material identified in the analysis of the optical ment, which seems to be very convin- which had not been available to Marat. experiments could be found again. But cing, it was necessary to show that the At this point one might question whether they are not only asserted from the experiments carried out with the hello- outer point of the rod was charged. As it was justifiable to use 'modern' glass. scope but aLso from th~se carried out the metal sphere is entirely filled with However, the motivation to work with water and the whole stand is carefully the instrument was not to check Marat's with entirely diffev.~at devices. Thus, thev earthed, this arrangement would prevent experimental findings but to develop an can be taken to be an outcome of Marat~ any electrical fluid from creeping over understanding of the experiment as well style of experimentation and not a result from using the heli~cope. the outer surface of the phial towards as the observations that might have been this end of the n~. Consequently any possible. As a consequence it is crucial to By way of a summary the following charge that could be found on the rod connect the experiences and observations characteristics of Marat's style of experi- must have passed from the outside tinfoil made in the laboratory with the available mentation could be formulated: Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) 13 • The experiments are designed to visua- needed. - ... Between the slumben~ and Sonja Woltzen, Anke Wachtmeester and lize the imponderable fluids as well as the sct~mdrels there was only Marat, in the Hans Holtorf, the htter also made the their manipulation. solitary role of the sentinel of the people, technical drawings for the workshop. watchdog of the Revolution, who, while The ma~r parts of the helioscope were • The experiments are designed to be every~me else slept, tirelessly fingend the built by Andreas Ewert and Jessica demonstrated in front of an audience. guilty.Only he saw clearly,ripped away the Hespe-Meyer. The technical drawings veils -... Marat was the eye of the people.~ for the reconstruction of the p~rm~omt~l"e • The results of the experiments are to be unclerste~l were made by Heinz B6ttcher and Jens without any further theore- The importance of visualization identi- tical assumptions. -~' KOppen, the metal parts of the instru- fied by Ozouf in Marat's political writ- ment were manufactured by Renke • The experiments focus on the electric ings corresponds to his style of Logemann and Olaf Seifert, Silvia Gold- fluid being in motion - no static situa- experimentation. The similarities be- mann made the glass phial. Chmtian tions can be found in Marat's experi- tween these two fields can be carried Sichau and Falk Rie~ made valuable ments. further: Marat placed himself in the remarks on earlier versions of this paper, position of the person who was clarifying Heidi Heering corrected my 'English'. • The aim of the experiments is to things to his audience, in politics as well demonstrate the 'real nature' of the as in science. However, it was always the Notes and References electrical fluid and not only its behaviour. auditn~ce that had to see. Clarification is 1. Cad Gottlob Ktihn, Geschichte der medizi- one of the central features of his scientific This style of experimentation differs hi,hen und ph~ikali~hen Eiektriclt~, und der significantly from that which could be writings: 'In working to set the true neuesten Versuche, die in dieser mttzlichen fundamentals in medical electricity ! Wissenschafl gen~cht worden sind (Leipzig, identified in analysing experiments con- have started to remove defective agents 1785), Vol. 2, p. 82; see also Johann August ducted by some of Marat's contempor- which, after having confused the science, Donndofff, Heber Elektricitdt, Ma~netisraus, aries, in" particular members of the are misleading those who promote it'. ~ Feuer, und Aether: Eine Abhandlung, u~rin aus Parisian Academy of Science such as gesammleten faktis, und beu~,~rten Grundsatzen Coulomb and Lavoisier.'2 At this point Although this may sound convincing a der philasophlschen Naturlehre, rail Prufung der of the analysis one could raise the third aspect should be taken into con- Grunde und Cegengritnde, die Meinun~ er#rtert question as to what possible explanations sideration: it is questionable whether unrd: da~ die elektrische Materie yon der magne- there might be for Marat's style of French scientists are the appropriate tischen Materie. wie auch yon der Materie des experimentation and its diffenmces to reference frame for discussing Marat's feuers, und des Lichts wesentlich a,rschieden sey that of his contemporaries, l am going style of experimentation. Marat had (Quedlinburg, 1783). to discuss three possible explanations spent some ten years in Britain. More- 2. Cad Gottiob g~hn, Die neuestm Entdeck- each of which played an important role. over, it is not clear whether he gained his ungen in der physischen und medizinischen medical training in England or in France. Elektricadt (Leipzig, 1796), p. II; see also Karl First of all, Marat had a highly specific, "Le m~lecin anglais' - as he was called Gottlob Kt~hn's foreword to his translationof professional background as a physician. in the suburb of St-Germain...'y could Johan Rudolph Deiman, Von den guten Witr- Therefore, one might conclude that his kungen der Elektricititt in t~rschiedenen Krankhei- also have possessed a style of experi- professional Raining might have had an ten (Kopenhagen, 1793), Vol. i. mentation that corresponding to that of influence on his style of experimentation. British natural philosophers. One impli- 3. Margaret Rowbottom and Charles Sus- However two aspects would seem to cation interpretation skind, Electrici~. and Medicine. History. of TheW contradict this argument: Marat's practice of this would be that Interaction (San Francisco, 1984), p. 25. styles of experimentation are to be as a physician did not comply ckrsely with analysed in a national context. However 4. Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a $cientg~c the standards of the 18'h centuryY There- it is obvious that this cannot be for- Institution. The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666- fore, it is not very. plausible to suppose mulated in a general manner as Marat's is0.~ (Berkeley,1971), p. 150t that his training as a physician had an experiments in the field of medical 5. Robert Damton, Mesmerism and the End of impact on his style of experimentation, on electricity differ significantly from those the Enl~@tenment in France (Cambridge, Mass. the contrary it would seem to be the other of his British contemporaries such as and London, 1968), p. 44. way round. This image also holds true .tiberius Cavalio, John Birch, or Francis when Marat's researches in the field of 6. Clifford D. Conner, lean Paul Marat. Lowndes. ~ Marat's style of experimenta- medical electricity are analysed: his style Scu,ntist and Revolutionary (AtlanticHighlands, tion seems to be comparable to the works of experimentation is again in close New Jersey, 1997), p. I0. conformi~, with the characteristics identi- English researchers (such as Joseph 7. I am using the concept of style of Priestley) published in the field of natural fied from his researches in natural experimentation' as an expansion of the philosophy." philo~,~ophy but they are significantly concept introduced by L. Fleck (see Ludwik different from researches in this field From my understanding, Marat's style of Fleck, Entstehung und £ntwicklung einer wis- senschafflichen Tatsache (Frankfurt/Main, 1980); carried out by his contemporariesY experimentation cannot be explained by idem, Erfahrun~ und Yat~che (Frankfurt/Main, any of these factors individually but that A second relevant aspect could be 1983); Peter Heering, /:)as Grundgesetz der one has to take them all into considera- i~dltical position. In analysing Elektwstatik. Experimentelle Replikation und wis- Marat's tion in order to understand the origins of senschaftshistorische Analyse (Wiesbaden, 1998). his political writings Mona Ozouf comes his style. Likewise, Marat's style of to the following characterLsation: 8. For a theoretical discussion of the replica- experimentation was probably not the tion method see Heermg, Grund~.'setz (note 7), Central to this language [of the Ami du only reason the members of the Academy and Christian Sichau, 'Die Replikations- Peuple, EH.] was an obsession with had for rejecting his work - but it surely meth(fle: Zur Rekonstruktion histori~her visibdi~' For Marat the absolute evil was played an important role. *' Experimente', in E Heering, F. RieS,C. Sichau, not so much the hostilityof the counter- eds, Im Labor der Ph~ikgeschichte, (Oldenburg, revolutionaries as the obstinacy of the Acknowledgements 2000), pp. 940. This approach has been used people in not seeing it. The French were 1 am indebted to Jan Deiman (Utrecht by our group for more than a decade, some of purblind: sometimes because the tinsel of the case studiesare published in E Heering, E 'vanitits' dazzled them, other times because Universiteitsmuseum) who made possi- ble Rie~, C. Sichau, eds, Im Labor der Physik- the)' were ash~-T. The two besetting national the examination of the solar micro- geschichte, (Oldenburg, 2000), see also Jan sins were gullibiliW - the illusion of .setnng scope for the purpose of reconstructing Frercks: 'Creativity and Technology in Experi- where there was nothing to be seen - and the helioscope. ] took the measurements mentation: Fizeau's Terrestrial Determination lethargy - seeing nothing where vision was of the original instrument together with of the Speed of IAght', Centaurus, 42 (2000), pp. 14 Bulletin of the Scientific Inset Society No. 74 (2002) 249-287; Peter Heerinl~. 'On Couknnb's Inverse describing the Instruments, contrived Other to scientists ~.e Heerin8, Grundg~,n (note 7) Square Law', American Iouenal of Ph~ics, O0 illustrate the theory, or render the practice (1992), pp. 988-996; Christian Sichau: 'Die entertaining, edited and with additions by 3,3. Len~ire observed in analygng Marat's k,ule-~Experimmte - AnmeAungm William Jones (5t" ed., London, 1799). This medical prx-tic~. 'Consultations in the 18'~ century wine very different from what they zur MaterialiMt eine~ Experiments', NTM, $ price range seemed to be a standard, as solar became in the 19% They were practised at a (2000), pp. 223-243; Adelheid Vo~kuhl: 'Re- microscopes were offend by other instrument distance. The doctor did not see the patient; he creating Herschel's Actinometry. An K,~ay in makers at comparable prices; see i.e. Edward the Historiography of Experimental Practice', received a wntton account O4 the ~ck lx.rson's Naime, The Description and Use of Nairne's complaints and responded with a lengthy British Journal for the History of Science, 30 Patent Electrical Machine: unth the addition of report, usually teveral pages long, ending (1997), pp. 337-355; Roland Witty. 'Heinrich same phdosophical eaperiments and medical ab- with prescriptions. Marat's approach was Hertz land die Einbettu~ von exlx,~imentelle~ sermtions (London, 1783). significantly different.... it is clear that he Tatigkeit m theoreti~he Konzepte', in C. Meinel, ed, Instrument - Experiment: historische 19. This screen can be taken as being one O4 examined patients face to lace', Jean-Francois Studien, (B(n'Fm, Diepholz 2000), pp. 180-191. the ob~cts that has not received very much Lmnaire: 'Le Dr Jean-Paul Marat m~ecin attention yet (a more general d~ o4 this parisien', m J.-F Lemaire, J. R Poirier, eds, 9. Jean Paul Marat, An essay on gleets. 'nesk, ct of peripheral devices' has been made Murat homn~ de science?, (Paris 1993), pp.13-34, Wherein the defects of the actual method of treating by Christian Sichau in a paper presented at the 22, translatedin Conner, Murat (note 5), pp.36L the complaints of the urethra are pmnted out and XX~ International Congre~ of History O4 M. For an analysis o4 Murat's researches in an effectual ua~y. of caring for them indicated Science, Lk~ge 1997). Therefore it may be medical electricity see Peter Heermg, 'Jean (London, 1775) and alem, An enquiry into the .~_'ient to mention that we reconsmx'ted a Paul Marat Medical Electricity between Nat- nature, cause, and cure of a singular disease of the screen according to Marat's description. ural Philosophy and Revolutionary Politics', in eyes, hithero unknown, and yet common, produced 20. The modern interpretation of these sha- P. Bertucd and G. Pancaldi, eds, E/ectrg Bad/es. by. the use of certain mercurial preparations. Episodes in the History o f Medical Electr~ity, (London, were reprinted dow propcl~m~ would be the refraction O4 the 1777). Both treatises air (BolopTta, 2001), pp. in Jean Paul Marat, Two Medical Tracts (Lon- light by the hot having a difknt~ density. 91-I15. don, 1891). 21. Hankins/Silverman, Instruments (note 35. M Ozo~, 'Marat', in: F. Fumt ; M Ozouf 15), p. 59. (eds.), A Critical Dictionary of the French 10. For biographies of Marat which are also Revolution, (Cambridge, Mass., 1989), pp. 244- dL~russmg his researches in the field of natural 22. Jean Paul Murat, Rech~ches j~,s sue 251, on p. 24q. phik~hy see Conner, Murat (note 5); Oiivier le Feu (Paris, 1780), p. 197. Coquard, lean-Paul Murat (Pare, 1993). 36. Jean Paul Marat, lt&br~re sur I'l~ectricit/ 23. This instrument is reproduced on the mSd/cate, (Paris, 1784), p.80. II. Jean Paul Marat, D~ouverte~ sur le Feu, h~nt cover O4 jeamFran~ois Len~ire and Jean I'~lectricit~ et la l,urait, re, constat/~s par uric Suite Pierre Poirier, ecls, Murat homm¢ de science? 37. Marcel Boiteux, 'Marat ~lectricien', in d'Expt,rwnces nouvelles qui viennent d'$tre v~r- (Paris, 1993), however, it is wrongly attributed jean-Francois Lemai~ and Jean Pierre Poirier, ififYs par MM. It,s Commissaires de rAcademie des to Marat. eds, Murat homrna de sca,nce? (Paris, 1993), Sciences, 2'~ Edition (Pare, 1779). pp.109-113, on p. II0. 24. This ~ has the inventory number 12. Marat published this report in hLq memoir, UM 386. 38. Ydx,fius Cavalio, An Essay. on the Theory. see Murat, D6~nwertes (note IIL and Practice of Medical Electricity, 1st Ed. 25. Several O4 Marat's optical expenment~ (London, 1780); John Birch, Considerations on 13. Jean Paul Marat, D~couvertessur la Lurai- were analysed by SO~a Woltzen; my analysis the Efficacy. of Electricity, in renan,ing female ire; constatf~s par une state d'explriences nou- O4 these experin~nts benefited sisnificantly Obstructions, to u~ich are annexed cases ~th uelles : cui ont faites un iris-grand nombre de fois ~n~na her work (see Son~ Woltzen, Jean Paul remarks, (London, 1779); Francis Lowndes, sous ies ycux de MM. les Comraissaires de Marats Expennumte zur Farbentstehung: Nachbau Obsemmons an Medical Electric#v: Containing I'Academie des Sciences (London & Paris, 1780). eimger lnstrunwnte, Nacht,alhug ausgewilhlter a Synopsis of all the Di.~wses in u~ich Electricity Experirnente und physikalische Didmssam, un- has been recmmnended or applied unth Success; 14. Some of the letters are reprinted in published thesis (OIdenburg` 2000). Charles Vellay (ed.), La Correspondance de likewise, Pmntmg out a new and more efficacious Murat, (Paris, 1908), pp. 7f and pp.58-64. 26. Murat, l,umiere (note 13), pp. 53f. Method of appl.wng this Remedy, by. Electrical Vibratums, (London, 1787). 15. The report O4 the committee can be fmmd 27. Jean Paul Marat, Recherches Physiques sur in Marat, LureR're(see note 13), the quotation is l'~,lectricit~ (Paris, 1782). 39. These similarities are not limited to experiments with dischargers. Pnestley a~ translated in Thomas L. Hankins; Robert J. 28. Edward Delaval, 'A letter ... containing Silverman, Instruments and the Imagination described exlx,rirnents in which ammals were some electrical experiments and observatitms', electrocuted and which are very similar to the (Princeton (NIL 1995), p. 60. Philosophical Transactions of the R .oyai Society. of ones Marat described in his 1784 monlgraph 16. Both monographs as well as the 1782 London, 51 (1759), pp. 83-88, on Cavallo's on medical electricity (see Joseph Priestley, The n~w~graph on electricity were translated into device and his experiments see Paola Beetucci, History. and Present State of Electricity, (London, German by the Greifswald chemistry 'Medical and animal electricity in the work of 1775)). However, [rom ]h'iestley's publication Christian Ehrenfried Weigel. Tiberius Cavallo, 1780-1795', in Marco Bresa- it is unclear whether the motivation for dola and Giuliano Pancaidi, eds, Lui~i Galvani Priestley's researches can be seen in a medical 17. See Hankins/Si]vennan, fnstrunu,nts (note International Workshop. Proceedings (Bok-~gna, context o¢ not. The similarities can be ex- 15); E.H. Schmitz, Handbuch der Ceschichteder 1999), pp. 147-166, on p. 157. panded earlier Optik: Das Mikroskap. 2. Ergiinzungsband, Teil if some O4 Pri~tley's experi- A (Bonn, 29. Marat, ~/ectr/c/t~ (note 27), p. 92. merits on electrical phemmwna are analysed 1989) p. 343. (see i.e. Joseph Priestley, 'Experiments on the 18. On the development of the solar micro- 30. Marat, ~lectricit~ (now 27), p. 95. Marat lateral Force of Electrical Explosions', m: scope see Schn~tz, Handbuch (note 17), pp.343- specified that 'verre de chrystallin' was fine Philt~hecal Transactions of the Royal S~rwty, 351; and /dem, Handbuch der Geschichte der white glass, 'pirette' ordinary white glass and ~, (1769), pp. 57 - 62). This will be sub~ O4 Optik: Van Newton his Fmunhofer (Bonn, 1982), 'chambourin' ordinary green glass. further study. pp. 371-375. On the prices of solar microscopes 31. This can also be seen from very explidt last decades of the century tee 40. Murat's failure to establish himself as a in the 18~h claims Murat made: '...not a single hypothesis, natural philosopher will he d~ in a George Adams, An Essay on Electricity; in mhich not a single daring reasoning always the toahcommg paper. the theory and practice of that u:~/ul science, are theory goes together with the experience, and illustrated by a variety of expenraents, arranged in everything is dedm"ed rigorously from reliable Author's addr~s: a methodical manner, (lst ed., i.xmdon, 1784). A facts from which ! permit myself only to draw Research Group on Higher Educatkm comparable price range can also be found in the immediate conclusions. Not only is every and Histo~. of Science the 1799 catalogue when W. and S. Jones had assertion based on nehable facts, for being true Department of Ph~ics taken over the workshop, though they o4fered it is necessary that these facts are simple ...', Carl-von-Ossiefzky Unit~rsiMt a wider variety of instruments, see George Marat, ~lectricitl (note 27), p. 23. Adam& An ~ an Electricity; explaining the D-26111 Old~burg, Germany tkeory and practice of tkat useful a'ience; and 32. On the style o4 experimen~n O4 these [email protected] Buaetmo4theSc~t~U~m~ntSock'ty no. 74 (2OO2) 15 The Special Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus, South Kensington, 1876 Part 3 Contemporary Publications Peter de Clercq Introduction of Scientific Apparatus 1876 contains essays on the current state of the various branches of science represented in the in connection with the Special Loan IBERICHT (' . exhibition, with contributions by lumin- Collection or Exhibiti(m, a number of immul aries such as James Clerk Maxwell, J. volumes were published which desen'e AUSSTELLUNO Norman Lockyer and Thomas Huxley. our attention. The organizing Science and WISSENSCHAFTLICHER APPARATE Art Department of the Committee of As it contains hardly any discu~ion of Council on Education published a hand- specific historical apparatus, ! shall not SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. dwell on it here, except to note that there book and a catalogue for the benefit of IU LOI4DOM. ~, visitors and as a record for future also appeared a French and a Cam'man reference. During the exhibititm, k,ctures edition (,see bibliography). The latter was and conferences were held in the Con- VOLLSlrANDNR UMD I~lCNIkEIllmllDi[| translated by Dr Rudolf Biedermann ference Room m the galleries, and these KATAI.OG DER AUSSTELLUNG. from Berlin, who played a pivotal role addresses and discussions were printed ~tv wol.Numm| ftvnw in the event. He was one of the German Chemical Society members who contri- as well. Finally, there appeared reports by [M AUI°'TIIAG m m the German participants. Copies of these KONI~,LICN I;IOILSIIIITAIIIIIIb4EN[II I~IIItlUIIUII~IiATtilI,ll buted chemical preparations 7, but more publications may be found in major importantly, he was Secretary of the iltmllmellq~4t ,ll Committee that coordinated the selection libraries, although some are very rare; DR. |UDOLP IIIDBBmAmN of the first edition of the catalogue, for of contributions from Germany; and as example, only one copy has thus far been Biedermann explains in his preface to the located. Handbuch, it was the German Committee that took the initiative to prepare a German edition of the Handbook and In this article, the third in the series, 1 the Catalogue (Fig. 1). To supervise the shall review these publications, give Lo..o. ~"? German apparatus, Dr Biedermann, to- biblk~raphical details and discuss con- 0~T tents and authors. Because the focus in gether with Dr. Kirchner (on whom more later), stayed in London throughout the the series is tm instruments that were seven and a half months that the historical at the time of the exhibition, I Fig.l Title page of the German edition of the catalogue. It u~s translated by. Dr Rudolf exhibition lasted,' which must have shall concentrate my discussion of these Biedermann from Berlin, Secretary of the given him ample time to acquaint himself publications accordingly. Committee that coordinated the selection of thoroughly with the collection. After his contributions from Germany. return to Berlin, he was also to translate These publications offer not only a full the catalogue into German. record of the exhibition, listing each the result is a collection of brass, glass, and old single exhibit in often remarkable detail,~ Catalogue but also give some idea of what those iron relics, which has dri~,n the daily press wild involved in the event thought about with enthusmsm. Much more voluminous and informative these instruments and their historical importance. For further reactions and The anonymous author was at times than the Handbook was the Catalogue of the opinions one may turn to newspapers highly critical, for example, pointing out Special Loan Collection of Scientific Appara- and journals. Thus, as 1 have discussed, 2 what he felt was missing. 'No instruments tus at the South Kensington Museum, the Illustrated London Neus reported on haz¢ been collected to illustrate the early which appeared in three consecutive the exhibition by singling out some development of the achromatic telescope', editions; for details see the bibliography. 'historical treasures', which it showed and he complained that none of Chester The amount of information it gives varies in two magnificent engravings. The Moore's items had been unearthed, from object to object, and seems to have Athenaeum ]ournal of Literature, Science, which he claimed would have been depended on what contributors were the Fine Arts, Music and the Drama, cheaper and more to the point than prepared or able to supply. Few were as which has been characterized as 'a "dispatchin/? special messengers to gather laconic as the Royal Society, which mirror of Victorian culture',' printed a relics from Italy and Holland'? I have offered such cursory descriptions as series of articles on the event,' starting examined several other such journals 'Priestley's Electrical Machine' or - dis- off with a hint of irony: and shall quote some salient comments putable in all its briefness - 'Air Pump, from them, but am aware that I have with double barrel (1662), by Boyle'.' Tit y.allerws contaimng the Loan Collection of merely scratched the surface here. Most exhibitors supplied more detailed Scwnt!t~c Apparatus are at length open to the information, often adding explanations public. Apparently no expenditure has been There is also some archival material or historical expos~ running to hundreds considered too great b~. tta~s¢ who have been related to the Special Loan Collection in and occasionally thousands of words, enga.c,ed in brine,rag together in the course of a the Science Museum Library.* While I which were printed in small type. .few us'eks from every part of Europe all the relics shall occasionally draw on that as well, of scwnce that could be begged and borrm~wd on the whole this has proved somewhat The first edition (which I have not seen; from public mshtutlons and prioate collections. the only copy known to me is in the USA) Gentlemen haz~" been sent on specml missn~ns disappointing and less informative for from South KensmRhm. and their mtmements my purpose than the published material. was ready when the exhibition was have been dmly chr~mtcled in Reuter's teh,~rams opened by Queen Victoria on Saturday as amon~ the nu~st mlportant neu,s frora Italy Handbook 13~ May, but was evidently compiled in and Germanu. [...] Specml railway trains lua,e great haste and received much criticism. [... ] been bruitfor the transit of instruments, and The Handbook to the Special Loan Collection Contributors complained that an instru- 16 Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) ment was not listed or placed in a wrong Among others, he discussed the telescope category, or that their name was omitted, objectives ground and polished by the urging correction m the next edition. *° A Huygens brothers, which prompted Pro- querulous commentator pointed out that fessor William Spottiswoode, who the catalogue's many errata were 'dis- chaired this session, to tell the audience tributed with laudable impartiality over that he had looked through the Huygens nearly the whole of this exceptional lenses in the possession of the Royal specimen of typographic art'Y Within Society (also exhibited) 'at a testobject on two months the second edition was ready the Pagoda at Kew'. to go to pressY A journal reported The major French contributor of histor- The new editum of the catalogue, which will be ical objects was the Conservatoire des ready in a few days., is half m large again as the Arts et MtStiers,and these were presented first editura. This is due to two causes. Firstly, by its vice-director Henri-l~douard Tres- there are a large number of new entries, which ca, secretary of the French exhibition had not arrived at the time the first edition went to press; and secondly, a number of historical commission. ~ [n his addre'~ he touched notes have been added explaining the instru- on the idea that pervades all contempor- numts which are of historical interest. These are ary discussions around the Special Loan of great help to vtsitors to the collection, wko are Collection: that it might crystallizeinto a but imperfectly acquainted with the history of permanent museum similar to that at the scwl,lce? ~ Parisian Conservatoire. (In a way it did, eventually, but not as directly and as On the title-page of this enlarged and soon as some had hoped). "rresca an- updated edition was printed 'Under nounced that, should the creation of such revision', and it did indeed prove a permanent repository in London prove insufficientas further exhibits continued Fig.2 There were two Neu,comen engine possible, he would be glad to consider an to be brought to South Kensington. Long models on display, one from Glasgow, the exchange of copies of historical instru- after the exhibition had closed on 3(P other shown on this engraving in the German ments for the respective collections; an December, a third edition was published. catalogue, from London. It was lent by King's idea to which I shall return in the next The preface, dated May 1877, specifies: College and is now part of the George 111 article. Collection in the Science Museum. The receipt of a I"rF number of ob~ts since the To complete this selection from the corapdation of the Second Edition has rendered Conferences, there was an address on necessary, the publration of a Third Edition, to which see the bibliography) in some Herschel's reflectingtelescope sent by the afford a compaete record of the collection/or detail." They were held from 16" May Radcliffe Observatory m Oxford "21, the to 2" June 1876 in the Conknem'e Room clock-makers Dent & Co. gave a retro- adjoining the galleries, which gave This edition is more than a hundred spective talk 'On Time Measur~rs'", and speakers access to the exhibits and pages longer than its predecessor, partly F.J. Bramwell held a long historical enabled them to relate their talk closely expo~ 'On Prime Movers'2', which he because of the increased number of to them. The greater part of the proceed- illustrated,among others, with the New- lengthy exposes, and it is indeed a ings consisted of lectures on instruments engine model from King's Col- definite record of this remarkable exhibi- in current use, but some dealt explicitly lege, London, 'now on the table before tion. While the illustration in the only with historicalapparatus. me'. This model, now in the George III second edition was folding plan of the a Collection in the Science Museum, was galleries, the third was additionally Among the highlights in the exhibition also mentioned in a separate pamphlet adorned with six wood-engravings of that refers to its presence in the Special historic material, including the Guericke were some sixty instruments from the Loan Exhibition." air-pump with Magdeburg hemispheres Accademia del Cimento and the Royal from Brunswick and the Newcomen Institute di Studii Superiori in Florence. engine model (Fig. 2) from King's An important role in their selection and Free Evening Lectures College, London." their transfer to and from South Kensing- ton was played by Professor A. Eccher." The speeches and ensuing discussions of As stated above, Dr Biedermann pre- In his address I", he stated that he had the Conferences are not the only public pared a Gonnan version of this third 'done my utmost best to ensure that addresses held on the occasion of the edition, which was given the somewhat Florence should contribute her most Special Loan Exhibition that have been misleading title Bericht giber die Ausstel- precious relics to this solemn exhibition', recorded. Three weeks after the exhibi- lung wissenschafllicher Apparate im South but he stressed that 'I have only brought tion had been opened to the public, the Kensington Museum, zu London, 1876, to London a very small part of the Illustrated London Nea~. announced: although the subtitle adds that it is ancient instruments existing in Florence'. 'also a complete and descriptive catalo- To illustratehis historicalexpose, he took We are requested to state that a number of the instruments from their showcases sc~,nt!Rc gent,'~,n have ~unt~,d to gue of the exhibition' (see bibliography). lectures in connection uqth the loan Collection ! found no evidence that the catalogue into the Conference Room, witness phrases like 'Here is one of Torricelli's of Scu'ntl~c Apparatus at South Kensington, on was translated into any other lan- the free et~m~. The lectures unll be~fn todau guage." telescopes'and 'This one of medium size at eight o'clock in the Con~n'enc¢ Room bv a is by Campani'. lecture from Pro~. R~ of Oucn's Coiled. Conferencel Manchester, on Dalton'sinstruments and what Leiden University also sent an important he dld wah them.~~ The Confen~:es held in connection with group of early apparatus, and this was the Special Loan Collection have been the presented by the Leiden physicist Pro- This was the firstof a series of twenty- subject of an article by Frank Greenaway, lessor Pdjke, chairman of the commission five lectures, aimed at the general who discusses the published reports (for which submitted the Dutch exhibits?" public, given on Mondays, Tuesdays or Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) 17 ,-..,,,o; ,, .~..5~,~ ~ .."~: ... Fig.3 l~n.,¢r,t~'lnq,# the (;uct.,k,' m, t,umt, taken from the EnflJsh edition, lnter,~tmfly, this is not the same enc, rai,in¢, as u~d in the Illustrated London News, phlte 2, as reproduced in Bulletin, No. 72, p. 14. Fig.4 B,'sl,t,'s historical instruments, oht serene," h~,ks u~'r," al.~, h'nt. One of ttle~" was Saturdays, when access to the exhibition Caspar Sch,,tt. Ottonis de Guericke Experimenta Nova (ut w~cantur Magdeburgica) de was free and open until ten o'clock, Vacuo Spa tio of 16 72. The u,ell-knou ,n engraz,in,~ of the original Ma,c:debur~ experiment from instead of six o'clock on the other days, tlutt z~olume mas reproduced as a fold-out plate in the German catah~ue. when there was a 10 pence entrance charge. From the verbatim transcription of the lectures (.,~e the bibliography), we Mn4' u,.hat ! ~awe ..dunlin you is a mere h~, but w,hich each gave two lectures, and refers see that as a rule the speakers di~ussed here are the.first old instruments which uwr my to the cheap separate edition of these mt~ern ~ience and only occasionally dream m ~'wnce years alo,, tlmu,¢h ! nel,er pairs of lectures in booklets costing six- looked back in time. But five speakers, thought i should actuall.v touch or handle these pence each.~' However, I found that there all prominent men of ~ience who had u~mderful hemispheres. were in fact twice as many speakers, and been actively revolved in the organiza- that their combined thirty-six lectures tion of the Loan Collection'L gave a Instruments did not need to be two were published in two volumes (see more historical and artefact-oriented centuries old to inspire respect. Discuss- bibliography). While occasionally speak- lecture. Explaining the accomplishments mga frictional electrical machine that ers refer to specific objects in the of illustrious British researchers of the Faraday had made in the first decade of collection, ! found these volumes on the last hundred years - John Dalton, the nineteenth century when he was a whole the least interesting of the printed Michael Faraday, Henry Cavendish, young tn~okbinder's apprentice, profes- public addresses. Joseph Black, Humphry Davy and James sor Gladstone showed admirable re- Pre~.'ott Joule -::, the',' took as their straint, in line with our present museum Ernst Gerland, Instrument Historian i~mt of departure the apparatus that ethics: these men had used and which was now I cannot show you any sparksfrom this machine, on display in the galleries near the Turning now to German publications Conference Room. I ha~ tried, but the Fact is, it ts rather old. and it is out of u~,rkmy, order: the anmllcam too is all that appeared in connection with the oxutated: and it appears to me that to polish it Special Loan Collecti,)n, by far the most Perhaps the most expressive of these five and put it in order u¢uld be a kind of important is a massive volume of 'hi.~tonans" was the fl,rmer professor of desecratum of the old instrument, and thus ! es.~ys, whose title is confusingly similar chemist~' at Edinburgh, Lyon Playfair. haz,¢ not attempted it. ~ to the German edition of the Catalogue: L'pon succeeding to the chair of chemistry Bericht uber die wissen~haftlichen Appa- in 18~8, he had demonstrated his concern Professor Tyndall was equally reverential rate auf der Londoner internationalen with the heritage of science by presenting when he called the coils used by the Ausstellunl~ im ]ahre 1876 (see bibliogra- to the Industrial Mu~um of Scotland celebrated scientist in his magneto-elec- phy for full details). The preface by the (now the National Mu~ums of Scotland) trical research 'for ever memorable, for editor, Professor A.W. Hoflnann', is a collection of redundant chemical appa- they were made by Faraday's own followed by twenty-four detailed subject ratus. > In his evening lecture, he waxed hands'. reports by German scientists, including lyrical over .,~,me of the treasures m the Ernst Abbe, who wrote on the optical exhibition (Figs 3 and 4): Science Lectures at South Kensington aids used in microscopy. For my purpose, the main interest lies in the And here l~ actuallu Guerukeg oracdnal air- While he does not mention the Free book-length opening essay on historical pump. the hrst ever made in the u~,rld. Sclent!fltc men rote,hi us,rshtp a fine old ntstrument like evening lectures, Frank Greenaway does instruments, with dozens of engravings, that. gh,ru,us m the Ili~t(,~ ,~ science, quite as draw attention to another series of by Dr. Ernst Gerland from Kassel& much a. a dez~,te," uvuld the b,mes of any old lectures held in connection with the Gerland wrote many books and articles .~mt. Special l_x~an Collection. These were the on the history of physics, experimenta- Science Lectures, organized especially for tion and instruments '', but this appears And after demonstrating a mtMem pair teachers. He gives the names of nine to be his first major publication on of Magdeburg hemispheres: speakers and their chosen subjects, on instrument history. 18 Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) Anion Werner Ernst Gerland ~ - lKaseel participation of the Germam and claims Museum, 1876. London, Eyre and Spot- 1838 - Clausthal 1910) studied in Mar- that his countrymen contributed between tiswoode, 1876. xliii,617 Pages. burg and Leiden, and in 1872 became one third and one half of the exhibits.He [First edition; not seen. The only copy l lecturer of mathematics and physics at also grumbles that the organizers sup- found recorded m a UK librarywas in the the Polytechnic School in Kassel. From pressed the presentation of all trade National Art Library (V&A Museum), 1888 onward, he was attached to the information, on the ground that this where it is reported missing. The only Bergakademie Clausthal, first as lecturer was a scientific exhibition and not a trade copy known to me is in the National and then as professor of physics and hir. As a result it was difficult, according Library of Medicine, Maryland (OCLC electrotechnics. Gerlaod is listed in the to Kirchner, to find out the price and no.14839883). I am grateful to Dana Catalogue as contributor, from the Poly- other information on modem apparatus Freiberger for locating this copy for reel. technic, of three instruments made by the that was exhibited. Kassel firm Breithaupt and Son, one of Catalo~cue of the Special Loan Collection of which had a certain antiquity.~ Evidently, Another participant who put pen to Scientific Apparatus at the South Kensington by this time he had become an expert on paper was a chemist, Karel (Carl) Otakar Museum, MDCCCLXXVI. Second Edition. the history of instruments, and the Cech (1842-?), who contributed some Londcm, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1876. German government put Gerland in preparations and acted as reporter for xlvii, 957 Pages. charge of the historical part of the the Russian Chemical Society, which was [in the left-hand top comer is printed German contribution to the Special Loan also represented in the exhibition. ~ The [Under Revision]. Copy in the Science Exhibition.-" Gerland's interest in the emphasis in his report is on chemical Museum Library; no copy in the British history of instruments was no doubt preparations, but he also comments on Library. The colofon ends [.-2500,3,3,&4.- stimulated by his proximity to the Royal the other exhibits. The exhibition, Cech 6/76], which may indicate that it was Museum in Kassel, whose fine collection writes, was always well attended, with printed in June 1876 in 2.,~10 copies.I. of historical apparatus is now in the visitor numbers in the region of 12,000 Museum for Astronomie und Technik- each day. He quotes the Pall Mall Ga:ette, Catalogue of the Special loan Collection of geschichte in the Orangerie at Kassel. The which claimed that it would take twelve Scientific Apparatus at the South Kensington museum contributed a dozen instru- days just to inspect each exhibit. And Museum, MDCCCLXXVI. Third Edition. ments to the Special Loan Exhibition with these figures, which remind us of london, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1877. dating ~m the fifteenth to the nine- the gigantic scale of the Special Loan lviii, 1084 pages teenth centuriesw , and 1 have no doubt Collection, we conclude this bibliogra- [Not 1804 pages, as sometimes erron- that it was Gerland who wrote the well- phical exercise. eously stated. The colofon ends [7183.- researched catalogue entries. He was 2000.-8/77.], which may indicate that it certainly the author of a separate pub- Bibliography was printed in August 1877 in 2000 lication on the museum's instruments, copies. There are many copies of this prepared especially to accompany the Publications printed in connection with edition in public libraries. The copy l Kassel contnbution to the South Ken- the Special Loan Collection, in the order used has pasted inside the front cover sington exhibition.-* When two years in which they are discussed in this article Special Loan Collection of Scientific later, together with A. Coester, he Apparatus at South Kensington, 1876. published a description of the antique Handbadc to the Special Loan Collection of Third Edition of the Catalogue. Presenta- instruments in the museum w, this was Scientific Apparatus 1876. Prepared at the tion Copy. By order of the Lords of the clearly a spin-off of his work for the request of the Lords of the Committee of Committee of Council on Education. FR. Special Loan Collection. Council on Education. L~mdon, Chap- Sandford, Secretary. South Kensington man and Hall, 1876. xxvii, 339 pages. Museum, November 1877.] Reports by Kirchner and Cech [Many copies in public libraries. There is also a variant edition New York, Scribner, Bericht ~iher die Ausstellung wissen- Besides the massive volume edited by Welford and Armstrong, 1877. xxvii, schaftlicher Apparate im South Kensington Hofmann, with Gerland's long historical 339 p.I Museum, zu London, 1876: zugleich poll- essay, ! also found some shorter reports s~ndi~o'r und beschreibender Katai~ der in German on the Special Loan Collec- Guide th/,orique pour i'Exposition d'Appar- Ausstellung. Mit Hoizschnitten. Im Auf- tion. They are of limited interest on ells Scientifiques du Mus~e de South trag¢ des Ki~niglich Gros.~tannischen Er- historical instnunents, but are listed to Kensington. 1876. Pr~ar~ A la Requ#te ziehungsrathes zu~mmengestellt ~,n Dr. complete the bibliographical review. des Lords du Conseil d'Education. Paris/ Rudolf Biedermann. London, 1877. 8 °. li, [zmdon [1877]. xviii, 345 pages. 1063 pages. Two short reports were written by an [French edition of the Handbook. Copy [Copies in the Science Museum Librar)' engineer, W. Kirchner, assistant at the in the Science Museum Library; the cop', and the Museum Boerhaave Library. The Royal Polytechnic Academy in Berlin (see in the British Library is missing]. latter copy has an additional page Special bibliography). I assume that Kirchner Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus at was involved with the display and Internationale Ausstellung wissenschaftli- South Kensington, 1876. German Edition maintenance of the almost 300 kinematic cher Apparate im South Kensington Mu- of the Catalogue. Presentation Copy. By models that his Academy sent to South seum, London, 1876. Handbuch enthaltend order of the Lords of the Committee of Kensington ~, but he also had a wider Aufsittze iiber die tzactcn Wissensc~ften Council on Education. F.R. Sandford, responsibility. As mentioned above, he und ihre Anucndunsen. Deutsche Ausgabe. Secretary. South Kensington Museum, had stayed in London to supervise the Herausgegeben durch Rudolf Biedermann. september 1877l. German apparatus, together with Dr London, Chapmann and Hall, 1876. xx, Biedermann, and he was one of a group 402 pages. Confrrences held in connection with the of men who received the organizers' [German edition of the Handbook. Special Loan Collection of Scientific Appara- thanks for having 'rendered very valu- Copies in the Science Museum Library tus. 1876. 2 vols. able services - many of them as volun- and the British Libraryl. [I] Ph~ics and mechanics. Published hw teers - greatly aiding the staff of the the Lords of the Committee of Ct~ncil on Museum in their laborious duties'S In Catalogue of the Special Loan Collectionof Education. London, Chapman and Hall, his short report, he gives statistics on the ScientificApparatus at the South Kensinl~ton 1876. xi, 420 pages. I Bulletin of the Sciemific lmtmment Socie~ No. ;'4 (2OO2) 19 [21 Chemistry, ~o~, physical xeography, lll~tmt~ ~ Ne~s', Bulletin a/the Scamt~c 16. Frank Greenaway, 'Mole than 'a mere geology, mineralogy, and meteoroio[~ Lon- Instrument SoOety 72 (March 2002), pp. 11-19. Gazing Place': the Special Loan Exhibition and don, Chapman and Hall, 1876. viii, 441 the Science Confemmces', m R.G.W. Anderson, pages. 3. LeslieAlexis Marchand, The Athenaeum. A J.A. Bennett, W.E Ryan, eds., Molang Instru- Mirror of Victorian Culture (Chapel Hill: Uni- ments Count. Essays on Historical $cient~c [Many copies in public libraries. versity of North Carolina Press, 1941). are also variant editions New York,Scrib- Instruments Presented to Gerard L'Estrang¢ Turn- 4. The series appaared ee (Aldemhot, 1993), pp. 139-145. ner]. weekly in the section 'Science' in hrs. 25.'~4 (May 20, 1876) to 240 17. ! found no biographical data, but he was 0ulY I, 1876) The introductkm (p. 700) was probably judge from two 1 Free evening l~tur~ dHiver~ in connection followed by 'M~ & Geography' (pp. a phy~'ist, to titles found to ffls nard: Sulla teoria fisica dell" with the Special Loan Collection of Scientific 732-3), 'Chemistry' (pp. 768-9), 'Molecular Apparatus, 1876. Published for the Lords Elettro~ nei neevi. E~Tx,rienze del Doff. A. Eccher Physics' (pp. &~2-3), 'Heat' (pp. 863-4) and (Florence, 1877) and Sulle forze elettnn~rici of the Committee of Council on Educa- was concluded by 'Astronomy' (p. 19). wduppate dallesoluzkmi salinea diversigradi di tion, by Chapman and Hall. London, 5. The Athenaeum I July 1876, p. 19. concentrazione col raetalli the ne costituiscono In 1878. 524 pages. t 6. The following files in the 'Z-archives' base (Florence, 1878). His role m the transport [Copy in the Science Museum Library] have a bearing on the Special Loan Collection: arrangements is evident from the letter-book Z .I Z 3911 includes copies of the Agenda for the 180/2, ms. 9281, 94.33, 9513, 9517, 9625 and Scwnce Lectures at South Kensington. By Loan Collection, but these contain essentially finally 10003 (Prof Eccher. 'Confirms telegram ( [follow names of eighteen British scien- the same in/ormation as the published catalo- that ob)ects arrived safe i sound and thanks for attentions received'). tists]. In two volumes. London, MacMil- gue. Z 56 are price lists of contemporary lan and Co., 1878-1879. 290 and 344 apparatus exhibited, predominantly by French 18. 'Italian ~t~ at the exhibition of pages. makers. Z 64/6, the South Kensington Museum scientific apparatus', Conferences, I, pp. I00- Educational Register for 1875-78, lists items 143, continued on pp. 195-201. acquired for the museum from the Loan Bericht itber die u,issen~ftlichen Apparate 19. 'On the Historical Instruments From auf der Londoner internationalen Ausstel- Collection, either by purchase (pp. 306-312) or presentation (pp. 312-318), and also lists Leyden', Conferences, I, pp. 184-189. Pieter lung im lahre 1876 .I...l erstattet ton [follow reproductions made of items exhibited (pp. Leonard Rilke (1812-1899) was the professor in charge of the Leiden physical laboratory; see names of twenty-four German contribu- 276-277; to be discussed in a later artide). Z torsi [..I herausgegeben ton A.W. Hofmann, 180/land 2 ane the k~ted~oks for the Loan Peter de Clercq, The Le/den Cabinet a/Physics.A Vorsitzenden des deut~hen Comitds fir die Collection, listing an estimated 4000 letters Descriptive Catalogue (Leiden, 1997), p. 13. Ausstellung. Braunschweig, Friedrich received and written by the organizers of the 20. 'Upon obfeets illustrating the history o4 Vieweg und Sohn, 1878. xxvi, 846 pages. event between 7 February and 30 November science and the means of ensuring their [Copy in the Science Museum Library. 1876. These ledgers record the ~ents conservation', Conferences,I, pp. 80-88 Henri- The British Library copy was lost in the and briefly indicate the sub~ct of each letter [ktouard Tresca (1814-1885) was professor of and decisions taken on the matter, but the industrial and applied mechanics and pub- war.] letters themselves have not been preserved. lished among others C,ours de ng,canique appli- 7. Catalogue third edition (see bibliography) qu/e (Paris, 1876). He phyed an important role W. Kirchner, 'l~Iber die Ausstellung in the g~,at world exhibitions of 1851 and wisserc~chafllicher Apparate, in London', pp. 597-610: Biedermann's contribution on p. 598. 1855. off-print headed 'II. Abhandlungen', pp. 296-303, followed by 'Die Wandtafeln zu 8. Berichtuher die unssenschafllichen Apparate 21. By the Rev. R. Main, M.A., F.R.S.; Con- ferences I, pp. 191-194 technischen Untemchtszwecken auf der auf der Londoner internationalen Ausstellung im Ausstellung w~aftlicher Apparate, ]ahre 1876 (see bibliography), p. xv. 22. Conferences,!, pp. 336-344 in London', pp. 3O4-3O9. 9. The association with Robert Boyle, and 23. Conferences,I, pp. 348-380 [Copy m the Science Museum Library. the early date, had already been disclaimed From an unidentified journal. The author two decades earlier by George Wilson in 'on 24. Thomas Lidstone, Notes on the Model of the Early History of the Air-Pump in England', Newcomen's Steara-engine 0705). Exhibited in the is 'Assistent an der Konigliche Gewerbe- "Special Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus," Akademie', the off-print is inscribed 'To The Edinburgh Neu, Philosophical Journal, 46 (1848-49), pp. 330-354. Was this not known at South Kensington Museum, 1876 (London, New the Educational Library by the author the Royal Society, or not accepted? The York: E. & F.N. Sp(m, 1876). This six-page 23.5.77' and stamped 'W. Kirchner / exhibited pump was in fact made by Francis Pamphk-t, dated May 15, 1876, discusses both ingenieur / Berlin C. Klosterstr. 36'] Hauksbce in the early 18th century and is now Newcomen engine models displayed, that in the Science Museum (inv. no. 1970-24). from King's College and that from Glasgow. Dr C.O. Cech, Die inter~mtionale Ausstel- The copy I saw in the Science Museum Library 10. Science Museum Library Z 180/2, letters is a xerox-copy, stamped on the original lung u,issenscMfllicher Apparate zu London. received 13 May and following days. Mit be~mderer Beriicksichtigung der Che- 'Woodcroft Bequest'. nti~hen Gruppe. Heidelberg: Carl Win- I1. W.G Lettsom in English Mechonic and 25. Illustrated London News, Saturday 3'd June World of Scwnce, 23, no. 584, p. 306 (June 2, ter's Universitlitsbuchhandlung, 1878. ii 1876, p. 539. 1876). + 46 pages. 26. Each was on the 124-strong General [Copy in the Science Mu~um Library. 12. Z 180/2, 4 July, telegram of the Chief Conunittee (Catalogue,pp. ix-xi)as well as on The preface, signed 'Berlin, im Mai 1877', Clerk to the Stationary Office, contents: q'reas- one or more of the Sub-commitees of Sections ury has fixed price of Cat. at 3/6. Printers have describes the author as 'Berichterstatter (ibidem,pp. xxv-xxvii). orders to go to press'. der russi~hen chemischen Gesellschaft']. 27. 3 'd June:. Professor Henry Enfieid Roscoe, 13. iron: the Journal of Science, Metals, and 'On John Dalton's Apparatus and what he did Notes and References Manufactures (A New Series of the Mechanics" with it' (Free et~ming lectures, pp. 1-24); 1st July: MagazineL 8 0une 10, 1876), p. 745. Prok~or Tyndall, 'On Faraday's Apparatus' I. For a full list, extracted from the catalo- 14. The other engravings are title-page and (pp. 118-133); 3rd July: the Right Hon. Lyon gue, see Peter de Clercq, 'The Special Li~an Magdeburg experiment from Caspar SchotL Playfair, M.P., 'Air and Airs, as Illustrated by Collection of Scientific Apparatus, South Ken- Ottonis de Guericke's Experirramta Nora de Vacuo the Magdeburg Hemis~res and Black's and smgton, 1876 Part 2. The Historical Instru- Spatio (Amsterdam, 1672), and the locomotives Cavendish's Balances' (pp. 134-154); 8th July: ments', Bulletin ~. the Sclent!fic Instrument 'Puffing Billy' and 'The Rocket'. Pro£ Gladstone, FRS, 'on Davy's and Fara- ~cwty, No. 73 (June 2002), pp. 8-16. day's Apparatus' (pp. 155-172); 11'h July: 15. A rderen~ to a French edition by R.G.W. Professor Francis Guthrie, 'Heat and work' 2. Peter de Clercq, 'The Special Loan Collec- Journal of the History a/Coilections, 7 Anderson, (pp. 198-217, on Joule). tion of Scientific Apparatus, South Kensington, (1995), p. 219) is presumably based on a hasty 1876 Part 1. The 'Historical Treasures' in the interpretation of the British Library catalogue. 28. R.G.W. Anderson, The Play,air Collection 20 Bulletin of the Scie~tific lratrument Society No. 74 (2002) and the Teaching af Chemistry at the Unnwrsi~. of bibliography. Book-length studies include Bericht iiberdie w~ssenschafll~chenApparate, p. Edinburgh 1713-1858 (Edinburgh, 1978). Geschichte der Physik ton den i~ltesten Zeiten his 39, n. 5, as 'Begleitschrifl der aus dem zum Ausgan~ des achtzehnten ]ahrhunderts (1892 29. Free¢t~ninl~ lectures pp. 164 ft. This must k/Jniglichen Museum m Cassel nach London and later Geschichte der phys~kah~hen illustrated editions), geschickten Apparate'. be the generator in Brian Bowers, Expertmentlrkunst (with Fnedrich Traumuller, Michael Faraday.and Electricity(London, 1974), Leipzig, 1899), and Die Anu,endung der Elek- 39. Beschretbun~der Sammlun:¢ astronomi~her, p. I0, which is in the Royal Institution.It is not trizit~lt bei registrierenden Apparaten (1887). Iceodiitischerund physikalischerApparate im specified among the contributions of the RI in There are also many articles on the history of Koem~Iichen Museum zu Cassel(Kassel, 1878). the Catalogue, which may be an oversight; or instruments (e.g. the a~ometer, the air-pump 40. Catalogue,pp. 132-143. The mndeL~ were perhaps Prof Gladstone brought it for this pendulum and occasion only. and the clock) steam engines. connected with the Academy's Director,Pro- 34. Biographical details from [.C. Pog~en- lessor Reu[eaux, and his treatment of the 30. Greenaway (note 16), pp. 139-140. dorff's Bu~graphisch-Literansches Handu.,Orterbuch theory of machines. The Academy also sent 31. Prof. A.W. Hofmann, ER.S., Director of zur Geschichte der Exacten Wissenschaften, vol. 3 one historical instrument: an 18'h-century calculating machine, described m enormo~ | the Chemical Laboratory at the University of (1858-1883) (Leipzig, 1898), p. 508 and Berlin. He acted as President of the Berlin Deut~he Biographische Enzyklopddie, vol. 3 detail on pp. 9-10. p. Committee for the Special Loan Collectionand (Miinchen, 1996), 650. 41. Catalogue, p. xvii contributed, among others, a 'Collection of 35. A cathetmneter, a Gauss magnetometer ( p. 600 (preparationssent by Dr. Substances discovered or investigated by ('may be considered as one of the oldest of its 42. Catalogue, C.V. [sic]Cech, Berlin) and p. 610 (prepara- Liebig';Catal~ue, pp. xiv, 165 and 602-3. kind in the present exhibition')and a B6rsch tions sent by the Russian Chemical Society, gonieaneter;Catalogue, pp. 64, 293 and 887. 32. "Bencht i~ber den historischen Theil der Umversity of St. Petersburg). In the British internationalen Ausstellung wissenschaftlicher 36. A.W. Hofmann, preface to Library l found three titles to his name, Apparate m London unn Jahre 1876' (pp. 1-119). Bericht~tber die w~senschafflichen Apparate, p. xx including Russ/ands Industrie auf der natzonalen The sections deal with weights and measures Ausstellung in Moskau 1882 (Moskau, Alters- (p. 1), instruments for molecular physics (p. 3), 37. Specified in the list of historical instru- burg 1882). optical instruments (p. 24), instruments for ments (note 1). heat (p. 42), magnetic ms~ts (p. 88), 38. Die Sammlung pon astronomischen, geodil- Author's address: electricalinstruments (p. 90) and astronomical tlschen und physikalischen Apparaten des Mu- 13 Camden Square and mathematical instruments (p. 115). seums in Cassel, 1876. I have not seen this London NWI 9UY 33. This is not the place to attempt a complete publication. Gefland raentions it in his essay in [email protected] Photo Shoot Fig.1 In 1927 th," transathmtic Bclhmca ,,f Chamt,,'rh, bem s~ coral,ass swun~ I,y Fig.2 CIo~'-up ~!t dr!tLst~,'ht l,cm~ ~,Jh means of a theodolite. brated on the same plane. The following two photographs, taken in ingly enough, the Zeppelin company the use of a stadia mounted iru~trument on 1927, were sent by Jeremy Collins. The used a similar drift-sight, and Jeremy the ground with an operator, the aircraft, first (Fig. I) shows the transatlantic writes that he used, when in the RAF, a with all engines running being turned on Be]lanca plane of the aviator Chamberlin not too dissimilar instrument on aero- the compass base - quite a fun job! being compass swung using a theodolite, planes such as the Vickers Valettas, probably by W. & L.E. Gurley, while the Varsities and the beloved Blackburn Incidentally, the old compass swinging second photo (Fig. 2) shows the close-up Beverley. In his days, the act of swinging base at Harwell can stillbe seen adjacent of a drift-sight being calibrated. Interest- the aircraftcompass was accompanied by to the A34 road. Bulletin of the Scientific lnstnuaent Society No. 74 (2002) 21 The Objectives of the 'Great Paris Exhibition Telescope' of 1900 Suzanne Ddbarbat (Obs,ervatoire de Paris, Section de Paris) Franq:oi~ Launay (Observatoire de Paris, Section de Meudon) display for many years on the ground _v fltxw of the Paris Ob~rvatory, at the hx~t of the main stairca~, of the original building, the 'B,itiment Perrault'. It is 2 m (6.5 feet) in diameter and 27 cm (10.6") thick: its weight is about 2,200 kg. The blank was made by the Jeumont glassworks (in northern France), which mad(, tweh'e attempts to cast such a large mass of glass: only the first one was succt~sful. In contrast the blanks k}r the objective lenses were cast in Paris by the succt~.,~w of the great glass maker }ten D, Guinand, Edouard Mantois (1848-lq~Xl). The objec- tive corrected h~r chromatic aberration for photography (i.e. in the blue-violet range) was the only one successfully ! I installed in the 'Palais de r(,)phque'. Fh~ t~. other two lens(s, which wew planned to I.'1 gran.de hltlette. L ~" the elements of the visual objective, were shown in another part of the Fig I L)r,licln~,, or the Great Paris Trh'scope prolectmy, an lnl,lXe of thr Mi~m, published ill exhibition, together with high quality l exposltton Lmver~,lle de lqt~). I'u landis Rol+sseh't ¢l+arls.• llachette+ 19¢)11 p. 277. gla~sworks prt~iucts. The largest lenses ever successfully the 'Champ de Mars', near the Eiffel lhe,,a, len,,~,~ were 'lost' for many years. made to equip an astronomical refract- tower. It had bt~,n built as an object of In 1954, H. C. King wrote that "th'e optics ing telescope have eventually been public spectacle, aiming to show a giant [of the largest refractor in the world] had rediscovered in a cellar of the Ohserva- image of the M,nm "la I+une/! l mbtn,', as been ,~tnred in the optical laboratory of toire de i'aris the journalists ironically said- to the the Paris Ob,~,rvatory. ]he)' could be visitors of the "Palais de l'Optique'. A seen there in 1937 and there they The optical components of one of the dedicated commercial compan}; 'L'()p- probably remain'.' ~dange Grillot ai.~} two obl~x-t gla,,~,s of the tamous 'Grande tique', financed by the .,,ale of shares, had suggt~ted this location in 1986.: How- lunette de 19(X)' (Fig. 1) have recently been created to carry out the plans of the ever, when Paolo Brenni made inquiries i~,,en found in ~'parate wtnMen boxes. (then) French M. P. Fran~,'ois Deloncle, while preparing his paper of 1996 on who first proFn~ed the project in 1892 'The Brunners and Paul Gautier", he [he two ]en,,~e~ are almost certainh,' the and who by 1900 had become a was not able to establish whether the thnt-gla~,s and crown-glass elements of plenipotentiary minister. objectives still existed: at that time the the obiech~e corn~'ted for photographic big len.,~.,s were not mentioned in the purposes, the only one which was Due to the great length and tremendous inventories of the Paris Observatory c~,mpleted in time for the exhibition, weight of the tele~'ope, it was decided instruments. Moreover, it is still imFn~S- which opened on 14'" April Iq00. Fheir that the instrument would consist of a sible to determine when these magnifi- dmmeter is 1.2"~ m (49.2"), making tht~, Foucault siden~stat whtr:,,e mirror direc- cent examples of the formidable the largest retracting telescope optics tt~.i the light from the celestial objects to ex~,rti~ of the French makers at the exer ~ompleted succt,~sfullv. Fhe thick- be observed towards the objectives end of the 19'" century, made their short ne,,-.e,, of their beveled edgt~ art, 40 mm mounted at the entrance of a fixed journey from the 'Champ de Mars' to the tot the crown-glass element and 6,6 mm horizontal sheet steel tube. The two 'Ob~'rvatoire', together with the mirror for the flint-gla,,s one rt,",pectivelv, and object glas~ were mounted in a sliding of the siden~tat. their xveight,~ are e~timated to beabout frame to allow the u~. of either an 1~41 kg and 270 kg re~pecti~ ely. lhe clear objective designed h~r visual ob.,~.,~'a- aperture ot the obicct gla~s was rtx'orded tions, or a .,,t~cond one dt~igned h~r The tube of the telL,~-ope was made up a, 120 m (47.2-) and its ft~al length photographic imaging. Each lens was of 24 cylinders, 1.5 m (59") in diameter. about "~7 m (187 feet). mounted adjustably in a ~'parate cell; The focusing was obtained by moving the crown element was carried on rollers the eyepiece or the photographic plate holder on rail. The famous Paris en- :\ centurx ago, this recumbent 6(1 metre- to allow it to ~, ,,~'parated from the flint gineering company of Paul Gautier long refracting telt"~'ope, the biggest ever and allow easy cleaning of the surfact~ (1842-1909) was employed to design built, was publicly exhibited in Paris. The (Fig. 2). gigantic instrument, which intended to and build both the mechanical parts of the instrument and the machinery to be one of the 'star' exhibits of the The flat mirror of the siderostat, which gnnd and figure all the optical compo- l-\po~it,m Uniters'lie', was erectecl in has lost its silver coating, has been on nents, including the len~,,s. Bulletin of the N-ientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2(1(12) O,*pee,oen dew Obj~re ¢ [ • & Irl r "~ d ? • - . Fig.3 Examination of a h'ns h,r homo~eneittt, from the artrle 'La Lure, ~ un mi'tre', L'lilustration, No 2979, 31 March 1~, p. 199 Fig.2 The cells ,¢ the object glasses. Top: dnn,,ing from the note published by. Gautier in the Annuaire du Bureau des longitudes l~ur l'annee 19(X) O~aris, 1899), p. CI 7. Bottom: photo published in L'Encyclop&tie du si6cle. L'Exposition de Paris ¢Paris: Mon- gn;dien & Ch', 1900), Vol. 2, p. 76. The telescope, which surpas.~ by 20 cm preserves only the fiat mirror of the 3. P Bmnni, 'lqth Century Fwnch %'1entitle in diameter the Yerkes refractor, demon- siden~tat and two ien,~'s" devoid of any ln.,,trument Makers X[: The Brunners and P strated the great skill of the French form of cell. Gautier', Bulh'tm o¢ the .C,cwutlfc Instrum,',zt companies of the time, both glasswor- Socwty, No. 4q (l'~k'~). pp ~8 kers and mechanical engine~,rs. Notes and References AIdhor~' a,tdrrs~'s: The obsem'ing conditions in the centre of .gu~mm" Dt'barbat Paris meant that only a few successful This paper was pre~entt~ as a p~ter at the Ol,~'n~itolre de P,ms-St'ction de Parts ob~,rvations were made, but the quality XIXt" International Scientific ln.,,trument Sym- Susti'm,'s de Reti'rences T,'ml,s ESl,,it.e of these led to the ho D , that the great posium i~.ld in ()xford 4-8 ~Ttember 2¢X~0. A mow detailed article will be published b)' one ~S~ RTE ~ instrument could be moved to a better 01. ,wcm." de l()bs,'rvatom" site; alas, this was not to be. of us (F. L.) as ~x,n as the quality of the len~.s ~Figure 3) is eva]uah~l. - II is planr..~d to put ,5(114 Paris. /:ram-e the big len~seson display during the exhibition S',zamw.l)eh~rhlt~ot,spm.ff By the end of the exhibition the devoted to Leon Foucault, which will take Company 'L'Optique' was bankrupt place at Pans Ob~,rvatom. trom It, (k-hff~.r to 15 [~.~cember 2tX)2. Fr, ltl(oi.,q' IJalozall and the disinterest of the "official' Obscrl,atoire de P, lris-Sectnut astronomers was such that the huge 1. H.C. King, [Reply to que~'], I. ,'t ttu' ,It" .Meudon amount of money ne~ied to re-erect Brlttsh Astnmomiod Ass~,Tatrm, 64 (19r'q), Lat~,ratolr," d'Etu,h" du R,nlonnem,'nt el the instrument could not possibly be p. 210. de la Matibre en .4~trol,h~s~qm. found from public or private .~,urcts. LERMA J The instrument was dismantled, the 2. S. Gnllot, "lx~ instruments des ob,,~,rva- .5 Place luh~-lansse. mechanical parts were apparently toin~ tran~ais au I~" sick,tie ', LA.,tnmomie. 100 92195 Memh,n Cedcx. Fnmc,' ~rappt~ and the Paris Ob~rvatory (1986), pp. 275-28q Fra ncoL.a'. [.au natr@q~bsl,m,ff Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument .~ciety No. 74 (2())2) 23 SIS Visit to North Germany, ll'h-16 th May 2002 Introduction historical Ix~ks of the Observatory. These were presented to us by Dr Li~hning and Following the Society's visit to South Prof. Dr Dieter SchlOter of the Department Germany in March 1996, this year we of Astrophysics. went to North Germany to see what the Hamburg regkm has to offer in terms of The instruments ranged from items of the scientsfic instruments. In organizing this, early 19~ century, such as the state-of-the- the present wnter, as Meetings Secretary, art instruments of 1819 made by Reich- had the good fortune of being able to enbach & Ertel in Munich - a repeating circle involve Prof. Dr Gudrun Woifschmidt and (Fig. 1), a transit circle that can work in any Dr Giinther Oestmann, both of the vertical plane, and an 'astronomical theo- Institute for the History of ~ience, dolite' - to 2{Yh century. Zeigs instruments, Mathematics and Technology of Hamburg among them a Colzi-prism solar ocular of University. Without their enthusiastic local the 19~)s. There is a prismatic reflecting support, this Ove~as Conference could circle of Pistor & Martins (Berlin, c. 1870), not have taken place. Accommodation probably from the Bothkamp Observatory. was arranged in the attractive university Several micrometers are in the collection: a district of Hamburg, and a varied and, it 1902 Repsold recording micrometer which must be said, somewhat unconventional was used with the then-new Repsold programme was put together. For the first meridian circle, and two double-refraction time in the SocieW's history, prospective crystal micrometers which were brought participants could study the programme from Altona, one an Arago type made by in detail on a speciai website, kindly Lenoir (Paris), and another of the Airy type, made by Brown (London). Three interesting created by Gudrun, and this will remain Fig.l R,7,'atm g ,lr,h" by Retche.ba,h ?.; t;rt,'l chrtmomet~ are in the collection: a No. 370 accessible. ~ Seventeen members partici- of Munich, made in 1819 at the Old made by Muston/London, c. 1854 (from pated, and on most days we were joined Obsen~tory, Kiel. Photo by. James C.aplan. bv mterested staff members and students Altona); a No. 1887 made by Knoblich of of the university, so that on a typical Alton& c. 1874 (probably from Bothkamp excursion we numbered between twenty Sunday 12aMay Observatory); and a No. 189 made by Lange and twenty-five people, a pleasant sized & Sons/Glash0tte, c. 1920 (from Kiel group. Gudrun had prepared programme On Sunday 12'h May the group travelled by Observatory). Among the sundials were a booklets, basically a printed version of the coach some I00 km to the northeast, to Kiel, scaphe (hemispherical) sundial made by website, which ~,'ill serve as a souvenir a port on the Baltic Sea. Our firststop was Meissner in Berlin c. 1860. There is a transit for participants. Mike Cowham took the the site of the Kiel Observatory., which was instrument (No. 4770) from Carl Bamberg in mltiative to make a CD-ROM of this trip, created in the early 1870s as the direct Berlin, acquired by the Kiel Observatory. mergmg his own many photographs with continuation of the important observatory. c. 1912. those taken by others, and adding texts. It founded in the beginning of the 1820s in is the first time that such an extensive Altona, now part of Hamburg, but then Although the Kiel Observatory. no longer visual and textual record of a Society's ruled by Denmark. The Altona meridian houses its large instruments, and the Altona (h,'erseas Conference is made available.2 circle, in particular, was moved to Kiel, and Bothkamp Observatories no longer What follows here is a compilation of where it was the largest of the Prussian exist, fine architectural drawings (Fig. 2) reports by those who allowed themselves Reich. In 1932, additional instruments were prepared by Felix Liihning brought these to be builied into writing up part of the acquired through absorption of the impor- back to fife. trip. tant private astrophysical observatory, at Bothkamp, about 20 km south of Kiel, Among the books were many historically Saturday 11" May which was itself founded in 1870. The Kiel important works, such as Peter Apian's Observatory. was closed in 1938 by the Nazi Astronomicum Caesareum (lngolstadt, 1540), regime. Durmg the war all of the outlying Tycho Brahe's Astronomlae instauratae Me- Those who arrived in time on Saturday, buildings and domes were destroyed and chanica (Wandsbek - where Tycho lived, and t(~k part in an optional city, walk that all the large telescopes lost by bombing - now part of Hamburg - 1598), Johannes was to start at 5 p.m. from the Nord- probably due to the presence of an anti- Bayer's Uranometria (Ulm, 1608), Johannes deut~hes Landesmuseum m Altona, West aircraft gun on the roof of the main Kepler's Tabulae Rudolphinae - based on his Hamburg. After a long delay caused by a building, which affords an unobstructed new planetary, theory and Tycho's observa- downpour, Gudrun Wolf~hmidt, with view of the sky and the surrounding town tions (Ulm, 1627), Johannes Hevelius' Ma- characteristic enthusiasm and stamina, and harbour. The items recovered after WW china Coelestis, Vols 1-3 (Gdansk, 1673), marched us past some places of historical ll are now preserved in the university's Johannes Elert Bode's Atlas des gestirnten astronomical interest. We saw, among Department of Astrophysics, which inher- Himmels, and the first two volumes of the others, the spot along the elegant Pal- ited the remains of the observatory.. journal Astronomische Nachrichten (Altona, maille avenue where the old AItona 1821). observatory once sto(~; the meridian line We were greeted in Kiel by Felix Liihning, is marked'on a wall in a side street. She post-doctoral researcher in History of intended to show us Johann Georg it is not difficult to stretch our definition of Science at Hamburg University, who de- Repsold's statue and the location of the 'instrument' to include some of these! votes considerable effortto the conservation old Hamburg observatory, but time and Apian's work is famous for its magnificent energy were runmng out, and the Elbe of the objects we were to see. We made our volvelles - cf. the recent thread in RETE and riverbank was becoming very. crowded way on foot up the Himmelsleiter, or Owen Gingerich's article in Sky and Tele- due to the annual hartx~ur festival that Stairway to Heaven, and arrived at the scope (69 (May1985), pp. 406-8). Atlases of ha~k place that weekend We called it a main, and only surviving, building of the the sky, such as the Bayer and the Bode, Observatory., now privately owned by the day and found a large round table in an were important tools of observational excellent fish rt~taurant near the St Pauli firm Dahm & Jess. We were greeted by Frau astronomers, and the Rudolphine Tables fish market, where we could gather Jess who graciously allowed us to visit the became essential for predicting the posi- ~,trength for the excursions that lay ahead. building, on the firstfloor of which was a tions of the planets. As for Hevelius' book, special exhibition, brought from the Dept. it tells us about his instruments, in of Astrophysics, of the remaining astro- particular about the large Tycho-style, Peter de Clercq nomical and geodetic instruments and non-telescopic devices he used, such as his 24 Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) li l%r--r I Fig.2 Drau,in¢, by. Felix Luhning of the old AIt,,na Obserz~atorya,hich no hmger exists. Phato by. ]ames Caplan. Fig.3 Tit; parab,,h, ,mtcnna ,!t tile.first r,l,ti,,teh'~cope m,,unt,'d at gwl University in 19.52, ba,,~l ,m German wartime radar technoh,vqV. The budding is today u~d fi,r musical practice. Photo by. Mike Cowham. sextant (much to Flamsteed's and especially Hooke's dismay), to measure accurate positions of the stars and planets. The existence of such old works - centuries • J 0 ...... "--- ...... older than the Altona Observatory - shows that its founders endowed it with a first- class library. The Astnmomi.~'he Nachrichten was relevant to our visit because it was founded by Heinrich Christian Schumacher in A[tona, and its publication was moved from Altona to Kid along with the instruments of the Observatory; it is the oldest still-published astronomical journal, and was the most important in the world in the 19'h century. From this optical ob~rvatory, the coach took us a short distance to see the remains of the first Kiel University radiotelescope. Astronomical radio emission had been di~overed in the 1930s, but i~ origins were not clear. Starting in the early 1940s the internationally known Kid astrophysi- cist Albrecht Unsold (19()~1995) did im- portant theoretical work on the origin of Fig.4 Earlu ~x-rau Iut,e~ fl, mked t,u later ,l/,/,,;r,itu. ,it tiw thstorl,al Mcdt,,d and l'h,lrm,;, u the radio-frequency radiation from the Collectum at Kiel. Photo by. C,arth Tayh,r. Milky Way. After WW II, radioastronomy developed quickly in the Allied countries thanks to radar technology and in parti- from 1955, a 3-m parabolic reflector was the Eifel (Max-Plam-k-irtstitut fur Radio- cular to the German 7.5-m diameter used mainly for the radio emi~ion of the astronomie). "Wiirzburg-Riese' parabolic radar antennas quiet Sun, and in 1957 a radiospectrograph which were obtained as war reparation. (48 to 165 MHz) was built for the observa- /ames Caplan/Gudrun Wol~hmidt Such work with radar or radio was tion of solar bursts. In the German Demo- forbidden in Germany itself until the cratic Republic, solar radio observations Schiffahmmu~um, Kid middle of the 19~)s, although as early as were begun in Berlin-Adlersl'~f in 1951, 1949 the Kid astronomers were experi- and in 1953 with antennas in Tremsdorf near The afternoon featured visits to two menting with a 200 MHz dipole antenna Pot.~dam. In 1957 a 36-m transit radio- museums in Kiel. l'he first was the wall. In 1952 the Allies eased the restric- telescope (now destroyed) began operations Maritime Museum, housed in the hall of tionLs. In Kid in 19,56 a 7.5-m parabolic in Berlin-Adlershof. The first really large the former fish market, rather like an antenna - the size of the 'Wtirzburg-Riese' radiotelescope in western Germany was upturned boat in shape. It was a small - was mounted on top of a building in the erected in 1956 tm the Stockert in the Eifel museum hut had several very mter~tmg typical curved style of the 1950s, and was (near Bonn): a 2~m parabolic reflector for exhibits, notably the first German submar- used for observing the Sun. This long- observing galactic and extragalactic radio ine, the Kwler'Bramttauctu'r of 1850, de- abandoned instrument is on the campus of sources. The early work in Kid prepared the signed by William Bauer and operated by the university (the building (Fig. 3) Ls used way for Germany's large presence tt~ay in pedal l~wer (it was not a success). Another today for musical practice). the world of radio~stronomy, leading for unusual ob~ct was the 'Kaiserpanorama', a example to the largest (until 2000) fully large steretyscopic viewer with seats all Early radioasmmomy was also practised in steerable radiotelescope in the world: the round so that several people could watch three other places in Germany In Freiburg, liX)-m paral~flic reflector near Effel,.~herg in at the same time as the various views Bulletin of the Soentific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) 25 r! Fig.6 'It's ,t,,,c Ilk,' t/us.', Gudrun demon- strafing, RtT,.~,l,t's astronomer's (h,zir. Photo by. Arthur Midrib'ton. Fig.7 Pr,!tl Dr talk Rt,'>, au,t tu~ Il:.c,lu'~ apparatus, includm,~ (h,wer h,{t) ttle fine- Fig.5 Iz, h' X.mXc i'u ttcmrz, h 1 ,,t,'z¢ R,,h,lr t,~,thed wheel. Phoh, by. Arthur MMdlet,,n. Fuess at the t~!l,~t'htt~t;fllrt~ ,~u~t'um m L~uenh'rs'. Pitt,t,, bu Garth Tauh,r rotated past. There was also a g(,~d out and gave a very g~ overview of collection of nautical in.,,truments, mt~;t of enck~=d in a glass car (Fig. 5) and so not technical developments in medicine, den- easy to inspect even had time not been them h'om the collection of a certain Dr tistrv and pharmacy over the last century. Gnmm (no connection with fain,' tales as far pressing, but the signature R. Fuess, Berlin Steiglitz, could be read. as we could di.~:over). Besi~.tt.'s .~'veral Gloria Cl![hm North German magnetic compasses there was an example ot an earh" An~chutz Whilst many readers may know all about gyn~'ompass of lq20 and the ~ho-~und- Monda.v 13 ,h May the instrument-maker Heinrich Ludwig mg eqmpment dex r,,ed by Alexander Behm Rudolf Fuess, he has not received any (1?i~1-10"~2) Another notable exhibit was Lauenburg on the Elbe attention from our Society's Bulh'tin, so a the ~eather-recordmg equipment of Rudolf few notes about him are (;ffered here. Born ttall. ~ho al~ devi.,,,ext an earh, phott~'op)- In a visit ~ ith a stn~ng maritime content, it in Hanover in 1838, he moved to Berlin and mg .,~ ,.tern in 1028 On the pierimmediatelv was appropriate to take a lunch break in a m 1876 t~k over the workshops of Greiner m tront of the Mu.,,eum them, were sever,il nverside town on the ioumey from Ham- J.C. & C,ei.~,der, described as 'Werkestatte old ~h~ps to explore. burg to Bergedoff. That Mid, it would be fur MHeorological Instruments'. Surviving difficult to find a more attractive one than instruments of this genre include an anemometer, barometers, gauges and hy- Historis¢h Medizinisch- Lauenburg on the Elbe, with its mediaeval drometers, but optical instruments al~) Pharmazeutische Sammlung, Kiel timbered hou.,~s, bright paintwork, flowers, little alleyways to the river, and all in featured; binoculars, petrographic (sic) brilliant sun.,,hine. r(n~ narrow for the coach, microscopt~, goniometers and spectro- The tmal visit of the dav was to the the cobbled street was enioyed and photo- meters, and ultra-violet spectr(yscopes are lhqoncal M~lcal and Ph,lrmacv Collec- graphed as our parW wandered to one of also known. An aspiration psychometer is honot Kiel. The matenal on display ranged the inns on the riverbank, passing m(~red- dated at i~)2. We did not see any of these tr,,m Roman mtx|ical m.~truments to mid- up historic river craft and taking in the k~ral during our visit but the single example of a t~ entleth century x-ray machlner~' (Fig. 4) museum en route. Naturally the river tide gauge in Lauenburg prompts the and complete consulting n~,nas. (:)ur guide dominates, and was the main theme in the suggestion that a Bulb,tin feature on Fuess x~a, Bert Stach M.A., who showed us some museum; it was after all the Elb~hifffahrts should be sought. Fuess died in Berlin on aem, not normalh' on public display, such Museum and the history of river transport 2]" November ]917, but catalogues are a., x-ray eqtnpnwnt trom the l~3Os, which was well illustrated. The excellent m~lels listed as late as 1932. ht' -~ liched on. ~ that we could .set, the included barges, sailing barges, timber tube gh,~mg. Another special n~m - not rafts, paddle steamers, and dioramic mod- Over lunch on the riverside terrace, we for the ,~lueamlsh - ~as the pathological els of canals and locks. We recognized the received a gratuitous illustration of a cahnt.t, a x ital tt.~l for txiucating d~:tors in nuclei of the Palm~hleu~ chamber lock, m(~lern ~ientific process. A helicopter the day,, ~'tore x ldt~. There was also a having pau,~-~cl en route to study it. This moved along the river, hovering here and ,.~'ltxhon ot conventional scientific instru- well-maintained chamber lock, t'he oldest there to take .samples of the river water, ment,., notably micro,,copes, with the best surviving example in Europe, was built in whilst we contemplated and enjoyed the (;erman makt,r, such as Zei.,,s and I.eitz 1745 on the even earlier Stecknitz canal rather different ~mples placed before us. ~ ell reprt~.ntt~.t, bt,t al~, example.; by JH. which enabled the transportation of ,salt ~,te~ard ol l.ondon More unusually, the from Luneburg to Ixibeck. The Mu~um Ron Brishrw dl,plays mcluded one of the earliest artefacts were related to the local shipping, ele,.-tron m~cro~ope,, bv Siemens. Another and the special skills of river navigation do Bergedorf Observatory I ondon-made aem aroused much curiosih,, not involve the precision instruments of - a pill-making mach,ne by Christy and C(;. ocean-going vessels. Thus the only familiar After lunch, the coach tl~)k us back towards t,t [~me Street Ihe Museum was well laid instrument to be seen was a tide gauge, Hamburg and to the Bergedorf Ob~rva- 2~ Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) tory. The original Observatory had been We then inspected a third dome, containing sited in the city centre, using three tele- back doom open. Using a similar fine- a one-nwtre reflector by Cad Zeiss of Jena toothed wheel as in the original experiment, scopes positioned on bastions on the old with a rare asymmetrical mounting which city wall - one only a stone's throw from the the Group achieved a result of 313,500 requires two very heavy counter-balance kilonwters per second, far more accurate harbour, the other two further away but still weights and three smaller ones. The surrounded by houses. By 1901 observa- than Fizeau's original result, which led silvered-glass mirror can be detached onto them to believe that the Frenchman had tions and work were impossible; by then a special trolley, which is wheeled across to been more interested in making his experi- the river was crowded with coal-buming a homt and lowered to the ground floor, steam-ships, their smoke supplemented in ment work, than in the accuracy of his whenever polishing or re~lvermg is neces- findings (Fig. 7). The lecture ended at winter by thousands of chimneys, and the sary. We were reminded that it was the decision was taken to move. Parkland at 19.00hrs, but was followed by twenty Frenchman Jean Bernard Leon Foucauit, minutes of animated discussions. Members Bergedorf was acquired, 50 metres above (1819-1868), nowadays best remembered by were then escorted to the top of the 20- sea-level.Construction began in 1906 and it school-children for his pendulum, but who storey science block and the tremendous opened in 1912. Scattered about the park also, amongst many other inventions, view over the city. Finally, we were invited are six different domes containing tele- devised in 18.~ a satisfactory method of downstairs to a reception, where we could scopes by Steinheil, Repsold (who began silvering optical glass, after which the less- meet and talk with our hosts and lecturers, his career as a maker of horse-drawn fire- accurate speculum metal mirrors became engines and only later turned to astron- and be plied with Deut~he Sekf and open redundant. The last dome contained the filled rolls, so much so that supper became omy), and Zeiss. There are ancillary build- 'Grosset Refraktor',a 60cm diameter instru- unnecessary. We were glad to see our hotels ings, and a splendid country-house, which ment by Steinheil of Munich, mounted on a after a king and full day. serves as the headquarters and library. stand by Repsoid in 1910 and now used only for photography. Arthur Middleton The first and smallest dome contained a 26crn diameter refractor of 3 metres focal We were shown into the library, a spackazs Tuesday14P May length by Mertz of Munich, 1867, (he room facing south, the ground floor and succeeded Frauenhofer), plus an observers gallery above lined with books. Open for Geomagnetic Observato~, Winpt chair invented by Repsold. This apparatus our inspection included the Scripta Clarissi- could be moved up-and-down or sideways mi Mathematici, IOHANNIS REGIOMONTA. The Wingst Observatory was founded in by the astronomer tugging on ropes close to N! AD MDXLill (1543), Nicholai Bion, 1938 and is situated scmnnae 80 kilomete~ him, while having to move no other part of Mathematisch Werke Schule, Nuroberg 1717, northwest of Hamburg in a pleasant his b~idy but his arms. Gudrun showed us and the Astronomie lnstaurate Mechanica, wooded area close to the coast on the Elbe how. (Fig. 6) The second dome, now empty MDCIL by Tycbo Brache, which contained delta. The observatory monitors short and and needing half-a-million Euros to pre- all his observations to date and published, long term variations of the Earth's geomag- serve it from the foundations upwards, for the first time in Germany, in Wan.shack, netic field using highly sensitive measuring originally contained a one-metre diameter near Hamburg, in 1598. Our attention was instruments and is, therefore, located well meridian circle from 1906 which was used caught by a 38cm glass globe with the away from any towns to avoid disturbance to measure the whole of the Northern sky, constellations painted in it by hand: to its delicate recording systems. Wingst until it was moved to Perth (Australia) in mounted inside it was a 15cm terrestrial Observatory is Iomtly operated by the the 1960s where the operation was repeated globe by Car), Of London, dating to the German Research Centre for Earth Sciences, for the Southern sky. There it stayed, since 1840s, since our inspection by torch-light Potsdam and the Federal Maritime and there was no funds available to pay for it's revealed, among other indications, no Hydrographic Agency (BSH). Our host, return until Gudrun somehow and recently marking of Lake Victoria in central Africa, Horst Wiidt, guided us into a large wooden found the money. It is now back in but just a hint of other lakes in the area. The barn-like structure housing a large coil Germany, but in store in Munich. The third brass mounting was more recent. On a several metres in diameter which is used dome originally contained a Schmidt tele- gallery shelf, by a window, was a heliostat for degaussing geomagnetic instruments. scope. This was later taken to Spain and by Grubb of Dublin, number 4584. But time Here he gave us a presentation on the replaced by the Luiming' telescope was up: we had to thank our hosts and 'Oskar theory and history of geomagnetism. In of 1975 which is stillin use. We then broke leave for Hamburg again, to an early brief, the observatory measures the angle evening lecture. for coffee, cold drinks and cakes, sitting at between true geographic north and the tables laid out under the trees - pleasant direction shown by compass needles (mag- shading from the warm sunshine. During Lecture on the Replication Method netic north), together with the angle of dip this interlude Dr Ulf Borgeest spoke on the of a compass needle held in a vertical plane importance of teaching astronomy to We were half-an-hour late. Waiting pa- (inclination). Abo of importance are varia- younger students, and then Barbara Dufner tiently were Prof. Dr Faik Riess, his rictus over time in the intensitv of the (by the time you read this, Doctor Barbara) colleague Dr Peter Hearing, both from the vertical and horizontal components of the told us about the extraordinary astronomer University of Oldenburg, and an invited magnetic field. Changes in inteq~itv are due Bernhard Schmidt, 1879-1935. Born in audience. For our benefit, the lecture was in to long term movements in the earth's core Estonia, he studied engmeenng at Gothen- English: The Replication Method as an Access and short term effects such as changes in burg and then in Germany, only finding to Historical Practice: Fi:eau's Measurement of solar activi.ty. The observatory is part of a astronomy later. He was a life-long bache- the Speed of Lzght. Taking turns, they worldwide network of measunng stations lor, in the old-fashicawd sense, a loner, '..a explained that their Group re-creates histor- continuously monitoring these effects. Fie queer sort of fish..', as Barbara commented. ical instruments and then uses them to showed numerous graphs and charts of the Nevertheless his work slowly became replicate the original experiments, in this variation in magnetic north (war time. For appreciated and eventually he was invited case the first attempt to measure the speed instance, between 193q and 1999, the to live and work at the Observatory, where of light. Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau direction of magnetic north at Wingst be spent the last ten years of his life. In 1930 (1819-1896) had used two brass telescopes, changed by some 6 degrees, actualh, he invented what is still known tnday as the one reflecting, the other refracting, the coinciding with true north in I~. it was Schmidt Optical System, which could object glasses only 10cm diameter, placed pointed out that eventually magnetic ra~rth produce much sharper stellar photographs eight kilometers apart: the Oldenburg will have swung round to face due south, by correcting spherical aberration, achieved Group could place theirs at only 6.5 but fortunately not in our lifetimes. by his addition of special 'correction-plate' kilometers distance, one sited inside the n~unted in the centre of curvature. He is top of an old water-tower, on the edge Of We were then asked to deposit steel t~cts buried just outside the perimeter fence, and the town, the responding instrument placed such as keys, watches and belts to avoid we viewed his tombstone through the wire. in a van parked on a distant dike, with it's introducing any magnetic disturbance to Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) 27 Fig.q l),t,tl ~ah ulat,,r at B~cmcrha;'cn, a,tth 211 hdal xear,. ,on,trt,h'd by. Hemrich Rauschelbach in 191o. In tu,eh,e hours it could predict the F=g.8 5tmon Chetfi't:, la,ut~" Mu.~" and Ron Brtstt,w di.~'uss the ultnz- tides fi,r one }Larbour.~r one year. Photo by. Mike Cowham. ~'~lsltl;~t' ,~t'oma~'rletit" instruments at Wmgst. Pitt)hi by. Mike Cowlum~. the measuring instruments, which are these units Ls displayed. Dr. Saur commen- Doppler Profiler, which determine whole hound in two single story brick buildings ted that it was a mere miracle that the parts current profiles and the Delphin hydro- behind the barn (Fig 8). These instruments on display survived. ALSO in this exhibit metric vane, both built in 1999. On a PC we are of tar greater accuracy than is achiev- was a steering device ~)m 1960 using radar could watch data being received in real able using simple compass needles and which demonstrated the development of time from six gauging stations on the Weser reloice in names such as the proton vector the use of radar in navigation. In a room River. magnetometer and the tn-axial fluxgate overlooking the hartx~ur we saw a radar magnetometer. Most of the instruments machine that was recording information By this time everyone was ready h~r coffee record their readings automaticalh', .,a~ that from the radar unit mounted on the roof of and we headed upstairs. We were ushered ~,tattmg for the facility is minimal'. the museum. into a lovely paneled room overlooking the Weser River. Coffee and biscuits were Overall. the vtsd gave a ta~inating insight On the way to the next exhibit (m tidal arranged on one end of a long conference into the work of a modern obserx'atory, the prediction machines, we passed some table, and on the other end of the table were the~rv and histo~" of which were excel- interesting items such as a group of instruments for us to examine. Our en- lenth/dt~_-nbed b'¢ our host, Horst Wildt, to instruments which belonged to a captain thusiastic group could hardly sit calmly whom mare; thanks are due. of a whaling ship, a Troughton & Simms drinking coffee and nibbling on biscuits sextant dated 1835, a diorama of whaling while there were instruments in plain sight. Smzon Chezfi't: ships in action, and an enigma machine. For some, the refreshments had to wait and Indeed, it was quite a task to assemble the white gloves donned. DeuL~hes Schiffahrtsmuseum everyone for the group photo as there was Bremerhaven always one more interesting item to be Among the instruments were six sextants, perused. one of which was a sextant m its original case Atter lunch we cn~,sed the .,,quare and by Hough - Stuttgart with a book dated 1794, headed to the Deut.,,ches Schiffahrtsmu- Dr. Saur intr~.tuced us to the exhibit on a small anemometer by Steglig - Berlin, a ,~,um Bremerhaven (German Maritime tides by walking us around a large mt~el of back-staff signed Ha]fy- Boston dated 1751, a Mu,,eum). The museum, which includes the Earth-Moon system which demon- boxw(x~ cross-staff dated 1752 signed an open air mu~um harbour with historic strated common movements of the tides Hasenbmek, a drawing instrument owned t e.,~ls, is l(~.-ated in a park-like site and the m(x~n. Because of all the variables by shipbuilder Georg Ciaussen dated 1866, a o~erk~kmg the River We,,er. As it was a that influence tides, pnKlucing tide tables compass Mauritius BG.dated 1578, and an bit blustery, we were anxious to head was an arduous task requiring months of eight inch wo(~len compass by Petersen, tn~,tde where we were welcomed by work from skilled mathematicians. The first Altona. We were also able to examine the Albrt~ht .qaur and Uwe .~hnall, who gave tide prediction machine was built in 1873 in oldest German tide prediction device pub- u~, a guided tour especially tailored to our England and had l0 tidal gears. The first lished in 1587 by Jacob Alday in Liibeck. This intere..,t,.. German machine with 20 tidal gears was rare paper dial shows when high and low con.qructed by Heinrich Rauscheibach in water will occur at different locations. Dr. ~Ae began the tour with a visit to an exhibit l~16 and is in the exhibit (Fig. 9). In twelve Schnall explained that there was no funding ot hi~,toric radar devices where we saw the hours it could predict the tides for one for buying instruments, and that all of the tlr~t radar unit. 'h'lemobd~,kop', patented harbour for one year. Also in the exhibition instruments which we were examining, and m 1~4 by Chn~,tian Hul~mever. ['his device is a 1955 machine which L~ 5.4 metres long, 25 others in need of restoration, were u,ed radio wavt~ to help ships avoid weighs 8 tonnes, has .34 tidal gears, and donated to the museum. We were then taken collimon, and was effective for a distance could predict tides in approximately 8 to a section of the museum which Dr. Schnall ot l gkm it was developed for use in hours. (.)n a computer we could build our called the 'Chaotic Department' because the ,htpp:ng. ho~vever, it ~as m,ed by the own tide-predicting machines and see how exhibits were not organized in any mean- md=tarx m Vforld ~A'ar (~le. Atter the war, the movements of the wheels affect the mgful way. 'Someday'... he mused. One item all radar devices u.,,ed by the military were results on the graph. We al.~ saw con- that caught our attention was a Danish ordertx| destroyed. The remains of One of tem[a~rary machines, such as the Acoustic crown compass with quite a handsome 2~ Bulletin of the .'~-ientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) Fig.lO A ~','w m-ah' the enormous Drop Touw at the Centre [or Applied St~we Technoh,~ and Microc, ravitv, Bremen. Photo by. Mike Cowham. Fig.ll Arthur Maldh't,,. stam,X" up the drop capsule, happy, that it zs not he u,ho has to fall more than lO0 metres down the ¢t~acuated tub'. Photo Robert de Pecker. Three times per day, a microgravity laboratory system - a cylindrical drop capsule packed with measuring and record- ing equipment (Fig. II) - is hoisted to the top. The 17,000 cubic meters drop tube is then evacuated with gigantic pumps to minimize the air drag acting on the falling capsule. This is then released, landing on a thick layer of polystyrene balls to break its fall. Luckily we were just in time to see a drop capsule ready, and to have a k~k inside the enormous fall tower interior before it was closed for evacuation. I'his Ls truly Big Science. We were duly impres,,,ed and glad to have .seen such an unusual modem scientific instrument. Fig.12 M,~h'l oj the 27-~t refi,',tor, built by Schn,'ter m 1793 and then the biggest on the Continent. Photo by. Robert de Pecker. Lilienthal We then drove to nearbv Lilienthal, where crown. It looked likea lamp but instead had a Wednesday ]Ss May Gunther Oestmann gave us his expert compass which faced the floor, it would have comments. This village has made a name been hung over the table or bed so the ZARM, Bremen in astronomy as the site of the private captain could take his beanng without going ~.~'~sen'ato~, of Johann Hieronvmus Schro- up to the bridge. By now it was getting late The coach took us west to the University of eter (174%18161.~ His duties as local bailiff and we had to head back to the bus passing Bremen to visit ZARM, Zentrum for left him sufficient time and, apparently, the Han~ Cog which is considered one of the angewandte Raumfahrttechnologie und money to devote himself in grand style to most important exhibits in the mu~um. The Mikr~ravitatkm, that is Center for Applied astronomy, especially observing the surface Hanse C¢~ was built in 1380, and like the Space Technology and Microgravity. At this of celestial knKlies. At first, he acquired Vasa in Stockholm, sank before it sailed. It institute, the research is concentrated on the through William Herschel optical parts with was brought up from the Weser River in investigation of fluid mechanics pher~m- which he constructed two reflechng tele- approximately 2000 pieces in 1962 and ena in particular under microgravity con- scopes. But soon he began casting his own restored in 1979. A tank was then built ditions and questions related to space mirrors, for a while together with the Kid around the ship, and it was preserved in technology. The most outstanding facility professor Johann Schrader. Ever greater liquids for twenty years. The tank had just is the Drop Tower (Fig. 101, which provid~ telescopes were constructecl, and at its recently been removed and the Han~ Cog of 4.74 seconds of weightlessness in an earth- zenith, Schroeter's ~h~,rvatorv corc~isted 1380 is now on full view as the central bound laboratory. The 146 meter tall of four structures, the largest one equipped attraction of the mu~um, it was a dramatic concrete shaft was inaugurated in 1990, with a 27-h~t reflector, built m D'~3 and way to end our visit to the German Maritime and each year some 40(1 drop experiments then the biggest (m the Continent (Fig. 121. Museum are being carried out. After an introductory But it was not to last. In 1813, the Louise Mu~ film, we were shown the facility itself. ob.~rvatory was damaged through fire by Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society. No, 74 (2002) 2(} Fig.13 Christian Sichau discusses his rebuilt Maxwell apparatus with Garth Taylor. Photo by Robert de Pecker. Fig.14 Robison's device to determine the relation between electrostatic power and dis- tance. The original does not survive, this is a Fig.15 Habermel dividers in the Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe, reproduction made at Oldenburg University. Hamburg. Photo by Mike Cowham. Photo by Mike Cowham. invading French troops, and after his death on Monday, welcomed us over coffee, and between electrostatic power and distance, which J. Robison had developed around it fell into disrepair, and all that we could then we were shown some flagship pro- see are the grounds where this private jects. 4 Moses K/irn discussed his large 1769 (Fig. 14). observatory once stood. Most of Schroeter's replicated unifilar magnetometer of M. instruments were transferred to the uni- Meyerstein to determine the intensity of Travelling a long way to see replicas and versity observatory at Gtttingen, where, geomagnetic force in absolute measures, reconstructions rather than authentic in- however, they were hardly used and after C.F. Gauss and W. Weber. For reasons struments is certainly no standard ingredi- already in the 19 'h century most were of space, this apparatus was set up in the ent for Society trips. But with its irretrievably lost. What remains is the library, where we also saw a replica of instrument-oriented activities the Olden- primary mirror of the 27-telescope (now in Tycho Brahe's sextant. Falk Miiller demon- burg university department stands alone, the Deutsches Museum, Munich), and three strafed his replicated Joule's paddle-wheel not just in Europe but in the world. And items, which we saw in the Heimatmuseum experiment of 1849, which served to whatever one may think of its ambitions of Lilienthal: a secondary mirror of the determine the mechanical equivalent of and achievements, this was a great oppor- same telescope, a jovilabium and a Trought- heat. In the mid-1860s, Maxwell developed tunity to see the results for ourselves, and to on sextant. What Schroeter's observatory his apparatus to determine the viscosity discuss technical and methodological im- had looked like, is seen in some highly ('inner friction') of gases, and this has been plications of the department's work with detailed scale models made by Felix rebuilt and used for experiments by the staff and co-workers. With plenty of Liihning of Kiel, which are on display in Christian Sichau (Fig. 13). Finally, we saw food for reflection, we took our leave from this small museum. a replica of a Wilson cloud chamber of 1911, our Oldenburg friends to make the very with expert comment from Wolfgang En- long coach drive back to Hamburg. Oldenburg University gels. If all these were exact replicas of original artefacts that survive, Peter Heer- Peter de Clercq Following lunch in a Lilienthal restaurant, ing drew our attention to some 'lost 16 fh May we drove even further west to Oldenburg, devices'. These are instruments that are Thursday to see the work of the Department of only known through documentary evi- Higher Education and History of Science dence, on which the Oldenburg group has Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe, of the Carl yon Ossietzky University on based reconstructions. We were shown a Hamburg replication of instruments and experiments. permeometer and a helioscope of Jean Paul Prof Falk Riess and Dr Peter Heering, who Marat (see this issue), of French Revolution The Museum ~ Kunst und Gewerbe is had whetted our appetites with their lecture fame, and a device to determine the relation situated close to Hamburg's Hauptbahnhof. 30 Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) Fig.18 I'ed,mu'ter by Ulrt, h S,hmt 7, m the Mu~um ~r gunst und C,eucrbe, Hamburg. Photo by. Mike Couqlam. Fig.17 Astn,labe by Tobias Volckmer, made m Fig.16 Habermel torquetum of c. 1585 in the Salzbur~ in 1591 in the Museum fOr Kunst und Mu~um f~r Kunst und GeT~crbe, Hamburg. C,~,o'be, Hamburg. Photo by Mike Cowham. Photo by Mike Couqtarn. We were welcomed there by the curator of descriptive list of their instruments. His display case, but we were able to examine the instruments, Dr Bernhard Heitmann plan was to produce a full catalogue of the them closely with the doors open. The most who led us through the museum to the collection together with his wife Dr Karin prominent of these was a 51cm astrolabe scientific instrument collection. It was al- Eckhardt. After his death his widow Karm made by Tobias Volckmer, ('Volchamer'), most like entering an Aladdin's cave seeing Eckhardt has continued with the catalogue made in Salzburg in 1591 for Kaiser Rudolf such a wealth of instruments around us - in conjunction with Gimther Oestmann and II (Fig. 17). It is particularly attractive and so well displayed. In particular, the hopes to be able to complete it soon if having 6 coloured enamel figures around astrolabes were hung centrally in a walk- money can be found. Following his brief its centre, silvered plates and gilt fete. The around cabinet and could be closely outline of the history of the collection, other prominent astrolabe was made for the examined without any impediment. Gunther Oestmann opened the cabinets mathematician Alphenus Severus, by Pier- for us and allowed us to examine some of vincenzo Danti dei Rmaidi Perg~, late 15~" Dr Heitmann welcomed us to the museum the instruments in detail, it was really century, with a throne in the effigy of a man and offered to open some of the display difficult to know where to start with so with a bearded face between two dolphins. cases so that we could have a closer look at many important items on display, in a short There were two pedometers, one by Ulrich what they contained. He left us in the report like this, all that can be done is to Schniep (Fig. 18) and the other by Johann capable hands of Dr Gonther Oestmann pick out some of the instruments that Martin. Also housed in the same room as who was to be our guide for the next couple particularly interested me. the instruments were a few early clocks and of hours. Dr Oestmarm gave us a brief watches and some early books, one in history of the collection in Hamburg. He My first 'want' was a pair of dividers by particular by Regiomontanus from K6- told us that Justus Brinckmann, founder Habermel (Fig. 15). These were sih,er grit ningsbourg dated 1496. and first director of the museum established and carried substantial lunar and solar it in 1877. He made occasional purchases of information. At the centre was a horizontal The remainder of the museum was also of fine instruments over a period of years but string gnomon sundial. Also by Habermel great interest. In particular it houses a large in 1893 the collection of art dealer and was a particularly fine torquetum, of c.1585 collection of musical instruments - mosth, connoisseur Frf,deric Spitzer was sold by (Fig. 16), simply signed on its compass dial keyboard type. Silver, porcelain ancl auction. Brinckmann used this opportunity with Habermel's cipher of EH joined furniture were to be found in many to add 16 important pieces to the growing together. galleries and Egyptian, Roman and Greek collection. Among Spitzer's collection was artefacts were to be found on the second the Danti astrolabe, and these instruments There were many good dials in the floor, but I had littletime to examine these formed the core of the collection. Other collection and most by well-known makers. in detail. Our thanks for their generosity instruments were added by bequests and Christopher Schissler was well represented and co-operation during this most inter~t- from auctions in the following years. The with several dials and compendiums by ing of visits go to the director, Prof. Dr Flemish astrolabe came from the Roussei him. One dial of particular m~te was in the Wilhelm Hornbostel as well as to curator Dr collection and all but one of the Habermel form of a gilt brass powder flask about Bernhardt Heitmann and Dr Gunther instruments from the Strozzi collection. At 12cm high. One half of the flask would Oestrnann who lca~ked after our study Brinckmann's death in 1915 there were over open to reveal a horizontal dial and a requests so well. I00 instruments in the museum collection. further string gnomon dial. Although Few further instruments have been added apparently signed '(C)riftoff Schiller' and Mike C,neham since this time due mainly to the political a reasonably competent piece there was climates in Germany since. some discussion between us as to its Farewell authenticity as it did not seem to fit into a regular 'Schissler mould'. in 1970, curator Woifgang Eckhardt started The afternoon was essentially free for researching the instruments in the collec- individual arrangements, but some took tion. He published two long papers on There were three important and large sized part in an optional group visit to the Erasmus and Josua Habermel with a astrolabes, which were left hanging in the Hamburg Planetarium. This was installed Bulletin of the Scientific ~t Society No. 74 (2002) 31 Fig.13 Chrtqtlan S,hau dlscus:q's tns rebuilt Maxu'cll at.panltus u'tth C.arth liaulor. Photo tnl Ri%'rt de Pecker Fig.14 Robison's device to determine the relation betu~en electrostatic poucr and dis- Fig.15 Haht'rme! dwiders In the Museum .h~r Kunst und G~l~'rh,, tance. The oraginal d~ws not surviPe, this is a Hamburg,. Photo by. M~ke Cowham. reproduchon made at Oldenburl¢ Universi~. Photo M/Mike Cou,ham. mvading French tr~x~ps, and after his death on Monday, welcomed us over coffee, and between electrostatic power and distance, it fell into disrepair, and all that we could then we were shown some flagship pro- which J. Robison had developed around see are the grounds where this private ]ects. 4 Moses Karn discus,~2~] his large 1769 (Fig. 14). observato~" once st(x~. Most of Schn~ter's replicated unifilar magnetometer of M instruments were transferred to the uni- Meyerstein to determine the intensity of Travelling a long way to see replicas and versltv obsenatorv at GOttingen, where, geomagnetic force in absolute measures, reconstructions rather than authentic in- how~;ver, they were hardly used and after C.F. Gaus~ and W. Weber. For reasons struments is certainly no standard ingredi- already in the 19'h century most were of space, this apparatus was set up in the ent for Society trips. But with its irretrievably lost. What remains is the library, where we also saw a replica of instrument-oriented activities the Olden- primal" mirror of the 27-telescope (now in Tycho Brahe's sextant. Falk MOiler demon- burg university, department stands alone, the lX,ut~ches Munich), and three Mu.,~'um, strated his replicated Joule's paddle-wheel not just in Europe but in the world. And item.s, which we saw in the Heimatmuseum experiment of 1849, which served to whatever one may think of its ambitions of l.ilienthal: a .~ondary mirror of the determine the mechanical equivalent of and achievements, this was a great oppor- _-,ainu telex,cope, a }ovilabium and a Trought- heat. In the mid-1860s, Maxwell developed tunity to see the results for ourselves, and to on .,~,xtant What Schroeter's t~.,,ervatorv his apparatus to determine the viscosity discuss technical and methodological im- had lt~ked like, is .,~,en in some highly ('tuner friction')of ga,~es,and this has been plications of the department's work with detailed scale models made by Felix rebuilt and used for experiments by the staff and co-workers. With plenty of l.uhning of Kie], which are on display in Christian Sichau (Fig. 13). Finally, we saw ftnni for reflection, we took our leave from this small mu~,um. a replica of a Wilson cloud chamber of 1911, our Oldenburg friends to make the very with expert comment from Wolfgang En- long coach drive back to Hamburg. Oldenburg University gels. If all these were exact replicas of original artefacts that survive, Peter Heer- Peter de Clercq Following lunch in a Lflienthal restaurant, ing drew our attention to some 'lost we drove even further west to Oldenburg, devices'. These are instruments that are Thursday 16" May to see the work of the Department of only known through documentary evi- Higher Education and History of Science dence, on which the Oldenburg group has Museum fiir Kunst und Gewerbe, of the Carl yon (.)ssietzkv University on ba~l reconstructions. We were shown a Hamburg replication of instruments and experiments. permenmeter and a helioscope of Jean Paul Prof Falk Riess and Dr Peter Heering, who Marat (see this issue),of French Revolution had whetted our appetites with their lecture The Museum for Kunst und Gewerbe is fame, and a device to determine the relation situated close to Hamburg's Hauptbahnhof. ~I Bulletin of the Scientific [~trum~t Society No. 74 (2002) Fig.18 I'cdometer bL/ UIr, h S,h,,cp m t/,' Mu~um fiir Kunst und Ge'awbe, Hamburg. Photo by. Mike CouSin. Fig.17 Astn~labe by, Tobias Volckmer, made m Fig.16 ttab,'rmel t,,rquetum ,,f c. 1585 m the Salzburg in 1591 in the Museum fiir Kunst und Mu~um flit gunst und Geu~,rbe, Hamburg. Geuwbe, Hamburg. Photo by Mike Cowham. Photo by. Mike Cou,ham. We were welcomed there by the curator of descriptive list of their instruments. His display case, but we were able to examine the instruments, Dr Bernhard Heltmann plan was to produce a full catalogue of the them closely with the doors open. The most who led us through the museum to the collection together with his wife Dr Karin prominent of these was a 51cm astrolabe scientific instrument collection. It was al- Eckhardt. After his death his widow Karin made by Tobias Volckmer, ('Volchamer'), most like entering an Aladdin's cave seeing Eckhardt has continued with the catalogue made in SaLzburg in 1591 for KaL~r Rudolf such a wealth of instruments around us - in conjunction with Gimther Oestmann and II (Fig. 17). It is particularly attractive and so well displayed. In particular, the hopes to be able to complete it soon if having 6 coloured enamel figures around astrolabes were hung centrally in a walk- money can be found. Following his brief its centre, silvered plates and gilt fete. The around cabinet and could be closely outline of the history of the collection, other prominent astrolabe was made for the examined without any impediment. Gunther Oestmann opened the cabinets mathematician Alphenus Severus, by Pier- for us and allowed us to examine some of vincenzo Danti dei Rinaldi Pergia, late 15 ~' the instruments in detail. It was really century, with a throne in the effigy of a man Dr Heitmann welcomed us to the museum to know where to start with so and offered to open some of the display difficult with a bearded face between two dolphins. cases so that we could have a closer look at many important items on display. In a short There were two pedometers, one by Ulrich all done is to what they contained. He left us in the report like this, that can be Schniep (Fig. 18) and the other by Johann capable hands of Dr G~inther Oestmann pick out some of the instruments that Martin. Also housed in the same room as the instruments were a few early clocks and who was to be our guide for the next couple particularly intenested me. watches and some early books, one in of hours. Dr Oestmann gave us a brief particular by Regiomontanus from K6- history of the collection in Hamburg. He My first 'want' was a pair of dividers by ningsbourg dated 1496. told us that Justus Brinckmann, founder Habermel (Fig. 15). These were silver gilt and firstdirector of the museum established and carried substantial lunar and solar it in 1877. He made occasional purchases of information. At the centre was a horizontal The remainder of the museum was also of fine instruments over a period of years but string gnomon sundial. Also by Habermel great interest. In particular it houses a large in 1893 the collection of art dealer and was a particularly fine torquetum, of c.1585 collection of musical instruments - mostly connoisseur Frtlderic Spitzer was sold by (Fig. 16), simply signed on its compass dial keyboard types. Silver, porcelain and auction. Brinckmann used this opportunity with Habermel's cipher of EH joined furniture were to be found in many to add 16 important pieces to the growing together. galleries and Egyptian, Roman and Greek collection. Among Spitzer's collection was artefacts were to be found on the second the Danti astrolabe, and these instruments There were many good dials in the floor, but l had littletime to examine these formed the core of the collection. Other collection and most by well-known makers. in detail. Our thanks for their generosity instruments were added by bequests and Christopher Schissler was well represented and co-operation during this most interest- from auctions in the following years. The with several dials and compendiums by ing of visits go to the director, Prof. Dr Wilhelm Hornbostel as well as to curator Dr Flemish astrolabe came from the Roussel him. One dial of particular note was in the Bernhardt Heitmann and Dr Gunther collection and all but one of the Habermel form of a gilt brass powder flask about instruments from the Strozzi collection. At 12cm high. One half of the flask would Oestmann who looked after our study Brinckmann's death in 1915 there were over open to reveal a horizontal dial and a requests so well. 100 instruments in the museum collection. further string gnomon dial. Although Few further instruments have been added apparently signed '(C)riftoff Schi/ler' and Mtke Cou,ham since this time due mainly to the political a reasonably competent piece there was climates in Germany since. some discussion between us as to its Farewell authenticity as it did not seem to fit into a regular 'Schissler mould'. In 1970, curator Wolfgang Eckhardt started The afternoon was essentially free for researching the instruments in the collec- individual arrangements, but some took tion. He published two long papers on There were ~ important and large sized part in an optional group visit to the Erasmus and J~ua Habermel with a astrolabes, which were left hanging in the Hamburg Planetarium. This was installed Bulletin o4 the Scientific Immanent Society No. 74 (2002) 31 forward to next year's Overseas Visit to Scotland. We'll meet again. Peter de Clercq Notes and References I. http: / / www.math.uni-hamburg.de/ math / ign / Inh+/ sisO2.htm 2. Copies can be ordered for £10.00 UK or $20 / 211 Euros for overseas, including postage. Any profits made will go to the SIS funds. Order from Mike Cowham, PO Box 9"/0, Haslingheld, Cambridge CB3 7FL, UK, email: mike@eastlandsq~,freeserve.co.uk 3. A highly detailed book on this observa- tory, including reprints of many 18th- and 19~ century texts, is Dieter Gerdes, Die lalu,nthaler Stern+torte 1781 bis 1818. Machinae Coelestes Lilienthalienses. Die Instrumente. Eine zeit- geschichtltche Dokumentation (Heimatverein Lilienthal: Verlag M. Simmering, 11991]). Fig.lq 5,~u'tt/~ tar~l~'ll dinner in "The R,,.q". Hamburg. Photo by. lames Cal,hm. 4. Most of these are discussed and illu- strated m two German books on the replica- m 19.~} under the dome of a water-tower in renowned historian Aby Warburg (1866- tion work at Oldenburg: E Heenng, E Riess, the CIW Park. From the observation plat- 192q), whose famous research institute and C. Sichau, eds., Im Labor dcr Physikgeschichte. form there is an extensive view over library, were transferred to London in the Zur Untersuchung historischer Experimental- Hamburg, and on the ground fltx~r one 1930s. praxzs (Oldenburg: Bibliotheks- und lnforma- can see the former planetarium's pro~ctor, tionssystem dec Universitat Oldenburg, 2000), and Peter Heering, ed., Welt erfarschen - Welten made by ZeLss in the 1950s. Perhaps most The evening ended in style with the Society Imnstruwren. Physikahsche Expenmentierkultur mteresti'ng for our group, however, was the Dinner (Fig. 19). it was held in 'The Rose', a t,om 16. his =.urn 19. ]ahrhundert. Eine Sonder- permanent exhibition on the hLstorv of man lavishly decorated private room in the ausstelhmg des Staatlichen Museums fOr Nat- m his relahon to the cosmos, with a Ratswemkeller, an immense restaurant in urkunde und Vorgeschichte OIdenbu~ und der .,,torvlme relaUng to the history of astron- the cellars of the Hamburg Ci.ty Hall. There Carl t~n Ossietzky Umtcrsititt Oldenburg (OId- omy. l'his by now ~m'vewhai run-down were votes of thanks and presents for our enburg: lsensee-Verlag, lqq8; Vol. 6 in series collage of photographs, texts and copies of local hosts, and good fca~cl and wine. We Schriftenrelhe des Staatlichen Museums fiir t~hiects was installed alter ideas by the retirecl in excellent spirits, already looking Naturkunde und Vorgeschichte). Book Reviews Opinions exl, res.q'd by. rt'vieu~rs are their own, and do not neces~rily reflect the vieu~ of the Edih~r or the Society. Stanhopes: A Closer View naturalist's magnifier of 20 - 30x power. i~sifions was essential, and the set-up h'an Scott it was not a commercial success, being was delicate and expensive. Grccnh~ht Pubhshmg. Es.q'x soon supplanted by the wider field and 135 pp. highly dlustnited optically superior cemented achromats A~,aihlbh' from the author at 42 Frankland designed by Steinheil and Hastings. A professional photographer, Rent Da- Cn'sccnt. P,~,h'. Dor.q't BHI4 9PX gron of Paris, foresaw the great potential ISBM I 8977 38 099 for microscopic photographs of scer~, £29.00. p & p +U.K./ £2.~1, Eun~pe £3.50, In 1853 J.B. Dancer of Manchester pro- portraits etc. if they could be incorpo- Rt~t ot a~orht £0.110 duced a small range of photomicrographs, rated in low-priced souvenirs aimed at and sold them mounted on standard the emerging tourist and seaside visitor slides for viewing under conventional market. He realized that a cheap and In 1~81 ! included a short section on the micrt~scopes. By 1857 David Brewster simple fixed-focus protective viewer was Stanhoscope' in a series of articles in the was exhibiting these photographic novel- the key requirement, and the Stanhope Bu/h'tm concerned w~th single-lens mag- ties in London, Paris and el~where, and lens in a tiny, simplified and mass- milers. As conceived bv Laird Charles demonstrating that they could be ~ti~ produced form proved ideal. The image Staruhope ~me time around 1800 this factorily examined with single-lens ma W quality was adequate for the intended was a cylindrical lens of short focal milers of short focal length made from application, and soon hundreds of thou- length, made from a single piece of glass, semi-precious stones of high refractive sands were being manufactured by that was prop~-,d for u~ in the field as a index. Careful adiustment of relative Dagron's firm. 32 BullHin of the Scientific InstrumentSociety No. 74 (2002) l thought this was the end of the story, Note faflwr's energy and determination also and that production of tawdry 'Stan- characterized C.O. Stanley's life - hopes' ceased with the beginning of WW I. A.A. Mills, 'Singk,-k.nsMagnifieng Part already as a child he became known !1. That ! was wrong has been proved by Ul: Loupes and Stanhoscopes',Bull. SIS, No. by his initials 'C.O.' ('Commanding the publication of this beautiful A4 size 56 (1998),pp. 29-31. Officer'). Certainly his childhood gave book by Jean Scott, an enthusiastic him the drive 'to do well' that would peeper through what have now become Allan Mills remain an abiding force in his life, both highly desirable antiques and collector's for good and for bad. items. Bone was the material chosen for the majority of the cheaper souvenirs, Radio Man: The Remarkable Rise and It was thanks to C.O. Stanley's skills as and the author gives colour illustrations Fall of C.O. Stanley a salesman that the Pye's radio rising of a remarkable array of novelties - Mark Frankland, author; Gordon Bussey, sun motif of their loudspeaker grille sewing accessories, pencil holders and consultant became one of the most enduring and watch chain The Institution of Electrical Engineers 2002 evocative of all wireless symbols. His Hardback, 368 pp, many illustrations early recognition of the importance of ISBN 0-85296-203-7 television made it possible for Pye to £25 ornaments being much favoured. All provide the equipment that put radar 'betray themselves as Stanhopes by the into the planes in time for the Battle of little 'eye' incorporated somewhere in the A frank account of how Charles Orr Britain. During WW II he energetically design, and the contained microphoto- Stanley, an unconventional Irishman pursued Pye's interests in developing graphs are frequently of great historical and salesman par excellence, with no and manufacturing military electronics, interest. Larger and more expensive background in electronics (although he including the proximity fuse that would items in ivory and precious metals did train as a radio operator in the revolutionize anti-aircraft warfare, and embodied exactly the same range and Royal Air Force shortly before the end army radios. His forthright treatment of quality of photographs, and many of of WWI), made and lost a fortune in members of the government and civil these are included as skilful enlargements broadcasting. In 1929, C.O. Stanley, then servants that stood in his way did not in the book. a young advertising man, acquired the always win him friends, and the same small radio manufacturing business attitude characterized his offensive from the Cambridge scientific instru- against the BBC's ~ly of televi- Mrs Scott has carefully researched the ment maker, W.G. Pye. I This was still at sion in the 1950s that created indepen- story of Dagron's busw"~,~s, which grew the beginning of the broadcasting age dent television and split the British until by the late 1860s he was employ- when only the wealthy middle class establishinent. ing 150 people in his workshops in could afford ready-made multi-valve central Paris. The Franco-Prussian war radio sets. The country was ready for C.O. Stanley and lye became associated and the siege of Paris forced a suspen- cheap sets made possible through mass- with some of the most dramatic applica- sion of trading but - resourceful as ever production. C.O. Stanley made Pye a tions of modem electronics in the post- major British electrca~cs - Dagron was able to apply micropho- player in the war years, including mobile radio tele- industry - only to crash it spectacularly tography to the carriage of messages to phones, television cameras, instrument forty years later. Pye was a family firm, and from the city by homing pigeons. landing systems for airports,and the first Business was resumed after the war, ruled by C.O. Stanley with an iron rod, British transistorradio. By the time of the and was continued by the Dagron yet it was his son, John, who in 1966 as crash of 1966, Pye employed 30,000 the deputy managing director was family until 1897. The author has traced workers in Britain and abroad. The and interviewed descendants to find made to face the music and was sacked success and decline of Pye is a microcosm that the business was then sold to a by the shareholders. The mood was of what has happened to the British former employee, Joseph Luzzatto, and summed up by a radio and "IV dealer electronics industry in its inabili.ty to continued for several more decades. In who said that he had travelled 500 withstand foreign competition (in parti- particular, she has discovered that a miles to London in order to deliver the cular from Japan and the Far east). The niche market for the basic Stanhope message that the trade thought the once same story is told in Keith Geddes' lenses was filled by a factory set up at great firm of Pye had become a 'giggle'. Setmakers: A History of the Radio and Gex, near the Swiss border, and even- Television lndust~. (London: BREMA, tually owned and operated by the Mark Frankland, formerly of The Ob- 1991). The technical historian of British Reymond family. A fascinating chapter, senw, starts this well-written book with Broadcasting, Gordon Bussey, has colla- describes the processes involved in the shareholders' 'execution' of C.O. borated with both btx)ks, and this must making some 2.75 million Stanhope Stanley through his son and seeks an be why in appearance Radio Man bears a lenses per year around the turn of the answer to two questions: How had C.O. strong affinity with Setmakers. Nicholas century, of which a million went to Stanley come to lose his magic sales- Stanley, the grandson of C.O., has made 'Luzzatto-Successeurs' in Paris. Pn~uc- man's touch by the nineteen sixties, and freely available from the family's ar- tion decreased in the 1930s, but Roger how could he as a professed 'family chives material that has made this continued to make and supply the basic man' leave his only son to face, on his perceptive biography possible. He may lenses up to 1972. own, the consequences of Pye's near also well have helped in other ways collapse? In searching for the answers judged by the unusual low price of this in the accountants' reports and the book. Jean Scott has produced a superb balance sheets and in C.O. Stanley's chronicle of an industry that grew from early family life, the author has Note a curiosity reacted by scientists, but threaded a complex and fascinating happily accepted by the public when tale. His father, a strong-minded Pro- I. MJ.G. Catterrn(~eand A.F. Wolfe, Horace combined with microphotographs by an testant lived in an Ireland dominated Darwin's Shap: A Histo~ of the Cambrul.¢e exceptionally astute businessman. Poor by Catholics, owned the General Mer- ScientificInstrument Company (Bnstol:Hilger, Brewster - the parallels with the story chant store in Cappoquin, and became c. 1987). of the kaleidoscope are only too a local celebrity as a champion sculler apparent. and the town's chief rowing coach. His Willem Hackmann Bulletin of the Scientific instnanent Society No. 74 (2002) 33 Improvements in Electrical Wires and Cables Measuring the in situ Resistance of Short Lengths of Copper Wire Allan A. Mills tradesman with a few reels of copper wire and pay him to cover this metal in the same way. By 1838 instrument makers like Watkins & Hill were listing 'copper wire of all lengthsand diameters, covered in white silk or cotton, for electromagnetic experiments ...' in their catalogues. In this connection, one might well wonder if the coloured windings so commonly found on early electromag- nets, etc. (even when hidden inside some structure) have their origin in the bormet- wire maker using a dyed thread already installed on his machine. The causes of the observed variations in electrical conductivity of the basic copper wire were not easily disentangled. It was after all being manufactured for mechan- ical purposes, where toughness and resistance to corrosion were the impor- i Traz~,llingdress of the 1830s. tant criteria. Only a very large demand would eventually persuade manufac- Fig.1 Working nT,It,'a of FanMay's "nmgnet turers to undertake costly electrochemi- and coil" at,l~mm~s t~ 1831. approximately I/16" diameter 'bell wire' cal refining. Therefore, there was an used for connecting bell pulls to the intermediate period when 'electrical' mechanical bells of the period. It was, It is widely known that copper is sectmd grade copper was presumably being of ot~urse, bare metal, so he was obliged only to sil~er as a conductor of electricit).; obtained by testing and selection from to insulate the turns by winding them and is therefore the basis of the world- ordinary stocks. Companies working side-by-side with thin string, a layer of wide wire and cable industry of ttMav. deposits of ore that were naturally low calico then separating each layer. Finally, Le~ familiar is the fact that the numerical in deleterious elements - such as Lake impregnation with shellac-in-alcohol var- value of its conductivity is highly Superior copper~ - would have been in an nish secured the windings and helped dependent on freedom from impurities, advantageous position. keep moisture out. A working replica of even parts-per-million traces of certain the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. A elements significantly depressing this similar construction was used by Fara- Wire in Early Electrical Instruments ligure. Particularh" deleterious is oxygen, day for the pair of coils on an iron ring which can both dis.,~dve physically in the with which he di~overed the phenom- The nature of the insulation in early molten metal and flwm pe~istent specL,; entre of induction. 4 electrical apparatus can usually be ascer- of cuprous oxide. The basis of modern tained by simple visual inspection with a electrical conductors is therefore the very These fundamental di~overies led to hand lens, but the quality of the copper pure copper obtained by eleclax~chemical wire is much less easily determined. refining of ordmarv grades. 1"o prepare worldwide interest in the nature and applications of 'current' electricity, and Chemical analysis would be a poor billets for wire-dra~'ing these slabs must guide, and anyway it must be remem- be melted in vacuum, for even brief s~xm generated a rising demand for electrical wire that was; bered that removal of samples from exposure to air leads to measurable historical artefacts can rarely be per- degradation in performance. These facts mitted. No more than an inch or so of art, known and accepted by all present a) Ready-insulated with a thin flexible bare wire may be accessible at the day manufacturers of copper wire and covering. The string method resulted terminals: it is this sample that must be in a coil that was more than 50% cables, who employ oxygen-free high characterized in situ. conduchvttv ('OFHC') copper as their insulation - a gross waste of space in raw maten~d.: solenoids, motors, and other emer- ging electrical instruments. Specific Volume Resistance o, However. this knossledge required great b) Drawn from copper of the best Conductivity is simply the reciprocal o[ ettorts by pioneers ot the emerging resistance, so it is usual to determine and ekx'tncal mdu.,,tn in the 1~ centurv. available electrical conductivity. quote the 'specific volume resistance o, 1-ht~ may be said to have begun when, in of metals and alloys, in the cgs system I,~7~1, Michael Faradav di,~overed that Victorian investigators .~n}n noticed that (which ~,ems to me more apposite for rt'l,ltl;'¢ ntotlot! the link between IS ladies' i~ke bonnets (Fig. 2) wen, held historical .~'ientific instruments than the magnetL, m and electriotv by plunging a out by spnngy iron wirt, sewn round the modem MKS system) this characteristic bar magnet into a coil "connected to a brim, and that this wirt, was covered represents the res'istance in ohms be- gahanometer-" He knew m~m previous with a tightly wound helical layer of tween opp~site faces of I cm cube of comparatwe researches by others, using cotton or silk thread." This millinery win, frictional charging and electrochemical the material at a stated temperature. It is was pn~Juced by independent "baronet- defined by the formula: cell~', that copper was the best material wire makers', who u~,d simple manual for making his coil. However, the onh," machinery to cover the iron core. It was a~ affable form of copper wire was the therefore pt~sible to provk|e a friendly R.A I Ihillet,n of the .%'.'ntifi< Instrument .%~'iety No. 74 (2002) current through this short length must be appropriate to its gauge, causing no significant heating. Currents adjusta- O • ble from 0-3 A should be adequate for all samples likely to be encountered. Fig.3 Schematic flow of current from a d) Capable of measuring such currents terminal into a wire. to a milliamp and potential differ- ences to a microvoit. The well-known engineering micrometer is generally suitable for determining the , I diameter of a wire, but it is the Fig.5 l'ra,tical fl~rm ~!f t,ortabh" apl,aratu~ 1 comparatively recent development of to measure in situ resistance of a short length commercial '5',~ digit' multimeters that of wire. has made the electrical requirements achievable. gently lowered on to the automatically aligned wire, and the potential between One further fundamental problem re- them noted on the electrometer. In view of IIA WillE mains: what is the effective length I of the tiny voltages involved it is advisable JNO4ER T[ the wire under investigation? From Fig. 3 to zero the latter just beforehand by it will be seen that the 'electrical' length shorting the potential terminals with a of a conductor carrying a current will be piece of stout copper wire. This procedure expected to include an unknown portion is repeated for a series of currents. beneath the terminals. For short exposed lengths it would be particularly erro- The wire is then carefully released from Fig.4 Circuit diagram of apparatus to neous to simply measure the distance the clips, and a number of diameters in measure very lout resistance. between opposing edges of binding posts the relevant portion measured with the or other contacts. The only satisfactory micrometer. The temperature of the room method is to separate the current and should also be noted. For transport, the where: potential circuits. pins are protected by lowering the arm to rest on a Perspex spacer, dimensioned to R is the measured resistance in ohms. A Practical Solution allow them to prog~ into oversize holes drilled in the groove of the sub-plate. A is the cross-sectional area in cm 2 of When new, a modem 1.5 V heavy duty the specimen, usually but not neces- Some Resul~ sarily a wire of circular cross section. alkaline cell has a sufficiently low internal resistance to give a dead short current of 8 A for a brief period. A ! was privileged to examine the copper i is the length of the specimen in cm. variable resistance of a few ohms in series wire with which Michael Faraday wound will therefore provide a portable source his famous ring. An end of one winding o~ used to be called ohms per centimetre enabling currents not normally exceeding protruded as some inches of bare cube, but was later designated micro- 3 A to be put through short lengths of (although tarnished) metal (Fig. 6). Un- ohm-centimetres. copper wire of any gauge. The potential fortunately, Faraday's 'magnet and coil' difference between two sharp pins apparatus had no accessible winding Requirements for an Instrument to spaced a known distance apart along this wire, but it appeared identical with that Measure o. wire is then available for measurement on the ring. with an electrometer - a voltmeter of In principle, if a measured current ! is extremely high resistance that takes The apparatus described above was sent through a circuit by a known voltage negligible current, so that 'good' contacts teamed with: V, then the resistance of that circuit is are unnecessary. It is important that given by law: Ohm's current and potential difference be mea- Ammeter:. Tektronix TX3 multimeter, sured at the same time, necessitating two 514 digit. R_- v meters. The basic circuit is represented in I Fig. 4. Electrometer. Thurlbv 1905A multi- However, to determine the resistance of meter, switched to 5½ digits and short lengths of copper wire in situ in A practical form of the instrument is >1000 MQ input impedance mt~e. museum instruments is not a simple shown in Fig. 5. The dry cell is connected matter. What is needed is equipment that to two phosphor bronze clips spaced The mean resistance between the pn~Jes is: about 25 mm apart (the distance is not was 0.394 ml~. Measurement of the critical) on a perspex baseplate. The in situ diameter of the wire was made difficult a) Portable, so that it may be taken to wire to be measured is gently held by waviness pn~uced by frequent bend- the museum. beneath them in a groove crossing a ing, but a mean diameter of 1.25 mm perspex sub-plate. The current is then obtained from carefully positioned mi- b) Designed not to put any current switched on and adjusted to ch(~en crometer readings was accepted. Calcula- through the main windings of the values up to 3 A. Two sharp pins (! used tion then gave a specific volume artefact. cut-down dressmakers' pins) are held a resistance for the metal of 3.22 x lO ~' known distance apart on a perspex rock- ohms-cm at 25"C. c) Capable of operating on 25 nun of ing arm - mine were measured to be 15.00 wire, contacting it in a detachable nun apart with a travelling microscope. This figure may be compared with values manner causing no damage. The The arm is released to allow the pins to be obtained by the same method for silk- Bulletinof the ScientificInstrument Society No. 74 (2iX}2) 35 thimgh, is of surprisingly high quality ,~'krpedia of Chemu'al Technolo~. (New York: electrically. One possibility is that, by Wiley-lnterscience, 1979). working with long lengths of fine gauges, the techniques of the time (based on 2. M. Faraday, Experimental Researches in Wheatstone's bridge, published; in 1843) Electrical., 3 vols (Lm~on: Quaritch, 1839-55), would have enabled this conscientious l, pp. 9-12. craftsman and manufacturer to choose a supplier of superior copper. An alter- 3. A.A. Mills, "Early Voltaic Batteries: An native explanation is that Henley's wire- Evaluation m Modern Units and Application to the Work of Davy and Faraday', Annals of wrapping machine (presented to the Science, in press. Science Mu~um in 1939) remained in use until well into the second half of the 4. T. Martin, Faraday's Discm~rtt of Electro- Fig.6 M,'asurmg cotutu,twtty ,!t the ,OITcr 19" century, and this is the date of the Ma~ptetic Inductura (London: Amoid, 1949). wire used ln~ Faraday to wind the ring u,ith wire we find upon it today. It would be of which he d'is,'o~wred electroma£netic mduc- interest to determine the spedfic con- 5. A.A. Mills, "The Early History of Insulated tam. Copyr~£ht the author. ductivities of a wider range of copper Copper Wire', submitted to Annals of Science. wires of known date and origin. 6. W.M. Tuddenham and P.A. Dougall, covered copper wire prepared by Wil- "Copper', in Kirk-Ofhmer Enct~lopedia of Che- Acknowledgements liam Henley,~ at a date thought to be mical Technology (New York: Wiley-lnter- 1850-60, and m~xiem 'OFHC' copper science, I079}. wire: I am grateful to Dr Frank James and the Royal IRstitution for allowing access to 7. C. Wheatstone, 'An Account of Several Microhm-cm apparatus normally housed m the Fara- New Instruments and Pn~ for l,)etermin- Faraday 1831 3.~ day Museum. Fig. 6 is puhlished with ing the Constants of a Voltaic Circuit', Phil. Henley, 1850-60 1.78 permission. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. (1843), pp. 303-327, especially pp. 323-5. Modem* 1.68 No4es and References Author's address: As expected, Faraday's "mechanical' Department of Physics and Astronomy grade wire is nearly twice as resistive as I. R.E. Rk'ksecker, "Wrought Copper and The University modem copper wire. Henley's wire, Wrought Copper Alloys', m Kirk-Othmer En- Leicester LE1 7RH Current and Future Events 18 St~Member - 31 October 2002, Paris, France 16 October - 1S December 2002, Paris, France linking two great voyages of expkwah~m and Exhibition at the Paris Obse~.atory an exhibition discovery, respired by next year's Beagle 2 The Pans based art gallery J. Kugel, organizes an mL~km to Mars. The exhibih(m links the exhlbutttm called SPtIERES. The Art ,~ the Celestutl on Foucault, accmnpanied by a ~a)k by William Tobm m French and English. Contact Suzanne m~,mm back to Charles Darwin's voyage on Mechamc Also featured is the Franqois let HMS Beaglem the early 19~ century. Key exhibits mechanical gk~he by Pierre de Fc,bis, Lyon c. Debarbat at the Pans Obsecvatm'y, 61 Avenue de I'Obse~'atoire, F-750 14 Paris, France, for details. will he the scumtific instrmnents used on HMS l.'g40, which is argumbly the most elaborate and Beagle. Infl)rmation on +44 (0)20 8858 4422 or beautiful French ck~ck from the Renaissance z'/October 2002, Imam, England www.nmm,ac.uk peru,, and the celebrated 'Chef-d'Oeuvre of Antide Janvwr', the most complex astrtmomical T'he 3Ya Scwnt{fic & Medical Instrument Fair will 16-20 October 2002, Mmim~ Italy clock ever built, frtx,n 1789 to 1801. The Chef- be held at the Radisson SAS Portman Hotel, d'(h'uvre ts presented with the auth~r's IM page Portman Square, London WI, from 10:00 to 16:00 International symposium Framesco Maurolico manu_~-npt explaining the tunctu~ns and use of hours. Nearest Undergnmnd statitm is Marble ¢1494-1575) and the Renals~nce of Mathematics, at the machine. ]his exhibition is accompanied by a Arch. Admtssam £4. Oganized by Talbot Promo- Messma, S/cily He was one of the most una~wtant detailed catalogue written wah the help of Dr. titms, PO Box 31525, London Wll 2XY. THe- mathematicians of the Renatssance. The sympo- Ktwnraad Van Cloemp*K~l and Jean-Claude phone/fax: +44 (0)20 8969 7011. E-mail: sium will present the 'Maurolico Pn~,ct'. and .'~bner,and tulh,'fllu..,trated wnth cokmr pictures. talba~t.stuart@~lk21 .corn ek,ctnmic critical edifitm of his mathematical J Kogel Antquaires, 279, rue Saint Himore, Pans writings launched m 19q8. For details e-mail: 7.-~I~.Tel + 33 1 42 60 86 23 / Fax + 33 1 42 61 06 25 November 2002, London, England maumlico@dm unipi.it ,"2 / E-mail [email protected] rhe Stwiety's 10e' Annual Invitation Lecture will 30 September to 4 October 2003, Until Z$ September 2002, Oxford, England be ~ven by the President, Pn)fes~)r G.L'E. Turner Newport News, Virginia, USA at the Socwty of Antiquaries, Burlington House, Picadilly, London WIV 0[Q. His title is Scwnt!fic XX I I ~l¢~tlfiC Instrument Symposium to be held at ~,h,mon', Hour" m O.~6~rd New Finds from the f#rst Instrurm'nts: WMt? the Mariner's Museum at Newport News, Virginia, .%lu~'um, a display of finds made during the with excursitms to Colonial Williamsburg and rede~, eh,pment of the Museum of the History of 6-7 December 2002, University of Washington. For mh~rmation consult the Com- ~'nence, including evidence of chemical wtwk, Cambridge, England miss0on's website at http://www.sic.iuhpa.org anatomical di~secti~m and everyday museum life from the hr~t century of the Ashmolean Museum. Lectures tm Cambridge's Department of Chemist- 16-18 April 2004, Oxford, England ~,tstt thi' Mu.seum's'tm-line exhibltltms, ~w better ry's past, present and future to celebrate the ,,till, .~.. the real ~ne in Oxford tercentenary of its first chair of chemnstry The British Sundial &riety's mtema~mal annual established m 1702. Evening reception at the conference at St Anne's College, Oxford, wel- 20 - 25 September, Dublin, Ireland Whipple Museum. Contact Dr Jane Snaith, ctmws members from the SIS to attend. If SIS Department of Chemistry, Universdy of Cam- members would like to attend, give a lectureor a Meetmg of ire Anhque Telescope ~ciety. For bridge, Lensfield Rd, Cambridge CB2 IEW. Tel.: poster session, ctmtact Douglas Bateman, Secre- mtormation emanl: rnatlto:tel.,,ctv,,,~,un~pa.ctnn +44 (0)I223 336537 or e-mail: [email protected] tary, Bntish Sundial Society,4 New Wokingham m.ac.uk Road, Crowthome, Berkshire,RG45 7NR. Tel.:+44 5 October 2002, Bristol, England (0)1344 77234)3;e-mail: IXmglas.bateman@btinter- 6 December 2002-7 September 2003, uet.com. Conference is on April Greenwich, London, England The 2003 25-27 at hi';, %'tstt to Brunel m.,.truments, Camera (.)bscura, Yamfield, England. Industnal Museum, Universi~' Library, Tyndall The Bea~le Vova,¢e,-From Earth to Mars, a new Avenue, Bnstol BS,H IT]. Details t~ future events, meetings, exhibiti~ras, etc. exhibifitm at the National Maritime Museum, stmuld be sent to the Editor. -'~ Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument ~)ciety No. 74 (2002) Classified Scientific Instrument Society Summary of Advertising Services For further infcn'nmtitm contact the Society's Executive Officer (detait~ on reside cover). Lithoflow Ltd act as agents for all advertisements but any services taken up will be treated as a contract with the S~:iety. i: Page rates for camera ready artwork supplied: Whole page t210 Half page £110 Quarter page £60 l Eighth page £42 Other: Additional artwork At cost Classified 25p per word (minimum charge KS) Use of box number £1.50 (apply to SIS Executive Officer) Flyer supplied by custtnner £45 IN) Box 31525 London WII 2XY Flyer supplied as camera ready copy Tel/Fax: 00-44-(0)20-896q 7011 Single side £120 entail: lalbot.stu~'tcatalk21 .corn Two sides £150 ~:~ 'y__,.~.',. ;~-,. ~ :-~. ~/'~ Special mailsh(~s - as for flyers plus postage and handling charge ]'here are no direct reductitms for placing advertc~ments in mone than one issue but page rates wdl quah~ for a 10% rebate on each set of 4 consecutive advertisements. Final copy must be w!th Lithoflow Ltd no later titan 4 weeks before publication of the Bulletin, ~.i.~2wanlu:d.n/, April, July, Octtdx,n'. All detaded arrangements to be made direct with Payment Invoices will be issued by the Society immediately after publication of an issue of the Bulletin. Terms 30 days after date of invoice. The Society is not registered for VAT. ALAIN BRIEUX SCIENCES. TECHNIQUES. MI~DECINE \1 .1 48, RUE JACOB • 75006 PARIS T61.01 42 60 21 98 • Fax 01 42 60 55 24 OLD INSTRUMENTS OLD BOOKS • LITERATURE 103 West Ali~ Street @ O~, California9~23 Teleph0ne/Facsimile(805) 6464k~4 Shop Open 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. every Friday.Saur~y, Sunday and Mondayix by appointment Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2tXY2) 37 CHRISTIE'S :-~,. "-~ ,~,~..--. ~ ~.~:.~ An extremely fine 19-inch diameter celestial table globe by Vincenzo Coronelli Lo~lon, 1696 Estimate: (10,000-10,000 Fine Globes and Planetaria Auction Enquiries London 5 November 2002 Tom Newth 8 King Street [email protected] St. James's Viewing (020) 7321 3147 London SW 1Y 6QT 3-5 November Catalogues www.christic~com (020) 7389 2820 38 BuBe/in of the Scienl~c Instrument Society No. 74 {2002) SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY including Mechanical Music, Arms and Militaria At Auction Sunday, October 27, 2002 Bolton, Massachusetts A selection of items included in Nis sale. Illustrated catalogue #2173 available fi~r $35 by mail For further information please contact George Glastris at (978) 779-6241, fax (978) 779-5144, or email: [email protected]. SKINNER Auctioneers and Appraisers ofAntiques and Fine Art The Heritage On The Garden, 63 Park Plaza, Boston, MA 02116 Tel: 617.350.5400 357 Main Street, Bolton, MA 01740 Tel: 978.779.6241 online bidding at www.skinnerinc.com Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 74 (2002) 39 ]I' :v, l [ ,'If' J,~; F ~IIII' I~II IIt I'~;TL'IIY ~,III,'FII l~t I I~;IN~; I~IAI IIY Nit IIAIII) (,IIN.~F I-~IlM~TF: t.'~,l)lN) - .I,I),tNN) •', I,II I llll.~'~'~ I 114~'~ ~,II.II'FIV I'I,H.'I~;ID~ IIAI Ill.At AI'IIIIIII"IFI} II1 AI)IIAAk ll'fl ~.I • h~ll~.S% M.IISII~ ~,II r llll.l•~,, ~,II~I II A.%I~ ~,lll.l I Ill ~.( f~l lqAl i',l I%1 ~I I: ! ",lilil) i.~.i~i iIi } ~II%1~II: ~ ..~,iil ili I.iIiii~ Masterpieces from the Time Museum Part Ill-Scientific Instruments |MorningSale) Instruments of Science and Technology (Ahe~noonSale) Sotheby s I Auctions in london: ()lTmpia Ilammer~miih Road hmdon W 14 8UX iNl.~L IIIII • - ( ,llht'l'lllt' .%t~lll|lq)lt |)~l) .-'~LIll ~(l~p ~, Jth¢.liltt,.~¢ltllh~ttlL, i, (ith¢.hl,~.l:¢)n 1 illl~ll,l I', ' |l#(l T'~q4 l"l-l.l ~ll~.•,ltht'bv~,.~¢~lll Letters to the Editor timae expenme~ which one did at .,~d~ml but I wtadd like to know if you kranv whether am/ which never worked (mint, do) but was Firstly I am so w,a'ry to hear, at the AGM experimamtal antfactl Isuch as h~m~m~te maHved with l~nUim interest and enthu- inductkm crags) made by the amatem tawre- y, that your ~ ill taking so king to siasm: well it was a change from steam ~nh, nts of The English Meckana" or The ~ : y~m musl have dkme a really thorough Electrician have been preserved. I w,mld yah. As you may have heard ~n Peter de appreciate any suggest~ you might have Cle~I we had a omve*sation after the Science Yesk,May at the AGM I tentatively bn~hed Mmenm ReserveColle~m meeting about the in wgard to krating any such atilt,a-is, or the ~ of an amlteum' paillp, in the Bulletin. other hishwical materials related to the decline in membership and the financial I as~'d, tor example, hesv many members had, iituation of the SIS. I made the point at the amateur electrical experimenting and imtm- or knew where to ~ &ruble/single o~ttou ment-making, that might be n4evant Ew my time that we am the S¢ienti~ Instnutw~ cov~ed or sUE coven,d ctq~,r wire. The only pa~ect. Society, not the/mtiquarian Scient~ amwet that emerligq:l was my workshol~. mint So~ty. With our strong bias k~vards De,.m~md Squire asked me it I knew of a Thank you for your a~m.~ma,, ~ uities we are never going to have mine source of thin ehmi~e for the outer covering of limited apical: indeed the vast ma~wity inductkm colb. I have mine but was able to of our members are academics in the scientific suggest an alternative, i am sum a~n~me ha~ Ell-,.a~h C~qcchi and historical fields with, I wlmld ~uF-d~, a =(m~e lurking. Then then, are drawings. Many Pos~h~awal Fellow, ~ance of the latter, i.e. we have m~e must have sketches or finish~ Diimer In~tute ~ the History of Sea,neeand curatms than ctw~rvahws or pure ,,,ientisis. drawings of things they have ~ or built Technobgy, As lot ama4a,ur restorers, builder, exlmmm,n- which could swe others h~aws of searching. Dibm,r Building, tees etc. we are very thin on the gnmnd. MIT E.~- 11,), The situatkm is ~amuned up by an eccu~ .~q Memorial Drive, Such organisatim~ as the Sundial Society, The the other day. By chance a ymmger acquain- Cambridge, MA~ W2I?/4,USA British Hiwok~gical Institute, and The S(wlety tance of mine who happem to be rather Tel.: 617-25R-NI9N; email: ecavicchH~di- of Model and Espe*imental Engineers envy impectmk~, rang me and said, '1 don't bin~.mrt .edu wider l~q',uhrity and • mo~ varied nwndx,r- suppose you know of, anytme who wants an "ship. This is, I suppose, inevitable as ch~ck~, electric vacuum pump. I reptied, "! have been Mo~ About tl~ ~4dmcq~ sundiaLq, arid steam ioownotWes have a mo~ looking ~ one for the past year, I didn't know general appeal than astroiahes, influence .~tm had tree', l~v I can play with the gas mKhines and Nom~mhe~ doublers, l-~m,~.er With regard to the Dipkidoscq~e article m the kscnarge tube that I hmght frt~m I~aond Bulletin ('The Dtpleithvsctq~e Unowen~' by this was m~t always the cas~. umfil the mid Squire several years ago. I teel that I have twentieth century dabbling in chemistry, Paul Z~ilh~rm No. ~ (March 2U02), pp.2e-M) 'rabbited' on hmg emmgh so I will send samm Charles Aked's article hit which I pnwich,d electricity, optics, asmmomy, etc we~ e~tre- suggestions which you may like to cm~dder rnely I~pular pursuga with many pt~le sm~e illustration~ is ref. 12 (wnmgly attributed building their own tsluipment. What killed to 'A" Aked). What I have Is a i~mncl vidum¢. Maybe • kind of "dabbh~' ~anch' could be I~uRht at a B~x~ Fair, contamu~ pages this? (Or is it dead?). Was it pod-war austerity created. To obviate the neces,~ of our more and al~mlia? Was it the advent of "BIG half-a-ck~zen diffiq'ent jtmmals pobli~hed m scholarly members' being associatedwith such the 1~4~h, including pages 3~280 of ~blume SCIENCE' which made the amateur feel frivolity • ~eparate newsletter could he madequaW? Was it the al~' of a~flta,nae when VI of The Ma¢.a2me of S,'a'~,'e. The; was a created, which could be dished with the weekly magazine, with 8 double-column all pleasures had to come packaged and ready Bulletin to those who were in~ested to rt~,ive kw immediate and effortless en~ment? Was it ag~ per L~SUe. These pages are not dated. it. It would not need to be as clair as the ~ut k~ters pubti.~l therein are dated 27 May the conaputer, the telvisiou and'the m~mw car Bulletin: a omaputer printed, or pl~¢~, ¢,v~d which persuaded people to spend the/r time ill,t4 (p. 116) arid 13 September lg14 Ip. 20qi. booklet wimld be adequate. This would 'The [)~pk'M~.ct~-~e' octup~s pp ~|1-2, 2Oat- ~dated in their own virtual reality? We hear contain rela~rts of comaxtctk~al/e~penmen- 10, and 217-210 m three successive weekly on the news u~hy ~t~n of most tad work undertaken by c~but(es, draw- science lessom as inept and boring, is this due numbers e~'idently pubtk.d~edin mid-lit44. The rags and/or descnptions of instruments built. te~t was taken ~m 'a pamphlet ... publt.,,hed to compute, simulatiom instead of real and lists of 'fiw disl~sal" and 'wanted' expemnents? And if so how much is due to by Mr. LXmt', presumably the first editkm including such things as DCC wire, proms. l!~43) a neum~ preoccupation with 'Health and lenses, sheet brass, tdd valves, etc., etc. There Safety'? I vividly remember as a la~y, Favpar- are many such ~proul~ in e~isten~e,especially ing bromine and ether and precipitating in the USA mid it might be posmble to hwm Pages 201,200, and 217 are full-page illu,,.lta- lugubritms heavy metals with hydrogen some sort of federation of amateur science ~ms, flw which I imagu'~ Dent loaned Ih' sulphide, and ! &mbt very much whether it dubs. wta~ bliwk.~ to the nhlgazuw printer, thewbv did me more harm than fifty years of ppe obtaining gibed publicity for his day|ca m~,mg. I hope the leg " rather rapidly armmgst ~'ienhfically-min~Jed readers. That than it has hitherto~,was more . on page ~11 shtns.s a man standing (m a IS the*e a pta~ m ou~ Society lor mw,ia~v k~crace outside his h~mse, watch m hand. w|th the dipleid~ope on a nearby pillar That on daldders who have never quite grown uP? I[~ C~s E there nothing more for" the amateur to page 200 shows a man leanm~gout ,~ an ot~m contnbu~, after all Lavoisier, Pri~, Fara- ,4mmmr i Ceii~ window, with the instrument im the silt: below day, Perkin, Harrison and many others started it is the diagram reproduced ,~ your Fig. I. l'age 217 Is the illuL,,tra~m repmdu~,d as w~ur as curious dilettantm. There are inch,ties for I am n~eardUng the early issues of The Engh.~ Fig. ~, wdhout the 1late ~,'111" which "pre- amateur astnm~mlers and engineers. Do we Mn'/a~k a~ Mime' of ~'u'm't, a ~mmal which sumably was ~=t m letterpress in Dent's have a place [or dabblers m d~ty, opts, started in I~$ (a pm~.'e~w of flu. current chemisery, etc.? We are of cour~ a 'Lemmd Modd Engineer) and of The Eiectra'ian, hltin- pamphl~ Society' anti I sh~mld be the last to sugllg,M any mn~ in !~!. in these issues i am fofk~vmg the kind of 'dumbing down', Imt do we have to I~ excltanges an~m~ amateurs who were om- By the way. the creature in the latter so aggmmvely learned as to exclude every- ~trt~eting U~uctvm c~b and invoh.ed m their dJustration i.; rmt an ant - it L~ a bee. It clearly thing el~? If so our appeal is going to remain own experimenting with electricity. These has wings m the tmginal dlustrat,~m, though limited to a very tew specialL,~. The SMEE ~ were ~rm~ m ~~ are m~ visible m the Rulh'tm. AL'~ the contains many highly qualified and eminent c~dumm of the ioumals S~wae of the corre- Gmmwich Railway was opened in 181,¢. not ~,. h~.~ts and superb cra~.aen give their pe*~mal names, but IHf~ as stated m the t~mmg paragraph ,m ma e~tenas a ~arty wdctm~ to anybody who many use ininab or pseuchmvms. Some of page 2~ About .~1 years ago. when a rwwlv builds anything, hmveve* perfunctorily, and the corres~a~lents, sta'h as" 'Sigma" (J.T. ei~'ated nu~orwav (the 'Hammersmtth R~:- even to those who merely watch. I was most aglae) went on to do further work with twer') was cau~ng cmnplatnts a~ut rk,,~. I herd~m to apply kw memhen~ of so august tr~ty, which originated thnmgh their sent a letter to the Illustratcti hmdon N'='T='~ a soca,ty, as a humble builder of Wimshurst involvement with The English Meclmnw. This al~ut hga, es under the Greenwich Railwa¢ machines and ~anilar ob~dete ~=d~rry, but research pn~t hwrn~ pan id the s4udv ,~ 19" headed 'An Elevated Highway of the 18](h'. n~ only was ! cordially wek~,d'bu't was c~tury electrical expenrmmtmg and" u~h'u- To my mten.~e annL~ance the headhne was invited to exhibit my machine at Olympia on merit-making which I am ctmductmg thwugh prmtt~ in large letters as 18iq~, instead ,~ the occasion of cmr centenary and to give • talk my ~01-2003 Pi~tdo~oral Feih~ship at the early experimems in ole~ricity at Marshall Dibner h~qtitule hw the H=stmy of Scmr~x.and • This was really a repeat of many of Technology at MR', Cambridge, MA l~n R. ,~.hllhunt i 'Fable of Contents Apprqm'mte malm'~ will be ~,lenmced in Physics At~m~ , ".ht,,rud ...... 1 tr',<,Uumm~ Shape the World ...... ~Pdlmm Hackn'mmm 1 .:y~ery ~ ...... ] .-~u~,um'ements ...... 2 ~ues and Vkx.s: Scientific immanenm m l~ Century Art ...... lnga Eknqvim 4 Analysing Experiments with Two Non-canonical Devio~: Jem~ Paul Marat's ~ and P~ ...... Peter ~ $ The .Special Lo~ Collection oG Scientific Appm',tus, South ~ 1876 Part 3 Co~temporm'y Publications ...... Peter de ~rcq 16 Photo Shoot ...... 21 The Ot~,ctives o~ the 'Grit Paris Exhii~tion TetescoFe' of 1900 ...... Suzanne D~barb, t, Frango~ Laun~y 22 SIS Vbit to North Gemumy, 11"-16" May 2002 ...... 24 Book Reviews ...... 32 hnprovemmm m Electrical W'u~s and Cables ~,,mmng the m ~ Resmmx'e of ~ Leng~s of Copper ~me ...... Aiim A. Milk 34 Current and Future Events ...... 36 Advertisements ...... 37 LetSers W the Editor ...... imide b, ck cove¢ The Scientific Instrument Society Membership The Scientific instrun~nt Society (SIS) was formed in April 1983 to bring t~geth~r l~op~ with • ~ ~ im immm~ts, ranging from precious antiques to electronic devices only recently out of production. CoUectors, the antiques trade, museum staff, pmtessim~l histm'ians and other e~thuma~ will find ~ v~ ~ ~ ~ ~ to their tastes. The Society has an international member~p. Activities Regular evening meeUngs are hekl in London, as well as occamonal om,-clay and week-end con~ten:m in attractive provincial locations. Speakers are usually experts m their field, but all ~ me welcome to give talks. Special 'behind-the-~mmV ~ to museums are a useful feature. Above all, the Society's gatherings are en~able social occwiom, providing oppoaunitim m meet others with similar interests. The SIS Bulletin This is the Society's gmmal, published four times a year and sent free to mmmbem. It is attractively produced and iUu,tra~l, and contains informative articles about • wide range of ms--is as well as book and exhibiti(m reviews, news oG SIS ,ctivitim, and n~m~s oC related ~. There is a lively k,tttqs page, and 'mys~.ry ol~ects' are prment~. Another feature ia, clamf~ ~veamement column, and antique dealers and auctio~ homm regularly take advertising q~ce, m that colkctm~ may find the Bulletin • means of adding to their collections. How to join The annual subscription is due on 1 January. New members receive back copizJ of the Bulletin for the year m which they Subscription rates Resident in UK [ndivklual £35 (Student £17) Family f.40 Resident elsewhee¢ Individual fAO (Student £20) $64 (Student $32) Famay S73 Please note that higher cost of overseas membership is due to Klditioml postal m~. Pleame com~'k The Executive Officer (Wg Cdr ~ Bennett) 31 High Street, Stanford in the Vale, Faringdon, Oxon SN7 8LH. Tel: 01367 710223 Fax: 01367 718963