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Holly Wyatt-Walter

Foreword by Robert O'Neill

~ in association with ~ Palgrave Macmillan First published in Great Britain 1997 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG2l 6XS and Companies and representatives throughout the world

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-349-14247-7 ISBN 978-1-349-14245-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-14245-3

First published in the United States of America 1997 by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 978-0-312-16336-5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wyatt-Walter, Holly, 1968-1995. The European Community and the security dilemma, 1979-92 / Holly Wyatt-Walter; foreword by Robert O'Neill. p. cm.- (St. Antony's series) Originally presented as the author's thesis (Oxford). Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 978-0-312-16336-5 (cloth) 1. National security-Europe. 2. Europe-Defenses. 3. Europe• -Politics and government-1945- I. Title. II. Series. UA646.W95 1996 355'.03304-dc20 96-21864 CIP

© Andrew Wyatt-Walter 1997 Foreword © Robert O'Neill 1997 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1997 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

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This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 Contents

Foreword by Robert O'Neill ix Acknowledgments xii List of Abbreviations xiv Introduction 1 Justification 1 Project focus 2 Definitions 4 The role of theory 7 Structure 10

Part 1: Historical and Conceptual Aspects of Security and Integration, 1945-79

1 Past as Prologue: the Historical Relationship between Integration and Security 15 Introduction: security vacuum and economic instability 15 The Atlantic connection and US leadership 16 Economic response: the European Coal and Steel Community 19 Defense response: a European Defense Community and early lessons for the EC 21 After EDC: the 1960s and the French approach to an EC security identity 28 Economic influence needs a voice: the 1970s and European political cooperation 32 Conclusion: high politics, low politics, and the institutional divide to 1979 37

2 The Theoretical Relationship between Integration and Security 39 Introduction: theory mirrors practice 39 Pre-paths to integration: federalist and functionalist utopias meet post-war reality 40

v VI Contents

Paths to integration in the 1950s: pluralism and neofunctionalism 42 Integration in the 1960s: the 'intergovernmental' critique 51 Theoretical enlargement in the 1970s: beyond integration to systemic theory 54 Theory and experience: security and integration prior to 1979 60 Conclusion: theoretical expectations for the period 1979-92 64

Part II: 'Crisis in the Alliance' and West European Responses, 1979-87

3 The Changing External Dimension: US-European Divergences 69 Introduction and conceptual issues 69 Economic context and structural change 71 Strategic context and the decline of detente 80 Transatlantic turbulence continues 93 Conclusion: security community and changing identity 96

4 Fragmented 'Subsystems': the West European Response to Crisis 98 Introduction and conceptual issues 98 Political response: European Political Cooperation (EPC) 101 Economic response: 'Europe must not fall behind' 110 Military response: 'a European pillar to the alliance' 119 Conclusion: intergovernmentalism and the new European security debate 132

Part III: Europe in Flux: Internal Integration and External Disintegration, 1987-90

5 Internal Dynamism and the Consequences of the Single European Act 137 Introduction and conceptual issues 137 Impact on the West European defense market 140 Internal security: the impact of the SEA on borders 147 Conclusion: functional limitations and the success of indirect spill-over 154 Contents vn

6 Changing External Dimension: the EC Takes the Lead 157 Introduction and conceptual issues 157 The EC lead in restructuring 158 German unification and the response of EC partners 161 The changing nature of security: NATO's obsolescence and initial hopes for CSCE 165 Franco-German quid pro quo and the first phase of the IGC 174 Conclusion: Competing institutions and the EC in the lead 182

Part IV: Security Threats after the Cold War: the EC as a Security Actor? 1990-92

7 Testing Times for Security Aspirations: 'the EC Must Take the Lead' 187 Introduction and conceptual issues: the EC sets itself a test 187 The Gulf War and lessons learned about CFSP 188 The triangular debate heats up: member states, the Commission, and a US response 195 Evolving national positions and NATO-EC rivalry in the approach to Maastricht 201 The breakdown of Yugoslavia and the recognition crisis 213 Concluding the IGC: an emerging compromise? 217 Conclusion: the status quo looks increasingly appealing 219

8 Maastricht and the Grand Compromise 221 Introduction and conceptual issues: the Maastricht compromise 221 Title V: the Common Foreign and Security Policy 222 Ratification and clarification after Maastricht 232 Conclusion: a convergence of views 244

9 Conclusion: the EC and Security - Continuity within a Changing Relationship 246 Empirical findings 246 National dispositions 248 Theoretical implications 251 Concluding points 256 viii Contents

Notes 258 Bibliography 308 Index 332 Foreword

This book is important for two reasons. First, it is a major examina• tion of the debate which has taken place on the role of the European Community in security policy issues over the past fifteen years - the most thorough work of its kind in recent years. Second, as a result of the author's tragic death in July 1995, it marks her most substantial contribution to the literature of her field and forms a memorial to her life and work, particularly, but not only, during her years at St Antony's College, Oxford, 1989-94. The message of the book itself is salutary to those who follow the life of the European Community and the European Union. The Com• munity itself has chosen to reject substantial supranational integration in the fields of security and defence, preferring to leave those issues in the hands of the United States-led North Atlantic Alliance. Despite European dissatisfaction with American leadership of the Alliance, when it came to a choice Europe itself shunned full responsibility for the maintenance of its own security. In some ways this is a tribute to the quality of leadership that the United States has given the Alliance over the past forty-six years. But it also reflects European unwillingness to make the effort necessary to stand on its own feet. It leaves Europe in a dependent situation, apparently lacking both the maturity and the strength to fend for itself against possible enemies that are weaker economically. It is not a situation that gives the slightest comfort to those who wish European integration well. It also raises questions as to the longer-term consequences of this stance, particularly on American willingness to continue making the substantial efforts necessary to maintain the security of Western Europe. Recent events in Bosnia have shown even more clearly how inadequate Europe is at coping with conflict in its own continental area and how necessary firm American leadership and action continues to be. In the case of Bosnia, after four years of bloodshed, the United States finally intervened. Next time it may take even longer to exert its influence, and what will Europe do then? The reasons for the development of this sad state of affairs are, as Holly Wyatt-Walter demonstrates, diverse and complex. It is not entirely a matter of Europe proving unable and unwilling to shoulder its own security burden. It also derives from the obvious fact that integration

ix X Foreword does not have to stop at Europe's borders. The West has been ex• tremely fortunate in that it began a grand transatlantic process of inte• gration in the field of security in the late 1940s, and has been able to make that process succeed over a long and testing period. None the less, as again the author of this volume shows, there have been diffi• cult decisions that Europe's leaders have chosen to avoid, most par• ticularly in the field of the Common Foreign and Security Policy, for which high hopes were held out in the Treaty of Maastricht of 1992. Europe's leaders have simply decided to put these issues, and the differ• ences they cause, to one side in order to be able to achieve progress on other matters, particularly the all-important process of economic integration and its extension to the states of Central and Eastern Eu• rope. Dr Wyatt-Walter's work is particularly valuable in assisting the reader to weigh the merits and deficiencies of the policies of the major European states in confronting the problems of security integration over the past sixteen years. After reading this volume those who continue to grapple with these issues will have a much better base from which to develop their own thinking. Holly Wyatt-Walter herself will long be remembered by her Oxford friends for much more than the illumination she has given to a diffi• cult topic in this doctoral thesis. She made a remarkable impact when she arrived in 1989 as the Rhodes Scholar from California for that year. In deciding to accept her as a graduate student whom I would supervise personally I was influenced strongly by her referees' reports which spoke not only of her intellectual capacities, but also of her strength and independence, of how she had to provide for herself fi• nancially while at the University of Southern California. Someone who had coped with those problems and achieved an outstanding academic record looked to me to be the kind of person who would make a suc• cess on many fronts of a few years at Oxford. And so it proved. Holly was one of the most stimulating and re• warding of any student that I have supervised. She distinguished her• self not only in classes and in her essays and thesis chapters but also as President of the Oxford University Strategic Studies Group, as Graduate Assistant to Julian Bullard and myself in conducting the All Souls Foreign Policy Studies Programme, on the river, and on the wider Oxford social scene in so many ways. Her marriage to Dr Andrew Walter in 1993 gave us all great pleasure and reinforced our hopes for their fu• tures, jointly and individually. Her sparkle, warm personality, sense of humour and ability to detach herself from Oxford a little, to poke fun at some of its curious ways, all made interaction with her one of the Foreword xi great joys of being a teacher. Sadly with this apparent poise and se• curity in herself went a deeper sense of isolation and doubt about the utility of her work. While she was wonderful in helping others to look at life more positively, she was both hard on herself and stubbornly self-sufficient. When the terrible news came in early July 1995 that she had taken her own life, it was so difficult to credit. Someone less likely to have done so would be difficult to imagine. Instead of this work being but an early step on a long and important career, it sadly is a posthumous publication. But this aspect is incidental to the deci• sion of the St Antony's/Macmillan Series editors to produce it. De• spite its serving as· a form of memorial to a remarkable person, this book is commended to readers principally as a very interesting and well founded investigation of an important topic. Robert O'Neill All Souls College, Oxford Acknowledgments

To study international relations in Europe in the period 1989-94 has been an extraordinary opportunity. The shift in European affairs from euphoria to pessimism over the last five years has made my focus on security issues both exciting and provocative. It required knowledge unattainable without the insight of a number of people who gave gen• erously of their time and assistance. Foremost amongst those deserving appreciation is my supervisor, Professor Robert O'Neill, who gave me consistent encouragement and advice. This study owes much to the advice of those who read all or parts of the manuscript as well as to those who supported the project in other ways. Dr William Wallace graciously read and commented on many chapters and I appreciate his expertise. I am also grateful to Professor Richard Ullman who helped me in structuring the work and to Dr Rosemary Foot for her advice throughout this project. I would like to thank Professor Gunnar Nielsson, whose commitment to the study of Europe formed my earliest plans for the book, and Professor Roger Morgan of the European University Institute, who acted as my supervisor during my tenure as a visiting student. I am grateful to Anthony Forster for his advice on interviews and to Laura Lamont for her efforts in editing. My thanks also to Phil Budden, Marianne Hanson, Anand Menon and Robin Niblett, whose communal efforts to advance the study of European security improved the quality of this work. Moreover, Viva Bartkus, Emilie McLaughlin, Stewart Patrick and Geoff Wiseman have all offered valuable time and advice. For the research itself, I am indebted to the librarians at the Euro• pean Documentation Centre of the Bodleian Law Library and at the International Institute for Strategic Studies. This book would not have been possible without the generous as• sistance of my sponsors. Above all I would like to thank the Rhodes Trust. In addition to funding my studies in Oxford, Sir Anthony Kenny and the Trustees have encouraged travel and made much of this re• search possible. I would also like to thank the Harry S Truman Schol• arship Foundation and its Executive Secretary, Mr Louis Blair, for financial support and encouragement. My thanks to the Fulbright Fel• lowship programme and Dr Carlo Chiarenza for allowing me to spend

xii Acknowledgments xiii time at the European University Institute. I would also like to express my appreciation to the European Community Studies Association in conjunction with the Ford Foundation for their dissertation fellowship in support of this work; the Cyril Foster Fund Trustees; the Raymond Carr Fund; and the Committee for Graduate Studies at the for research funding. My sincere appreciation to Mr Stan Lee for his support of both my work and that of many other scholar• ship students. Finally, I wish to thank my husband, Andrew. His understanding of the rigors of carrying out such a study and willingness to accept its hazards did much to see this project to completion. Holly Wyatt-Walter Oxford 28 September 1994 List of Abbreviations

ARRC Allied Rapid Reaction Corps BRITE Basic Research in Industrial Technologies for Europe CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy COCOM Coordinating Committee of the Consultative Group of Nations CSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe DPC Defense Planning Committee EC European Community ECSC European Coal and Steel Community EDC European Defence Community EMU European Monetary Union EP European Parliament EPC European Political Cooperation EPU European Political Union ESDI European Security and Defence Identity ESPRIT European Strategic Programme for Research in Informa• tion Technologies EUCLID European Co-operative Long-Term Initiative on Defence Eureka European Research Coordination Agency FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office IEPG Independent European Programme Group IGC Intergovernmental Conference IMF International Monetary Fund INF Intermediate Nuclear Forces MEP Member of European Parliament MLF Multilateral Force NACC North Atlantic Cooperation Council SDI Strategic Defense Initiative SEA Single European Act START Strategic Arms Reduction Talks TEU Treaty on European Union TREVI Terrorism, Radicalism, Extremism and International Violence UK UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development us United States of America WEU Western European Union

xiv