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"Our subcultural shit-music": Dutch jazz, representation, and cultural politics

Rusch, L.

Publication date 2016 Document Version Final published version

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Citation for published version (APA): Rusch, L. (2016). "Our subcultural shit-music": Dutch jazz, representation, and cultural politics.

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UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:27 Sep 2021 "Our Subcultural Shit-Music": Dutch Jazz, Representation, and Cultural Politics

ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor

aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam

op gezag van de Rector Magnificus

prof. dr. D.C. van den Boom ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties ingestelde commissie,

in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel

op dinsdag 17 mei 2016, te 14.00 uur

door Loes Rusch

geboren te Gorinchem Promotiecommissie:

Promotor: Prof. Dr. W. van de Leur, Universiteit van Amsterdam Copromotor: Prof. Dr. A.R. Whyton, Birmingham City University

Overige leden: Prof. Dr. J.J.E. Kursell, Universiteit van Amsterdam Prof. Dr. H.J. Honing, Universiteit van Amsterdam Prof. Dr. M.S.S.E. Janssen, Erasmus Universiteit Dr. B. Titus, Universiteit van Amsterdam Dr. J.R. Gennari, University of Vermont

Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen

5IJTSFTFBSDIXBTGJOBODJBMMZTVQQPSUFECZUIF)&3"+PJOU3FTFBSDI1SPHSBNNF XIJDIJTDPGVOEFECZ ")3$ "," %"45* &5' '/3 )";6 *3$)44 .)&45 /08 3"//*4 3$/ 73BOEUIF&VSPQFBO $PNNVOJUZ'1 VOEFSUIF4PDJPFDPOPNJD4DJFODFTBOE)VNBOJUJFTQSPHSBNNF Table&of&Contents&

PREFACE&...... &III"

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS&...... &V"

LIST"OF"ABBREVIATIONS"...... "VI" PRELIMINARY"NOTES"...... "VII"

INTRODUCTION&...... &1"

1.&COMMUNITY,&SCENES&AND&NARRATIVES&...... &17"

JAZZ"AUDIENCES"...... "21" DUTCH"ENSEMBLE"CULTURE"...... "41"

RICHTINGENSTRIJD;-CONSTRUCTED-BINARIES-IN-JAZZ"...... "45" CONCLUSION"...... "50"

2.&LEGITIMIZING&THE&LEARNING&PROCESS&...... &52"

EDUCATING"THE"PROFESSIONAL"JAZZ"MUSICIAN"...... "52"

WORKSHOPS"AND"THE"NOTION"OF"OPENNESS"...... "57" JAZZ"AT"THE"CONSERVATORY"...... "71" CONCLUSION"...... "84"

3.&STATE&ARTS&FUNDING&AND&THE&CULTURAL&POLITICS&OF&SELFHORGANIZATION&...... &86"

THE"PRINCIPLE"OF"CULTUURSPREIDING"...... "88" COUNTERCULTURAL"ACTIVISM"...... "93" STRATEGIES"...... "97"

EFFECTS"...... "108" CONCLUSION"...... "115"

4.&“PIEP$PIEP$KNOR&AND&WOODEN&SHOE&TIMING”:&ON&DUTCH&JAZZ&CRITICISM&...... &118"

PRIMITIVE"EXOTICISM"...... "120"

POSTWAR"JAZZ"WRITING"...... "123" IDEOLOGIES"AND"OPINIONS"...... "129" CANONIZING"DUTCH"JAZZ"...... "134" CONCLUSION"...... "144"

5.&DOWN+BEAT:&DUTCH&JAZZ&AND&THE&AMERICAN&MAINSTREAM&...... &146"

PIONEERS"AND"ADVENTURERS;"EUROPE"AS"AN"IMAGINARY"SPACE"...... "147" NATIONAL"SOUNDS"...... "157"

CONCLUSION"...... "164" " &

i" 6.&ZEELAND+SUITE&(1977):&JAZZ,&PUBLIC&FUNDING&AND&NATIONAL&IDENTITY&...... &166"

MODERATE"ROMANTICIST"...... "168"

INTERDISPLINARITY"IN"PERFORMANCE"...... "172" COMPOSING"IMPROVISED"MUSIC"...... "174" FUNDING"THE"ZEELAND-SUITE"...... "179" LUCTOR-ET-EMERGO"...... "182"

SPINHOFFS"...... "189" CONCLUSION"...... "190"

CONCLUSION&...... &193"

(R)EVOLUTION"...... "194"

ENSEMBLE"CULTURE"...... "195" THE"POLITICS"OF"DUTCH"JAZZ,"THE"POLITICS"OF"PROVOCATION"...... "196"

SOURCES&...... &199"

BIBLIOGRAPHY"...... "199" DISCOGRAPHY"...... "208" NEWSPAPERS"...... "208" MAGAZINES"...... "209"

FILM"AND"TELEVISION"...... "210" INTERVIEWS"...... "210"

APPENDIX&I:&CONCERT&PROGRAM&ZEELAND&SUITE&...... &211"

APPENDIX&II:&TOURING&SCHEDULE&ZEELAND+SUITE&...... &212"

SUMMARY&...... &213"

SAMENVATTING&(SUMMARY&IN&DUTCH)&...... &218"

ii" Preface&

—This"is"not"dulce-de-leche." —But"it"is"made"with"dulce-the-leche." —That’s"what"I"am"saying;"this"is"not"dulce-de-leche." " During"my"research"I"regularly"thought"back"to"my"conversation"with"an"Argentinian" friend"over"dinner"in"Amsterdam."As"a"desert,"the"chef"had"made"her"a"creamy"pudding" based"on"dulce-de-leche,-the"sweet"milky"delight"from"her"homeland."While"I"considered" the"making"of"the"desert"a"friendly,"welcoming"gesture,"expressing"both"an"interest"in" my"friend’s"cultural"background"as"well"as"an"eagerness"to"explore"its"potential,"my" guest’s"rather"reserved"and"defensive"response"surprised"me." " From"the"start"of"my"research,"I"regularly"gave"lectures"on"the"topic"of"postwar"jazz"in" the"Netherlands."Outside"the"lectureHroom"and"the"conference"hall,"my"audience"tended" to"consist"of"mostly"jazz"aficionados,"dedicated"to"the"music"they"grew"up"with—and"not" seldom"with"an"impressive"memory"for"fact"and"detail."Focusing"on"the"socioHcultural" implications"of"jazz"and"addressing"the"music"in"relation"to"issues"of"identity"formation," canonization"and"myth,"I"received"an"array"of"responses,"varying"from"“What"a" refreshing"approach”"to"“And"you"actually"get"paid"to"do"this?”"On"one"particular" occasion"a"woman"in"the"audience,"after"introducing"herself"as"a"regular"visitor"of" improvised"music"workshops"in"the"1970s,"remarked"how"she"felt"that"my"observations" “denigrated”"the"achievements"of"the"musicians"back"in"those"days."Although"offending" anyone"was"the"least"of"my"intentions"(and"generally"speaking,"my"lectures"were"not" understood"as"such),"the"remark"exemplifies"the"reluctance"and"even"disappointment" felt"by"some"of"the"listeners,"usually"eyeHwitnesses"of"the"music"and"the"events" discussed."To"them,"I"realized,"the"story"of"jazz"was"the"story"of"their"youth—a"flirt"with" the"past"made"of"romanticized"anecdotes,"heroes"and"tragedies."Revealing"a"sense"of" ownership—ironically"of"a"music"that"entered"the"Netherlands"as"an"American" immigrant"—the"discontent"expressed"how"these"listeners"found"it"at"least"a"little" awkward"to"hear"their"stories"told"from"the"perspective"of"an"academic"female"born"in" 1981"and,"all"right"then,"a"jazz"saxophonist."

iii" Besides"interesting"questions"of"ownership"and"legitimacy—who"has"the"right"to"speak" about"what?"—the"reluctant"response"of"both"the"listeners"as"well"as"my"Argentinian" friend,"gave"me"insight"into"the"function"of"stories"and"memory"in"constructing"cultural" identity"and"processes"of"identification."Memories,"the"collected"stories"of"our"lives,"are" a"threshold"to"other"places,"whether"bringing"back"childhood"years,"nights"spent"in"jazz" clubs,"teenage"affairs,"or"family"dinners."Besides"shaping"how"we"see"the"world,"these" stories"create"a"sense"of"belonging"and"connect"us"to"a"certain"time"or"place."They" constitute"our"cultural"identity,"as"listeners"locate"themselves"in"music."The"mere"fact" that"I"discussed"the"music"that"had"sat"comfortably"within"their"memories,"forced"these" listeners"to"reflect"on"those"memories,"and"on"how"they"see"themselves."" " I"realize"now"that"alternative"readings"of"the"cultural"practices"past"and"present,"albeit" in"the"form"of"an"academic"lecture"or"a"creamy"pudding,"can"be"perceived"as"an"act"of" appropriation,"violating"muchHcherished"memories"and"the"sense"of"belonging"that"goes" with"it."I"am"fully"aware"of"these"sentiments"and"I"can"only"hope"that"my"research"will" offer"new"perspectives"on"what"has"been"said"and"done,"adding"to"the"stories"rather" than"crushing"them." "

iv" Acknowledgements&

This"PhD"would"not"have"been"here"without"the"great"support"of"my"supervisors"Walter" van"de"Leur"and"Tony"Whyton,"who"warmheartedly"invited"me"into"the"academic"world" and"generously"shared"their"knowledge"of"the"field."I"could"not"have"expected"that" thanks"to"them"my"research"would"travel"as"far"as"Switzerland"and"China,"not"to" mention"Guelph."I"felt"particularly"wellHtaken"care"after"by"Walter,"whose"generosity— or"strategic"vision,"perhaps?—went"as"far"as"asking"his"daughter"Floor"to"babysit"my" son."All"in"all,"I"could"not"have"wished"for"a"more"supporting,"committed,"and"fun" supervisor."I"would"also"like"to"express"my"gratitude"to"the"members"of"my"doctorate" committee:"John"Gennari,"Henkjan"Honing,"Susanne"Janssen,"Julia"Kursell"and"Barbara" Titus."Thank"you"for"investing"time"and"for"providing"interesting"and"valuable"feedback." I"feel"proud"and"honoured"that"you"have"accepted"to"be"on"my"committee." " My"gratitude"goes"to"HERA,"the"(former)"Huizinga"Institute"for"Cultural"History,"the" Amsterdam"School"for"Cultural"Analysis,"and"the"University"of"Amsterdam,"for"funding" and"supporting"my"research."I"would"also"like"to"thank"the"Rhythm"Changes"team,"for" introducing"me"into"the"unexpected"range"of"sides,"sights,"and"sounds"of"collaborative" research."In"particular"I"am"grateful"to"George"McKay"and"Nick"Gebhardt,"for"their" advice"and"encouragements."It"was—and"is—"such"a"pleasure"working"with"you." Further,"I"would"like"to"thank"my"colleagues"at"the"Musicology"Department"of"the" University"of"Amsterdam,"with"a"special"thanks"to"my"“roommate”"Vincent"van"den" Bijlaard"(sorry"for"killing"the"plant)"and"Maarten"“Ko"Ko”"Beirens."David"Beiles"was"of" particular"support,"helping"me"translate"some"of"the"work."Further,"this"thesis"would" not"have"looked"the"same"without"the"Dutch"Jazz"Archive,"especially"Ditmer"Weertman" and"Jan"Brouwer,"who"not"only"helped"me"to"find"my"way"through"the"archive,"but" whose"invitations"to"lectures,"radio"programs"and"television"shows"allowed"me"to" discuss"my"research"with"a"wider"audience." " I"feel"warmHhearted"about"the"generous"welcome"I"received"of"musicians,"journalists" and"jazz"fans"alike."You"not"only"shared"your"stories"and"visions"on"music"and"life,"but" often"kindly"invited"me"into"your"private"homes,"sharing"kitchen"tables,"dinners,"coffee," wine,"and"laughter:"Han"Bennink,"Pieter"Boersma,"Susanna"von"Canon,"Ate"van"Delden,"

v" Frans"Elsen"(+),"Leo"Cuypers,"Ruud"van"Dijk,"Bob"de"Groot,"Hans"Koert"(+),"Boudewijn" Leeuwenberg,"Willem"van"Manen,"Herman"Openneer,"Ad"van"’t"Veer,"and"Bert"Vuijsje." During"the"years"I"worked"on"my"dissertation,"I"also"received"unexpected"support"from" friends"whom"I"had"not"seen"for"a"long"time,"including"Martine"Dokman,"Maarten"Bronts" and"Martijn"Loonen."I"am"looking"forward"to"catching"up"with"all"my"family"and"friends," who"I"got"to"see"less"and"less"throughout"this"project:"Renée,"Boudewijn,"Paul,"Silke,"Ben," Tessa,"Jenny,"Sven,"Tjerk"Jan,"Tamar,"Marike,"Arjan,"and"Double"Espresso"(Floortje," Babette,"Annette)."I"am-sorry"for"all"the"missed"music,"laughter,"and"beers."My"many" hours"of"research"and"travel"would"simply"have"been"impossible"without"the"generous" help"and"support"of"my"parentsHinHlaw"Ko"and"Corry"van"Drongelen"and"my"parents"Ton" and"Thelma."Finally,"I"am"delighted"that"I"have"shared"this"trajectory"with"my"beloved" ones,"Herb"and"our"sons"Noes"and"Jip,"by"far"the"most"beautiful"outcomes"of"these"PhD" years."

List&of&abbreviations& AVRO" Algemene"Vereniging"Radio"Omroep"(General"Broadcasting"Association)" BEVEM" Beweging"voor"de"Vernieuwing"van"de"Muziekpraktijk"(Movement"for"the" Renewal"of"Musical"Practice)" BIM" Beroepsvereniging"voor"Improviserende"Musici"(Improvising"Musicians’" Union)" CRM" Cultuur,"Recreatie"en"Maatschappelijk"Werk"(Culture,"Recreation"and"Social" Service)" DB" Down-Beat"Magazine" FNM" Festival"Nieuwe"Muziek"(New"Music"Festival)" FPK" Fonds"Podiumkunsten" ICP" Instant"Composers"Pool" JOC" Jazz"Orchestra"of"the"Concertgebouw" JM" Jeugd"en"Muziek"Nederland"(Youth"and"Music"the"Netherlands)" JMZ" Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland"(Youth"and"Music"Zeeland)" NCRV"" Nederlandse"Christelijke"Radio"Vereniging"(Dutch"Christian"Radio" Association)" OKW" Onderwijs,"Cultuur"en"Wetenschap"(Education,"Arts"and"Sciences)" SJN" Stichting"Jazz"in"Nederland"(Foundation"for"Jazz"in"the"Netherlands)"

vi" SJIN" Stichting"Jazz"en"Geïmproviseerde"Muziek"in"Nederland"(Foundation"for"Jazz" in"the"Netherlands)" VARA" Verenigde"Arbeiders"Radio"Amateurs"(Workers’"Assocation"of"Radio"Makers)" VPRO" Vrijzinnig"Protestantse"Radio"Omroep"(Liberal"Protestant"Radio" Broadcasting)" WBK" Willem"Breuker"Kollektief" " Instruments- as" alto"saxophone" b" double"bass" bcl" bass"clarinet" bs" baritone"saxophone" cl" clarinet" " com" composition" cor" cornet" dr" drums" gi" guitar" pi" piano" ss" soprano"saxophone" tp" trumpet" ts" tenor"saxophone" tb" trombone" vc" vocals"

Preliminary¬es&

Publications.-Earlier"versions"of"some"material"within"this"thesis"have"been"published"in" academic"journals"as"follows:"Material"from"Chapter"Six"was"published"in"“Alles"kon"en" alles"mocht."Reconstructie"Zeeland-Suite.”"Jazz-Bulletin"91"(2014),"34H41;"sections"of" Chapter"One"appeared"in"“Common"Ground:"1970s"Improvised"Music"as"Part"of"a"CrossH genre"Dutch"Ensemble"Culture.”"Jazz-Research-Journal-5.1/5.2-(2012),"123H141." Throughout"the"book,"I"have"used"material"from"my"master’s"thesis"“Jazzpracticum:" Over"de"institutionalisering"van"jazz"in"Nederland"(2007).”"

vii" Translation.-Translations"are"mine"unless"otherwise"indicated."In"a"number"of"cases,"I" have"given"the"original"with"the"source"reference,"to"be"of"service"of"those"who"read" Dutch."I"hope"that"opening"up"these"sources"to"the"nonHDutch"reader"adds"to"the"value" of"this"study."-

viii" Introduction&

Identities"are"the"names"we"give"the"different"ways"we"are"positioned" by,"and"position"ourselves"within,"the"narratives"of"the"past." —Stuart"Hall"1990:"225" " It"is"24"June"2014."The"administrative"law"sector"of"the"Court"of"Amsterdam"District" handles"the"appeal"of"the"Dutch"big"band"Jazz"Orchestra"of"the"Concertgebouw"(JOC)" against"the"Fonds"Podiumkunsten-(Performing"Arts"Fund"NL,"or"FPK),"the"main"public" cultural"endowment"for"the"performing"arts"in"the"Netherlands.1"Two"years"earlier,"in" September"2012,"the"JOC"formally"began"legal"action"against"a"recommendation"that" would"exclude"the"orchestra"from"the"FPK’s"longHrange"funding"scheme"of"2013H2016.2"" The"FPK’s"music"advisory"committee"awarded"thirtyHseven"out"of"the"fiftyHone"grant" applicants,"using"five"criteria"to"evaluate"the"grant"applications"(artistic"quality;"cultural" entrepreneurship;"cultural"diversity;"contribution"to"geographical"distribution"of"the" arts;"and"financial"support"by"local"or"provincial"authorities)."While"the"JOC"was"initially" included"in"the"FPK’s"funding"plan,"serious"cuts"in"the"governmental"arts"budget"of"2013" (from"900"to"700"million"euros)"forced"the"FPK"to"limit"its"funding"to"only"to"seventeen" musical"organizations,"leaving"the"JOC"emptyHhanded."At"the"court"hearings"in"2014,"the" orchestra"questioned"the"credibility"and"the"expertise"of"the"advisory"committee," accusing"it"of"bias"in"favor"of"more"experimental"groups"within"“jazz"and"improvised" music,”"one"of"the"subgenres"used"in"the"funding"scheme’s"music"category.3"Recalling" the"“diversity”"criterion,"the"JOC"observed"how," " the"objectively"small"budget"[for"jazz"and"improvised"music]"is"divided" oneHsidedly-to"ensembles"(ICP"and"DOEK)"that"work"from"the"same"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1"The"FPK"awards"fourHyear"and"twoHyear"programs"and"projectHbased"grants"in"the"fields"of"music," theatre,"music"theatre,"dance,"and"festivals"and"competitions."The"number"of"multiHannual"subsidy" applications"has"increased"considerably"over"the"last"few"years,"while"the"available"budget"has"decreased" by"40"percent,"to"a"total"of"43"million"EUR"for"the"period"2013H2016."In"2013,"eightyHtwo"performing"arts" institutions"received"FPKHfunding." 2"The"full"title"of"the"funding"scheme"is"“Deelregeling"meerjarige"activiteitensubsidies"Fonds" Podiumkunsten"2013H2016.”" 3"“Aanvullend"beroepschrift"van"Stichting"Jazz"Orchestra"of"the"Concertgebouw"met"betrekking"tot"het" besluit"van"de"Raad"van"bestuur"van"het"Fonds"Podiumkunsten"van"11"februari"2013,”"April"23,"2013,"2."

1"" principle"of"improvised"music,"namely"Instant-Composing,"with"a" considerable"overlap"of"musicians."(“Aanvullend"beroepschrift"van" Stichting"Jazz"Orchestra"of"the"Concertgebouw"met"betrekking"tot"het" besluit"van"de"Raad"van"bestuur"van"het"Fonds"Podiumkunsten"van"11" februari"2013,”"April"23,"2013,"10)4" " The"orchestra’s"rhetoric"is"revealing,"as"it"draws"upon"debates"that"can"be"traced"back"to" the"late"1960s"and"1970s,"a"period"during"which"the"foundations"were"laid"for"the" current"socioHcultural"infrastructure"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."During"this"period,"a" new"style"of"jazz"emerged"that"became"known"as"Dutch"improvised"music."Its"foremost" performers"included"musicians"such"as"Misha"Mengelberg,"Han"Bennink,"Willem" Breuker,"and"Leo"Cuypers,"and"groups"such"as"the"Instant"Composers"Pool"and"the" Willem"Breuker"Kollektief."5"These"musicians"associated"themselves"with"the"more" experimental"and"innovative"aspects"of"jazz"and"became"part"of"the"Dutch"cultural" avantHgarde"and"the"1960s"countercultural"movement."In"search"of"their"own"cultural" identity,"improvising"musicians"deliberately"tried"to"distance"their"work"from" established"musicians"such"as"pianist"Pim"Jacobs"and"vocalist"Rita"Reys,"who"held"a" more"traditionalist"and"evolutionist"view"on"jazz."Their"conflicting"views"in"terms"of" aesthetics"and"socioHpolitical"issues"were"played"out"by"the"media"and-created"a" dichotomy"within"the"Dutch"jazz"scene"that"deeply"impacted"the"further" professionalization"and"institutionalization"of"musical"practice." " Differentiating"between"“jazz”"and"“improvised"music,”"the"2014"JOC"versus"the"FPK" case,"demonstrates"how"current"debates"on"jazz"are"informed"by"implicit"value"systems" that"both"draw"upon"and"reinforce"romanticized"readings"of"the"past."Over"the"years," jazz"and"improvised"music"have"turned"into"ideologically"loaded"terms,"representing"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 4"“Dit"naar"objectieve"maatstaven"geringe"budget"[voor"jazz"en"geïmproviseerde"muziek]"wordt" vervolgens"eenzijdig"ingezet"op"voornamelijk"twee"ensembles"(ICP"en"DOEK)"die"zich"vanuit"dezelfde" muzikale"uitgangspunten"bezig"houden"met"geïmproviseerde"muziek,"namelijk"Instant-Composing,"met" een"significante"overlap"in"de"deelnemende"musici.”" 5"Other"terms"have"been"used"to"label"these"musicians"and"their"views,"for"example"‘avantHgardes’"(Knulst" 1972:"46),"“impro’s”"(Stichting"Jazz"Zwolle"1973),"“aktuele-geïmproviseerde-muziek”-(Koopmans"1978:"13H 17),"“Hollandse-School”"(Vuijsje"1991,"ca.),"“New"Dutch"Swing”"(Whitehead"1998),"“free"jazz”,"(Geldens" 2000),"“creative"improvised"music”"(Bakriges"2003:"99H114)"and"“improvisatiemuziek”"(Jüngen"2000;"van" Eyle"1978)."

2"" binaries"between"tradition"and"innovation,"evolution"and"revolution,"moldy"figs"and" modernists,"the"American"jazz"tradition"and"European"avantHgarde."While"the"term"“jazz”" has"come"to"represent"a"practice"firmly"rooted"in"the"American"jazz"tradition"(and"to" which"JOC"can"be"counted),"“improvised"music”"has"become"inextricably"bound"with"the" collective,"crossHgenre"processes"of"musicHmaking"that"blossomed"in"the"1970s"with" Dutch"groups"such"as"the"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief"and"the"Instant"Composers"Pool." The"law"case"feeds"directly"into"this"Dutch"jazz"narrative,"which"even"though"it" subscribes"to"a"simplified"and"ideologized"view"of"the"past,"continues"to"shape"current" cultural"discourse."In"this"study"I"critically"engage"with"the"complexity"of"these" narratives,"by"exploring"their"histories"and"underlying"ideologies,"both"of"which"I"argue" are"crucial"in"understanding"current"artistic"debates.- " The"FPK"funding"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"also"illustrates"how"the"Dutch" government"has"come"to"recognize"these"musical"practices"as"a"legitimate"art"form"that" is"part"of"the"Dutch"cultural"establishment."While"symphony"orchestras"and"baroque" ensembles"primarily"receive"funding"to"consolidate"and"conserve"musical"traditions,"the" tendency"in"jazz"is"to"fund"the"more"experimental"and"interdisciplinary"groups"at"the" cost"of"groups"with"a"more"conventional"and"traditionalist"approach."This"suggests"that" jazz"and"improvised"music,"despite"its"almost"century"long"tradition,"is"predominantly" valued"for"its"potential"to"create"(radical)"musical"change."Indeed,"through" interdisciplinary"collaboration"with"artists"from"other"musical"traditions,"the"creation"of" a"union"(BIM)"and"others"forms"of"selfHorganization,"the"group"of"AmsterdamHbased" improvising"musicians"demanded—and"largely"succeeded—in"establishing" governmental"support"for"the"music."Consequently,"the"Netherlands"in"the"earlyH1970s" became"one"of"the"first"countries"to"include"jazz"in"its"public"funding"system"on"a" structural"basis." " This"study"critically"engages"with"the"construction"of"Dutch"jazz"narratives"and"their" interplay"with"local"political"debates"and"investigates"the"close"interrelation"between" both"musical"and"socioHcultural"change."Through"an"analysis"of"key"events,"textual" representations,"musical"performances"and"interviews,"I"analyze"how"a"specific"Dutch" jazz"culture"evolved"and"evaluate"this"in"relation"to"changes"in"music"and"cultural" politics."I"examine"crucial"debates"in"postHwar"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"and"their"

3"" underlying"ideologies"to"show"how"Dutch"musicians,"policy"makers,"audiences"and" journalists"during"the"1970s"contributed"to"specific"Dutch"narratives"about"jazz."The" late"1960s"and"1970s"are"particularly"interesting,"as"generational"conflicts"and"political" debates"created"political"and"socioHcultural"turmoil"that"deeply"impacted"the"further" development"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands.6"During"these"years,"the"meaning"of"jazz"within" Dutch"cultural"life"altered"from"being"idenitified"primarily"as"an"American"musical"form" to"one"that"was"identified"with"the"Dutch"musical"community." " Dispelling-the-myth- This"study"feeds"into"current"debates"among"jazz"scholars,"most"notably"1)"the"recent" shift"towards"a"more"interdisciplinary"understanding"of"jazz;"2)"the"expansion"of" thinking"about"jazz"beyond"the"(imaginary)"American"border;"3)"the"move"away"from" anecdotal"and"biographical"writing."To"clarify"my"position"within"these"debates,"I"will" provide"a"brief"discussion"in"the"following"paragraphs." - Following"the"cultural"turn"that"dominated"the"humanities"and"social"sciences"in"the" 1970s,"American"jazz"scholars"such"as"Scott"DeVeaux"and"Krin"Gabbard"proposed"a" more"interdisciplinary"and"relativist"approach"to"understanding"jazz,"which"gained" currency"as"the"New"Jazz"Studies.7"While"DeVeaux"in"The-Birth-of-Bebop-(1997)"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 6"SocioHcultural"change"in"1960s’"the"Netherlands"has"regularly"been"subject"of"research."See"for"example" Righart"(1995),"Kennedy"(1995)"and"the"aforementioned"Adlington"(2013),"who"have"studied"1960s"the" Netherlands"from"the"perspective"of"respectively"generational"shifts,"cultural"and"political"change,"and"the" musical"avantHgarde."Hans"Righart,"De-eindeloze-jaren-zestig:-Geschiedenis-van-een-generatieconflict- (Amsterdam:"Amsterdam"University"Press,"1995);"James"Kennedy"and"Simone"KennedyHDoornbos,"Nieuw- Babylon-in-aanbouw:-Nederland-in-de-jaren-zestig-[Building"New"Babylon:"Cultural"Change"in"the" Netherlands"during"the"1960s]"(Amsterdam"etc.:"Boom,"1995);"Adlington,"Composing-Dissent." 7"Works"associated"with"New"Jazz"Studies"include"Ronald"M."Radano,"New-Musical-Figurations:-Anthony- Braxton's-Cultural-Critique"(Chicago:"University"of"Chicago"Press,"1993);"Paul"F."Berliner,"Thinking-in-Jazz:- The-Infinite-Art-of-Improvisation"(Chicago"etc.:"University"of"Chicago"Press,"1994);"Krin"Gabbard,"ed.,"Jazz- among-the-Discourses-(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"1995a);"Krin"Gabbard,"ed.,"Representing-Jazz- (Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"1995b);"Ingrid"T."Monson,"Saying-Something:-Jazz-Improvisation-and- Interaction-(Chicago:"University"of"Chicago"Press,"1996);"Scott"DeVeaux,"The-Birth-of-Bebop:-A-Social-and- Musical-History"(Berkeley:"University"of"California"Press,"1997);"Mark"Tucker,"“Musicology"and"the"New" Jazz"Studies,”"Journal-of-the-American-Musicological-Society"51/1"(1998):"131H148;"Tucker"2001."The" interdisciplinary"and"cultural"approach"to"jazz"as"proposed"by"New"Jazz"Studies"was"not"entirely"new."As" Burke"notes,"“An"early"example"[of"popular"culture"studies],"published"in"1959,"was"The-Jazz-Scene," written"by"‘Francis"Newton,’"one"of"the"pseudonyms"of"Eric"Hobsbawm."The"author"discusses"not"only"the" music"but"also"the"public"who"listened"to"it,"not"to"mention"jazz"as"business"and"as"a"form"of"social"and" political"protest.”"Peter"Burke,"What-is-Cultural-History?-(Cambridge"etc.:"Polity,"2008"[2004]),"18."Amiri" Baraka’s"1961"essay"“Jazz"and"the"white"critic”"had"significantly"more"impact"on"reforming"the"ways"in" which"people"thought"and"wrote"about"jazz."Amiri"Baraka"(LeRoi"Jones),"“Jazz"and"the"white"critic,”"in" "

4"" advocates"a"more"evolutionary"and"inclusive"model"of"jazz"historiography,"stressing"the" influence"of"media"and"other"socialHcultural"factors"in"processes"of"musical"change," Gabbard"in"Representing-Jazz-(1995)"and"Jazz-Among-the-Discourses-(1995)"considers" jazz"in"multiple"disciplinary"contexts,"tracing"permutations"of"its"identity"and"essence"in" different"media."Gabbard"proposes"a"further"engagement"with"what"he"calls"“the"other" history”"of"jazz,"an"inquiry"aimed"not"so"much"at"describing"and"understanding"the" musicHstructural"aspects"of"“the"music"itself”"but"at"interpreting"“jazz"myth"and"jazz" culture”"and"“placing"the"music"securely"within"specific"cultural"moments.”8"In"his" critical"analysis"of"ActorHNetworkHTheory"(ANT),"Benjamin"Piekut"asserts"how"music"is" per"definition"“caught"up”"within"“many"entanglements”:"“Whatever"music"might"be,"it" clearly"relies"on"many"things"that"are"not"music,"and"therefore"we"should"conceive"of"it" as"a"set"of"relations"among"distinct"materials"and"events"that"have"been"translated"to" work"together.”9"In"recent"years,"the"New"Jazz"Studies"has"come"to"represent"a"broad" range"of"studies,"including"studies"on"the"reception"of"jazz,"musical"communities," cultural"and"musical"hybridity,"gender"issues,"and"performance"studies,"all"of"which" draw"upon"an"array"of"critical"traditions,"including"musicology,"sociology"and"critical" theory.10"These"and"similar"academic"studies"aimed"at"avoiding"what"they"felt"were" problematic"areas"of"jazz"writing—namely"biographical"research"and"descriptive" musical"commentary—and"consequently"opened"up"new"ways"of"thinking"about"jazz." " Closely"linked"to"this"cultural"approach"to"jazz,"is"the"scrutinization"of"existing"jazz" narratives,"by"exposing"their"underlying"ideologies."In"his"widely"acclaimed"article" “Constructing"the"Jazz"Tradition:"Jazz"Historiography”"(1991)"DeVeaux"analyzes"the" formation"processes"of"what"he"refers"to"as"the"“story"of"jazz,”"or"the"jazz"tradition:" “[E]ven"a"glance"at"jazz"historiography"makes"it"clear"that"the"idea"of"the"‘jazz"tradition’" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Black-Music"(New"York:"William"Morrow,"1968):"11H20."Similarly,"Weber"argued"in"1958"that"artistic" performances"have"extraHmusical"functions:"“[The"sociology"of"music]"explores"the"boundaries"between" the"sciences"of"sociology"and"musicology,"attempting"to"explain"those"links"between"society"and"music" that"common"observation"reveals."…In"its"broadest"sense,"Weber’s"thesis"was"that"Western"music"has" peculiar"rational"properties"produced"by"social"factors"in"Occidental"development.”"Weber,"Max,"The- Rational-and-Social-Foundations-of-Music,"trans."Don"Martindale,"Johannes"Riedel,"Gertrude"Neuwirth" ([Carbondale]:"Southern"Illinois"University"Press,"1958),"xii." 8"Gabbard,"Representing-Jazz,"1H2." 9"Benjamin"Piekut,"“ActorHNetworks"in"Music"History:"Clarifications"and"Critiques,”"TwentiethHCentury- Music-11/2"(2014):"193." 10"See,"for"example,"DeVeaux,"The-Birth-of-Bebop;"Gabbard,"Jazz-among-the-Discourses;-Krin"Gabbard," Representing-Jazz."

5"" is"a"construction"of"relatively"recent"vintage,"an"overarching"narrative"that"has"crowded" out"other"possible"interpretations"of"the"complicated"and"variegated"cultural" phenomena"that"we"cluster"under"the"umbrella"jazz.”11"In"this"view,"the"jazz"tradition"is" an"ideologically"loaded"construct,"told"through"masterpieces"and"great"innovators"and" legitimized"through"the"support"of"established"institutions"and"authoritative"musicians." DeVeaux"demonstrates"how"studies"in"the"1960s"and"1970s"attempted"to"arrive"at"a" model"of"jazz"as"an"essentially"AfricanHAmerican"cultural"practice."Authors"such"as" Amiri"Baraka"suggested"that"jazz"was"a"side"effect"of"emancipation"with"its"shifting" patterns"of"education"and"politics,"driven"largely"by"black"emancipators.12"In"this"rather" essentialist"and"traditionalist"view,"jazz"serves"as"one"of"the"main"tools"to"fabricate"a" sense"of"AfricanHAmerican"identity.13"Ken"Burns’"2001"documentary"Jazz-is"among"the" most"cited"examples"of"a"narrative"that"reinforces"the"notion"of"jazz"as"part"of"the"“Great" American"Tradition.”"While"the"documentary"is"praised"for"bringing"jazz"back"in"the" public"eye,"academics"and"journalists"also"vehemently"criticized"the"series"for"offering"a" too"simplified,"romanticized"view"of"the"past.14"Other"points"of"critique"include,"to" paraphrase"Mark"Tucker,"the"glorification"of"individual"musicians,"a"too"narrow"focus," both"geographically"and"periodically,"exclusionary"definitions"of"music,"uncritical"use"of" recordings"and"oral"histories,"and"the"disregard"of"social"and"historical"particularities.15" " This"research"feeds"into"the"interdisciplinary"and"critical"approach"as"proposed"by" DeVeaux"and"Gabbard,"as"I"combine"musicological"and"sociological"analysis"to"explore" the"unique"relationship"between"meaningHmaking"in"music"and"national"cultural"politics" and"to"investigate"ways"in"which"this"relationship"articulates"cultural"values."I"focus"" on"music"as"a"discursive"and"social"process,"which"allows"for"an"understanding"of"the" role"of"music"in"the"enactment"of"identity"that"is,"in"the"words"of"Christopher"Waterman," “not"merely"reflexive"but"also"a"potentially"constitutive"factor"in"the"patterning"of"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 11"Scott"DeVeaux,"“Constructing"the"Jazz"Tradition:"Jazz"Historiography,”"Black-American-Literature-Forum" 25/3"(1991),"531." 12"See,"for"example,"LeRoi"Jones"(Amiri"Baraka),"Blues-People:-Negro-Music-in-White-America"(New"York:" William"Morrow,"1963)." 13"DeVeaux,"“Constructing"the"Jazz"Tradition,”"525H560." 14"For"an"elaborate"and"lively"account"of"the"debates"around"Ken"Burns"Jazz,"see"Alan"Stanbridge,"“Burns," Baby,"Burns:"Jazz"History"as"a"Contested"Cultural"Site,”"Jazz-Research-Journal"1/"1"(2004):"82H100." 15"This"paraphrases"Mark"Tucker,"“Musicology"and"the"New"Jazz"Studies,”"134."

6"" cultural"values"and"social"action.”"16"As"such,"it"connects"to"Stuart"Hall’s"idea"of" “identification”"and"Christopher"Small’s"“musicking,”"which"are"both"expressive"of"the" desire"among"scholars"to"understand"the"concepts"of"music"and"cultural"identity"as" disruptive,"discursive"processes"rather"than"fixed,"continuous"entities.17"Similarly,"in" Music-and-Identity-(1996),"Simon"Frith"directly"links"the"notion"of"identity"as"a" discursive"practice"(“a"process"not"a"thing”)"with"the"idea"of"studying"music"as"a"social" interaction."“Music,"like"identity,"is"both"performance"and"story,"describes"the"social"in" the"individual"and"the"individual"in"the"social,"the"mind"in"the"body"and"the"body"in"the" mind;"identity,"like"music,"is"a"matter"of"both"ethics"and"aesthetics.”18"He"argues"that" music"“constructs"our"sense"of"identity"through"the"direct"experiences"it"offers"of"the" body,"time"and"sociability,"experiences"which"enables"us"to"place"ourselves"in" imaginative"cultural"narratives.”19"" " It"is"important"to"critically"engage"with"the"discursive"and"fluid"nature"of"concepts"such" as"cultural"identity"and"music,"because"it"provides"insight"in"the"ideologies"behind" identity"formation"and"the"role"of"music"within"these"processes."20"As"John"O’Flynn"has" argued," " If"we"hold"that"all"forms"of"cultural"identity"are"socially"constructed"and" yet"have"real"consequences"for"people’s"lives,"then"any"such"identity" needs"to"be"regarded"as"a"dynamic,"experiential"and"ultimately"discursive" process."For"while"relationships"between"national"identity"and"music"are" always"socially"constructed,"it"does"not"follow"that"all"people"in"a" particular"society"will"respond"in"the"same"way"to"the"proffered"symbolic" meanings"of"music"that"is"deemed"“national.”"(John"O'Flynn,""National" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 16"Christopher"A."Waterman,"“Jùjú"history:"Toward"a"Theory"of"Sociomusical"Practice,”"in"Ethnomusicology- and-Modern-Music-History,"ed."Steven"Blum,"Philip"V."Bohlman"and"Daniel"M."Neumann"(Urbana," University"of"Illinois"Press,"1991):"66H67." 17"Stuart"Hall,"“Introduction:"Who"Needs"‘Identity’?”"in"Questions-of-Cultural-Identity,"ed."Stuart"Hall"and" Paul"Du"Gay"(London"etc.:"Sage,"1996),"1H17;"Christopher"Small,"Musicking:-The-Meanings-of-Performing- and-Listening-(Hanover,"NH:"Wesleyan"University"Press,"1998)." 18"Simon"Frith,"“Music"and"Identity,”"in"Questions-of-Cultural-Identity,"ed."Stuart"Hall"and"Paul"Du"Gay" (London"etc.:"Sage,"1996),"109." 19"Ibid.,"124H5." 20"For"an"overview"on"literature"on"scholars"and"a"discussion"on"the"globalHlocal"binary"see"Music,- National-Identity-and-the-Politics-of-Location:-Between-the-Global-and-the-Local,"ed."Ian"Biddle"and"Vanessa" Knights"(Aldershot"etc.:"Ashgate,"2007),"1H18."

7"" Identity"and"Music"in"Transition:"Issues"of"Authenticity"in"a"Global" Setting,""in"Music,-National-Identity-and-the-Politics-of-Location:-Between- the-Global-and-the-Local,"ed."Ian"Biddle"and"Vanessa"Knights"[Aldershot:" Ashgate,"200],"23)" " This"way"of"understanding"music—as"a"process"and"an"experience,"focusing"on" performance"of"musical"texts"within"a"broader"socioHcultural"context"rather"than"on"the" musical"text"whether"it"is"a"record"or"a"written"composition—opens"up"new"ways"of" understanding"music"that"moves"beyond"the"binary"thinking"between"the"“music"itself”" and"its"socioHcultural"context.21" " Globalization- While"praised"for"opening"new"perspectives"about"thinking"in"jazz,"academics" associated"with"the"New"Jazz"Studies"have"also"been"criticized"for"a"presumed"lack"of" substantial"study"of"music,"for"indulging"in"academic"navelHgazing,"and"for"largely" ignoring"nonHAmerican"jazz"practices."“Ironically,"in"dispelling"several"mythologies" about"jazz"the"New"Jazz"Studies"has"arguably"failed"to"engage"with"the"global"spread"of" jazz"and"the"intercultural"exchanges"that"have"occurred"in"the"music"since"its"inception,”" British"jazz"scholar"Tony"Whyton"asserts"in"his"2012"essay.22"Whyton"is"part"of"a" generation"of"jazz"scholars"who"have"recently"begun"to"explore"the"political,"social"and" cultural"history"of"jazz"in"Europe,"and"the"role"of"jazz"as"a"transnational"musical" movement.23"Atkin’s"Jazz-Planet-(2003)"was"among"the"first"texts"to"engage"with"jazz"as"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 21"See,"for"example,"Philip"Bohlman,"“Of"Yekkes"and"Chamber"Music"in"Israel:"Ethnomusicological"Meaning" in"Western"Music"History,”"Ethnomusicology-and-Modern-Music-History"(1991),"254H267;"Frith,"“Music"and" Identity,”"108H127;"Nicholas"Cook,"“Making"Music"Together,"Or"Improvisation"and"its"Others,”"Jazz- Research-Journal"1/"1"(2004),"5H26;"Nicholas"Cook,"Beyond-the-Score:-Music-as-Performance-(Oxford:" Oxford"University"Press,"2014)." 22"Tony"Whyton,"“Europe"and"the"New"Jazz"Studies,”"in"Eurojazzland:-Jazz-and-European-Sources,-Dynamics,- and-Contexts,-ed."Luca"Cerchiari,"Laurant"Cugny"and"Franz"Kerschbaumer"(Boston:"Northeastern" University"Press,"2012),"367."See,"for"example,"Mark"Tucker,"“Musicology"and"the"New"Jazz"Studies,”" Journal-of-the-American-Musicological-Society"51/1"(1998):"131H148." 23"Jazz"studies"that"examine"nonHAmerican"identities"in"jazz,"include"E."Taylor"Atkins,"ed.,"Jazz-Planet- (Jackson:"University"of"Mississippi,"2003);"Jeffrey"H."Jackson,"Making-Jazz-French:-Music-and-Modern-Life-in- Interwar-Paris-(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"2003);"Stuart"Nicholson,"Is-Jazz-Dead?-(or-has-it- Moved-to-a-New-Address)"(New"York"etc.:"Routledge,"2005);"George"McKay,"Circular-Breathing:-The- Cultural-Politics-of-Jazz-in-Britain"(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"2006);"Hilary"Moore,"Inside-British- Jazz:-Crossing-Borders-of-Race,-Nation-and-Class-(Aldershot:"Ashgate,"2007);"Andrew"Wright"Hurley,"The- Return-of-Jazz:-JoachimHErnst-Berendt-and-West-German-Cultural-Change"(2009;"repr."New"York/Oxford:" Berghahn"Books,"2011);"Matthew"F."Jordan,"Le-Jazz:-Jazz-and-French-Cultural-Identity-(Urbana,"University" "

8"" a"global"music,"raising"issues"of"American"exceptionalism,"transnationalism"and"jazzH related"issues"in-relation"to"nonHAmerican"nationalisms:"“Our"purpose"here"is"to" recuperate"[jazz’s]"career"as"a"transgressor"of"the"idea"of"the"nation,"as"an"agent"of" globalization.”24"Similarly,"Stuart"Nicholson"in"his"provocative"Is-Jazz-Dead?-Or-Has-it- Moved-to-a-New-Address"(2005)"argues"for"the"geographical"expansion"of"jazz"studies." Nicholson"primarily"attacks"the"notion"of"jazz"as"an"essentialist"American"culture"as" propagated"by"American"trumpeter"Wynton"Marsalis,"asserting"that"“it"is"in"countries" outside"the"United"States"where"the"most"profound"changes"in"the"music"are" occurring.”25"However,"while"offering"new"perspectives"on"jazz"as"a"postHnational" musical"tradition,"and"as"a"reflection"of"socialHpolitical"landscapes,"Nicholson’s"notion"of" the"“Nordic"sound”"also"illustrates"how"the"appeal"of"nonHAmerican"jazz"is"often"bound" up"with"a"romantic"conception"of"the"local"and"with"the"idea"that"a"music"is"audibly" rooted"in"a"place,"a"land,"and"in"an"ancient"culture."Nicholson’s"work"thus"tends"to" reinforce"romanticized"and"stereotyped"views"on"European"nationalities,"consequently" replacing"the"one"myth"with"another."In"response"to"this"tendency"towards"new" mythmaking,"Whyton"proposes"a"new"European"Jazz"Studies,"which"“should"engage" with"a"national,"transnational"and"transcontinental"exchange"as"a"critical"discourse," resisting"essentialist"ideologies"and"examining"the"way"in"which"jazz"cultures"obtain" their"meaning"in"the"function"that"the"music"has"for"its"musicians,"audiences"and"the" industry.”26"The"study"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"similarly"would"benefit"from"such"an" interdisciplinary,"cultural"and"critical"approach"to"jazz."Moreover,"the"study"of"the" development"and"validation"of"jazz"in"a"nonHAmerican"context"contributes"to"the" understanding"how"music"reflects"certain"cultural"values." " Building"on"the"interdisciplinary"and"cultural"approaches"as"proposed"by"DeVeaux"and" the"geographical"expansion"as"advocated"by"Taylor,"Whyton,"and"others,"this"research"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" of"Illinois"Press,"2010);"Frank"Andre"Guridy,"Forging-Diaspora:-AfroHCubans-and-African-Americans-in-a- World-of-Empire-and-Jim-Crow"(Chapel"Hill:"University"of"North"Carolina"Press,"2010);"Duncan"Heining," Trad-Dads,-Dirty-Boppers-and-Free-Fusioneers:-British-Jazz,-1960H1975"(Sheffield:"Equinox,"2012);"Steven" Feld,"Jazz-Cosmopolitanism-in-Accra:-Five-Musical-Years-in-Ghana-(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press," 2012);"Micol"Seigel,"Uneven-Encounters:-Making-Race-and-Nation-in-Brazil-and-the-United-States-(Durham," NC:"Duke"University"Press,"2010)." 24"Atkins,"Jazz-Planet,"xiii." 25"Nicholson,"Is-Jazz-Dead?,"xii." 26"Whyton,"“Europe"and"the"New"Jazz"Studies,”"366H378."

9"" traces"jazz"as"a"socioHcultural"practice"that"emanates"from"the"way"people"view"and" describe"the"world."It"understands"jazz"as"a"cultural"narrative"that,"to"paraphrase" cultural"historian"Joep"Leerssen,"“takes"shape"in"the"constant"backHandHforth"between" material"and"political"developments"on"the"one"hand,"and"intellectual"and"musical" reflection"and"articulation"on"the"other.”27-These"debates,"have"foregrounded"two"main" questions:"How"did"the"American"import"culture"of"jazz"during"the"1960s"and"1970s" interact"with"local"cultural"discourses,"and"in"which"ways"did"these"debates"shape"the" further"development"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands?"Questions"that"need"to"be"addressed" are:"How"are"musicians"represented"within"a"community,"and"how"do"they"need"to" present"themselves"in"order"to"be"heard?"What"are"the"implications"for"the"organisation" of"music"when"musicians"have"to"adjust"their"strategies"to"changing"financial"resources," to"the"status"of"the"artwork"and"everHshifting"audiences?" " Deconstructing-Dutch-narratives-in-jazz- Although"critical"studies"on"Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music"have"appeared"recently," jazz"discourse"in"the"Netherlands"remains"dominated"by"dedicated"jazz"aficionados," whose"largely"anecdoteHbased"and"biographical"writing"centers"around"individual" musicians,"recordings"and"performances,"and"locations"(i.e.,"cities)"while"largely" ignoring"the"broader"cultural"discourse"that"informs"processes"of"musicHmaking."28"In" line"with"the"growing"interest"in"nonHAmerican"jazz"practices,"the"Netherlands"recently" saw"an"increase"of"publications"and"films"featuring"local"jazz,"resulting"in"an"extensive" list"of"regional"jazz"histories,"documentaries"and"autobiographical"accounts"of" musicians"and"groups.29"In"2010,"Jan"Mulder"compiled"a"listing"of"over"nine"hundred"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 27"Joep"Leerssen,"National-Thought-in-Europe:-A-Cultural-History"(Amsterdam:"Amsterdam"University" Press,"2006),"13H14." 28"Robert"Adlington,"for"example,"deals"extensively"with"the"political"dimension"of"the"Dutch"musical" avantHgarde"in"the"1960s,"albeit"more"from"the"perspective"of"contemporary"composed"music"than"jazz." Floris"Schuiling"has"just"finished"his"detailed"ethnographic"study"of"the"Instant"Composers"Pool."Robert" Adlington,"“Forms"of"Opposition"at"the"‘PolitiekHDemonstratief"Experimenteel"Concert’,”"in"Sound- Commitments:-AvantHGarde-Music-and-the-Sixties,"ed."Robert"Adlington"(Oxford:"Oxford"University"Press," 2009),"56H78;"Robert"Adlington,"“Organizing"Labor:"Composers,"Performers,"and"‘the"Renewal"of"Musical" Practice’"in"the"Netherlands,"1969–72,”"The-Musical-Quarterly"90/"3H4"(2008):"539H577;"Robert"Adlington," “‘A"Sort"of"Guerrilla’:"Che"at"the"Opera,”"Cambridge-Opera-Journal"19/2"(2007):"167H193;"Adlington," Composing-Dissent."Floris"Schuiling,"Animate-Structures:-The-Compositions-and-Improvisations-of-the- Instant-Composers-Pool-Orchestra."(PhD"Diss.,"University"of"Cambridge,"2015)." 29"Regional"jazz"histories"include"Rinus"van"der"Heijden"et"al."ed.,"Jazz-in-Tilburg:-Honderd-jaar- avontuurlijke-muziek"(Tilburg:"privately"printed,"2010);"Hennie"van"de"KarHVervooren,"Breda-Jazz-Festival- 1971H2010.-40-x-een-beleving"(Rotterdam:"Trichis"Publ.,"2010);"Cor"Gout,"En-dan-nu-de-polonaise:-Muziek-in- "

10" " Dutch"publications"on"jazz"that"appeared"since"the"1931"founding"of"the"first"specialized" Dutch"jazz"magazine"Jazzwereld"and"which"includes"biographies,"yearbooks,"local" histories,"magazines,"discographies,"policy"plans,"poetry,"plays"and"novels.30"While" journalists,"especially"those"committed"to"De-Jazzwereld-(1931H1940)"and"its"postwar" equivalent"Jazzwereld"(1965H1973)"aimed"at"a"critical"reflection"of"the"music,"these" writers"tended"to"focus"primarily"on"the"musician’s"perspective,"while"leaving"the"socioH cultural"and"political"context"of"postwar"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"unexplored.31"An"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Den-Haag-en-Scheveningen"(Den"Haag:"Trespassers"W,"2008);"Henk"Kleinhout,"Swing-is-the-thing:-Hengelo- en-de-jazz-1920H1960"(Hengelo:"Smit"van"1876,"2008);"Cees"Mentink,"Leidse-jazzgeschiedenis-van-1899-tot- 2009"(Leiden:"Stichting"Leidse"Jazz"Geschiedenis,"2008);"David"Kleijwegt,"Opgegaan-in-de-lucht:-Paul- Karting;-Herinneringen-aan-jazz-in-Rotterdam-1960H1970-/-Gone-in-the-Air:-Paul-Karting:-Memories-of-Jazz- in-Rotterdam-1960H1970"(Delft:"Eburon,"2006);"Piet"Koopman,"Jazzkroniek-van-de-Zaanstreek-1925H2000" (Krommenie:"Stichting"Elitèr,"2004);"Arie"van"Breda,"'100-Jaar'-jazz-in-Den-Haag:-Het-New-Orleans-van-de- lage-landen"(Den"Haag:"'De"Nieuwe"Haagsche,'"2000)."Documentaries:"Misha-Enzovoort,-directed"by" Cherry"Duyns"(NTR,"2013),"DVD,"66"min.-Afijn,"directed"by"Jellie"Dekker"(DATA"Records,"2006),"DVD,"77" min.-Kid-Dynamite,-directed"by"Hans"Hylkema"(NPS,"2001),"DVD,"75"min.-Geschiedenis-Van-De-Nederlandse- Jazz,-directed"by"Jan"Kelder"(NOS,"1993)."(Auto)biographical"accounts:"Ton"Mijs"and"Kevin"Whitehead," Instant-Composers-Pool-Orchestra:-You-have-to-See-It"(Rotterdam:"Mijs"Cartografie"and"Vormgeving,"2011);" Paul"Kusters"and"Titus"Schulz,"ed.,"Pierre-Courbois:-Révocation"(Utrecht:"Van"Gruting,"2010);"Erik"van"den" Berg,"Han-Bennink:-De-wereld-als-trommel"(Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap,"2009);"Jorg"Kaaij"and"Juan"Martinez," ed.,"10-Jaar-Jazz-Orchestra-of-the-Concertgebouw-1999H2009:-“Een-heel-behoorlijk-orkest”"(Amsterdam:" Stichting"Jazz"Orchestra"of"the"Concertgebouw,"2009);"Ben"van"Melick,"Han-Bennink:-Cover-Art-for-ICP-and- other-Labels,"trans."Guus"Blezer-(Rimburg:"Huis"Clos,"2008);"Peter"van"Breukelen,"'Happy-Man'-Benjamin- Herman:-A-Photo-Essay"(Rotterdam:"Veenman,"2008),"Cees"Schrama,"It-don't-mean-a-thing:-Leven-met-jazz" (Baarn:"Tirion,"2007);"Rein"Wolters,"Onverbloemd!:-90-jaar-Annie-de-Reuver"(Hoorn:"Gruppo"Creativo," 2007);"Greetje"Kauffeld"[Greta"de"RooHKloet]"and"Ingo"Schiweck,"Was-für-Tage-…-Die-Memoiren- (Düsseldorf:"MaveriX,"2006);"Stochelo"Rosenberg,"Leo"Reimers"and"Harry"Klunder,"Stochelo-Rosenberg:- Part-1"(Almere:"Cento,"2005);"Bert"Vuijsje"and"Rita"Reys,"Rita-Reys:-Lady-Jazz"(Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap," 2004);"Anneke"Muller,"Blue-Burton:-Herinneringen-aan-een-Nederlandse-jazzHzangeres-1933H1989"(Schoorl:" Conserve,"1999);"Coen"de"Jonge,"Belevenissen-in-de-Bebop:-Rein-de-Graaf,-jazzpianist"(Groningen:"Passage," 1997);"Herman"Openneer,"Kid-Dynamite:-De-legende-leeft"(Amsterdam:"Jan"Mets,"1995);"François"Buzelin" and"Jean"Buzelin,"Willem-Breuker:-Maker-van-mensenmuziek","trans."Marco"Nakken"(Zutphen:"Walberg" Pers,"1994)."In"addition"to"his"documentary"on"jazz"history,"Jan"Kelder"in"2013"began"his"series" Jazzportretten,-filmed"jazz"portraits"that"captures"the"oral"histories"of"Dutch"jazz"musicians,"such"as" drummer"John"Engels"(1935),"composer"Theo"Loevendie"(1930),"trumpeter"Ado"Broodboom"(1922)," pianist"Roelof"“Roefie”"Heuting"(1929),"trumpeter"Ack"van"Rooyen"(1930)"and"bass"player"Jacques"Schols" (1935)."" 30"Jan"J."Mulder,"Jazz-op-schrift:-Een-bibliografie-van-Nederlandstalige-jazzliteratuur;-Deel-1;-Boeken-en- bladen;-Herziene-en-vermeerdere-editie-(Almere:"Names"and"Numbers,"2010),"224."Reportedly"the"first" Dutch"magazine"dedicated"to"jazz"was"De-Jazzwereld,"a"monthly"magazine"published"between"1931H1940." The"magazine’s"byHline"read"“for"all"those"interested"in"jazz,"and"also"a"platform"for"both"amateur"and" professional"jazz"musicians.”"In"1936,"De-Jazzwereld"published"the"first"Dutch"photoHbook"dedicated"to" jazz,"FotoHalbum-van-de-Jazzwereld"(Den"Haag:"Moorman's"Periodieke"Pers,"1936"[1939])."Three"years" later,"the"jazz"critics"Will"G."Gilbert"(1912H1967)"and"Constantin"Poustochkine"(1910H1992)"wrote"the" first"Dutch"book"on"jazz,"an"anthropological"survey"entitled"Jazzmuziek:-Inleiding-tot-de-volksmuziek-der- NoordHAmerikaansche-negers"(Jazz"Music:"Introduction"to"the"Folk"Music"of"the"North"American"Negroes," Kruseman,"1939)." 31"Walter"van"de"Leur,"“Improvisatoren"versus"clichéHmachines:"Analyse"Jazzwereld-1965H1973,”"Jazz- Bulletin-82"(March"2012):"30H37;"Walter"van"de"Leur,"“‘Pure"Jazz’"and"‘Charlatanry:”"A"History"of"De- Jazzwereld"Magazine,"1931H1940,”"Current-Research-in-Jazz"4"(2012),"accessed"October"16,"2014," "

11" " exception"to"this"is"sociologist"and"jazz"critic"Rudy"Koopmans"(1932H1983),"whose"1977" essay"Over-Muziek-en-Politiek"(On"music"and"politics)"is"one"of"the"few"attempts"to" understand"the"intersection"of"jazz"and"politics"in"the"Netherlands,"albeit"in"the" politically"charged"language"of"the"1970s.32"Furthermore,"as"Walter"van"de"Leur"has" demonstrated"in"his"analysis"of"Jazzwereld,33"the"contributors’"urge"for"change"largely" informed"postHwar"writing"on"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"which"consequently"tends"to" ignore"musicians"with"a"more"traditionalist"view"on"jazz."" - Music"journalist"Bas"Andriessen"and"American"jazz"critic"Kevin"Whitehead"have"done" the"most"to"suggest"the"significance"of"Dutch"improvised"music"as"a"community"with"a" distinctive"local"sound."Andriessen’s"Tetterettet"is"a"series"of"inHdepth"interviews"with" and"short"portrayals"of"twentyHthree"leading"Dutch"improvising"musicians."Andriessen" engages"with"questions"of"musical"change"and"cultural"identity"such"as"“How"do" musicians"work?"What"kind"of"musical"development"have"they"gone"through?"What"are" the"ideas"behind"their"music?"What"influences"them"in"their"musicHmaking?"Which" socioHpolitical"changes"have"shaped"Dutch"improvised"music?"Is"the"distinctive"Dutch" jazz"sound"something"the"musicians"explicitly"sought?”34"Whitehead’s"New-Dutch-Swing- presents"an"engaging"insider"view"of"the"improvised"music"community"in"Amsterdam," based"on"interviews"and"his"own"experiences"living"in"the"country’s"capital.- While"Whitehead"and"Andriessen’s"studies"are"among"the"few"attempts"to"understand" jazz"as"an"American"import"culture"that"has"been"integrated"into"Dutch"culture,"they"do" not"offer"a"socioHcultural"context"to"explain"musical"particularities.35"Furthermore,"by" focusing"on"the"relatively"small"group"of"improvising"musicians,"their"works"tend"to" reinforce"binaries"between"improvised"music"and"other"jazz"practices."Andriessen,"for" example,"distinguishes"the"“ICPHtradition”"with"its"focus"on"“authenticity"and"renewal”" from"the"works"of"1980s"generation"of"jazz"musicians,"which"“turned"out"to"be"more"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" http://www.crjHonline.org/;-Walter"van"de"Leur,"Jazz-behind-the-dikes:-Vijfentachtig-jaar-schrijven-over- jazz-in-Nederland"(Amsterdam:"Vossiuspers"UvA,"2009),"28." 32"Rudy"Koopmans,"Over-muziek-en-politiek:-Een-essay"(IJmuiden:"Vermande"Zonen,"1977),"59."Relying" heavily"on"the"ideas"of"Walter"Benjamin"and"Adorno,"Koopmans"argues"that"music"as"a"social"interaction" per"definition"has"a"political"dimension,"either"by"means"of"association,"by"the"way"it"is"“situated”"or" because"of"the"music’s"ability"to"“deHcondition”"human"behavior"and"to"create"new"sounds." 33"Van"de"Leur,"“Improvisatoren"versus"clichéHmachines,”"30H37." 34"Bas"Andriessen,"Tetterettet"(Nijmegen:"Tandem"Felix,"1996),"vi." 35"Andriessen,"Tetterettet;"Kevin"Whitehead,"New-Dutch-Swing"(New"York:"Billboard"Books,"1998)."

12" " interested"in"the"consumptive"use"of"music.”36"As"such,"their"works"reflect"the"authors’" own"artistic"values,"as"they"dismiss"“other"music”"as"the"work"of"“intellectual"ignorance" and"artistic"indolence”"(Andriessen)"or"“dull"music"of"which"every"place"has"plenty”" (Whitehead).37"In"this"thesis"I"engage"with"the"historical"roots"of"these"constructed" binaries"between"the"“authentic,"revolutionary"rebel”"on"the"one"hand"and"the" “commercial,"traditionalist”"on"the"others"to"expose"the"underlying"ideologies.- - Despite"the"many"publications,"the"representation"of"Dutch"identities"in"jazz"and"its" contribution"to"the"international"jazz"community"is"incomplete."There"is"usually"some" passing"reference"to"Dutch"jazz"in"recent"books"on"European"jazz,"mainly"on" contemporary"improvised"music,"yet"none"of"them"offer"any"new"perspectives."Often" references"to"Dutch"jazz"focus"on"the"activities"and"features"of"improvising"musicians," largely"ignoring"the"diversity"of"Dutch"jazz"practices."Whitehead,"for"example,"describes" the"key"features"of"what"he"labels"as"New"Dutch"Swing"as"“an"ability"to"abstract"from"the" music"of"American"jazz"masters;"an"impulse"toward"theatre,"role"play,"humour"and" ironic"distance"from"one’s"own"creations;"killer"chops"that"make"all"the"horsing"possible," the"virtuosity"that"assures"any"fuckHup"is"deliberate;"a"certain"clunkiness"Louis" Andriessen"calls"‘lousy"Dutch"woodenHshoe"timing.’”38"In"fact,"the"musicians"who"gave" meaning"to"this"idea"of"Dutch"jazz"formed"a"relatively"small"group"of"approximately" twentyHfive"musicians"based"in"Amsterdam,"who"actually"had"different"cultural"and" ethnic"backgrounds."Although"modernist"jazz"musicians"reached"a"considerably"larger" audience"in"the"Netherlands"through"their"performances"on"radio"and"television,"the" significance"of"the"traditionalist"modern"jazz"musicians"is"often"overshadowed"by"their" vernieuwingHdriven"(innovationHdriven)"counterparts"and"therefore"easier"to"depict" attributions"of"improvised"music."Moreover,"these"modern"jazz"musicians"were" responsible"for"institutionalizing"jazz"education"at"the"conservatories,"one"of"the" breeding"places"of"the"next"generations"of"Dutch"jazz"musicians."" " I"approach"the"notion"of"Dutch"jazz"from"a"variety"of"angles—as"a"community,"a"musical" tradition,"a"cultural"trope"or"narrative"and"as"a"geographical"(political)"space." """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 36"Andriessen,"Tetterettet,"vi." 37"Andriessen,"Tetterettet,"vii;"Whitehead,"New-Dutch-Swing,"viHvii." 38"Whitehead,"New-Dutch-Swing,"4H5."

13" " Consequently,"this"thesis"is"thematically"subdivided"into"chapters"that"cover"different" fields"in"which"musical"meaningHmaking"takes"place:"community,"education,"policyH making,"representation"and"musical"performance."The"first"section"engages"with"the" development"of"postHwar"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"as"an"institutionalized"community"of" jazz"professionals."Through"systematic"research"in"periodicals,"close"reading"of" performances"and"by"means"of"oral-history,"I"reveal"the"ideologies"behind"the"emerging" discourses"of"jazz"as"a"subHcultural"art"music"and"the"notion"of"aktuele"geïmproviseerde- muziek"as"a"distinctive"Dutch"sound."In"Chapter"Two,"I"further"investigate"how"the" richtingenstrijdHnarrative"and"other"Dutch"debates"shaped"the"organization"of"jazz"in"the" Netherlands."I"focus"specifically"on"jazz"education"in"the"Netherlands,"as"an"area" exemplary"for"the"increasingly"professionalized"and"institutionalized"jazz"activities."To" get"insight"into"the"interrelation"between"jazz"discourse"and"education,"I"closely" examine"the"ideologies"behind"some"of"the"most"vital"forms"of"(organized)"training"in" jazz:"jam"sessions,"school"concerts,"workshops"and"jazz"programs"taught"at"the" conservatories." " Chapter"Three"examines"the"intertwining"between"cultural"policyHmaking"and" improvised"music"practice"in"the"Netherlands,"and"studies"how"improvised"musicians" used"collectives"musicHmaking"to"mediate"their"esthetical"and"socioHpolitical"agendas."It" deals"successively"with"the"changing"position"of"the"government"towards"the"arts"as" reflected"by"changes"in"policyHmaking;"the"role"of"improvising"musicians"in"these" debates;"and"the"effects"of"changes"in"cultural"policyHmaking"on"the"further" development"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."It"gives"special"attention"to"the"worldH renowned"Dutch"system"of"art"subsidies,"moreover"since"this"system"is"currently"being" jeopardized"by"severe"cuts"in"governmental"funding."The"Dutch"government"in"2013" and"2014"implemented"200"million"euro"cuts"on"funding"of"the"arts,"over"a"fifth"of"the" 900"million"euro"annual"budget"of"the"previous"years."The"cuts"have"begun"to"affect" both"the"cultural"infrastructure—for"example"Music"Centrum"the"Netherlands"was" forced"to"close"as"of"January"1,"2013,"and"festivals"and"venues"receive"increasingly"less" funding."Apart"from"the"financial"crisis,"the"stigmatization"of"the"arts"as"an,"in"the"words" of"the"populist"politician"Geert"Wilders,"“linkse"hobby”"(leftist"hobby)"is"part"of"the" rhetoric"used"to"legitimize"these"cuts." "

14" " In"Chapter"Four"and"Five,"I"engage"with"the"role"of"media"representation"in"the" construction"of"Dutch"jazz"narratives,"i.e.,"the"notion"of"improvised"music"as"a"distinctive" Dutch"sound."I"explore"the"role"of"Dutch"jazz"critics"in"the"development"of"postwar"jazz" in"the"Netherlands,"and"more"specifically,"their"role"in"Dutch"jazz’s"shift"away"from" American"models"of"playing"jazz."Who"were"these"mediators"and"promoters"of"jazz"and" what"arguments"did"they"use"to"validate"and"legitimize"their"observations?"How"did" critics"position"jazz"against"the"backdrop"of"the"fragmentation"into"different"jazz"scenes," the"professionalization"and"institutionalization"of"jazz"practices,"the"emancipation"from" American"jazz"practices,"and"the"declining"audiences"as"a"consequence"of"changes" within"teenage"culture?"To"answer"these"questions,"I"critically"engage"with"the"writings" of"some"of"the"leading"Dutch"jazz"critics"of"the"1960s"and"1970s"(Rudy"Koopmans,"Bert" Vuijsje,"Michiel"de"Ruyter,"Ruud"Kuyper,"among"others)"and"examine"their"work"in" connection"with"their"esthetical"and"political"beliefs."In"Chapter"Five,"I"engage"with"the" understanding"of"nonHAmerican"jazz"practices"and"the"global"spread"of"jazz"from"an" American"mainstream"perspective,"by"studying"the"mediation"of"Dutch"and"European" jazz"in"the"American"jazz"magazine"Down-Beat."I"expose"underlying"ideologies"and" implications"of"the"American"jazz"narrative,"by"exploring"the"role"and"function"of"some" of"the"key"actors"through"which"the"story"of"European"jazz"is"told;"correspondents," American"musicians"visiting"and"migrating"Europe,"European"musicians,"and"European" audiences." " In"the"last"chapter,"I"further"investigate"the"impact"of"subsidies"on"a"musicHstructural" level"and"examine"how"governmental"support"affected"the"understanding"of"Dutch" improvised"music"as"a"distinctively"Dutch"music."I"do"this"by"means"of"a"multiHfaceted" analysis"and"close"reading"of"the"Zeeland-Suite-(1977),"one"of"the"richest"performances" in"Dutch"improvised"music"in"terms"of"musical"style,"cultural"symbolism"and"national" representation."By"deconstructing"and"closeHreading"the"suite’s"production," performance"and"representation,"I"argue"that"the"renewed"funding"system"deeply" impacted"both"the"production"and"the"representation"of"improvised"music"in"the" Netherlands."Further,"by"studying"the"musical"performance"in"connection"to"cultural" symbols"that"have"come"to"represent"the"regional"cultural"identity"of"Zeeland"(the" province’s"motto"“Luctor"et"emergo”,-the"Deltaworks"et"al),"I"demonstrate"how"the"study"

15" " of"music"as"a"carrier"of"cultural"meaning"contributes"to"the"understanding"of"issues"of" cultural"identity." " This"thesis"is"not"meant"as"a"comprehensive"history"of"Dutch"jazz,"nor"does"it"aspire"to" discuss"all"musicians,"performances"or"recordings,"of"which"there"are"too"many."Rather," it"is"a"biographical"account"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"dealing"with"the"socioHcultural" development"of"musical"practices"under"that"name,"and"of"those"who"consider" themselves"jazz"musicians"or"heirs"to"jazz."It"goes"significantly"further"than"Whitehead’s" New-Dutch-Swing,"as"it"deals"extensively"with"the"contexts"that"shaped"a"diversity"of" music"practices"that"originated"from"American"jazz."It"aspires"to"add"a"more"contextual" perspective"to"existing"studies"on"Dutch"jazz"and"contributes"to"the"understanding"of" issues"of"identity"formation,"representation"and"cultural"politics"within"jazz"studies." Ultimately,"then,"this"study"proposes"a"way"of"viewing"jazz"as"part"of"a"local"(music)" culture"that"is"not"only"informed"by"international"developments"within"the"practice"of" jazz,"but"which"also"interacts"with"the"local"socioHpolitical"infrastructures"and"the" discussions"organized"around"them."I"would"hope"that"this"contextual"analysis"of"Dutch" jazz,"as"an"accumulation"of"a"variety"of"human"activities,"demonstrates"the"value"of" combining"musicological"and"cultural"historical"approaches"in"understanding"the" capacities"of"music"within"cultural"life."

16" " 1.&Community,&scenes&and&narratives&

In"1978,"journalists"and"musicians"associated"with"the"Stichting"Jazz"in"the"Netherlands" (Foundation"for"Jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"from"here"on:"SJN)"and"the"Jazz/Press"magazine" published"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek-in-Nederland,"a"“companion"to"the"Dutch"jazz" world.”39"The"book,"edited"by"Wim"van"Eyle,"served"in"the"first"place"as"a"platform"to" inform"jazz"professionals"and"enthusiasts"about"venues,"labels,"magazines,"record"stores" and"people"active"in"the"field"of"jazz."Also,"the"book"contains"a"number"of"short"historic" narratives,"including"the"histories"of"traditional"jazz"in"the"Netherlands;"jazz"between" 1945H1965;"jazz"and"improvised"music"between"1965H1978;"the"history"of"the" Foundation"of"Jazz"in"the"Netherlands;"jazz"on"the"radio;"Dutch"jazz"and"related"music;" Belgian"jazz;"Dutch"jazz"records;"and"100"years"(!)"of"Dutch"jazz"writing"between"1877H 1977."This"way,"the"compilers"sought"to"chronicle"what"they"considered"the"“unique" story”"of"Dutch"jazz,"a"story"that"“needed"to"be"captured”"before"the"first"generation"of" Dutch"jazz"musicians"ceased"to"exist." " The"publication"of"the"Companion-followed"from"and"reflected"the"increasing" institutionalization"and"professionalization"of"Dutch"jazz"culture"during"the"1970s"and" the"optimism"felt"among"Dutch"jazz"enthusiasts."In"1974,"for"example,"the"Bimhuis— named"after"the"1971"founding"of"an"improvising"musicians’"union—opened"its"doors," the"first"Dutch"concert"hall"especially"designated"for"jazz"and"improvised"music."Two" years"later,"jazz"critic"and"impresario"Paul"Acket"organized"the"first"edition"of"what" would"become"the"internationally"renowned"North"Sea"Jazz"Festival."That"same"year," conservatories"in"the"Netherlands"began"to"include"jazz"in"their"curricula."In"his" foreword"to"the"Companion,"prominent"jazz"promoter"and"radio"host"Michiel"de"Ruyter" asserts"that,"“Jazz"in"the"Netherlands"shows"an"upward"trend,”"observing"an"increase"of" venues,"festivals,"labels,"radio"programs"and"literature"featuring"jazz."However," “symbolically"the"most"important”"event"for"the"recognition"of"Dutch"jazz"on"the" international"stage"and"improvised"music,"was"according"to"De"Ruyter,"the"visit"of"“a" New"Yorker,”"who"had"traveled"across"the"Atlantic"especially"to"attend"a"concert"by"one" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 39"Wim"van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek:-Handboek-voor-de-Nederlandse-Jazzwereld- (Antwerpen:"Het"Spectrum,"1978),"6."

17" " of"Dutch"leading"improvised"music"ensembles,"the"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief."“Indeed,”" De"Ruyter"recalls,"“in"1977"the"first"American"[fan]"came"over"to"the"Netherlands"to" hear"what’s"going"on"over"here.”40"Altogether,"De"Ruyter’s"observations,"the"tone"of"the" articles,"and"the"companion"itself"signaled"an"increasing"selfHawareness"and"optimism" among"musicians"and"journalists"about"Dutch"jazz"and"its"significance"on"the" international"stage." " Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek-in-Nederland"was"the"first"companion"to"express"an" outspoken"desire"among"Dutch"jazz"journalists"and"musicians"to"manifest"themselves"as" part"of"a"local"jazz"and"improvised"music"community—a"community"of"professionals."It" followed"the"example"of"similar"publications"that"had"appeared"earlier"in"Belgium," Scandinavia,"England,"Germany,"Switzerland"and"the"United"States."The"editors"asserted" with"confidence"that,"“It"was"about"time"that"the"Netherlands"too"presented"its"own" ‘who"is"who’"in"jazz.”41"Together"with"market"research"bureau"Inter/view,"the"editors" compiled"746"short"biographies"with"the"contact"details"of"musicians"(89"percent)"and" nonHmusicians"such"as"programmers,"promoters,"and"photographers."The"list"“officially" presented”"the"members"of"the"BIM,"the"union"for"improvising"musicians"that"had"been" founded"in"1971"with"the"purpose"of"“providing"the"government"with"a"recognizable" support"group"for"jazz.”42"Moreover,"the"Companion"presented"jazz"in"the"Netherlands" as"an"important"part"of"“cultural"history”"with"a"significant"past"and"an"exciting" presence." " While"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek-in-Nederland-presents"the"1970s"jazz"and" improvised"music"community"in"the"Netherlands"as"a"homogeneous,"even"harmonious" whole,"the"biographies—which"in"most"cases"had"been"provided"by"the"jazz" professionals"themselves—suggest"a"much"more"complex"socioHcultural"practice."In"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 40"Ibid.,"7." 41"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek,"6." 42"The"handbook’s"presentation"of"the"“professional”"Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music"community"is"very" optimistic,"as"only"a"handful"of"the"listed"jazz"professionals"made"a"fulltime"living"from"jazz."In"a"1978" study,"Frans"van"Leeuwen"calculated"that"the"gross"national"income"for"jazz"as"generated"by"ticket"sales," subsidies"and"additional"funding"would"allow"for"approximately"one"hundred"musicians"to"earn"their" income"by"playing"jazz."His"estimation"of"the"total"jazz"community"amounted"to"300"jazz"and"improvising" musicians,"consisting"of"181"BIMHmembers"and"120"“active"nonHmembers.”"Frans"van"Leeuwen,"De"fluit" en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),""Jazz/Press"53/54"(1978):"33."

18" " terms"of"ethnic"background,"for"example,"the"musicians"showed"quite"a"diversity."With" almost"10"percent"of"its"members"born"outside"the"Netherlands,"jazz"and"improvised" music"represented"twentyHone"different"nationalities."Of"these,"sixteen"jazz"musicians" came"from"the"United"States"and"resided"in"the"Netherlands"permanently,"or,"in"case"of" saxophonists"Don"Byas,"Coleman"Hawkins"and"Ben"Webster,"stayed"in"the"Netherlands" on"a"temporary"basis."By"far"the"largest"number"of"the"musicians"listed"who"were"not" born"in"the"Netherlands"came"from"the"former"Dutch"colonies"Indonesia"(24),"Surinam" (5)"and"Curacao"(1).43"The"ethnic"background"of"the"musicians"not"only"reveals"the" country’s"colonial"past,"but"also"underlines"the"notion"of"jazz"as"a"transnational"practice" that"encapsulates"and"embodies"multiple"musical"traditions;"a"music"that"should"be" understood"as,"in"the"words"of"E."Taylor"Atkins,"“a"harbinger"of"what"we"now"call" ‘globalization.’”"44"A"further"study"of"the"biographies"shows"how"1970s"jazz"and" improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands"also"represented"a"musically"and"stylistically" diverse"and"maleHdominated"space"of"cultural"activity."The"categories"used"by"the" musicians"to"define"their"music"illustrate"how"the"label"“jazz"and"improvised"music”" covered"a"wide"range"of"musical"styles"and"genres."While"most"musicians"used" conventional"jazz"styles"to"label"their"music"(“Dixieland,”"“swing,”"“bop,”"“free" improvised"music,”"“rock"jazz”),"the"alternatives"(“modern"Dixieland,”"“music"theatre,”" “people’s"music,”"“honest"style,”"“music"influenced"by"African"folk"music"and"Japanese" classical"music,”"among"others)"at"the"same"time"indicated"the"musicians’"unease"with" labels"that"confined"their"creative"work"into"prescriptive"pigeonholes."The"absence"of" women"on"the"list"is"particularly"striking."No"less"than"4"percent"of"the"entries"are"on"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 43"Indonesia"(24),"U.S.A."(16),"Belgium"(5),"Surinam"(5),"Germany"(3),"France"(2),"Russia"(2),"U.K."(2)," British"Guyana,"Curaçao,"Denmark,"Ghana,"Greece,"India,"Monaco,"Austria,"SouthHAfrica,"Switzerland," Venezuela,"Zambia."Photographer"Rico"d’Rozario’s"country"of"birth,"India,"is"not"mentioned."" Indonesia"(24):"Rob"Agerbeek,"Hans"Assenderp,"Gé"Bakker,"Richard"Daniëls,"Nedley"Elstak,"Fred"Gilhuys," Edgar"de"Haas,"Juul"van"Hogezand,"Victor"Kaihatu,"Eric"Krans,"Max"Lim,"Theo"Uden"Masman,"Charlie" Nanlohy,"Frank"Noya,"Nippy"Noya,"Bob"van"Oven,"Babs"Pronk,"Rob"Pronk,"Ruud"Pronk,"Bas"Schop,"Lu" Ssanet,"Aart"Steffelaar,"Flip"Willemse,"Peter"Ypma;"U.S.A."(16):"Joe"Albany,"Don"Byas,"Johnny"Dunn,"Frank" Grasso,"Charlie"Green,"Burton"Greene,"Rosa"King,"Johnny"Griffin,"Coleman"Hawkins,"Tristan"Honsinger," Freddie"Johnson,"Ben"Webster,"Wilbur"Little,"Sandy"Mosse,"Irv"Rochlin,"Glenn"Spearman;"Canada:"Alan" Laurillard;"Belgium"(5):"Mon"Devoghelaere,"Fred"van"Hove,"Bert"Page,"Jean"Robert,"Marcel"Thielemans;" Surinam"(5):"Teddy"Cotton,"Kid"Dynamite,"Wim"Essed,"Ronald"Snijders,"Henny"Vonk;"Germany"(3):"Toto" Blanke,"Thijs"Chanowski,"Eddy"Marron;"France"(2):"JeanHPierre"Perroud,"Hans"Vlig"van"der"Sijs;"Russia"(2):" Misha"Mengelberg,"Jascha"Trabsky;"U.K."(2):"Wally"Shorts,"William"Nelson;"British"Guyana:"Mr."Slim;" Curaçao:"Tony"Nahar;"Denemarken:"Børge"Ring;"Ghana:"Cab"Kaye;"Greece:"Constantin"Poustochkine;"India:" Rico"d’Rozario;"Monaco:"Yvon"Fadd;"Austria:"Monika"van"der"Zwart;"SouthHAfrica:"Sean"Bergin;" Switzerland:"Tom"Braaksma;"Venezuela:"Hein"van"der"Gaag;"Zambia:"Michael"Baird." 44"Atkins,"Jazz-Planet,"xiii."

19" " women:"seventeen"vocalists,"ten"instrumentalists,"two"promoters"and"one"journalist." Altogether"the"list"shows"how,"as"a"fullHfledged"member"of"the"cultural"landscape,"the" field"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"provides"an"excellent"site"for"the"study"of"socioH cultural"issues,"such"as"cultural"exchange,"race,"class,"ethnicity,"nationality"and"gender." " This"chapter"engages"with"the"further"development"of"Dutch"narratives"in"jazz"and" focuses"on"the"socioHcultural"binaries"that"are"created"and"reinforced"by"members"of"the" Dutch"jazz"community"themselves."It"explores"the"main"subgenres"in"jazz"(traditional" jazz,"modern"jazz,"and"improvised"music)"used"by"musicians"and"other"professionals" during"the"1960s"and"1970s"in"the"Netherlands"and"juxtaposes"their"main"differences"in" terms"of"representatives,"music,"aesthetics"and"socioHpolitical"views."Furthermore,"it" engages"with"the"soHcalled"richtingenstrijd,"a"battle"that"arose"midH1960s"between"the" soHcalled"modern"jazz"musicians"and"the"emerging"group"of"AmsterdamHbased" improvising"musicians,"and"which"developed"into"one"of"the"tropes"through"which"the" story"of"Dutch"jazz"continues"to"be"told."This"work"is"in"dialogue"with"what"art"historian" Terry"Smith"has"called"the"“simultaneity"of"antinomies”"and"the"“coexistence"of"very" distinct"senses"of"time,"of"what"it"is"to"exist"now,"to"be"in"place,"and"to"act,"in"relation"to" imagined"histories"and"possible"futures.”45"Although"Smith’s"topic"is"quite"different— exploring"the"issue"of"contemporaneity"in"the"diversity"of"presentHday"art"and"culture— his"approach"is"useful"as"it"offers"a"more"inclusive"model"on"arts"and"culture,"which"not" only"centers"around"a"relatively"small"group"of"revolutionary"avantHgardists"but"which" also"engages"with"more"conservative"voices"and"evolutionary"processes"of"musical" change."Smith’s"model"contributes"to"the"understanding"of"the"complexity"of"artistic"and" cultural"change"both"in"time"and"place."Rather"than"simplifying"musical"practices"into" stylistic"categories,"this"chapter"exposes"the"ideological"and"political"implications"of" categorization"and"canonization"processes,"demonstrating"the"complexity"of"meaningH making"in"the"musical"realm." " My"distinction"between"three"subcultures"is"loosely"based"on"the"works"of"sociologist" Wim"Knulst,"who"in"1970"explored"the"potential"of"earning"an"income"by"playing"jazz"in" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 45"Terry"Smith,"“Introduction:"The"Contemporaneity"Question,”"in"Antinomies-of-Art-and-Culture:- Modernity,-Postmodernity,-Contemporaneity,"ed."Terry"Smith,"Okwui"Enwezor"and"Nancy"Condee"(Duke" University"Press,"2009),"vi."

20" " the"Netherlands"and"who"investigated"the"organizational"structures"needed"for"a"viable" jazz"culture.46"Commissioned"by"the"Boekman"foundation,"a"study"center"for"arts," culture"and"related"policy,"in"his"study"Knulst"distinguishes"three"“clusters”"that"could" be"separated"in"terms"of"socioHeconomic"backgrounds"and"geographical"centers"of" activity."The"first"cluster"consists"of"fortyHeight"musicians"who"largely"earned"their" income"by"playing"in"radio"orchestras"active"in"the"record"and"television"studios"located" in"the"city"of"Hilversum."The"second,"most"clearHcut"cluster"centered"around"eleven" AmsterdamHbased"“improvising"musicians,”"including"members"of"the"Instant" Composers"Pool,"and"other"avantHgarde"musicians."Third,"Knulst"identified"a"remaining" group"of"musicians"in"the"eastern"part"of"the"country"who"in"terms"of"professional" organization"largely"connected"to"the"first"cluster,"and"which"for"that"reason"I"will" consider"as"belonging"to"the"same"group."In"addition"to"Knulst’s"categorization,"I"will" start"with"a"brief"introduction"of"traditionalist"jazz."Knulst’s"survey"largely"ignores"the" Dixieland"scene,"which"was"largely"amateurHbased"and"perhaps"for"that"reason"fell"out" of"the"survey’s"aim"to"investigate"the"viability"of"earning"an"income"by"playing"jazz."

Jazz&audiences& In"the"late"1950s"and"early"1960s,"radio,"television"and"magazines"increasingly" responded"to"what"cultural"historian"Hans"Righart"has"labeled"the"“hedonistic”"and" “commercialized”"“teenager"culture”"of"the"Sixties.47"Teenagers"during"this"time"were" increasingly"drawn"to"Americanized"forms"of"popular"culture,"and"the"rock"and"beat" music"of"Bill"Haley,"Elvis"Presley,"the"Beatles,"and"the"Rolling"Stones.48"This"new"group" of"teenagers"separated"themselves"from"other"generations"by"means"of"music,"fashion," beauty"magazines"and"other"“lifestyle”"and"could"therefore"be"targeted"commercially." Radio"programmers"attracted"young"listeners"with"an"increasing"offer"of"Dutch"radio" broadcasts"exclusively"dedicated"to"pop"music."While"teenagers"initially"turned"to"the" EnglishHlanguage"programs"broadcast"by"Radio"Luxemburg"for"the"latest"rock-and-roll,""

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 46"Wim"Knulst,"Jazz-anno-1970"(Amsterdam:"Boekmanstichting,"1972)." 47"Righart,"De-eindeloze-jaren-zestig,-162."AVRO"(A.V.R.O.)"and"VARA"are"abbreviations"of"respectively" “Algemene"Vereniging"Radio"Omroep”"(General"Broadcasting"Association)"and"“Verenigde"Arbeiders" Radio"Amateurs”"(Workers’"Assocation"of"Radio"Makers)."From"1957,"the"V.A.R.A."was"no"longer"officially" spelled"as"an"abbreviation,"but"as"VARA"instead." 48"Hans"Righart"wrote"extensively"on"the"emergence"of"soHcalled"“teenagercultuur”"in"the"Netherlands," Hans"Righart,"De-eindeloze-jaren-zestig"(1995)."One"could"question"whether"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"was" ever"a"popular"music"with"a"large"audience."

2"1" they"were"drawn"to"Dutch"broadcasts"with"clearHcut"titles"such"as"Tijd-voor-Teenagers" (Time"for"teenagers,"1959H1970),"Tussen-10+-en-20H-(Between"10+"and"20H,"1962H1970)" and"Grammofoonmuziek-voor-de-teenagers-(Gramophone"music"for"teenagers).49" Similarly,"the"upcoming"medium"of"television"seized"up"on"this"new"teenager"market."A" young"generation"of"programmers"for"the"liberal"protestant"radio"broadcasting"VPRO" committed"themselves"to"more"progressive"and"experimental"forms"of"television" making,"which"challenged"traditional"codes"of"behavior"related"to"sexuality.50"The" controversial"television"series"Hoepla,"for"example,"reached"the"international"headlines" in"1967"as"the"first"Dutch"television"program"to"show"a"naked"woman:"twentyHone"year" old"visual"artist"and"FluxusHrepresentative"Phil"Bloom."The"event"led"to"debates"in"the" House"of"Representatives,"illustrating"the"growing"concern"of"the"established"generation" for"the"young"and"rebellious"teens"and"what"they"saw"as"their"repugnant"ideals"of"sexual" liberation." " Although"jazz"could"be"considered"part"of"this"new"teenager"culture—the"Chris"Barber" Band,"Dutch"Swing"College"Band,"Papa"Blue’s"Viking"Jazz"Band"and"other"revivalist"jazz" groups"continued"to"make"the"pop"charts"throughout"the"1960s—rock"and"roll"and"beat" largely"pushed"jazz"aside"as"the"youth’s"primary"music.51"The"declining"interest"in"jazz" affected"the"music"scene,"as"the"number"of"jazz"club"visitors"dropped,"forcing"jazz" associations"and"jazz"clubs"to"close"their"doors."The"Amsterdam"jazz"club"Sheherazade" discontinued"its"jazz"activities"in"1962"after"the"club"changed"ownership."The"press" lamented"the"loss"of"this"“Mecca"of"modern"jazz,”"which"over"the"years"developed"into" one"of"the"country’s"“leading"jazz"centers.”52"The"Sheherazade"owed"its"leading"position"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 49"“Jubileum"van"tussen"10+"en"20H:"Jos"Brinks"honderdste,”"Friese-Koerier,"March"30,"1965,"2." 50"The"VPRO"was"originally"spelled"V.P.R.O.,"which"is"an"abbreviation"of"Vrijzinnig"Protestantse"Radio" Omroep"(Liberal"Protestant"Radio"Broadcasting)."To"underline"the"new"direction"and"to"move"away"from" the"original"religious"connotations,"the"name"was"changed"from"V.P.R.O."into"VPRO."Currently"the" statutory"name"is"Omroepvereniging"VPRO"(Broadcasting"Association"VPRO)." 51"This"information"is"based"on"the"charts"provided"from"June"1958"by"popular"music"magazine"Muziek- Express,"published"between"January"1956"and"December"1989."The"hit"charts"that"appeared"in"the" Netherlands"during"the"1960s"were"typically"based"on"record"sales"as"provided"by"record"stores."In"1951," programmer"Ger"de"Roos"initiated"the"KROHhitparade,"the"first"pop"charts"in"the"Netherlands"based"on" record"sales."The"popularity"of"the"Muziek-Express"chart"decreased"during"the"1960s,"as"other"magazines" and"radio"programs"(Tijd-voor-Teenagers,"Top-10,"Parool-Top-10,"Veronica-Top-40)"started"their"own"hit" lists."http://www.hitnoteringen.nl/start/muziekHexpres/"(accessed"November"25,"2014)."" 52"In"June"1950"the"“modern"music"magazine”"Rhythme"announces"a"concert"by"the"orchestra"of"Joop" Korzelius"at"the"Sheherazade."“Cees"Slinger:"‘We"gaan"uit"elkaar,’"The"Diamond"Five"zoekt"ander"home,"”" "

22" " particularly"to"the"club’s"house"combo"the"Diamond"Five,"which"from"1958"attracted" modern"jazz"fans"and"musicians"through"jam"sessions."In"addition,"they"accompanied" visiting"American"soloists"such"as"Kenny"Drew,"Donald"Byrd"and"Johnny"Griffin.53" Likewise,"jazz"magazine"Rhythme-saw"teenagers"and"other"commercial"market"groups" as"the"main"reason"for"its"discontinuation."In"September"1961,"“the"Netherlands’"only" jazz"periodical”"Rhythme,"announced"that,"“the"magazine’s"circulation"cannot"even"begin" to"compete"with"magazines"aimed"at"families,"women"or…"teenagers”"[emphasis"added]" (for"a"further"discussion"of"jazz"writing,"see"Chapter"Four).54" " However,"jazz"not"only"lost"audiences,"but"at"the"same"time"reached"new"audiences" through"radio"broadcasts,"jazz"magazines"and"the"emerging"medium"of"television."From" 1955"onwards,"jazz"musicians"and"enthusiasts"listened"to"the"Voice-of-America-Jazz-Hour," the"American"music"program"on"long"wave"radio"presented"by"Willis"Conover,"who" presented"the"latest"jazz"records."After"midnight,"listeners"throughout"Europe"fiddled" with"the"dial"of"their"shortwave"radios"to"find"the"opening"notes"of"“Take"the"‘A’"Train,”" followed"by"a"dark,"slow"voice"announcing,"“Time"for"Jazz…Willis"Conover"in" Washington"D.C."with"the"Voice"of"America"Jazz"Hour.”"Among"those"listeners"was"the" young"drummer"Han"Bennink,"who"lists"the"program"as"an"important"source"of" inspiration"during"his"early"career.55"Jazz"also"featured"in"special"programs"made"for" Dutch"radio,"starting"with"VARA’s"Romance-in-Jazz"(1958–60)"presented"by"reed"player" and"composer"Theo"Loevendie,"and"followed"by"the"phonetically"spelled"Dzjess-Zien- (1964–66),"the"title"referring"both"to"“seeing"jazz”"(zien-means"“to"see”)"and"to"“jazz" scene”"(zien"is"roughly"pronounced"as"“scene”).56" " While"new"teenage"cultures"unquestionably"effected"the"further"development"of"jazz," not"everyone"shared"the"view"that"jazz"was"losing"potential"young"listeners"to"beat"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Het-Vrije-Volk,"12"February"1962,"15;"“Gé"van"Toorenburg"won"muziekoorlog,”"De-Tijd,"21"July"1962,"41." “Tweemaal"Rita"Reys"in"de"Maasstad,”"Het-Vrije-Volk,"December"21,"1959,"4." 53"“Exclusief"optreden"van"Johnny"Griffin,”"De-Telegraaf,"March"3,"1963,"9;"“JazzHpianist"Kenny"Drew"in" ‘Zade’,”"De-Telegraaf,"April"17,"1963,"9;"“Donald"Byrd,”"De-Telegraaf,"November"11,"1963,"7." 54"Anton"Kop"and"Skip"Voogd,"“Farewell"Blues,”"Rhythme"144,"September"1961,"3." 55"Van"den"Berg,"Han-Bennink,"38." 56"The"program"was"aired"by"the"Dutch"Christian"Radio"Association"NCRV"(Nederlandse"Christelijke"Radio" Vereniging,"which"was"part"of"a"publicly"funded"broadcasting"system"that"was"subdivided"according"to" religious"beliefs,"reflecting"a"societal"division"known"as"verzuiling-(pillarization)."

23" " rock"and"roll."“I"don’t"believe"that"the"parting"of"[the"Sheherazade"and"the"Diamond"Five]" is"the"result"of"a"declining"interest"in"jazz,”"bandleader"and"pianist"of"the"Diamond"Five" Cees"Slinger"insisted"in"1962,"“It’s"a"matter"of"taste."Jazz"fans"nowadays"rather"listen"to" Ornette"Coleman"and"John"Coltrane.”57"Slinger’s"observation"not"only"responded"to"and" consequently"reinforced"the"common"view"that"1960s"jazz"increasingly"lost"(potential)" young"audiences"to"rock,"beat"and"other"popular"music,"it"also"signals"how"changes" within"the"subculture"of"jazz"during"the"1960s"created"shifts"in"terms"of"audiences," sound"and"location."Slinger’s"idea"that"Sheherazade’s"closure"was"caused"by"an" increasing"interest"among"jazz"fans"for"the"latest"jazz"rather"than"for"(other)"popular" music,"implies"a"fascinating"correlation"between"taste,"socioHcultural"change"and"place," as"these"jazz"fans"literally"distanced"themselves"from"the"places"that"had"come"to" represent"the"music—and"the"people—of"bygone"days." " Which"jazz"styles,"then,"came"to"represent"the"old"jazz"and"the"new"jazz,"who"associated" with"these"styles,"and"on"which"platforms"did"their"stories"unfold?"The"following" paragraphs"engage"with"the"implications"of"traditional"jazz,"modern"jazz"and" improvised"music,"three"of"the"main"categories"used"to"differentiate"jazz"during"the"midH 1960s"and"1970s,"and"which"can"be"distinguished"in"terms"of"musical"style," representatives,"cultural"values"and"geographical"center." " Traditionalists- As"part"of"a"broader"international"revivalist"movement,"traditionalist"jazz"bands" blossomed"in"the"Netherlands"during"the"1950s"and"1960s."Groups"such"as"the" Dixieland"Pipers,"the"Down"Town"Jazz"Band"and"Jan"Burgers’"New"Orleans"Syncopaters" fell"back"on"the"prewar"jazz"idioms,"employing"variations"on"the"standard"lineHup"of" clarinet,"trumpet,"saxophone,"trombone,"banjo,"piano,"bass,"and"drums."58"Among"the" most"prominent"Dixieland"bands"in"the"Netherlands"was"the"Dutch"Swing"College"Band" (DSCB,"also"known"as"the"Orchestra"of"the"Dutch"Swing"College),"which"had"its"origins"as" the"house"band"of"the"jazz"society"by"the"same"name"in"The"Hague."Led"by"reed"player"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 57"“Cees"Slinger:"‘We"gaan"uit"elkaar,’"The"Diamond"Five"zoek"ander"home,"”"Het-Vrije-Volk,"12"February" 1962,"15." 58"Terms"used"to"describe"this"genre,"include"“oudere"jazz,”"Dixieland,"also"referred"to"as"“traditional,”" “swing,”"“old"style,”"and"“revival”"prevailed"during"1950s"the"Netherlands."

24" " Peter"Schilperoort,"the"band"began"after"the"war"by"playing"EllingtonHrelated"repertoire" and"from"1947"developed"into"one"of"European"leading"Revival"orchestras.59"However," despite"the"band’s"international"success"in"terms"of"public"attention,"the"international" press"initially"responded"with"lukewarm"enthusiasm"to"the"band’s"music."In"1960"the" British"Jazz-Journal-dismissed"the"DSCB’s"album"Jazz-Class-(Philips"P08045L,"1960)"as" “depressingly"suburban,”"adding"that,"“something"is"missing"here,"anyway,"and"what"is" left"will"appeal"only"to"the"most"casual"DixielandHwhileHshaving"record"buyer.”60" Similarly,"in"1962"American"Down-Beat-journalist"Gilbert"E."Erskine"credited"Dixie-Gone- Dutch-(Philips"PHS"600H010,"1962)-with-3.5"out"of"5"stars,"considering"the"record" “decent”"but"with"a"“lack"of"originality.”61"Notwithstanding"these"negative"reviews,"the" DSCB"from"1960"onwards"performed"professionally"on"stages"across"the"world,"and"was" one"of"the"few"Dutch"traditionalist"jazz"groups"whose"members"were"able"to"make"a" living"playing"jazz.62" " Over"the"years,"Dixieland"in"the"Netherlands"developed"into"a"relatively"independent" scene,"with"its"own"network"of"musicians,"audiences,"venues,"festivals,"and"magazines." From"1963,"Doctor-Jazz,-a-bimonthly"magazine"for"“devotees"and"collectors"of"classic" jazz,"blues"and"related"music,”"became"the"primary"space"for"sharing"information"on" early"jazz."Besides"providing"information"on"concerts,"song"lyrics"and"chords," discographies,"records"and"reissues,"the"editors"reissued"historical"recordings"and"held" regular"meetings"under"the"appropriate"name"of"“reunions.”63"The"traditionalists’" relatively"isolated"position"became"evident"from"a"rather"unfortunate"communication" between"Doctor-Jazz-editor"J."Nijland"and"the"SJN"on"the"association’s"plans"to"initiate"a" jazz"library."In"the"July"1966"edition,"Nijland"responded"to"the"increasing"demand" among"his"readership"to"be"informed"about"these"plans"and"remarked"angrily"that," “[f]rom"the"fact"that"this"association"never-[underline"in"the"original]"invited"us,"we" drew"the"conclusion"that"[the"SJN]"never"intended"to"cooperate"with"Doctor-Jazz.”" Nijland’s"response"typified"the"separation"between"the"more"traditionalist"jazz"fans"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 59"Rudy"Koopmans,"Jazz:-Improvisatie-en-organisatie-van-een-groeiende-minderheid"(Amsterdam:"SUA," 1977),"15." 60"T.S.,"“Record"Reviews,”"Jazz-Journal,"September"1960,"31." 61"Gilbert"M."Erskine,"“Record"Reviews,”"Down-Beat,"August"30,"1962,"24H25." 62"Rudy"Koopmans,"Jazz,"156." 63"In"For"more"information"on"the"current"Dutch"traditionalist"jazz"scene,"see"www.doctorjazz.nl""

25" " those"drawn"to"other"jazz"styles."With"the"1971"initiation"of"the"Breda"Jazz"Festival"as" supported"by"local"authorities"and"the"local"“Roaring"Twenties"Club,"the"southern"town" of"Breda"became"one"of"the"music’s"main"centers;"A"geographical"separation"that"further" underlined"the"scene’s"relative"independent"position"compared"to"other"subgenres"in" jazz.”64" " Modernists- Other"than"the"prewar"jazz"aesthetics"of"traditionalist"jazz"musicians,"modern"jazz" represented"a"new"generation"of"jazz"musicians"who"emerged"during"the"1950s.65" Among"the"most"prominent"jazz"groups"active"in"the"Hague"was"the"Rob"Pronk"Boptet,"a" sextet"that"in"its"original"lineHup"consisted"of"pianist"and"trumpet"player"Rob"Pronk,"the" trumpet"playing"brothers"Ack"(Arie)"and"Jerry"(Gerard)"Van"Rooyen,"tenor"saxophonist" André"Blok,"bass"player"Hans"Tan"and"drummer"Jan"Opgenhaefen."Active"from"the"late" 1940s,"the"group"consisted"mostly"of"conservatoryHtrained"musicians"who"picked"up"the" bebop"idiom"listening"to"records,"or"during"visits"to"New"York"(Pronk,"Van"Rooyen" brothers)."The"Diamond"Five,"the"aforementioned"house"band"of"the"Amsterdam" Sheherazade"gained"further"recognition"through"radio"broadcasts"on"Saturday"evening" for"the"VARA.66" " In"terms"of"musical"approach,"these"musicians"predominantly"modeled"themselves"after" the"small"group"style"of"postwar"American"“modern"jazz”"musicians,"performing"a" repertoire"firmly"based"in"the"tradition"of"the"American"Songbook.67"While"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 64"Koopmans,"Jazz,"184." 65"Musicians"associated"with"modern"jazz,"include"Louis"van"Dijk"(1941),"pi;"Frans"Elsen"(1934H2011),"pi;" Wessel"Ilcken"(1923H1957),"dr;"Pim"Jacobs"(1934H1996),"pi;"Ruud"Jacobs"(b."1938),"b;"Rob"Madna"(1931H 2003),"pi;"Piet"Noordijk"(1832H2011),"as"“Charlie"Parker’s"fierce"(“felle”)"nervous"heir;”65"Wim"Overgaauw" (1929H1995),"gi;"Rob"Pronk"(1928H2012),"pi;"Rita"Reys"(1924H2013),"vc;"Ack"van"Rooyen"(b."1930),"tp;" Jerry"van"Rooyen"(1928–2009);"Herman"Schoonderwalt"(1931H1997),"as/bs;"Cees"Slinger"(1929H2007),"pi;" Peter"Ypma"(1942H2013),"dr." 66"As"a"result"of"the"1961"installment"of"the"“free"Saturday”"the"broadcasts"moved"to"Saturday"morning." “VARA"past"programma’s"aan"bij"vrije"zaterdag,”"Het-Vrije-Volk,"5"September"1961,"6."To"avoid"getting" mixed"up"with"the"popular"singing"duo"the"Blue"Diamonds,"the"Diamonds"in"1959,"changed"its"name"into" the"Diamond"Five."Throughout"the"years,"the"lineHup"remained"unchanged,"with"the"exception"of"1961," when"Jacques"Schols"replaced"Dick"van"der"Capellen"on"bass."On"the"nights"the"Diamond"Five"performed" at"the"Sheherazade,"the"club"was"renamed"the"Diamond"Five"Club."Although"the"band"officially" discontinued"in"1964,"they"regularly"got"together"in"the"years"after." 67"Modern"musicians"have"been"labeled"under"diverse"names,"such"as"“moderne"musici,”"(“Naar"een" structuurplan"voor"de"jazzmuziek”"1971);"“studiomusici”"and"“swingmusici”"(Knulst"1972);"“jazzos”" (“Jazz"plan"Zwolle,"1970);"“mainstream”"(Oudejans"1987)"and"“boppers”"(Kuyper"1967).""

26" " aforementioned"Sheherazade"in"Amsterdam"and"the"“jazzHMondays”"in"nightclub"De" Wieck"in"Rotterdam"formed"vital"meeting"points"for"modern"jazz,"The"Hague,"was"best" known"for"its"bebop"players."As"journalist"Ruud"Kuyper"observed"in"1967," " Around"1950"a"good"few"young"musicians"from"The"Hague"became" obsessed"with"the"sounds"of"Charlie"Parker,"Dizzy"Gillespie,"George" Shearing"(yes,"indeed!),"Miles"Davis,"Tadd"Dameron,"and"others,"whose" music"entered"our"country"on"the"fast"but"fragile"78"RPM"records."These" “modernists”"or"“boppers”"hang"around"a"dance"institute"that"will"always" be"associated"with"The"Hague"modern"jazz:"GaillardHJorissen"on"the"Laan" van"Meerdervoort"[Meerdervoort"Lane]."(Ruud"Kuyper,"Over-Jazz" [Amsterdam:"De"Arbeiderspers,"1967],"19)68" " Not"only"did"these"musicians"musically"follow"the"American"example,"it"also"showed"in" the"way"they"presented"themselves"or"in"the"way"they"were"presented"by"their"record" companies,"using"imagery"with"clear"references"to"the"major"American"jazz"labels"of" that"time."Dutch"modern"jazz"appealed"to"record"companies,"as"its"American" connotation"created"an"urban"feel"of"cosmopolitanism"and"freedom"that"connected"to" the"modernist"spirit"of"postwar"youth."This"spirit"resonates"in"the"liner"notes"of"the" threeHpart"series"of"LP’s"Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes"(Philips,"1955–57),"another"prime" example"of"Dutch"modern"jazz."Radio"maker"and"producer"of"the"record"series"Michiel" de"Ruyter"writes:"" " This"record"is"the"first"of"its"kind"to"present"some"of"our"greatest"Dutch" jazzmen"under"ideal"conditions,"in"other"words,"in"their"own"combo’s"and" playing"the"music"of"their"own"choice."They"were"allowed"complete" freedom,"so"that"they"were"not"forced"to"consider"the"commercial"aspects" the"whole"time,"an"element"which"frequently"leaves"its"mark"on"the" performances"of"many"a"fine"jazz"artist."This"record,"therefore,"contains" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 68"“In"ieder"geval"waren"er"tegen"1950"nogal"wat"jonge"musici"uit"Den"Haag"in"de"ban"geraakt"van"de" geluiden"van"Charlie"Parker,"Dizzy"Gillespie,"George"Shearing"(ja"zeker"!),"Miles"Davis,"Tadd"Dameron"e.a.," wier"muziek"mondjesmaat"ons"land"binnenkwam"op"even"snel"draaiende"als"breekbare"78Htoeren"platen." De"“modernisten”"of"“boppers”"concentreerden"zich"in"het"dansinstituut"dat"voor"eeuwig"verbonden"zal" blijven"met"de"Haagse"moderne"jazz:"GaillardHJorissen"aan"de"Laan"van"Meerdervoort.”"

27" " nothing"but"straightforward"modern"jazz"[original"in"English]."(Michiel"de" Ruyter,"liner"notes,"Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes"[Philips,"1955])69" " Although"De"Ruyter"represents"the"series"as"a"work"of"freedom,"away"from"the" commercial"market,"commercial"interests"did"play"a"part"in"the"process,"as"Philips’"sub" label"Phonogram"was"in"a"race"to"get"the"first"Dutch"modern"jazz"out,"a"race"they"only" just"won."A"year"after"Philips’"release,"the"competing"record"company"Bovema"launched" Jazz-From-Holland-(Bovema,"1956),"again"with"Pronk,"Madna,"Ilcken"and"the"brothers" Van"Rooyen." " Similar"to"the"record"companies,"concert"promoters"used"the"American"example"as"their" main"tool"for"marketing"jazz."On"April"15,"1952,"the"American"impresario"Norman"Granz" introduced"the"Dutch"audiences"at"the"Amsterdam"Concertgebouw"to"Jazz-at-the- Philharmonic,"a"tour"featuring"America’s"greatest"jazz"musicians"such"as"Ella"Fitzgerald," Max"Roach,"Lester"Young,"Flip"Philips,"Roy"Eldridge,"Oscar"Peterson,"Irving"Ashby"and" Ray"Brown."Granz’"concert"at"the"Concertgebouw"developed"into"the"nachtconcerten,"a" series"of"night"concerts"that"continued"until"1976,"and"which"gained"somewhat"of"a" legendary"status"because"of"their"midnight"hour"start,"the"young"audiences"and"the" liberal"drug"policy.70"Following"the"example"of"the"Jazz"at"the"Philharmonic"series,"Dutch" impresario"Paul"Acket"initiated"Jazz-at-the-Kurhaus,"a"similar"initiative"featuring"Dutch" jazz"musicians."On"1"August"1953,"Acket’s"“hot"and"cool”"program"climaxed"with"a"battle" between"the"Dixieland"Pipers"and"the"modernist"“Jazz"at"the"KurhausHformation”"with" alto"saxophonist"Tony"Vos,"tenor"saxophonist"“Skymaster”"Sander"Sprong,"pianist"Frans" Vink"and"drummer"Tony"Nüsser."Much"to"the"surprise"of"a"reporter"of"the"daily" Telegraaf,"the"Dixieland"Pipers"“gained"a"massive"victory.”71"The"recordings"of"Jazz-at- the-Kurhaus,"recorded"live"at"the"Rembrandt"Theater"in"Eindhoven"(Jazz-at-the-Kurhaus," Omega"33H1"and"3302,"1953),"became"known"as"the"“first"Dutch"modern"jazz"record,”"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 69"Musicians"on"the"record"included"Wessel"Ilcken,"dr;"Rita"Reys,"vcl;"Tony"Vos,"as;"Stido"Alström,"pi;"Frans" Elsen,"pi;"and"Rob"Madna,"pi." 70"Bob"de"Groot,"an"ardent"visitor"of"the"concerts"during"his"college"days,"remembered"vividly"how"a" tolerant"drugs"policy"at"the"Concertgebouw"allowed"the"young"crowd"to"smoke"cannabis,"which"filled"the" concert"hall"with"a"thick"smoke"and"heavy"smells."Discussion"with"author,"May"29,"2014." 71"“Jazz"at"the"Kurhaus,”"Telegraaf,"August"4,"1953,"4."

28" " featuring"some"of"the"most"prominent"Dutch"modern"jazz"musicians.72"Like"the"concert" program,"the"recording"was"largely"modeled"after"Granz’"example"which"journalist" Ruud"Kuypers"therefore"labeled"as"a"“straight"imitation"of"Norman"Granz’"circus.”73" " Modern"jazz"musicians"during"the"1960s"dominated"the"professional"jazz"scene,"holding" the"prime"positions"in"broadcasting"orchestras"and"doing"most"of"the"studio"work." While"amateur"jazz"musicians"generally"performed"their"music—typically"Dixieland"or" bop—in"jazz"clubs,"which"paid"little"to"nothing,"these"musicians"increasingly"found" employment"in"the"entertainment"industry."Until"the"end"of"the"1950s,"paid"jobs" included"cabaret"shows,"small"ensemble"performances"for"American"musicians" stationed"at"military"bases"in"occupied"West"Germany,"and"studio"work"for"radio" orchestras"based"in"the"broadcasting"studios"in"Hilversum."The"Van"Rooyen"brothers," for"example,"in"the"late"1940s"performed"with"the"cabaret"show"the"Snip-en-Snap-Revue," to"continue"in"the"1950s"in"professional"radio"and"dance"orchestras,"the"Ramblers" (1926H1964),"the"Metropole"Orkest"(from"1945),"the"Skymasters"(1946H1991),"and"the" KRO"Dansorkest"(1946H1964)."In"addition,"bands"such"as"The"Diamond"Five"earned"a" living"by"performing"in"jazz"clubs"and"concerts"halls,"often"accompanying"American" guest"soloists."Only"few,"however,"were"able"to"make"a"living"playing"jazz."Tenor" saxophonist"Rudi"Brink"recalled"these"poor"circumstances:" " I"took"every"chance"I"got,"just"to"pay"the"rent."Studio"jobs"can"be"really" tedious."You’re"hired"to"record"a"few"notes"and"consequently"leave"the" studio"with"the"feeling"that"you"haven’t"done"anything."It"starts"to"get" interesting"when"you’re"asked"as"a"soloist."The"other"day"I"played"with"the" Metropole"Orkest"for"three"days"[…]"At"least"then"you"get"to"work"with" skilled"musicians."On"commercial"dance"evenings,"I"sometimes"end"up"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 72"The"record"featured"the"following"musicians:"Nedley"Elstak,"tp;"Tony"Vos,"as;"Jos"van"Heuverzwijn,"Toon" van"Vliet"and"André"Blok,"ts;"Hans"van"Assenderp,"tb;"Robbie"Pauwels,"gi;"Hank"Wood,"b;"Frans"Elsen,"pi;" and"Tony"Nüsser,"dr." 73"Kuyper,"Over-Jazz,"24."“De"eerste"grammofoonplaat"die"van"de"Nederlandse"moderne"jazz"is"gemaakt," was"dan"ook"een"lijnrechte"imitatie"van"de"plaat"die"in"Amerika"waren"verschenen"van"de"“stal”(ook"wel:" het"“circus”)"van"Norman"Granz.”"

29" " with"a"bunch"of"botchers,"you"wouldn’t"believe."(Rudi"Brink,"Jazzjaarboek- 6"[Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep,"1987],"106)74" " Dominating"the"fields"of"radio"and"television,"modern"jazz"musicians"were"largely" responsible"for"making"American"jazz"visible"to"the"mainstream"public"in"the"1960s." The"very"set"up"of"the"pioneering"television"series"Dzjess-Zien,"which"ran"weekly"on" national"television"from"1964"to"1966,"was"exemplary"for"the"attempts"of"modern"jazz" musicians"to"align"themselves"with"the"great"American"jazz"tradition."Loosely"modeled" after"Ralph"J."Gleason’s"“Jazz"casual,”"a"public"television"series"on"jazz"and"blues"that"ran" from"1960H1968,"the"producer,"pianist"and"host"Pim"Jacobs"weekly"invited"(American)" soloists"to"perform"live"at"his"show."During"these"30Hminute"broadcasts"Jacobs" accompanied"his"guests"together"with"his"trio"plus"vocalist—and"spouse—Rita"Reys."" " The"show"is"revealing,"as"it"demonstrates"how"modern"jazz"musicians"not"only"educated" general"audiences"in"how"to"listen"to"and"understand"jazz,"but"also"fueled"the"idea"of" jazz"as"an"American"art"form"that"was"both"exotic"and"intellectual"at"the"same"time."This" becomes"evident"from"the"first"broadcast,"which"featured"American"tenor"saxophonist" Johnny"Griffin"and"the"young"and"upcoming"Dutch"drummer"Han"Bennink."After" introducing"the"musicians,"Pim"Jacobs"explains"to"the"viewer"the"“rules"of"jazz" improvisation.”"He"starts"off"by"playing"the"melody"line"of"a"Dutch"children"song,"“Toen" onze"mop"een"mopje"was”"(When"our"dog"was"still"a"puppy),"successively"adding"a"bass" line"and"chords"while"noting"during"the"latter"that,"“We"could"even"consider"calling"it"a" chord-scheme.”"After"syncopating"the"melody"and"adding"swingHfeel,"he"continues"to" demonstrate"the"“rules”"of"jazz"improvisation"by"playing"a"variation"on"the"melody"line." In"addition,"before"he"invites"Griffin"to"the"stage,"Jacobs"warns"the"audience"for"what"he" calls"the"“strange,"jungleHlike"body"movements"and"cries”"of"the"AfricanHAmerican" musician,"explaining—twice—that"these"movements"are"NOT"meant"as"a"showHoff,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 74"Jeroen"de"Valk,"“De"roots"van"Rudi"Brink,”"in-Jazzjaarboek-6,"ed."Erik"van"den"Berg"and"Frank"van" Dixhoorn"(Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep,"1987):"106."“Ik"moest"alles"aanpakken,"gewoon"om"de"huur"te" kunnen"betalen."Dat"studiowerk"is"soms"heel"onbevredigend,"je"wordt"ingehuurd"om"op"band"even"een" paar"noten"in"te"blazen"en"je"gaat"weer"naar"huis"met"het"gevoel"dat"je"niets"gedaan"hebt."Interessanter" wordt"het"als"je"wordt"gevraagd"als"solist"[…]"Onlangs"speelde"ik"drie"dagen"met"het"MetropoleHorkest"[…]." Dan"werk"je"in"ieder"geval"met"behoorlijke"muzikanten."In"die"echte"commerciële"groepjes,"waarmee"je" dan"een"dansavondje"moet"verzorgen,"zat"ik"soms"opgescheept"met"een"stelletje"beunhazen,"dat"houd"je" niet"voor"mogelijk.”"

30" " stating"that"“it"is"all"part"of"who"Johnny"Griffin"is.”"By"pointing"out"Griffin’s" idiosyncrasies,"Jacobs"remarks"fed"into"the"exotic"appeal"jazz—and"black"musicians"(“it" is"part"of"who"they"are”)—held"to"the"Dutch"audience,"while"at"the"same"time" reinforcing"the"idea"of"jazz"as"an"intellectual"pursuit"(“not"meant"as"a"showHoff”),"a"skill" that"can"be"taught,"and"which"therefore"exceeded"the"status"of"sheer"entertainment." " The"modern"jazz"musicians’"selfHappointed"role"as"gatekeepers"of"an"intellectual"art" form"signified"the"departure"of"jazz"as"youth"culture"towards"an"established"art"form"for" connoisseurs."In"his"1978"essay"on"the"socioHcultural"position"of"Dutch"jazz"musicians," sociologist"Frans"van"Leeuwen"asserts"how"the"role"of"modern"jazz"changed" dramatically"during"the"1960s:" " While"the"music"of"the"Modern"Jazz"Quartet,"for"example,"initially"kept" listeners"breathless"in"concert"halls,"it"came"to"serve"primarily"as" background"music"for"television"documentaries"on"Dutch"polder" landscapes"or"as"intermission"music"played"during"a"signal"interruption"of" the"television."Something"similar"happened"in"the"Netherlands"to"the" music"of"Pim"Jacobs"and"Rita"Reys,"which,"much"to"their"own"relief,"found" a"better"place"than"smoky"jazz"clubs"and"draughty"youth"centers."(Van" Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"[deel"1],”-Jazz/Press-47"[1978],"16)75" " The"notion"of"(modern)"jazz"as"an"intellectual"pursuit"is"underlined"by"films"such"as"Jazz- and-Poetry-(1964),-a"short"fourteenHminute"documentary"by"Dutch"filmmaker"Louis"van" Gasteren"featuring-the"Piet"Kuiters"Modern"Jazz"Group"with"pianist"Piet"Kuiters,"alto" saxophonist"Herman"Schoonderwalt,"bass"player"Ruud"Jacobs,"drummer"Cees"See"and" the"American"jazz"poet"Ted"“the"hipster”"Joans"and"Dutch"poet"Simon"Vinkenoog.76"The" opening"scene"shows"an"image"typical"for"modern"jazz:"a"small"combo"playing"Charlie"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 75"“Hield"[de"muziek"van"het"Modern"Jazz"Quartet]"bijvoorbeeld"aanvankelijk"een"ademloos"publiek"in"de" concertzaal"gevangen,"later"ging"die"vooral"dienst"doen"als"achtergrondmuziek"bij"tvHdocumentaires"over" polderlandschappen"en"als"pauzeHmuziek"bij"beeldstoringen."Voor"wat"Nederland"betreft"kunnen"we" denken"aan"de"muziek"van"Pim"Jacobs"en"Rita"Reys,"die"zich"er"bij"herhaling"verheugd"over"uitlieten"dat"ze" voor"hun"muziek"betere"onderkomens"hadden"gevonden"dan"rokerige"jazzclubs"en"tochtige"jeugdhonken.”" 76"Jazz"and"Poetry,"directed"by"Louis"van"Gasteren"(1964)"16"mm,"14"min."[The"American"poet"Ted"Joans" reads"his"poem"“Jazz"is"My"Religion,”"accompanied"by"Piet"Kuiters,"pi;"and"Herman"Schoonderwalt,"as;" Ruud"Jacobs,"b;"and"Cees"See,"dr.]"

31" " Parker’s"classic"blues"“Now’s"the"time”"in"a"dark,"smoky"place"full"of"youngsters"wearing" suits,"ties,"dark"hornHrimmed"glasses"who"drink"beer"and"wine"while"thoughtfully" listening"to"the"music."Although"two"couples"can"be"seen"dancing,"the"image"illustrates" how"modern"jazz"was"perceived"as"an"intellectual"exertion"that"is"best"enjoyed"with" your"eyes"closed,"a"drink"in"one"hand,"a"cigarette"in"the"other,"tapping"along"with"your" foot."The"intellectual"aspect"of"jazz"is"underlined"by"the"fact"that"the"sets"alternate"with" Joans"reading"two"poems."After"remarking"that"how"the"Dutch"swing"“even"though" you’re"not"wearing"klompen"[wooden"shoes]”"and"after"taking"his"shades"off"(“I"always" take"the"glasses"off"for"the"photographers,"so"I"won’t"look"like"the"rest"of"them.”),"Joans" reads"“Jazz"is"my"religion,”"which"is"accompanied"by"a"slow"blues."After"he"finishes," Joans"smilingly"summons"the"listeners"to"stop"clapping"(“No,"no"man,"you"keep"your" claps"to"yourself."I"don’t"need"that.”),"which"is"followed"by"a"second"round"of"applause" and"laughter."The"underlying"message"here"is"that"jazz"and"poetry"is"serious"business," an"intellectual"pursuit"that"should"not"be"disturbed"by"applause"or"other"gestures" belonging"to"entertainment."The"presence"Van"Gasteren’s"camera’s"adds"to"this"sense"of" urgency,"to"the"sense"that"something"vital"is"happening"here." - Improvised-music- While"until"the"1960s,"jazz"musicians"of"different"generations"regularly"played"together," most"notably"in"the"popular"modern"style"big"band"of"Boy"Edgar"(1915–1980)—a"band" that"was"active"between"1960"and"1971"and"which"was"especially"credited"for"its" exceptional"saxophone"section—generations"began"to"diverge"during"this"period.77" In"Amsterdam,"the"Dutch"capital"of"countercultural"activity,"a"particular"scene"developed" around"key"musicians"such"as"reed"player"and"bandleader"Willem"Breuker"(1944–2010)," drummer"Han"Bennink"(b."1942),"and"pianist"Misha"Mengelberg"(b."1935);"all" experienced"jazz"players"who"sought"for"new"ways"of"making"music"and"who"were"no" longer"satisfied"with"what"they"saw"as"the"rigid"bebop"idiom"as"imposed"by"conventional" comboHstyle"groups"and"big"bands.78"As"jazz"journalist"Bert"Vuijsje"observed"in"1963,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 77"The"original"lineHup"of"Boy"Edgar’s"band"consisted"of"Tinus"Bruijn"(1914–1997),"Piet"Noordijk"(1932– 2011),"Theo"Loevendie"(b."1930),"Herman"Schoonderwalt"(1931–1997),"Toon"van"Vliet"(1922–1975),"and" Harry"Verbeke"(1922–2004)." 78"Bennink"and"Mengelberg"had"a"bebop"style"quartet"with"alto"saxophone"player"Piet"Noordijk"and"bass" player"Rob"Langereis"that"regularly"accompanied"American"jazz"musicians."Most"famous"was"their" performance"with"multiHinstrumentalist"Eric"Dolphy"on"Last-Date"(1964),"which"was"to"become"Dolphy’s" "

32" " " Until"recently,"most"Europeans"chose"to"imitate."Also"in"the"Netherlands" we"saw"how"different"musicians"started"as"boppers,"began"to"play"WestH coast"during"the"1950s"and"then"changed"to"hardHbop"around"1956." Consequently,"concerts"by"Dutch"jazz"musicians"were"often"tedious,"even" useless,"considering"the"many"concerts"by"great"American"musicians." However,"the"Holland"Jazz"concert"that"took"place"recently"at"the" Amsterdam"Concertgebouw"showed"how"exciting"things"have"started"to" happen"in"Dutch"jazz."Some"soloists"seem"to"have"found"a"way"[…]"of" expressing"their"own"personalities"with"respect"to"the"pioneering"work"of" the"greatest"musicians."Especially"the"more"experimental"and"avantHgarde" musicians"[such"as"the"Mengelberg"quartet"with"alto"player"Piet"Noordijk," bass"player"Arend"Nijenhuis"and"Han"Bennink]"attracted"particular" attention."(Bert"Vuijsje,"Vrij-Nederland,-1963)79" " Rather"than"imitating"American"jazz,"these"musicians"began"to"use"the"improvisatory" idiom"borrowed"from"jazz"in"search"for"their"own"musical"identity,"most"notably" through"an"eclectic"practice"of"collective"improvisation."The"founding"of"flexible"crossH genre"ensembles,"such"as"the"Instant"Composers"Pool"(ICP,"1967),"the"Theo"Loevendie" Consort"(1968),"the"Volharding"(1971),"and"the"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief"(WBK,"1972)" offered"improvising"musicians"both"an"escape"from"the"hierarchical"organization"of"big"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" last"recorded"session"(Kleijwegt"2006)."The"recording"took"place"with"a"live"audience"on"2"June"1964"in" the"VARA"studio"in"Hilversum"and"included"Jacques"Schols"on"bass."Breuker"learned"the"jazz"idiom"by" playing"saxophone"in"Boy"Edgar’s"big"band"and"in"Loevendie’s"FAMOS"workshops"(Koopmans,"Jazz,"14)." 79"Bert"Vuijsje,"Vrij-Nederland,-1963"in"Koopmans,"156H7."“Tot"voor"kort"kozen"de"meeste"Europeanen" voor"de"navolging."Ook"in"Nederland"hebben"we"bij"verschillende"musici"kunnen"zien"hoe"ze"als"boppers" begonnen,"in"het"begin"van"de"jaren"vijftig"WestHCoast"gingen"spelen,"om"rondom"1956"over"te"schakelen" op"hardHbop."Koncerten"door"Nederlandse"jazzmusici"waren"dan"ook"veelal"een"taaie"en"zelfs"overbodige" gelegenheid."Gezien"de"vele"koncerten"door"Amerikaanse"topHmusici."Het"Holland"Jazz"concert"dat" onlangs"in"het"Amsterdamse"Concertgebouw"werd"gegeven,"toonde"echter"aan"dat"er"de"laatste"jaren" verheugende"ontwikkelingen"in"de"vaderlandse"jazz"hebben"plaatsgevonden."Een"voorlopig"nog"kleine" groep"van"vooraanstaande"solisten"heeft"de"enig"mogelijke"uitweg"uit"het"dilemma"gevonden."Zonder"aan" het"pionierswerk"van"de"zeer"groten"voorbij"te"gaan"blijken"ze"toch"in"staat"de"eigen"persoonlijkheid" volledig"in"hun"spel"te"laten"doorklinken"…"vooral"de"musici"die"zich"met"de"avantHgardistische" experimenten"bezig"houden"vielen"op"[Het"Mengelberg"kwartet"met"altist"Piet"Noordijk,"bassist"Arend" Nijenhuis"en"Han"Bennink].”"

33" " bands"and"combos,"as"well"as"new"possibilities"of"musical"expression.80"Seeking"for" crossHgenre"and"interdisciplinary"collaborations,"improvising"musicians"connected"to" the"international"free"jazz"movement"as"well"as"with"local"musical"cultures." Consequently,"jazz"and"Western"art"music"in"the"Netherlands"during"the"1970s" intertwined,"both"social"and"musically,"resulting"in"a"crossHgenre"collaboration"in"the" Netherlands"that"generated,"facilitated"and"directed"social"and"musical"changes"within" musicoHcultural"landscape"in"the"Netherlands."By"exploring"the"improvising"musicians’" musical"backgrounds"and"collaborations,"the"following"paragraphs"give"insight"into"the" musical"characteristics"associated"with"Dutch"improvised"music." " While"improvising"musicians"have"become"known"for"creating"a"distinct"local"sound"in" jazz"(see"Introduction"and"Chapter"Three)"and"for"radically"changing"the"jazz"scene," their"playing"remained"firmly"rooted"in"the"American"jazz"idiom."For"example," Amsterdam"musicians"trumpeter"Nedley"Elstak"and"saxophonist"Theo"Loevendie"moved," in"the"words"of"Rudy"Koopmans"“along"modernist"lines,"but"didn’t"care"a"straw"about" the"bop"orthodoxy”"as"they"“toured"through"Turkey"and"heralded"a"generation"that" modeled"themselves"to"a"much"lesser"extent"after"the"American"jazz"music.”81"Drummer" Han"Bennink,"who"over"the"years"was"transformed"from"a"suitHwearing"modern"jazz" musician"into"one"of"the"key"figures"of"Dutch"improvised"music,"started"by"playing"in"the" style"of"Kenny"Clarke,"Percy"Heath"and"Ray"Brown,"musicians"he"got"acquainted"with" through"Dutch"“modern”"bass"player"Ruud"Jacobs.82"Bennink,"son"of"a"professional" drummer"and"musician,"was"an"autodidact"who"notoriously—and"to"his"father’s" regrets—never"mastered"sightHreading,"a"necessary"skill"for"the"professional"musician"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 80"The"listed"improvising"musicians"collaborated"in"the"following"ensembles:"De"Volharding"(Breuker,"Van" Manen,"Driessen),"the"ICP"(Breuker,"Van"Manen,"Gorter),"the"Theo"Loevendie"Consort"(Van"Manen," Cuypers,"Gorter,"Driessen)"and"the"WBK"(Breuker,"Van"Manen,"Cuypers,"Gorter,"Driessen)." 81"Koopmans,"Jazz,"155H57."“Ook"in"deze"periode"[Jaren"vijftig?]"kwamen"twee"Amsterdamse"musici"naar" voren,"trompettist"Nedley"Elstak"en"saxofonist"Theo"Loevendie,"die"zich"wel"op"modernistisch"vlak" bewogen,"maar"zich"weinig"gelegen"lieten"liggen"aan"de"bopHorthodoxie."Zij"gingen"geruime"tijd"op" tournee"door"Turkije,"en"vormden"de"voorbode"van"een"generatie"jazz"musici,"die"zich"minder"exklusief" door"de"Amerikaanse"jazzmuziek"lieten"inspireren.”"Even"later"kwam"altist"Eric"Dolphy"hier"spelen"met"de" groep"van"Mengelberg:"de"grens"van"de"bop"werd"bijna"overschreden."In"het"seizoen"64/65"kwam"het" kwartet"van"Albert"Ayler"naar"Nederland,"waarmee"de"bakens"definitief"verzet"werden,"al"reageerden"de" meeste"Nederlandse"musici"nog"negatief.”" 82"Van"den"Berg,"Han-Bennink,"39."“Op"school"maakten"we"lijstjes:"kies"je"voor"Percy"Heath"of"voor"Paul" Chambers"op"bas?"Dan"wordt"het"al"moeilijk."Kies"je"voor"Mel"Lewis"of"Shelly"Manne"op"drums?"Buddy" Rich"of"Gene"Krupa?"(…)"Percy"Heath"en"Kenny"Clarke,"dat"was"de"ultimate-rhythm-section"voor"jongens" uit"het"Gooi.”"

34" " his"father"envisioned"him"to"be.83"Breuker,"who"started"playing"the"clarinet"at"twelve"at" the"Volksmuziekschool"(People’s"music"school)"in"Amsterdam"and"continued"on"a" borrowed"tenor"saxophone"and"a"clarinet"from"the"brass"band"Tuindorp"Oostzaan," learned"to"play"jazz"by"playing"with"the"modern"jazz"quartet"of"Mengelberg."In"a"1965" interview"Breuker"explained"how"from"an"early"age"he"felt"the"urge"to"experiment"and" open"up"ways"of"playing"jazz:" " I"can"play"bop,"but"I"don’t"really"feel"comfortable"with"it."Parker"doesn’t" mean"that"much"to"me,"I"have"always"very"much"enjoyed"his"playing,"but"it" is"not"a"source"of"inspiration."I"have"always"been"inspired"by"pianists," Lennie"Tristano"followed"by"Chet"Baker’s"pianist"Dick"Twardzik"and" currently,"of"course,"Cecil"Taylor."I"could"not"think"of"a"better"example." (Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"149)84" " In"the"early"1960s,"the"first"explorations"into"free"improvisation"in"the"Netherlands" developed"within"the"conventional"settings"of"jazz"combos"and"workshops."Inspired"by" Ornette"Coleman’s"idea"of"playing"“free"of"preconception,”85"drummer"Pierre"Courbois"(b." 1940)"formed"the"Original"Dutch"Free"Jazz"Group"(1961),"allegedly"the"first"Dutch"group" to"experiment"with"free"improvisation.86"During"his"1965"engagement"with"the"German" Gunter"Hampel"quintet"in"the"Parisian"Blue"Note,"Courbois"tried"to"open"up"song"forms"by" adHlib"extensions"of"each"bar"of"the"tune."He"refers"to"this"technique"as"“fermate"play,”"a"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 83"Ibid.,"31H43." 84"“[Bert"Vuijsje]"Is"het"mogelijk"free"jazz"te"spelen"zonder"dat"je"je"eerst"in"oudere"jazzvormen"hebt" verdiept?"Breuker:"De"geloof"ik"niet,"je"moet"ten"slotte"weten"wat"je"overboord"zet."Je"ziet"vaak"knapen," die"nemen"hun"toeter"mee"en"die"gaan"dan"gewoon"wat"staan"blazen."Nou"ja,"je"drukt"maar"wat"in"en"er" komt"geluid"uit"dat"ding,"dat"moet"dan"free"jazz"zijn."Maar"dat"is"natuurlijk"helemaal"geen"free"jazz,"die" gasten"vallen"na"twee,"drie"nummers"toch"door"de"mand."Het"gaat"om"de"instelling"die"je"tegenover"de" muziek"hebt."Ik"voel"al"vanaf"mijn"zestiende"jaar"dat"ik"muziek"in"deze"richting"moet"maken."Ik"kan"wel" bopmuziek"spelen,"maar"ik"voel"me"er"eigenlijk"niet"in"thuis."Parker"heeft"me"nooit"zoveel"vreselijk"veel" gezegd,"ik"heb"het"altijd"wel"verschrikkelijk"fijn"gevonden"wat"hij"deed,"maar"ik"ga"er"niet"van"uit."Ik"ben" altijd"van"pianisten"uitgegaan,"vroeger"van"Lennie"Tristano,"later"van"Dick"Twardzik"die"bij"Chet"Baker"zat" en"tegenwoordig"uiteraard"van"Cecil"Taylor."Ik"ken"gewoon"geen"beter"voorbeeld.”" 85"Alyn"Shipton,"A-New-History-of-Jazz"(London"and"New"York:"Continuum,"2007"[2001]),"572H76." 86"Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"13."The"Original"Dutch"Free"Jazz"Group"(ODFJG)"is"also"referred"to" as"the"Free"Jazz"Group"or"Original"Dutch"Free"Jazz"Quartet."The"original"lineHup"of"the"ODFJG"consisted"of" Maarten"Beckers"(Bakker)"on"tenor"saxophone,"Peter"Krijnen"on"bass,"Piet"Hein"Veening"on"bass"and" Pierre"Courbois"on"drums."The"group"should"not"be"confused"with"the"Free"Music"Quartet"that"Courbois" formed"around"1965."

35" " term"coined"by"the"band’s"pianist"Alexander"von"Schlippenbach.87"Courbois’"gradual" development"from"conventional"solo"with"accompaniment"to"collective,"free" improvisation"typified"the"progress"among"the"early"generation"of"free"jazz"musicians"in" the"Netherlands."He"recalls:" " The"next"step"was"to"let"go"of"individual"improvisation"and"move"on"to" group"improvisation:"playing"all"together,"riding"right"over"each"other"and" doing"it"loud!"…We"didn’t"want"to"rehearse"anymore"either."What"we" wanted"was"a"complete"unpreparedness,"to"clamber"onto"the"stage"and," with"no"arrangements"beforehand,"just"start"playing."(Pierre"Courbois"in" Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"112)88" " During"their"visits"in"1964"and"1965,"American"musicians"such"as"Eric"Dolphy,"Albert" Ayler"and"Ornette"Coleman"introduced"Dutch"audiences"on"a"larger"scale"to"ideas"of"free" improvisation"and"extended"sounds." " "A"pivotal"moment"in"the"establishment"of"improvised"music"was"the"controversial" performance"of"Breuker’s"“Litany"for"the"14th"of"June,"1966”"at"the"finals"of"the" Loosdrecht"Jazz"Concours"(Loosdrecht"Jazz"Competition)"in"July"1966.89"The"largely"preH composed"performance"consisted"of"an"eighteenHpiece"orchestra"casting"up"a"wall"of" musical"chaos"against"which"singer"Sofie"van"Lier"recited"newspaper"reports."As"such,"it" commented"on"the"dramatic"riots"in"Amsterdam"that"had"followed"the"suspicious"death," on"the"13th"of"June,"of"a"protesting"construction"worker.90"With"its"unconventional"lineHup" and"socialHpolitical"theme,"the"performance"was"unprecedented"at"a"festival"that"was"used" to"slotting"participating"musicians"into"pigeonhole"categories"like"“Dixieland”"or"“modern" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 87"Ibid.,"36." 88"“De"volgende"stap"was"het"loslaten"van"de"individuele"improvisatie"en"de"opkomst"van"de" groepsimprovisatie:"allemaal"tegelijk,"dwars"door"elkaar"heen"en"hard…"We"wilden"ook"niet"meer" repeteren."Wat"we"wilden"was"totaal"onvoorbereid"en"zonder"afspraken"het"podium"opklimmen"en" beginnen"te"spelen.”" 89"The"competition"was"part"of"the"Loosdrecht"Jazz"Festival,"which"was"organized"annually"from"1958"and" continued"under"various"names"until"1989."Numerous"studies"take"this"event"as"a"crucial"moment"in" development"of"Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music,"including"Bert"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz:-Twintig- interviews"(Baarn:"Bosch"en"Keuning,"1978);"Adlington,"Composing-Dissent." 90"The"riots"in"June"1966"became"known"as"the"Bouwvakkersoproer"(Construction"Workers"Revolt)"and" the"TelegraafHrellen"(TelegraafHriots),"referring"to"the"headquarters"of"the"daily"paper"of"the"same"name," in"front"of"which"these"riots"took"place."

36" " jazz”"and"as"such"it"spread"discord"among"the"members"of"the"jury.91"The"piece" combines"the"aesthetics"of"contemporary"music"with"jazz"idioms,"using"largely"preH composed"material,"graphic"scores"combined"with"improvisation,"and"performed"by"a" mixed"group"of"classically"trained"and"jazz"musicians"and"is"therefore"generally"marked" as"one"of"the"earliest"examples"of"Dutch"improvised"music." " Illustrative"of"his"awareness"of"the"provocative"aspects"of"his"performance,"Breuker" gave"specific"attention"to"the"visual"aspects,"dividing"the"ensemble"over"three"stages." Two"years"earlier,"in"1965,"Breuker"discussed"this"idea"of"adding"theatrical"elements"to" the"practice"of"jazz,"which"he"saw"as"a"solution"to"the"problem"of"decreasing"audiences:" " I"believe"80"percent"of"the"listeners"just"sit"there"tapping"their"foot"and" nodding"their"head."Perhaps"20"percent"really"enjoy"themselves"and"goes" home"satisfied."For"those"80"percent"we"need"to"add"a"visual"aspect"to"the" stage,"a"kind"of"music"theatre."That"way,"the"musical"stuff"is"more"likely"to" go"down"as"well."I"am"busy"working"out"plans"in"that"direction."(…)"If" audiences"are"looking"at"four"musicians,"those"musicians"need"to"add" something"to"make"the"performance"complete."Otherwise"you"might"as" well"record"it"and"play"the"tape"in"front"of"the"audience."(Willem"Breuker," Jazzwereld"3,"November"1965)92" " Altogether,"“Litany”"can"be"seen"as"an"early"attempt"to"reformulate"conventions"in"jazz" and"consequently"(reH)envision"jazz"as"a"politically"engaged"form"of"avantHgarde"art."The" acceptance"in"1966"of"jazz"group"at"the"prestigious"Holland"Festival"further"signalled" jazz’s"shifting"status"from"entertainment"to"a"respected"form"of"art.93"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 91"Loes"Rusch,"“Common"Ground:"1970s"Improvised"Music"as"Part"of"a"CrossHGenre"Dutch"Ensemble" Culture,”"in"“Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"ed."Nicholas"Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research- Journal"5.1/5.2"(2011):"123H141." 92"“Ik"geloof"dat"tachtig"procent"van"het"publiek"er"zit"om"met"de"voet"mee"te"stampen"en"met"het"hoofd"te" knikken."Misschien"twintig"procent"heeft"er"iets"aan,"gaat"naar"huis"met"het"gevoel"van"ik"heb"een"toffe" middag"gehad."Er"moet"voor"die"tachtig"procent"iets"visueels"op"het"podium"gebracht"worden,"een"soort" muzikaal"theater."Dan"kunnen"die"muzikale"dingen"er"ook"makkelijker"ingaan."Ik"ben"al"druk"bezig"met" iets"in"die"richting.”"See"also,"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"150H1." 93"In"1966"the"Holland"Festival"featured"the"quintet"of"German"trombonist"Albert"Mangelsdorff,"Dutch"Pim" Jacob’s"trio"with"singer"Rita"Reys,"the"Mengelberg"Quartet"and"Boy"Edgar’s"big"band"(Down-Beat"8" [September"1966],"43)."

37" " " From"these"early"experiments"with"free"jazz,"a"distinctive"jazz"practice"evolved"in"the" Netherlands"that"came"to"be"known"as"improvised"music."The"Werkgroep" Geïmproviseerde"Muziek"(improvised"music"task"force),"which"had"been"installed"in" 1970"as"a"subdivision"of"the"BEVEM,"defined"as"improvised"music"as" " the"music"that"is"made"by"instrumentalists,"vocalists"and"composers"who," either"or"not,"call"themselves"by"the"name"of"jazz"musician"and"who" connect"to"the"tradition"of"jazz"improvisation."This"then"excludes"forms"of" pop"music"and"new"music"that"engage"with"improvisation."This" distinction"is"made"for"practical"reasons,"as"these"improvisers"form"a" distinct"social"group"with"its"own"distinct"problems."(“Rapport" Werkgroep"Geïmproviseerde"Muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"1).94" " Musical-renewal" In"their"search"for"new"musical"forms"and"ways"of"integrating"their"music"with"other"art" forms"and"music"traditions,"the"improvising"musicians"were"deeply"embedded"in"the" spirit"of"the"times."Vernieuwing"(renewal,"reform,"modernization)"became"one"of"the" keywords"that"resonated"in"the"music"of"international"free"jazz"scene"as"well"as"in"the" crossHgenre"works"of"Dutch"ensemble"culture."The"improvised"music"collectives"fitted"in" with"the"international"free"jazz"movement"and"other"collectives,"whose"musicians" turned"out"to"have"a"predilection"for"acronyms"and"abbreviations."Originating"in"late" 1950s"the"American"black"art"movement,"the"search"for"a"more"egalitarian"and"open" organization"of"musical"led"to"a"nationwide"initiation"of"collectives,"including"Sun"Ra’s" Arkestra,"PanHAfrican"Peoples"Arkestra"(P.A.P.A."or"ARK,"Los"Angeles,"1961),"the" Contemporary"Five"(New"York,"1962),"the"Jazz"Composer’s"Guild"(JCG,"New"York,"1965)," and"Jazz"Composers"Guild"Orchestra"(New"York,"1965),"the"Association"for"the" Advancement"of"Creative"Musicians"(AACM,"Chicago,"1965),"and"the"Black"Artists"Group" (BAG,"St."Louis,"1968)."Europe"followed"midH1960s"with"the"Spontaneous"Music" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 94"“de"muziek"die"gemaakt"wordt"door"de"zich"al"of"niet"jazzmusicus"noemende"instrumentalisten," vocalisten,"en"componisten"die"bij"de"jazzHimprovisatietraditie"aansluiten."Met"buitensluiting"dus"van"die" nieuwe"muziek"en"popmuziek"waarin"improvisatie"een"rol"speelt."Deze"begrenzing"is"op"practische" gronden"gemaakt,"waar"deze"improvisators"een"duidelijk"te"onderscheiden"sociale"groep"vormen"met"een" eigen"problematiek.”"

38" " Ensemble"(SME,"UK,"1966),"the"Willy"Roggeman"Jazz"Lab"(Belgium),"the"Music" Innovation"Company"(UK,"1970),"the"London"Jazz"Composers"Orchestra"(UK,"1970);"the" Ett"Mine"för"Livet"(Sweden,"1975H1985);"the"Association"à"la"recherché"d’un"Folklore" (ARFI,"France,"1977).95" " Both"American"and"European"artists"experimented"with"collective"improvisation"in"larger" group"settings,"employing"a"democratic,"nonHhierarchical"model"of"creating"music"that" focused"on"the"process"rather"than"on"the"result."Moreover,"it"forced"each"of"the" musicians"to"actively"contribute"to"the"process"of"decisionHmaking."As"Tim"Wall"and" Simon"Barber"have"observed,"these"European"collectives"created"a"production"culture" that"allowed"the"musicians"to"“work"regularly,"locally,"and"in"a"manner"which"meets" their"goal"of"creative"work"unencumbered"by"economic"and"cultural"assumptions"about" the"accessibility"and"viability"of"the"music.”96"Furthermore,"musicians"such"as"Bennink" and"Breuker"took"part"in"initiatives"that"deliberately"aimed"at"transcending"geographical" and"socioHcultural"boundaries,"such"as"the"Globe"Unity"Orchestra"(1966),"the"Annual"Free" Jazz"Meeting"(from"1966,"renamed"New"Jazz"Meeting"in"1973)"and"the"AntiHFestival"or" Total"Music"Meeting"in"Berlin"(1968)."The"transnational"cultural"exchange"also" encouraged"a"further"politicization"and"organization"of"the"free"jazz"movement."Free"jazz" musicians,"increasingly"turned"to"collectively"run"labels"which"sought"to"record"and" distribute"music"through"means"and"channels"independent"of"those"used"by"their" established"competitors.97"In"this"respect,"Dutch"improvising"musicians"showed"an" extraordinary"capacity;"the"staggering"number"of"independent"record"labels"for"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 95"For"a"further"study"of"these"collectives,"see"Ian"Carr,"Music-Outside:-Contemporary-Jazz-in-Britain" (London:"Latimer"New"Dimensions,"1973"[2008]),"44H61;"J."Wickes","Innovations-in-British-Jazz:-Volume- One,-1960H1980-(Chelmsford:"Soundworld,"1999),"96H104;"Alf"Arvidsson"and"Jörgen"Adolfsson,"“Ett"Minne" För"Livet:"A"Swedish"Music"Collective,”"in"“Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"ed."Nicholas" Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research-Journal"5.1/5.2"(2011):"142H152;"J.F."Szwed,"Space-is-the-Place:-The- Life-and-Times-of-Sun-Ra"(Edinburgh:"Payback,"1997);"H."Tapscott"and"S.L."Isoardi,"Songs-of-the-Unsung:-the- Musical-and-Social-Journey-of-Horace-Tapscott-(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"2001);"George"E." Lewis,"“Experimental"Music"in"Black"and"White:"The"AACM"in"New"York"1970"to"1985,”"Current- Musicology-71H73"(2002):"100H57;"B."Looker,"Point-from-which-Creation-Begins:-The-Black-Artists’-Group-of- St.-Louis"(St."Louis,"MO:"Missouri"Historical"Society"press,"2004);"Ingrid"T."Monson,"Freedom-Sounds:-Civil- Rights-Call-out-to-Jazz-and-Africa-(Oxford:"Oxford"University"Press,"2007);"Tim"Wall,"“David"Murray:"The" Making"of"a"Progressive"Jazz"Musician,”"Jazz-Research-Journal-1/2"(2007):"173H203;"George"E."Lewis,"A- Power-Stronger-than-Itself:-The-AACM-and-American-Experimental-Music"(Chicago:"Chicago"Press,"2008."" 96"Tim"Wall"and"Simon"Barber,"“The"Collective"Organization"of"Contemporary"Jazz"Musicians"in"the"UK,”"in" “Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"ed."Nicholas"Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research-Journal" 5.1/5.2"(2011):"89H112." 97"Hurley,"The-Return-of-Jazz,"121,"125."

39" " improvised"music"that"proliferated"in"the"Netherlands"between"1968"and"1989—at"least" 27!"—surpassed"the"achievements"of"all"other"European"countries"for"that"same"period.98" " Following"the"Globe"Unity"Orchestra"and"Annual"Free"Jazz"Meeting"in"1966,"Breuker," Bennink"and"Mengelberg"founded"the"Instant"Composers"Pool,"or"ICP,"the"first"Dutch" collective"to"experiment"with"largeHscale"collective"improvisation."99"Initially"started"as"an" independent"record"label,"the"ICP"performed"for"the"first"time"as"a"fiveHpiece" improvisation"group"on"1"December"1967"in"the"Utrecht"club,"Persepolis.100"During"the" early"years,"the"ICP"developed"into"a"loosely"organized,"eclectic"group"of"musicians"that" showed"great"flexibility"in"terms"of"their"personnel,"instrumentation"and"musical" influences."Between"1967"and"1980,"the"lineHup"varied"from"one"player"(Bennink"on"Solo," 1971)"to"ten"(tentet"on"Tetterettet,"1977)"and"included"nonHDutch"musicians,"such"as" Danish"saxophonist"John"Tchicai,"English"guitarist"Derek"Bailey,"English"trombonist"Paul" Rutherford,"German"saxophonist"Peter"Brötzmann,"English"reed"player"Evan"Parker"and" American"saxophonist"Steve"Lacy."At"the"end"of"the"1970s,"Bennink"and"Mengelberg" assembled"a"tentet"that"would"become"the"still"active"ICP"Orchestra."In"terms"of"musical" organization,"the"ICP"was"shaped"by"a"constant"subversion"of"hierarchy"and"order,"a" practice"that"had"resulted"from"years"of"close"collaboration"between"Bennink"and" Mengelberg."The"varying"musicians"and"instrumentation"and"the"subversive"playing"of" Bennink"and"Mengelberg"forced"the"members"into"a"continuous"and"active"renegotiation" of"their"position"within"the"group."The"loose,"egalitarian"model"of"the"collective"ensemble" proved"a"stimulating"alternative"to"the"hierarchical"big"band,"and"soon"found"following" throughout"the"country,"resulting"in"groups"such"as"the"Sunship"Kollektief"(1973)"in" Rotterdam,"the"9Hpiece"Neptet"(translated"as"FakeHtet,"1976)"in"Nijmegen"and"the"Ohm" Kollektief"(1977)"in"Tilburg"(van"Eyle"1978).""

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 98"C.G."Bakriges,"“Musical"Transculturation:"From"African"American"AvantHgarde"Jazz"to"European" Creative"Improvisation,"1962H1981,”"in"Jazz-Planet,"ed."E.T."Atkins"(Jackson:"University"Press"of" Mississippi,"2003),"99H114." 99"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"146." 100"The"performance"took"place"in"club"Persepolis"in"Utrecht"with"the"following"lineHup:"Mengelberg," Breuker,"reed"player"Peter"Bennink,"bass"player"Maarten"van"Regteren"Altena"and"drummer"Han"Bennink" (Rusch"2007:"28)."In"1968,"the"ICP"published"its"first"recording,"ICP01-New-Acoustic-Swing-Duo,"with" Bennink"and"Breuker."

40" " Dutch&ensemble&culture& From"the"late"1960s,"Dutch"musicians"and"composers"from"different"musical" backgrounds,"such"as"contemporary"composer"Louis"Andriessen,"early"music" representative"Frans"Brüggen"and"jazz"musician"Willem"Breuker,"committed" themselves"to"the"renewal"of"musical"life"in"the"Netherlands"and"to"more"socially" engaged"forms"of"musicHmaking."Not"only"did"they"find"common"ground"in"their" dissatisfaction"with"the"cultural"establishment,"they"also"collaborated"musically"and" financially,"actively"demanding"governmental"support"for"their"work"(this"is"discussed" further"in"Chapter"Three)."Alliances"between"their"avantHgardes"(improvising"musicians" and"contemporary"musicians)"contributed"to"what"came"to"be"known"as"Dutch" ensemble"culture.101"The"countercultural"activism"directly"affected"the"Dutch"musical" landscape,"which,"until"then,"was"dominated"by"the"symphony"orchestras"and" nineteenth"century"repertoire."In"response,"the"new"musical"avantHgarde"founded" ensembles,"such"as"the"aforementioned"Volharding"(1971),"Ensemble"M"(1972)," Schönberg"Ensemble"(1974),"the"WBK"(1974),"Hoketus"(1976),"Slagwerkgroep"Den" Haag"(1977),"Delta"Ensemble"(1978)"and"the"Amsterdam"Baroque"Orchestra"(1979)." Because"of"their"flexibility"in"terms"of"lineHup,"instrumentation"and"repertoire,"these" ensembles"opened"up"new"possibilities"in"musicHmaking."As"such,"these"“small," motivated,"flexible"and"specialized”"ensembles"were"to"epitomize"the"urge"for"renewal" and"selfHcontrol"visible"within"Dutch"concert"life."Or,"as"contemporary"composer" Reinbert"de"Leeuw"put"it"in"the"charged"language"of"his"generation:"“The"twentieth" century"belongs"to"us.”102" " Improvising"musicians"connected"in"many"ways"to"other"artistic"avantHgardes,"most" notably"contemporary"composers"known"as"the"Five.103"De"Volharding"was"founded"by" Louis"Andriessen"in"1972"and"officially"premiered"at"one"of"Theo"Loevendie’s"soHcalled" “inclusive"concerts”"(Inklusiefe"Concerten)"at"the"Amsterdam"Carré"theatre,"where"the" ensemble"presented"itself"“spectacularly”"with"the"piece"De-Volharding,"for"three"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 101"I"have"discussed"the"role"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the"development"of"a"Dutch"ensemble"culture" in"“Common"Ground”"(2011)." 102"Domein-van-de-Vrijheid,"directed"by"A."’sHGravesande"and"S."Verster"(NPS,"1996)."“Nu"moeten"we"ook" aan"een"groter"publiek"kunnen"duidelijk"maken"dat"die"twintigste"eeuw"eigenlijk"van"ons"is."Dat"is"onze" eeuw.”" 103"Rusch,"“Common"Ground,”"123H141."

41" " trumpets,"three"trombones,"three"saxophones"and"a"piano.104"In"her"discussion"of"the" political"implications"of"the"Volharding,"journalist"Johanneke"van"Slooten"in"1982"recalled" the"initial"hesitance"of"the"audience"at"the"concert:" " Some"listeners"felt"that"the"loud"repetitive"melodic"phrases"and"rhythmic" figures"would"never"end"and"burst"into"fury."During"the"concert"the" people"got"more"enthusiasm"and"finally"the"last"booing"was"drowned"out" by"a"storm"of"applause."(Van"Slooten,"“Muziekpolitiek"of"politieke"muziek?”" 45)105" " Stimulated"by"their"close"geographical"and"ideological"proximity—most"composers"and" musicians"were"active"in"the"Randstad-conurbation—practitioners"of"early,"contemporary" and"improvised"music"collaborated"on"a"growing"scale"during"the"1960s."In"search"of"both" “alternative”"music"practices"as"well"as"new"audiences"for"their"music,"they"increasingly" used"each"other’s"venues"and"organized"eclectic"performances.106"The"twelveHpiece"Theo" Loevendie"Consort,"for"example,"explicitly"aimed"at"bringing"together"such"disparate" musical"worlds."The"liner"notes"of"the"Consort’s"first"album"Mandela"(Catfish,"1969)" summarized"the"ideas"behind"its"formation."There"was"to"be," " no"restriction"to"a"specific"idiom"with"its"limitations,"but"an"openness"that" allow[ed"for]"the"integration"of"various"jazz—and"nonHjazz—elements" like"popHmusic"in"Mr.-Brook,"brass"band"music"in"Pepy"and"a"sort"of"dead" march"in"Trompedly."(Theo"Loevendie,"liner"notes,"Mandela"[Catfish,"1969])" " Although"the"ensemble"on"Mandela-used"NonHWestern"meters,"explored"different"sounds" and"subverted"the"combo"hierarchy"by"using"two"drums,"the"compositions"remained" conventionally"structured"in"preHcomposed"themes,"improvised"solo"parts,"solo"cadenzas,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 104"Johanneke"van"Slooten,"“Muziekpolitiek"of"politieke"muziek?"Tien"jaar"de"Volharding,”"Haagse-Post,"18" September"1982,"45." 105"Ibid.,"45."Sommige"toehoorders"bekroop"het"gevoel"dat"de"eindeloze"herhalingen"en"melodische"frasen" en"ritmische"figuren"gebracht"op"vol"volume"nooit"meer"te"stuiten"zouden"zijn"en"dat"ontlaadde"zich"in" woedeHuitbarstingen."Maar"naarmate"het"concert"voortduurde"groeide"het"enthousiasme"in"de"zaal"totdat" uiteindelijk"een"stormachtig"applaus"het"laatste"boegeroep"wegvaagde.”" 106"This"was"not"an"entirely"new"development:"already"in"1926,"Paul"Whiteman"performed"with"his"jazz" orchestra"at"the"prestigious"Concertgebouw"in"Amsterdam.""

42" " backgrounds"and"interludes."In"this"respect,"the"album"reflected"the"musical"background" of"Loevendie,"who"studied"both"composition"and"clarinet"at"the"Sweelinck" Conservatorium"in"Amsterdam"and"was"an"experienced"jazz"saxophonist."" " Likewise,"classically"trained"composers"increasingly"used"musicians"from"different" backgrounds"to"create"new"sounds."A"significant"and"controversial"collaboration"was" the"eclectic"musicHtheatre"piece"“Reconstructie”—written"by"The-Five,"added"with"the" authors"Hugo"Claus"and"Harry"Mulish—"which"premiered"in"Amsterdam’s"Carré"at"the" June"1969"Holland"Festival.107"Bennink"and"Breuker"took"part,"as"well"as"popular" chansonnier"Ramses"Shaffy."Early"music"representative"Frans"Brüggen,"an"outspoken" supporter"of"the"Notenkrakersactie"and"“new"music,”"was"prominently"featured," performing"a"solo"on"an"amplified"contrabass"recorder."The"interdisciplinary"and" eclectic"collaborations"were"further"explored"during"nightlong"“inclusive"concerts”"that" had"as"its"goal"the"bringing"together"of"different"kinds"of"music"and"the"attraction"of" new,"heterogeneous"audiences.108"An"important"event"was"the"twelveHhour"Musici-voor- Vietnam-(“musicians"for"Vietnam”)"benefit"concert"on"20"February"1970"in" Amsterdam’s"Frascati"theatre,"which"featured"approximately"120"performers"associated" with"early"music,"contemporary"music,"pop,"jazz,"as"well"as"“mainstream"classical"music.”" The"program,"which"included"compositions"of"the"second"Viennese"School,"recent" compositions,"classical"works"of"Mozart,"Schumann"and"Chopin,"pop"and"jazz,"reflected" this"diversity."The"Eksperimusika"concert"of"26"February"1970"was"organized"for"similar" reasons;"under"the"common"theme"of"improvisation,"there"were"performances"by" Baroque"ensemble"Musica"da"Camera,"jazz"combo"Louis"van"Dijk"and"pop"group" Ekseption.109"Likewise,"the"STAMPHconcerts"of"the"BeveM"(Foundation"for"Alternative" Music"Practices)"in"Amsterdam’s"Shaffy"Theater"(now"Felix"Merites)—organized"by" Loevendie"from"1972—aimed"at"what"was"called"an"“alternative”"music"practice.110" Besides"performances,"the"new"alliances"were"captured"on"recordings."For"example,"the" musicians"on"Breuker’s"Contemporary"Jazz"from"Holland"(Relax,"1969)"featured"both"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 107"For"the"political"implications"of"Reconstruction-see"Adlington,"“‘A"Sort"of"Guerilla,’”"167H193." 108"Elmer"Schönberger,"ed.,"Ssst!:-Nieuwe-ensembles-voor-nieuwe-muziek"(Amsterdam:"International" Theatre"and"Film"Books,"1996),"81H82." 109"K.R."Rubinoff,"“Cracking"the"Dutch"Early"Music"Movement:"The"Repercussions"of"the"1969" Notenkrakersactie,”"TwentiethHCentury-Music"6/1"(2011),"7." 110"Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"18."

43" " classically"trained"musicians"as"well"as"jazz"players.111"Likewise,"Loevendie,"on"his" album"with"the"Theo"Loevendie"Consort"Chess!"(BASF,"1972),"used"a"combination"of" musicians"of"different"musical"backgrounds.112"Consequently,"the"media"increasingly" categorized"the"diverse"and"often"interdisciplinary"performances"under"the"umbrellaH terms"of"“new"music”"and"“avantHgarde.”"" " The"improvised"music"ensembles,"as"well"as"the"classical"Nederlands"Blazers"Ensemble" (1959),"served"as"inspirational"models"for"contemporary"composers,"which,"as"Louis" Andriessen"recalls,"were"the"only"existing"Dutch"ensembles"when"he"founded"the" Volharding"in"1971.113"Ensembles"such"as"the"Volharding"developed"its"own"repertoire," mixing"politically"committed"street"music"with"avantHgarde"(minimal"music)."The" ensembles"democratic"principles"played"out"in"different"ways."Until"the"1990s,"the" Volharding"played"without"a"conductor,"organized"its"own"concerts"and"created"a"circuit" of"alternative"concert"venues,"including"community"centers,"street"stages,"outdoor" bandstands,"schools,"socialist"festivals"and"smaller"concert"venues.114"Furthermore"the" ensemble"focused"on"the"mixing"of"different"musical"traditions,"which"became"apparent"in" personnel"(musicians"of"different"backgrounds)"as"well"as"performance"and"the"blending" of"classical"composition"techniques"with"free"improvisation."The"idea"of"a"“pool"of" musicians,”"however,"was"not"entirely"new"in"contemporary"music."In"1964,"composer" Ton"de"Leeuw"had"coined"the"idea"of"a"mobiel-ensemble,"with"the"intention"of"rendering" material"his"ideal"of"an"“open"music"practice.”115"He"considered"the"“mobile"ensemble”" an"addition"to"symphony"orchestras,"which"represented"a"“different"strength,"way"of" playing,"interpretation,"technique"and"mentality.”"Moreover,"De"Leeuw"believed"that" these"mobile"ensembles"would"draw"new"audiences."Although"the"term"never"achieved" common"currency,"De"Leeuw’s"ideas"paved"the"way"for"the"development"of"flexible" ensembles"within"the"practice"of"contemporary"music." """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 111"The"performance"on"the"album"Contemporary-Jazz-from-Holland"(Relax,"1966)"includes"the"former" conservatory"students"Gilius"van"Bergeijk"on"clarinet,"Guus"Dral"on"bassoon,"Jan"Wolff"on"French"horn"and" Rob"Kattenberg"on"drums,"and"the"jazz"musicians"Arjen"Gorter"on"double"bass,"accordion,"and"harmonica," Victor"Kaihatu"on"guitar,"and"Courbois"on"drums." 112"The"album"Chess"featured"the"classically"trained"musicians"Harry"Sparnaay"on"bass"clarinet"and"Rien" de"Reede"on"flute." 113"Domein-van-de-Vrijheid,"directed"by"A."’sHGravesande"and"S."Verster"(NPS,"1996)."" 114"Leo"Samama"and"Hylke"van"Lingen,-Nederlandse-muziek-in-de-20Hste-eeuw-.-Voorspel-Tot-Een-Nieuwe- Dag."(Amsterdam:"Amsterdam"University"Press;"Salomé,"2006),"299." 115"Ton"de"Leeuw,"“De"toestand"is"urgent,”"Algemeen-Handelsblad,"October"24,"1964."

44" " " Altogether,"musicians"from"different"musical"traditions"found"in"the"mediumHsized" ensemble"a"shared"musical"solution"to"what"they"considered"the"problem"of" conventional,"fixed,"hierarchical"structured"models"of"symphony"orchestras,"jazz"big" bands"and"jazz"combo’s."These"flexible"ensembles"consisted"usually"of"seven"to"nine" musicians"and"enabled"their"members"to"experiment"with"collective"improvisation," graphic"scores,"and"interdisciplinary"collaborations."This"way,"the"ICP,"the"Volharding" and"other"flexible"ensembles"allowed"the"musicians"themselves"to"be"in"control"and"be" part"of"the"decisionHmaking"process."However,"despite"the"liberating"potential"of" collective"improvisation,"ensembles"established"after"the"ICP"increasingly"focused"on"preH composed"material"and,"to"a"degree,"moved"away"from"free"improvisation."A"prime" example"of"the"growing"interest"for"preHcomposed"material"within"improvised"music" ensembles"was"the"foundation"of"the"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief,"or"WBK,"in"1974."During" his"years"with"the"ICP,"Breuker"had"become"less"interested"in"free"improvisation"and" started"to"distance"himself"from"Bennink"and"Mengelberg."Frustrated"by"the"lack"of" discipline"and"the"lack"of"interest"in"his"compositions"he"left"the"ICP"in"1973"to"start"his" own"elevenHpiece"band.116"Until"his"death"in"2011,"the"WBK"enabled"Breuker"to"further" develop"his"own"ideas,"which"included"projects"with"written"material"and"several"music" theatre"productions.""

Richtingenstrijd;+constructed+binaries+in+jazz+

WILLEM"BREUKER."What"is"jazz,"man?"Explain"me."Bullshit."

FRANS"ELSEN."Listen."I’ll"tell"you."Look."Back"then"there"was"this"association"called"“The" association"for"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,”"remember?"And"in"1971"there"was"a"soHcalled- Overval,"you"might"remember"that"as"well,"and"then"all"of"a"sudden"it"was"called"“[the" association"for]"Jazz"and-improvised-music-in"the"Netherlands."

WILLEM"BREUKER."That"name"changed"in"1977.117"

FRANS"ELSEN."Well,"I"don’t"want"to"make"a"fuss"about"a"year"or"two."

WILLEM"BREUKER."Well,"I"do."Because"you"make"it"sound"like"it"all"changed"overnight."

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 116"Buzelin,"Willem-Breuker,"76H80." 117"In"1979"the"SJN"changed"its"name"into"SJIN."

45" " FRANS"ELSEN."The"only"thing"I"want"to"say"is"that"it"wasn’t"the"jazz"musicians"who" changed"the"name,"it"was"the"improvising"musicians."So,"if"you"ask"me"“what"is"jazz?”—I" don’t"need"to"explain,"because"everyone"knows"that"by"now—but"if"you"ask"me"to" explain"the"difference"between"jazz"and"improvised"music,"then"I"can"tell"you"that"we- never"made"such"a"distinction,"but"you-did."Otherwise"you"would"never"have"changed" the"name."Okay?"

WILLEM"BREUKER."Well,"it"was"just"because"the"name"did"not"cover"it"anymore."

FRANS"ELSEN."It"still"doesn’t.118" " In"1986,"a"heated"discussion"on"jazz"funding"took"place"between"Frans"Elsen"and"Willem" Breuker."The"two"had"been"invited"on"a"radio"program"for"the"VPRO"hosted"by"Han" Reiziger."The"debate,"themed"around"the"issue"of"jazz"funding,"reveals"how"during"the" previous"decade"growing"tensions"between"established"modern"jazz"musicians"and"the" improvising"musicians,"as"especially"on"issues"of"subsidies"and"education,"created"a" dichotomy"within"the"Dutch"jazz"scene."As"Breuker"observed"in"1965,"“"I"can’t" remember"there"ever"being"as"much"scandal,"discussions"and"fighting"in"Dutch"jazz"as" there"is"at"the"moment.”119"As"early"as"1958,"the"young"Misha"Mengelberg’s"free"jazz" performance"at"the"Amsterdam"Lucky-Star"club"had"caused,"in"the"words"of"Dutch"jazz" critic"Rudy"Koopmans,"“somewhat"of"a"palace"revolution.”120"While"after"the" performance—which"remains"further"unspecified—young"musicians"were"drawn"to"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 118"Radio"interview"by"Han"Reiziger,"1986."VPRO"radio."Wat-is-nou-jazz,-man?-Leg-me-dat-nou-eens-uit.-Gelul.- Moet"je"eens"luisteren."Dat"zal"ik"je"dan"vertellen."Kijk."Indertijd"heette"die"stichting"“Stichting"Jazz"in" Nederland,”"weet"je"nog"wel?"En"toen"is"er"in"1971"een"overval"gepleegd,"misschien"herinner"je"je"dat"ook" nog"wel."En"toen"werd"het"ineens"“Jazz"en-geïmproviseerde-muziek”"in"Nederland."Wanneer-werd-dat?-In- 1977.-In"1971"is"die"overval"gepleegd."Die-naamsverandering-was-in-1977."[Harm"Mobach"noemde"het"een" overval."Rudy"Koopmans"speelde"een"soort"paard"van"Troje,"volgens"Frans"Elsen]"Nou"ik"wil"niet"over"een" paar"jaar"discussiëren."Maar-ik-wel.-Jij-doet-net-alsof-het-van-de-ene-op-de-andere-dag-is-veranderd."Ik"heb" alleen"maar"gezegd"dat"de"naam"veranderd"is,"niet"door"de"jazzmuzikanten,"maar"door"de"improviserende" musici."Dus"als"jij"mij"vraagt"“wat"is"dan"jazz?”"Nou,"dat"hoef"ik"niet"te"gaan"zitten"uitleggen,"dat"weet" iedereen"zo"langzamerhand."Maar"als"je"aan"komt"met"“wat"is"het"verschil"tussen"jazz"en"geïmproviseerde" muziek?”"of"iets"dergelijks,"dan"kan"ik"je"toch"wel"vertellen"dat"wij-dat"onderscheid"niet"gemaakt"hebben," maar"jullie."Anders"zouden"jullie"die"naam"niet"hebben"veranderd,"natuurlijk."Oké?"Nee-hoor,-het-was- gewoon-zo-dat-de-vlag-op-dat-moment-de-lading-niet-meer-dekte."Dat"doet"het"nog"steeds"niet."Nou-jongen,- hou-nou-toch-op,-man.-Jij-denkt-dat-jij-de-wijsheid-in-pacht-hebt-door-te-weten-wat-een-jazzHmuzikant-is.-Dat- is-absoluut-niet-waar.-Ik-bedoel...-Ik"denk"sowieso"niet"dat"ik"de"wijsheid"in"pacht"heb.”" 119"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"149."“Zo"nu"en"dan"schaam"ik"me"ervoor"dat"ik"constant"het"enfant-terrible"ben," wat"ik"helemaal"niet"wil"zijn."Ik"wil"gewoon"muziek"maken"en"ik"kan"me"niet"herinneren"dat"er"in"de" Nederlandse"jazz"ooit"zoveel"schandaal"is"geweest,"dat"zoveel"mensen"zich"druk"gemaakt"hebben,"elkaar" in"de"haren"hebben"gezeten.”" 120"Koopmans,"Jazz,"154."“Dat"was"het"begin"van"de"scheiding"der"geesten.”"

46" " Mengelberg’s"playing,"some"of"the"more"established"musicians"refused"to"play"with"him" any"longer."Koopmans"concluded"in"1977"that,"“[t]hat"was"when"the"diverging"of" opinions"began.”121"" " Koopmans’"“diverging"of"opinions,”"as"represented"by"the"“rebellious”"Breuker"on"the" one"side"and"the"“conservative”"Elsen"on"the"other,"has"become"known"as"the" richtingenstrijd."The"tensions"between"Breuker"and"Elsen"originated"in"different"views" on"esthetics,"the"notion"of"musicianship"and"the"role"the"arts"in"society."However,"much" of"this"jazz"discourse"was"informed"by"a"repertoire"of"stereotypes"that"reinforced" constructed"binaries,"i.e."low"versus"high"art,"commercialism"versus"authenticity,"and" the"swinging"craftsman"versus"the"autonomous"artist."The"following"paragraphs"explore" these"constructions"by"tracing"back"the"musicians’"conflicting"views"in"terms"of" aesthetics"and"socioHpolitical"issues." " i)-Low-versus-high-art- Musicians"such"as"Breuker"during"the"1960s"and"1970s"increasingly"promoted"their" music"as"an"individual"expression,"as"an"autonomous"artistic"product"that"should"be" allowed"to"develop"outside"the"commercial"market"and"away"from"entertainment."In"a" 1965"interview"Breuker"explained"how"he"refused"to"go"to"the"Sheherazade"any"longer," because"the"jazz"club"in"his"view"promoted"and"therefore"devaluated"jazz"as"a"form"of" commercial"entertainment:"“Jazz"is"misplaced."It"doesn’t"belong"in"dancings"and"bars," because"to"me"it"is"concert"music.”122"The"quote"not"only"shows"the"musician’s" uncomfortable"relationship"with"jazz’"connotations"as"a"form"of"entertainment,"but"is" also"indicative"of"the"Breuker’s"attempts"to"align"his"music"with"the"more"“serious”"form" of"concert"music."The"label"of"“improvised"music”"is"also"revealing"in"this"case."From"the" 1970s,"the"media"and"musicians"themselves"explicitly"divorced"the"concept"of" “improvised"music”"from"that"of"“jazz,”"the"latter"evoking"undesirable"images"of" commercialism"and"uncreative,"slavish"studio"work."As"such,"the"specification"of"the" novel"term"was"an"act"of"liberation"in"itself."The"phonetic"reworking"of"“collectief”"in"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 121"Ibid.,"154."“Dat"was"het"begin"van"de"scheiding"der"geesten.”" 122"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"150."De"hele"jazz"zit"in"de"verkeerde"hoek,"het"is"geen"muziek"die"in" dancings"en"drankgelegenheden"gebracht"moet"worden,"het"is"concertHmuziek"voor"mij."Van"die" SheherazadeHtoestand"word"ik"ook"doodziek,"ik"ga"er"niet"meer"heen."

47" " Willem"Breuker"Kollektief-is"another"example"of"rebellion"against"the"received"tradition." In"this"case"the"orthographic."The"earlier"discussed"collaboration"of"the"AmsterdamH based"improvising"musicians"with"contemporary"composers,"writers"and"other"artists," further"underlined"the"attempt"to"move"away"from"the"realms"of"commercialism"and" entertainment"and"reposition"improvised"music"as"a"form"of"high"art."The"improvising" musicians’"deliberate,"but"by"no"means"consistent,"rejection"of"the"label"“jazz”" demonstrates"the"improvising"musicians’"awareness"of"the"social"connotations"of" classification"(i.e."jazz"as"light"entertainment)"and"showed"their"ability"to"make"use"of" these"terms."Furthermore,"it"articulated"the"artists’"desire"to"identify"with"the"present"and" the"things"to"come." " ii)-The-swinging-professional-craftsman-versus-the-autonomous-creative-artist- Whereas"the"AmsterdamHimprovising"musician"came"to"represent"the"narrative"type"of" the"autonomous"creative"artist,"the"HilversumHbased"studio"musicians"embodied"the" type"of"swinging"professional"artist."Improvising"musicians"particularly"opposed"to" those"who"found"employment"in"radio"orchestras"and"studio"jobs."Their"critique" particularly"focused"on"the"HilversumHbased"studio"musicians"engaged"in"broadcasting" orchestras,"who"they"criticized"for"being"commercial,"parochial,"and"acting"as"slavish" imitators"of"American"jazz."Elsen,"who"was"notoriously"conservative"in"his"views"on" jazz,"dismissed"the"experimental"and"radical"music"of"improvising"musicians,"blaming" them"for"“suffering"from"an"originality"obsession.”123"His"view"was"typical"for"the" modern"jazz"musicians,"who"regarded"craftsmanship,"such"as"the"reading"and"technical" skills"and"the"ability"to"“swing”"as"important"criteria"for"being"a"competent"musician." The"view"on"music"as"a"craft"rather"than"a"creative"art"followed"from"the"musicians’" work"in"studio’s"and"radio"orchestras,"which"demanded"a"professional"attitude"and"a" level"of"competence"that"largely"depended"on"these"skills.124"Also"the"necessity"of" actively"promoting"their"work"was"less"urgent,"as"these"studio"musicians"earned"a" guaranteed"albeit"modest"income"in"radio"orchestras."" "

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 123"Loes"Rusch,"“Jazzpracticum:"Over"de"institutionalisering"van"jazzonderwijs"in"Nederland,”"(master’s" thesis,"University"of"Amsterdam,"2007),"35H35." 124"Kuyper,"Over-Jazz,"22."

48" " iii)-American-purist-versus-creative-activist- While"improvising"musicians"typically"legitimized"their"work"by"virtue"of"its"esthetical" and"innovative"quality,"underlining"the"quality"of"jazz"as"a"scheppende-kunst"(creative" art),"modern"jazz"musicians"tended"to"be"less"outspoken"in"their"positioning"within"the" Dutch"music"practices"and"society"and"took"pride"in"being"part"of"an"American"jazz" tradition."Elsen,"for"example,"stressed"the"AfricanHAmerican"background"of"jazz,"noting," “all"Dutch"are"white"men"who"never"in"their"youth"visited"a"black"church.”"Underlining" his"view"of"jazz"as"an"essentially"black"American"practice,"Elsen"stated,"“all"jazz"is" borrowed"culture.”"The"“deHAmericanization”"or"appropriation"of"jazz,"in"contrast," which"became"prevalent"among"improvising"musicians"should"first"of"all"be"understood" as"a"political"act,"as"a"way"to"distinguish"oneself,"an"act"that"was"crucial"in"order"to"be" recognized"as"a"musician"worth"of"(financial)"support."In"a"1974"interview"with"Herman" de"Wit,"the"improvising"musician"and"Volharding"member"asserted"what"by"then"had" developed"into"the"“old"sores”"between"modern"jazz"and"improvising"musicians."On"the" absence"of"improvising"musicians"at"the"jazz"festival"in"Laren,"De"Wit"complained,"“The" NOS,"which"largely"organizes"the"festival,"still"thinks"that"jazz"comes"from"the"United" States."I"don’t"mean"to"be"negative"about"the"American"jazzHcats."They"are"fine"musicians." But"they"are"incredibly"expensive."Nothing"is"left"for"our"music.”125"The"festival" organization,"however,"did"invite"De"Wit"to"lead"one"of"the"two"workshops"in"the" festival’s"next"edition,"an"invitation"that"De"Wit"saw"as"a"“victory.”" " Also,"while"musicians"such"as"Elsen"propagated"a"“purist”"notion"of"music,"improvising" musicians"also"saw"music"as"a"way"of"expressing"their"political"views,"or"showing"their" sympathy"for"certain"political"ideas."In"1982"trombone"player"Willem"van"Manen" reflected"on"the"performances"of"improvised"music"ensembles"on"political"meetings" parties"such"as"the"Dutch"communist"party"CPN"and"the"Pacifist"Socialist"Party"(PSP):" " We"have"a"political"function"on"these"meetings;"we"teach"the"people"that" music"has"an"intrinsic"value,"which"can’t"be"manipulated"like"background"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 125"Jos"Haagmans,"“‘Wij"willen"aan"de"mensen"laten"zien"dat"muziek"maken"ook"anders"kan’,”"De-Waarheid," September"7,"1974,"4."“De"NOS,"die"het"festival"voor"een"groot"deel"organiseert,"meent"nog"steeds"dat"de" jazz"uit"Amerika"komt."Geen"kwaad"woord"hoor"over"die"Amerikaanse"jazzHjongens."Prima"musici."Maar" wel"hartstikke"duur."Zo"blijft"er"voor"onze"muziek"niets"meer"over.”"

49" " music"played"at"the"dentist"or"at"a"warehouse."That’s"why"we"believe"that" you"need"to"play"music"that"is"so"compelling"that"people"need"to"stop" talking;"just"because"the"music"is"so"forceful"in"its"own"right."(Van"Slooten," “Muziekpolitiek"of"politieke"muziek?,”"47)126" " Music,"in"this"view,"carried"the"potential"of"bringing"about"actual"changes"within"society," or"at"least"reflected"the"leftist"political"ideals"held"by"most"improvising"musicians."

Conclusion&

In"this"chapter"I"engaged"with"the"construction"of"narratives"in"jazz"through"an"analysis" of"different"Dutch"jazz"scenes"and"investigated"how"these"narratives"articulate"certain" cultural"values."As"I"pointed"out"at"the"beginning"of"the"chapter,"the"1978"companion"to" Dutch"jazz"presents"jazz"as"a"rather"unified"community,"integrating"musicians"of" different"backgrounds"into"a"singular"group."However,"the"opposing"views"and"conflicts" as"represented"by"individual"musicians"show"a"much"more"complex"and"diverse"story." To"get"insight"into"the"tropes"that"define"this"story,"I"explored"the"different"labels"that" journalists,"musicians,"and"audiences"have"used"to"distinguish"different"jazz"styles"or" scenes:"traditional"jazz,"modern"jazz,"and"improvised"music."These"musical"scenes"are" by"no"means"fixed"territories"or"closed"systems,"as"is"demonstrated"by"the"works"and" lives"of"individual"musicians"such"as"Theo"Loevendie,"Leo"van"Oostrom"and"Hans"Dulfer," who"are"often"active"within"multiple"scenes,"appropriating"different"styles"and" aesthetics."Seen"this"way,"the"labels"of"traditional"jazz,"modern"jazz"and"improvised" music"function"not"so"much"as"excluding"categories"or"scenes,"but"as"outlining"the" extremities"of"a"spectrum"of"musical"approaches"that"reflect"different"perspectives"on" identity,"aesthetics"and"politics." " Through"a"critical"investigation"of"one"of"the"most"significant"debates"within"the"Dutch" jazz"scene,"the"richtingenstrijd,"I"have"shown"that"these"scenes"have"come"to"represent" certain"shared"value"systems"that"have"informed"further"debates"in"jazz."Based"on"a" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 126"“Het"is"een"politieke"functie"van"ons"op"zo’n"bijeenkomst;"dat"je"de"mensen"leert"dat"muziek"op"zichzelf" een"waarde"vertegenwoordigt"en"dat"die"muziek"niet"manipuleerbaar"is"zoals"een"achtergrondmuziekje" bij"de"tandarts"of"in"het"warenhuis."Dat"is"ook"de"reden"dat"wij"vinden"dat"je"op"die" solidariteitsbijeenkomsten"een"muziekstuk"moeten"laten"horen"waar"ze"niet"doorheen"kunnen"lullen;" gewoon"omdat"het"dwingende"muziek"is"en"volkomen"op"zichzelf"staat.”"

50" " romanticized"and"simplified"reading"of"the"past,"the"richtingenstrijd-as"a"narrational" device-continues"as"a"local"frame"of"reference"through"which"individual"musicians," bands,"performances,"even"institutions"are"positioned"and"valued."This"becomes"clear" from"the"opening"section"of"Bert"Vuijsje’s"biography"of"vocalist"Rita"Reys:"" " It"is"June"25,"2004."Rita"Reys"is"seventyHnine"and"six"month"and"she"is" making"her"debut"at"the"Bimhuis."For"thirty"years,"from"the"moment"it" opened"its"doors"1974,"the"Bimhuis"and"Rita"Reys"have"avoided"each" other."In"the"eyes"of"the"Amsterdam"sanctuary"of"jazz"and"improvised" music"she"represented"TROS"and"Telegraaf."In"the"eyes"of"Europe’s-First- Lady-of-Jazz"the"Bimhuis"was"an"obnoxious"hotbed"of"subsidized"noise." (Bert"Vuijsje,"Rita-Reys:-Lady-Jazz"[Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap,"2004],"7)127"" " The"account"is"exemplary"for"the"use"of"stereotyped"imagery,"in"this"case"of"the"grand" lady"that"performs"commercially"attractive"music"for"a"nonHcritical"audience"that" watches"family"shows"and"reads"populist"newspapers,"versus"the"Bimhuis,"which" represents"the"notion"of"jazz"as"an"elitist,"incomprehensible"clutter"of"sounds." " The"debates"and"conflicts"between"established"and"emerging"musicians"as"represented" by"the"richtingenstrijd"was"by"no"means"uniquely"Dutch"nor"was"it"unique"for"this"time," as"the"modern"jazz"musicians"in"the"1950s"had"been"the"young"and"emerging" generation.128"However,"the"ideological"divide"between"jazz"and"improvised"music"went" beyond"that"of"a"mere"generational"conflict"and,"as"I"will"demonstrate"in"the"following" chapters,"impacted"the"further"organization"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."I"will"begin"in"the" next"chapter"with"an"analysis"of"the"institutionalization"of"jazz"education.""

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 127"Bert"Vuijsje"and"Rita"Reys,"Rita-Reys:-Lady-Jazz"(Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap,"2004),"7." 128"See,"for"example,"Alf"Arvidsson"and"Jörgen"Adolfsson,"“Ett"Minne"För"Livet,”"142H152."

51" " 2.&Legitimizing&the&learning&process&

Until"the"1960s,"jazz"musicians"generally"learned"to"play"jazz"by"ear,"listening"to"and" playing"along"with"American"recordings."Musicians"organized"private"rehearsals,"jam" sessions,"and"presented"themselves"at"jazz"competitions."While"the"Amsterdam" Sheherazade"during"the"1960s"was"an"important"venue"for"jam"sessions"and"to"meet" musicians"on"an"informal"basis,"the"Loosdrecht"Jazz"Festival"and"the"Loosdrecht"Jazz" Competition"during"this"period"became"the"main"venue"for"musicians"to"present" themselves"to"a"broader"public.129"Most"jazz"musicians"learned"to"play"in"school"bands," often"on"instruments"that"they"had"borrowed"from"the"local"brass"bands."130"During"the" 1960s,"the"system"of"jazz"education"in"the"Netherlands"developed"rapidly,"resulting"in" the"organization"of"workshops"and"formal"jazz"programs"throughout"the"country."Who" were"the"main"educators,"what"were"their"socioHcultural"views"and"how"did"these" inform"the"subsequent"organization"of"jazz"education"in"the"Netherlands?"How"did"the" richtingenstrijdHnarrative"and"other"debates"shape"the"further"development"of"jazz" education"in"the"Netherlands?"This"chapter"tries"to"answer"these"questions"by" examining"some"of"the"main"educational"platforms"for"jazz"from"the"1960s"onwards:" jam"sessions,"school"concerts,"workshops"and"formal"education"in"conservatories."

Educating&the&professional&jazz&musician&

The"earliest"forms"of"organized"instrumental"jazz"education"in"the"Netherlands" apparently"took"place"in"the"1930s."While"daily"papers"during"the"1920s"initially" advertised"jazz"courses"and"private"classes"in"jazz"dance,"jazz"courses"from"the"early" 1930s"increasingly"aimed"at"teaching"jazz"as"a"music."In"its"September"1932"issue,"Dutch" jazz"magazine"De-Jazzwereld"announced"a"“JazzHKlasse,”"a"weekly"jazz"course"held"at"the" conservatory"of"The"Hague"at"the"cost"of"five"guilders"per"month."The"course—given" that"it"actually"took"place—was"initiated"by"Eddy"Noordijk,"an"arranger"for"the" orchestras"of"the"AVRO"and"VARA"broadcasting"associations."It"specifically"aimed"at" professional"and"semiHprofessional"jazz"musicians"on"a"variety"of"instruments"(piano," """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 129"See,"for"example,"Eva"Bouman,"Workshops:-Opkomst-en-ontwikkeling"(Zeist:"Stichting"Trezoor,"1978)." 130"Knulst,"Jazz-anno-1970,"15."In"a"1970"survey"by"Wim"Knulst"among"jazz"musicians"41"percent"of"the" musicians"had"taken"private"jazz"lessons"from"more"advanced"jazz"musicians"and"16"percent"had"studied" at"a"conservatory,"while"14"percent"went"to"a"music"school."

52" " accordion,"alto"saxophone,"clarinet,"tenor"saxophone,"trumpet,"trombone,"string"bass," guitar,"banjo,"violin,"and"drums):"“Those"who"wish"to"participate"at"this"jazz"course"need" to"be"experienced"players,"i.e."have"to"be"able"to"read"and"play"printed"editions"of" ‘commercial’"songs"as"performed"by"English"radio"orchestras"(Ambrose,"Roy"Fox,"Henry" Hall,"and"alike).”131"The"course"focused"on"the"further"development"of"technical"skills," reading"skills"and"knowledge"of"a"repertoire"of"dance"music"of"English"radio"orchestras" and"was"summed"up"as"follows:" " 1)"technique,"tone"and"style,"individual"and"ensemble"playing;"" 2)"rhythmic"skills;"" 3)"performance"of"‘commercial’"repertoire"(foxtrot,"quickHstep,"slowHfox," English"waltz"and"tango),"semiHhot"and"hot"songs);"" 4)"performance"of"recorded"songs"(EllingtonHgenre)"and"“gig”Htechniques" (improvised"hot);" "5)"ensemble"experience"" (Announcement"“JazzHklasse,”"Jazzwereld,-September"1932)" " The"curriculum"reflected"the"musical"background"and"careers"of"the"teaching"staff," which"primarily"consisted"of"musicians"active"in"dance"orchestras,"most"notably"those" led"by"the"famous"Dutch"jazz"musicians"Jack"and"Louis"de"Vries.132"Moreover,"the" advertisement"signaled"how"from"the"earliest"days"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"to"become" a"professional"jazz"musician"required"a"great"versatility"and"technical"skills"on"a"range" of"instruments,"the"ability"to"read"music,"and"knowledge"of"the"existing"repertoire"of" dance"music." "

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 131"De-Jazzwereld"1932."“Zij,"die"aan"deze"JazzHKlasse"wenschen"deel"te"nemen,"dienen"voldoende" vaardigheid"te"bezitten"van"hun"instrument,"d.w.z."het"zonder"fouten"kunnen"spelen"van"de"gedrukte" uitgaven"der"“commercial”"nummers"zooals"deze"door"Eng."RadioHbands"(Ambrose,"Roy"Fox,"Henry"Hall" e.d.)"ten"gehoore"worden"gebracht.”" 132"In"1934,"De-Jazzwereld"announced"the"new"teachers"for"the"jazz"course"at"The"Hague’s"conservatory." De"musicians"listed"were"all"members"of"the"dance"orchestras"of"Jack"and"Louis"de"Vries."Jazzwereld"1934," 13."

53" " As"a"result"of"restrictions"on"jazz,"jazz"gatherings"during"WWII"largely"went" underground,"limiting"the"possibilities"to"learn"how"to"play"the"music.133"However,"in" 1943,"the"multiHinstrumentalist"Peter"Schilperoort"ignored"the"warHrestrictions"on"jazz" and"organized"a"soHcalled"“jazz"school”"together"with"pianist"Frans"Vink,"bass"player" Henny"Frohwein"and"drummer"Tonny"Nüsser."Under"the"name"of"Dutch"Swing"College" the"teachers"together"with"around"thirty"amateur"musicians"held"regular"meetings"to" discuss"the"theory"of"music"and"to"organize"instrumental"lessons."These"classes" discontinued"after"the"war"when"the"teachers"increasingly"found"employment"as"the" Dutch"Swing"College"Band,"a"traditionalist"septet"that"developed"into"one"of"the"leading" revival"jazz"bands"of"the"Netherlands"(see"Chapter"One)."While"the"Dutch"Swing"College" focused"primarily—obviously—on"prewar"jazz,"educational"programs"initiated"after"the" war"covered"a"wide"variety"of"jazz"styles."These"postwar"educational"jazz"programs"not" only"aimed"at"a"select"group"of"amateur"musicians—as"had"been"the"case"with"the"Dutch" Swing"College—"but"also"targeted"different"audiences,"consequently"broadening"the" scope"of"jazz"education"in"the"Netherlands." " From"the"1960s,"jazz"musicians"increasingly"found"employment"as"part"of"" Het"Schoolconcert"(the"school"concert),"an"association"that"was"founded"in"October" 1954"to"organize"“pedagogical"concerts”"at"high"schools"throughout"the"country," featuring"“leading"Dutch"artists.”134"These"concerts"took"place"during"school"hours"at" secondary"schools"throughout"the"country"and"was"supported"by"the"ministry"of"OKW" (Education,"Arts"and"Sciences).135"Het"Schoolconcert"initially"focused"primarily"on"the" western"European"classical"music"repertoire"of"arias,"operas,"and"piano"recitals"—the" association"in"1952"brought"a"program"dedicated"to"“the"development"form"the"simple" traditional"folk"song"to"the"romantic"ballad.”"From"the"early"1960s,"however,"The" Schoolconcert"broadened"its"musical"perspective"and"began"to"offer"courses"on"jazz"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 133"For"an"extensive"study"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"during"WWII,"see"Kees"C.A.T.M."Wouters," Ongewenschte-muziek:-De-bestrijding-van-jazz-en-moderne-amusementsmuziek-in-Duitsland-en-Nederland,- 1920H1945"(Den"Haag:"sdu,"1999)." 134"Stichting"Het"Schoolconcert"superseded"Een"Uur"Muziek"(An"hour"of"music),"an"association"that"was" founded"in"the"1930s"by"Franz"Aufrecht."“Het"schoolconcert,”"Leewarder-Courant,"October"8,"1954,"2."“Het" geven"van"pedagogische"concerten"door"prominente"Nederlandse"kunstenaars"voor"leerlingen"van" voortgezet"lager"en"middelbaar"onderwijs.”" 135"“’Het"Schoolconcert’"opgericht:"Opvolgster"van"‘Een"uur"muziek’,”"De-Tijd,"October"9,"1954,"17."

54" " experimental"music."136"As"a"result"of"this"new"policy,"jazz"musicians"also"began"to"work" for"the"association"and"found"regular"employment"this"way."Among"those"jazz"musicians" was"drummer"Pierre"Courbois,"who"worked"both"solo"and"with"the"small"version"of"the" Theo"Loevendie"Consort.137"Similarly,"producer"Wim"Wigt"organized"school"concerts" with"Pim"Jacobs,"occasionally"with"Theo"Loevendie"and"drummer"Cees"See."Following" these"school"concerts,"Pim"Jacobs"and"his"trio,"with"bass"player"Ruud"Jacobs"and" guitarist"Wim"Overgaauw"released"a"series"of"three"recordings"under"the"same"name.138"" " Within"the"jazz"scene,"the"school"concerts"were"met"with"resistance,"especially"among" promoters"of"the"more"progressive"jazz"styles,"who"considered"the"commercial"aspect" and"the"conventional"repertoire"fatal"for"the"further"development"of"jazz."The" progressive"magazine"Jazzwereld"in"a"1971"review"of"the"album"Het-Schoolconcert" denounced"Pim"Jacobs’"last"LP"as"“uncritical"mainstream,"especially"attuned"to"the" wishes"of"consumers"of"backgroundHmusic"and"wineHbarHsounds”"and"therefore"as"a" pure"commodity,"a"marketing"tool"for"the"product"“Pim"Jacobs.”139"The"reviewer"Pé" Hawinkels"vehemently"criticized"Jacobs’"narrated"introduction"to"jazz"at"the"beginning" of"the"LP,"especially"for"ignoring"the"alternative"and"more"contemporary"fields"of" improvised"music."He"concludes," " Thus,"his"introduction"is"not"an"introduction"to"jazz"at"all."It"doesn’t" introduce"[the"listener]"to"an"extremely"varied"and"dynamic"music,"but" only"to"the"static"piffle"that"[Jacobs"himself]"has"been"performing"since" mankind."(Pé"Hawinkels,"record"review,"Jazzwereld"32,"1971,"25).140"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 136"Samama"and"Van"Lingen,-Nederlandse-muziek-in-de-20Hste-eeuw,"300."In"1952,"Het"Schoolconcert" brought"a"program"dedicated"to"“the"development"from"a"simple"folk"song"to"the"romantic"ballad," “Schoolconcert"in"Drachten,”"De-Leeuwarder-Courant,"December"27,"1952,"7."“Een"programma"gewijd"aan" de"ontwikkeling"van"het"eenvoudige"volkslied"tot"een"met"de"romantische"ballade.”" 137"Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"66H7." 138"Pim"Jacobs"Trio,"Het-Schoolconcert"(Philips"433298PE,"1965),"with"Pim"Jacobs,"pi;"Wim"Overgaauw,"gi;" and"Ruud"Jacobs,"b;"Pim"Jacobs"Trio:"Het-Schoolconcert-(Supraphon"0265,"1965"),"same"lineHup"as"first"LP," added"by"Rita"Reys,"vcl;"and"the"Pim"Jacobs"Quartet,"Het-Schoolconcert"(CBS"S52815,"1970),"with"Pim" same"lineHup"as"first"LP,"added"by"Peter"Ypma,"dr." 139"Pé"Hawinkels,"record"review,"Jazzwereld"32,"March/April"1971,"25."“gemakzuchtige"mainstream," vooral"afgestemd"op"de"clientele"voor"achtergrondmuziek"en"bodegaHklanken.”" 140"Ibid."“Zijn"inleiding"is"dus"helemaal"geen"inleiding"op"de"jazz,"op"dit"uiterst"gedifferentieerde"en" dynamische"soort"muziek,"maar"uitsluitend"op"het"statische"gepingel"dat"hijzelf"reeds"sinds" mensenheugenis"verzorgt.”"

55" " Notwithstanding"the"association’s"negative"image"of"“selling"out"to"the"commercial" market,”"Het"Schoolconcert"did"offer"a"direct"income"to"musicians"across"the"field"of"jazz." Moreover,"apart"from"the"employment"in"one"of"the"broadcasting"orchestras"and"before" jazz"became"part"of"the"conservatory"curriculum,"working"for"Het"Schoolconcert"was" one"of"the"few"possibilities"for"the"musicians"to"build"up"a"pension.141" " During"the"1960s,"the"regular"programs"at"music"schools"were"dominated"by"the"soH called"GehrelsHsystem,"named"after"the"Dutch"educator"and"violinist"Willem"Gehrels," which"focused"mostly"on"the"singing"of"folk"music"and"the"classical"nineteenth"century" repertoire."Although"the"introduction"of"this"system"should"be"seen"as"part"of"a"social" democratic"ideal"to"introduce"all"layers"of"society"to"culture"(see"Chapter"Three),"Willem" Breuker"particularly"attacked"this"system"for"its"elitist"approach."In"his"typical"nonH nonsense"way"he"noted,"“This"GehrelsHguy"got"it"all"wrong"with"his"idea"of"bringing"high" Art"with"a"capital"A"to"the"common"people,”"adding"“that"system"should"be"buried"and" forgotten.”142" " Apart"from"school"concerts"and"music"schools,"which"specifically"aimed"at"the"Dutch" youth,"jazz"musicians"also"gave"interactive"jazz"courses"for"more"experienced"jazz" players,"filling"the"lack"of"formalized"educational"programs."In"1963,"Herman" Schoonderwalt"and"trumpeter/trombone"player"Cees"Smal"created"the-Jazz"Instituut"in" Haarlem,"which"was"basically"a"rehearsing"orchestra"that"played"big"band"repertoire." After"the"summer,"Frans"Elsen"took"over"the"course"and"continued"in"the"season"of" 1963H1964"in"The"Hague."The"prime"reason"for"Elsen"to"teach"this"course"was"for"his" own"personal"development:"“I"mainly"took"over"the"orchestra"for"my"own"experience,"to" learn"how"to"write"for"and"to"lead"an"orchestra,"to"learn"all"the"difficulties"of"such"an"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 141"Any"musician"that"has"worked"for"more"than"four"hundred"days"for"Het"Schoolconcert"is"entitled"to" receive"a"pension."Pierre"Courbois,"for"example,"currently"receives"sixtyHfive"euros"a"month"pension"for" his"work"with"for"the"association."See"Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"68." 142"“Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"2."“Dit"verschijnsel"zou"tegengegaan" kunnen"worden"door"de"improvisatie"een"grotere"rol"te"geven."Dit"geldt"ook"voor"de"schoolmuziek" aangezien"we"ons"ontwikkelen"in"de"richting"van"een"maatschappij"waarin"ieder,"ook"de"nietHkunstenaar," in"de"gelegenheid"moet"zijn"zich"creatief"te"uiten.”"Ischa"Meijer,"“‘Ik"maak"muziek"voor"iedereen,"maar" waarom"vindt"iedereen"het"zo"afgrijselijk?’,”"Haagse-Post"(October"13,"1973),"77."“Die"Gehrels"heeft" volgens"mij"alles"verkeerd"gezien"met"de"achtergrondHgedachte"van:"we"moeten"het"gewone"volk"De"Grote" Kunst"bij"gaan"brengen.”"“Nou,"dat"mag"van"mij"met"een"groot"rood"lint"erom"heen"worden"bijgezet"en" nooit"meer"ingekeken.”"

56" " orchestra.”143"On"November"11,"1965"an"unidentified"Dutch"paper"announced"‘The" Netherlands"to"receive"its"first"jazz"school.”144"Lagor"de"Waard"founded"this"soHcalled" “jazzHschool”—a"bimonthly"jazz"course,"in"fact—in"The"Hague,"where"it"was"taught"by" young"jazz"musicians"such"as"Misha"Mengelberg"and"bass"player"Dick"van"Capellen," occasionally"added"with"American"guest"teachers,"such"as"Thad"Jones,"Lou"Bennett,"and" Johnny"Griffin."These"programs"included"“theory"lessons,"exercises"and"discussions”"and" meant"to"both"“raise"the"level"of"jazz”"in"the"Netherlands"and"to"“promote"good" musicians"in"Berlin,"Paris"and"Copenhagen.”145"Throughout"the"1960s,"the"school" concerts"and"the"shortHlived"courses"continued"to"take"place"on"an"incidental"basis.""

Workshops&and&the¬ion&of&openness&

Musicologist"and"dedicated"workshop"participant"Eva"Bouman"was"among"the"first"to" portray"the"Dutch"workshop"scene."In"her"1978"master’s"thesis"Workshops:-Opkomst-en- ontwikkeling"(Workshops:"origins"and"development),"she"argues"that"the"open"character" of"the"workshops"is"“crucial"for"the"development"and"training"of"jazz"musicians.”146" Workshops,"loosely"defined"by"Bouman"as"an"“open"rehearse"and"performance" opportunity,”"usually"took"place"on"a"weekly"basis"for"a"period"between"eight"weeks"and" a"year"and"often"took"place"in"cultural"youth"centers.147"Other"than"jam"sessions,"which" required"participants"to"already"have"some"knowledge"of"the"jazz"idiom,"workshops" typically"aimed"at"amateurs"with"little"or"no"experience"in"playing"music?"Moreover," besides"functioning"as"a"creative"environment,"the"workshops"often"developed"into" socioHcultural"meeting"places"and"consequently"as"a"new"platform"for"political"discourse." The"following"paragraphs"engage"with"the"socioHcultural"implications"of"workshops" through"an"analysis"of"the"activities"and"ideologies"of"these"workshop"leaders,"composer"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 143"Bouman,"Workshops,"19."“voor"een"groot"gedeelte"heb"ik"orkest"toen"overgenomen"ook"voor"mijn"eigen" ervaring,"om"te"schrijven"en"om"eens"voor"een"orkest"te"staan,"om"de"moeilijkheden"van"een"orkest"te" leren"kennen,"en"daar"heb"ik"erg"veel"van"geleerd."Minstens"zoveel"als"de"jongens"die"erin"speelden,"denk" ik.”" 144"Unidentified"paper,"1965." 145"Ibid.," 146"Bouman,"Workshops."Bouman"problematically"distinguishes"“improvised”"from"the"“reproductive" music”"of"what"she"refers"to"as"the"“conventional”"forms"of"“serious"and"light"music,”"consequently" ignoring"the"performative"aspects"of"the"latter"altogether."However,"her"work"does"give"a"useful"inside" into"the"dayHtoHday"practice"of"improvised"music"workshops." 147"Bouman,"Workshops,"9."“een"open"oefenH"en"speelmogelijkheid.”""

57" " and"reed"player"Theo"Loevendie,"trumpeter"Nedley"Elstak"and"reed"player"Herman"de" Wit." " Theo"Loevendie"(Amsterdam,"1930)"was"among"the"first"musicians"to"organize" workshops,"starting"in"1965"at"FAMOS,"a"youth"center"located"at"the"Vondelstraat"in" Amsterdam.148"In"the"autumn"of"1965,"Piet"Riemens"of"FAMOS"invited"Loevendie"to" execute"his"idea"of"a"“jazz"school”"that"would"enable"young"musicians"to"learn"how"to" play"jazz"on"an"informal"basis."The"idea"followed"from"FAMOS’s"jazz"evenings"in"1964" and"1965,"which"were"basically"jam"sessions"during"which"fixed"groups"such"as"the" Loek"Dikker"trio"or"the"Louis"van"Dijk"trio"accompanied"different"horn"players." Loevendie"began"his"workshop"with"a"small"group"of"horn"players"and"a"rhythm"section" (subdivided"in"a"beginners"and"experienced"group,"and"a"theory"class),"which"he"taught" the"basic"principles"of"jazz"through"the"practice"of"chord"schemes,"scales"and" standards.149"Loevendie"himself"had"learned"to"play"the"clarinet"at"seventeen"by"playing" with"brass"band"the"Postharmonie"and"by"taking"private"lessons,"when"in"the"1950s" Charlie"Parker’s"playing"inspired"him"to"change"to"alto"saxophone."While"Loevendie" during"the"1960s"followed"a"more"experimental"course"(see"Chapter"One),"combining" different"musical"traditions"in"both"his"performance"and"his"compositions,"his" workshops"remained"confined"to"the"conventional"basic"principles"of"jazz."“I"considered" that"these"boys"needed"a"broad"basis."In"particular,"I"kept"harping"on"those"standard" chords,"while"I"personally"had"already"distanced"myself"from"it,”"Loevendie"asserted"in" 1978.150”"" " Nedley"Elstak"(1931,"Semarang,"Ind.)"took"over"Loevendie’s"workshops"in"1967,"which" by"then"had"moved"to"the"AMJV"at"the"Stadhouderskade"in"Amsterdam.151"Like"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 148"The"FAMOS"was"located"at"the"Vondelstraat"in"Amsterdam."FAMOS"is"an"abbreviation"of"“Federatie"van" Amsterdamse"Scholen"voor"Ontspanning"en"Sport”"(Federation"of"Amsterdam"Schools"of"Recreation"and" Sport)."“Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"appendix"3." 149"Unidentified"paper,"1965." 150"Bouman,"Workshops,"19."“Dat"heb"ik"erg"academies"aangepakt,"dat"wil"zeggen,"ik"ging"ervan"uit,"ja,"die" jongens"moeten"een"beetje"veelzijdige"basis"krijgen"(…)"Juist"die"geijkte"akkoordenschema’s"daar"ben"ik" ontzettend"op"doorgegaan"met"die"jongens,"terwijl"ik"daar"zelf"eigenlijk"een"beetje"afstand"van"had" genomen.”" 151"Elstak"continued"his"workshops"at"the"AMJV"until"1978,"he"moved"his"workshops"to"BOC,"a"place" outside"the"city"center,"in"Buitenveldert."“Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970," "

58" " Loevendie,"Elstak"steered"a"rather"conventional"course"in"his"workshops"that"reflected" his"own"musical"background"as"a"trumpet"player."Elstak"played"on"“the"first"modern"jazz" recording”"Jazz-at-the-Kurhaus"(Omega"33H1"and"33H2,"1953)"and"in"1962"took"over"the" management"of"the"modern"jazz"club"Sheherazade-from"the"Diamond"Five,"where"he" continued"to"program"jazz,"including"the"famous"Jazz-&-Poetry-Avonden."He"deliberately" kept"the"workshop"groups"small,"consisting"of"between"six"to"ten"people,"which"allowed" him"to"give"individual"support,"to"make"progress"playing"fiveHpart"arrangements"and" which"gave"the"musicians"more"time"to"solo.152"Like"Loevendie,"he"divided"his"lessons"in" theory"lessons"that"dealt"with"jazz"harmony,"scales"and"chord"change,"and"practical" lessons,"which"typically"consisted"of"practicing"solos"on"chord"schemes"of"bebopHrelated" material."Elstak"accompanied"the"playing"of"the"participants"on"piano"with"a"rhythm" section."The"repertoire"consisted"of"Elstak’s"compositions"and"standards"such"as"“Now’s" the"Time,”"“A"Night"in"Tunisia,”"“Round"about"Midnight,”"“Milestones,”"“I’ll"Remember" Clifford,”"“Greensleeves,"“Autumn"Leaves,”"“How"High"the"Moon,”"“All"the"Things"You" Are,”"“Lover"Man,”"“Laura,”"and"“Come"Rain"or"Come"Shine.”153"Besides"analyzing"and" playing"chord"changes"of"American"jazz"standards,"Elstak"introduced"the"participants"of" his"workshop"to"modal"playing"and"works"based"on"twelveHtone"and"other"serial" techniques,"discussing"the"works"of"Schönberg,"among"others."As"a"starting"point"for" these"lessons,"he"regularly"used"ZwölftonHKontrapunktHstudien"by"the" Austrian/American"composer"Ernst"Krenek.154"This"way,"by"focusing"on"individual" development"and"knowledge"of"basic"harmony"and"different"musical"traditions,"Elstak’s" methods"remained"close"to"conventional"modern"jazz"playing"and"the"educational" learning"methods"that"focused"on"learning"the"basic"scales"and"chord"schemes." " Loevendie’s"workshops"were"frequented"by"musicians"who"would"later"become"part"of" the"1970s’"jazz"avantHgarde:"the"aforementioned"Breuker"and"Courbois,"as"well"as" saxophonist"Ab"Baars,"saxophonist"Peter"Bennink,"pianist"Loek"Dikker,"bass"player"Arjen"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" appendix"3."In"1973"the"club"De"Masjien"opened"its"doors"in"one"of"the"basements"of"the"AMJV,"but"from" 1974"suffered"from"the"competition"of"the"hot"new"jazz"club"the"Bimhuis,"opened"October"that"year." 152"Bouman,"Workshops,"37."" 153"Ibid.,"39." 154"Ibid.,"Workshops,"33."Ernst"Krenek,"Studies-in-Counterpoint-Based-on-the-TwelveHTone-Technique-(New" York:"g."Schirmer,1940),"repr."ZwölftonHKontrapunktHstudien"(Mainz:"Schott,"1952)."Bouman"refers"to"this" later,"translated,"version"of"Krenek’s"work."

59" " Gorter,"trombone"player"Willem"van"Manen"and"pianist"Kees"Hazevoet.155"Some"of"these" workshops,"including"Langenhuijsen’s"ZuidHNederlands-Workshop-Orkest-and"Laurillard’s" Groningers-Workshop-Orkest,"would"develop"into"regular"semiHprofessional"groups"often" referred"to"as"leerorkesten"(learning"orchestras)."AmsterdamHbased"workshop"orchestras," De-Oktopedians"(1972)"and"De-Boventoon-(1973)"were"wellHknown"springboards"to" professional"careers"in"improvised"music.156"Consequently,"from"the"first"events" organized"in"the"midHsixties,"workshops"increasingly"became"associated"with" improvised"music,"serving"as"the"music’s"main"educational"platform"and"as"an"informal" meeting"place."As"sociologist"Rudy"Koopmans"asserted"in"1977,"“The"workshops" organized"by"trumpeter"Nedley"Elstak"and"reed"player"and"composer"Theo"Loevendie"at" the"AMJV/FAMOS"in"Amsterdam"were"crucial"in"the"development"of"an"idiosyncratic" and"personal"interpretation"of"improvised"music"in"our"country.”157"During"the"1970s," the"music"theatrical"aspects"of"musical"performance"as"promoted"by"Willem"Breuker" and"Leo"Cuypers,"found"their"way"in"to"the"workshop"practice,"as"workshops"orchestras" collaborated"with"improvising"musicians."For"example,"on"9"November"1975,"De"Wit’s" workshop"orchestra"performed"as"part"of"Mengelberg’s"music"theatre"piece"Een- Behoorlijk-Kabaal"(Quite"a"Pandemonium),"dressed"up"as"one"big"dragon.158" " In"contrast"to"the"methods"as"advocated"by"Loevendie"and"Elstak,"Herman"de"Wit"(1932," Amsterdam)"in"1972"began"to"organize"workshops"in"a"loose,"informal"and"flexible"way" that"allowed"for"more"free"experimentation."De"Wit,"son"of"a"professional"singer"and"an" amateur"accordion"player,"taught"himself"how"to"play"drums,"trumpet,"and"tenor" saxophone."From"1957"onwards"he"continued"as"a"tenor"saxophonist,"performing"in" nightclubs"and"on"American"army"bases"in"France."After"studying"clarinet"at"the" Maatschappij"tot"Bevordering"van"Toonkunst"in"Haarlem"(1967H"1971),"De"Wit"became" part"of"the"Amsterdam"improvised"music"scene"in"1971,"both"as"a"regular"member"of" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 155"See"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek,"64H158;"Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"65;" Jacques"Los,"“Willem"van"Manen:"‘Je"kunt"wel"zeggen"dat"ik"in"alle"leuke"bandjes"heb"gezeten,”"Jacques"Los," last"modified"October"2006,"accessed"October"22,"2014." 156"Willem"van"Manen"and"Herman"de"Wit"established-De-Boventoon."De"Wit"also"initiated"Workshop" Orchestra"De-Oktopedians-(Los"2006)." 157"Koopmans,"Jazz,"157."“Belangrijk"echter"in"de"ontwikkeling"naar"een"eigen"en"persoonlijk"interpretatie" van"geïmproviseerde"muziek"in"ons"land"waren"ook"de"workshops"die"georganiseerd"werden"door" trompettist"Nedley"Elstak"en"rietblazer/komponist"Theo"Loevendie"in"het"kader"van"AMJV/Famos"in" Amsterdam.”"" 158"Bouman,"Workshops,"54."

60" " the"ICP"(between"1971"and"1975)"and"as"a"member"of"the"Volharding"(between"1972" and"1975)."In"1972,"the"staff"of"cultural"youth"center"Oktopus"in"Amsterdam"invited"De" Wit"together"with"Willem"Breuker"to"organize"a"workshop"that"allowed"participants"to" “work"on"the"basic"requirements"for"improvisation,"such"as"instrumental"technique," music"theory,"harmony"and"ensemble"playing.”159"During"the"first"three"seasons"(1972H 1974)"the"group,"which"averaged"between"twenty"to"thirtyHfive"participants,"became" increasingly"consistent"in"terms"of"playing"level"and"musical"ideas,"allowing"De"Wit"to" use"more"complex"material,"typically"improvised"music"based"on"chord"schemes"of"the" standard"jazz"repertoire."The"group"learned"these"songs"by"heart"rather"than"from" reading"sheet"music.160"In"addition,"the"participants"brought"pieces"and"ideas"to"works" with."Some"of"the"repertoire"resulted"in"a"soHcalled"speelplan,"a"performance"plan"that" provided"loose"guidelines"for"a"fifteen"to"thirty"minute"performance."These"guidelines" consisted"of,"for"example,"the"order"of"performative"material"such"as"collective" improvisation"based"on"one"chord,"playing"the"chords"schemes"in"fermata,"or"certain" riffs"that"could"be"used"as"a"starting"point"for"individual"soloing."Rather"than"separating" theory"and"practice,"as"Loevendie"and"Elstak"were"accustomed"to,"De"Wit"integrated" music"theory"into"the"practical"sessions,"according"to"the"problems"that"arose"at"the" moment"of"playing."A"typical"session"consisted"of"melodic,"rhythmic"and"harmonic" exercises,"such"as"the"singing"of"melodic"intervals"and"triads,"singing"the"harmonic" chord"structures"of"the"songs,"and"polyrhythmic"handclapping."Besides,"De"Wit"gave" breathing"exercises"and"practiced"with"soHcalled"handzingen,"a"technique"that"used"hand" signs"to"designate"certain"intervals"within"the"group"and"which"was"part"of"the" aforementioned"Gehrels"method."This"warming"up"often"resulted"in"a"collective" improvisation"coordinated"by"De"Wit,"structured"by"means"of"riffs"or"short"motives.161" " Altogether,"while"De"Wit"started"off"with"rather"conventional"teaching"methods,"he" increasingly"followed"a"more"radical"and"experimental"course"that"foreHgrounded"the" collective"process"and"openheid"(openness)"rather"than"the"technical"skills"of"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 159"Bouman,"Workshops,"7,"44."“De"workshop"was"opgezet"om"te"werken"aan"de"voorwaarden"om"tot" improvisatie"te"komen,"zoals"instrumentale"techniek,"muziektheorie,"harmonieleer"en"vormen"tot" samenspel.”" 160"Ibid.,"53." 161"Ibid.,"51."Bouman"lists"“Sonnymoon"for"Two”"by"Sonny"Rollins;"“When"Lights"are"Low”"by"Benny"Carter;" “Perdido”by"Juan"Tizol;"“Mack"the"Knife/Moritat”"by"Kurt"Weil;"and"“Cherokee,”"by"Ray"Noble."

61" " individual"musicians."He"explicitly"attacked"the"traditionalist"perspective"represented" by"modern"jazz"musicians"and"its"underlying"modernist"values"of"virtuosity"and" craftsmanship."In"a"1974"interview,"De"Wit"explained"how"his"workshop"methods" should"be"understood"as"the"“exact"opposite”"of"the"American"jazz"idiom"played"and" taught"at"the"Sheherazade.162"“This"method"implies"a"willingness"of"the"leader"to"listen" to"everyone,"and"to"work"with"the"musical"material"offered"by"these"participants."In" short,"the"leader"needs"to"be"open"to"everything"the"workshop"musicians"come"up" with.”163"Underlining"the"open,"democratic"and"nonHhierarchical"character"of"his" workshop,"De"Wit"asserted,"“Everyone"who"can"hold"a"horn"is"allowed"to"join.”"164"This" view"translated"into"a"workshop"that"was"open"to"every"musician"of"every"level,"with"or" without"musicHtheoretical"training."In"contrast"to"the"other"workshops"that"tended"to" focus"on"the"individual,"De"Wit"placed"the"collective"at"the"center"of"his"focus:"“We"need" to"resist"this"solistendom,"this"egoHtrip,"it"is"fatal,"an"absolute"danger"to"our"music."[…]" It’s"a"whole"new"mindset,"because"it"requires"working"together."We"need"to"abandon" this"quartetH"and"quintetHmentality"and"the"idea"of"‘we"are"better"than"the"rest’.”165" " De"Wit"adapted"a"view"on"musical"processes"that"was"deeply"political,"" " Our"workshops"are"not"about"aesthetics"of"tone"and"presentation,"or" interpretation,"that"sort"of"thing."It’s"about"the"collective"effort,"about" appreciating"each"other,"and"getting"a"kick"out"of"that."That’s"what’s" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 162"Jos"Haagmans,"“‘Wij"willen"aan"de"mensen"laten"zien"dat"muziek"maken"ook"anders"kan’,”"De-Waarheid," September"7,"1974,"4."“Het"conservatorium"bijvoorbeeld,"dat"leidt"op"voor"een"taak"in"de"orkestbak,"je" wordt"er"in"feite"voor"geprogrammeerd."Elke"creativiteit,"waar"muziek"toch"een"uitstekend"middel"toe"is," wordt"de"kop"ingedrukt.”"“Voor"mij"is"het"musiceren"het"je"bewust"worden"van"je"eigen"situatie."Dat" probeer"ik"aan"de"mensen"duidelijk"te"maken."Ik"probeer"hen"iets"te"laten"zien"wat"zij"anders"niet"zien."Het" is"een"politieke"activiteit.”" 163"Bouman,"Workshops,"28."“Zo’n"aanpak"veronderstelt"bij"de"leider"de"bereidheid"naar"iedereen"te" luisteren"en"te"werken"met"het"muzikale"materiaal"dat"de"deelnemers"hem"aanreiken,"kortom,"de"leider" moet"open"staan"voor"alles"waar"de"workshopmuzikanten"mee"aankomen.”" 164"Jos"Haagmans,"“‘Wij"willen"aan"de"mensen"laten"zien"dat"muziek"maken"ook"anders"kan’,”"De-Waarheid," September"7,"1974,"4."“Het"conservatorium"bijvoorbeeld,"dat"leidt"op"voor"een"taak"in"de"orkestbak,"je" wordt"er"in"feite"voor"geprogrammeerd."Elke"creativiteit,"waar"muziek"toch"een"uitstekend"middel"toe"is," wordt"de"kop"ingedrukt.”"“Voor"mij"is"het"musiceren"het"je"bewust"worden"van"je"eigen"situatie."Dat" probeer"ik"aan"de"mensen"duidelijk"te"maken."Ik"probeer"hen"iets"te"laten"zien"wat"zij"anders"niet"zien."Het" is"een"politieke"activiteit.”" 165"Bouman,"Workshops,"44."‘We"moeten"het"solistendom"bestrijden,"de"egotrip,"dat"is"fnuikend." Levensgevaarlijk"voor"onze"muziek."[…]"Het"is"een"totaal"nieuwe"mentaliteit,"want"we"moeten"allemaal" met"elkaar"werken."Je"gaat"inderdaad"af"van"die"kwartettenHgeest,"het"kwintetHspelen,"van":"‘wij"spelen" lekker"beter"dan"jullie’;"daar"moeten"we"vanaf,"ja.”"

62" " improvising"is"about."…"These"open"clubs"are"also"crucial"for"cultural" politics,"because"we"not"only"discuss"music"but"also"political"views," musicalHpolitical"views."…"That’s"what"one"learns"at"these"open"clubs;"to" work"on"technique"and"to"formulate"an"opinion:"how"do"you"play,"for"who" and"for"how"much"money?”"(Bouman,"Workshops,"69,"44.)166"" " As"a"result"of"these"firm"socioHcultural"beliefs,"De"Wit’s"workshops"during"the"seventies" increasingly"turned"into"smallHsize"communities,"attracting"participants"who"shared" musical"and"political"ideals"of"openness,"collectiveness"and"shared"responsibility." Bouman,"herself"a"faithful"follower"of"De"Wit’s"ideas,"observed"that"“in"the"past"six"years" Herman"de"Wit’s"workshop"has"developed"from"a"homogenous"to"a"heterogeneous"pool" of"participants,"and"to"a"place"which"acknowledges"both"the"musical"and"the"political"as" crucial"to"the"functioning"of"the"workshop"and"orchestra"the"Oktopedians.”167"The" tendency"towards"leftist"political"views"within"these"workshops"was"further"illustrated" by"song"titles"such"as"“Mars"van"de"Antifascisten”"(March"of"the"AntiHfascists),"although," admittingly,"casual"titles"such"as"“k"Wou"dat"ik"een"vogeltje"was”"(I"wish"I"was"a"little" bird)"and"“Wals"voor"een"draak”"(“Waltz"for"a"dragon”)"seemed"more"common"practice." " The"workshop’s"underlying"political"ideologies"of"an"open"society"explain"the"fierce" criticism"among"De"Wit’s"workshop"participants"on"Elstak’s"more"individualistic"and" conventional"approach."Based"on"a"1976"survey"among"participants"of"Elstak’s" workshops,"Bouman"in"1978"observed"how,"“[t]he"participants"need"to"be"stimulated"to" take"more"initiative;"indeed,"they"tend"to"await"passively"for"the"things"to"come." Discussions"seldom"take"place"(…)"There"is"a"lack"of"concentration,"inspiration," communication"and"humor.”168"In"her"research,"Bouman"makes"a"clear"distinction"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 166"“Het"is"ook"muzikale"kultuurpolitiek"van"het"allergrootste"belang,"deze"open"klubs,"omdat"er"niet" alleen"over"muziek"gepraat"wordt,"maar"ook"over"je"politieke"opstelling,"je"muzikaalHpolitieke"opstelling." […]"En"dat"leer"je"op"die"open"klubs,"vind"ik,"daar"bouw"je"je"techniek"op"en"leer"je"je"standpunt"bepalen:" het"spelen"voor"wie"en"hoe"en"voor"hoeveel"geld.”" 167"Ibid.,"65."“In"haar"zesjarig"bestaan"maakte"de"workshop"van"Herman"de"Wit"een"ontwikkeling"door"van" een"homogeen"naar"een"heterogeen"deelnemersbestand,"en"van"een"klimaat"waarin"rekening"gehouden" wordt"met"het"feit"dat,"buiten"muzikale,"juist"politieke"factoren"van"belang"zijn"bij"het"funktioneren"van"de" workshop"van"de"workshop"en"van"het"orkest"de"Oktopedians."" 168"Ibid.,"35."“Moeilijke"ensemblegedeelten"zouden"apart"gerepeteerd"moeten"worden,"en"het"repertoire" zou"herschreven"of"vernieuwd"kunnen"worden."Er"zou"meer"inbreng"van"de"deelnemers"gestimuleerd" "

63" " between"the"individual"approach"by"Elstak"and"the"collective"approach"as"proposed"by" De"Wit,"displaying"her"own"preference"for"the"latter."In"her"interview"with"De"Wit," Bouman"contrasts"De"Wit’s"focus"on"the"collective"with"Elstak’s"focus"on"the"individual," criticizing"the"latter"for"“failing"to"really"motivate"the"people”"as"he"“only"compliments" people"in"the"exceptional"case"of"an"outstanding"solo.”169"Her"own"preference"is" illustrated"when"she"asks"De"Wit"directive"questions,"such"as"“Do"you"[emphasis"added]" believe"that"it"is"possible"to"create"good"music"when"you"let"an"exclusively"individual" approach"prevail,"focusing"solely"on"your"own"technique"at"the"cost"of"playing"together" with"others?”170" " The"political"dimension"of"the"workshops"also"became"evident"from"performances," which"typically"took"place"during"political"manifestations."De"Wit’s"workshop"orchestra" the"Oktopedians"between"1973"and"1977"performed"under"different"names"during" numerous"politically"manifestations,"including"De"Krisisnacht"van"de"Jazz;"the" Kunstenaars"voor"Vietnam"in"Paradiso;"a"manifestation"organized"by"action"committee" BouwHes"Wat"Anders"(Build"Something"Different)"and;"a"manifestation"of"the" Communist"Party"of"the"Netherlands,"CPN."On"November"13,"1976"the"Oktopedians" performed"manifestation"organized"by"the"Zuidelijk"Afrika"Komité"(Southern"Africa" Committee)"at"the"RAI"conference"center"in"Amsterdam,"during"which"the"orchestra" performed"“Nkosi"Sikelel’"i"Afrika,”"the"official"liberation"anthem"for"the"African" National"Congress,"and"a"symbol"of"the"antiHapartheid"movement."On"June"29,"1977"the" Workshop"went"to"the"reception"of"the"Amsterdam"mayor"Polak"held"at"the"Stedelijk" Museum"to"protest"against"the"city’s"restrictions"against"public"street"performances." Further,"the"Oktopedians"performed"in"Kleef,"Germany"as"part"of"the"demonstrations" against"a"further"expanding"of"the"uranium"enrichments"plant"UltraHCentrifuge" Nederland"(UCN)"in"Almelo,"a"subcontractor"of"the"nuclear"fuel"company"URENCO."This" way,"workshops"during"the"1970s"became"increasingly"associated"with"leftist"political"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" kunnen"worden;"inderdaad"nemen"dezen"vaak"een"passieve"of"afwachtende"houding"aan"en"vindt"er" zelden"diskussie"plaats.”" 169"Ibid.,"70."“Het"viel"me"op"bij"Nedley"dat"die"de"mensen"nooit"werkelijk"stimuleert;"hoogstens"als"ze"eens" een"keer"verschrikkelijk"goed"spelen"dan"zegt"hij"dat"het"goed"was"H"terwijl"jij"je"er"verder"niet"over"uit" hoeft"te"laten"of"iemand"nou"fantasties"speelt"(dat"doe"je"af"en"toe"wel)"maar"toch"iedereen"die"op"die" workshop"komt"ontzettend"stimuleert"om"dóór"te"gaan,"om"erbij"te"blijven.”" 170"Ibid."“Geloof"jij"dat"er"goede"muziek"uit"kan"komen"als"je"uitsluitend"individualisties"werkt,"dus"alleen" let"op"je"eigen"techniek,"en"het"samenspelen"met"anderen"daaraan"ondergeschikt"maakt?”""

64" " ideals."The"notion"of"openheid-(openness)"proved"essential"to"the"informal"workshops." The"participants"decided"to"a"great"extent"the"content"of"the"workshops."Niko" Langenhuijsen,"who"organized"workshops"in"the"southern"city"of"Tilburg"noted:"“Some" just"want"to"play"perfect"solos"on"chords"schemes."So"then"we"go"with"that."Others"want" to"play"modal,"want"to"play"more"free"stuff."Or"they"come"up"with"their"own"ideas.”171"" " Between"1967"and"1972,"Breuker"also"led"workshops,"albeit"less"successful"than"those" of"Loevendie,"Elstak,"or"De"Wit."In"1967"and"1970"Breuker"led"a"workshop"in"the"open" youth"center"Studio"7,"located"under"the"bridge"of"the"Vondelpark."This"workshop" focused"on"collective"improvisation"that"allowed"every"participant"to"contribute"ideas." Breuker"used"techniques"and"repertoire"inspired"by"contemporary"composers,"for" example"Terry"Riley’s"In-C."However,"the"open"character"of"the"meetings"also"limited" processes"of"musical"renewal."Bouman"observed"how"the"workshops"lacked"a"clear" focus"and"lack"of"continuity,"caused"by"many"different"approaches"and"an"unreliable" attendance"of"a"varying"number"of"participants.172"Breuker"also"initiated"a"more" professionally"based"workshop"in"the"season"of"1971H1972,"when"he"had"the"VARAH studio"at"his"disposal"that"allowed"him"to"rehearse"with"the"soHcalled"“VARAHstudioH orkest,”"with"Van"Manen,"Herman"de"Wit,"Arjen"Gorter,"Martin"van"Duynhoven,"and" other"improvising"musicians."The"group"rehearsed"compositions"by"Breuker"and"Dikker" and"at"the"same"time"functioned"as"a"learning"material"for"young"sound"technicians"of" the"broadcasting"association.173"Breuker"discontinued"the"group"after"a"year,"because"of" the"participants’"“differing"technical"capacities.”174" "

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 171"“Workshops"en"beroepsopleiding,”"Jazz-Nu"4"(January"1979):"138."“Er"zijn"mensen,"die"willen"niets" liever"dan"perfecte"akkoordenschema’s"spelen."Dus"dat"doen"we"dan."Er"zijn"ook"…"mensen"die"modale" begrippen"willen"aanpakken."Mensen"die"wat"vrijere"vormen"willen"spelen"…"of"ze"komen"zelf"met"een" idee"wat"[sic]"ze"willen"uitwerken.”" 172"Ibid.,"24."“Van"een"gerichte"aanpak"was"geen"sprake;"op"vrijwel"elke"bijeenkomst"van"de"workshop" kwamen"er"andere"dingen"aan"de"orde,"waardoor"het"geheel"een"versnipperde"indruk"maakte."Een"andere" reden"voor"het"gebrek"aan"kontinuïteit"was"de"onvoorspelbare"opkomst"van"de"deelnemers"en"het" verloop"onder"hen;"mede"hierdoor"was"er"niet"vaak"sprake"van"duidelijke"muzikale"resultaten."Meestal" eindigden"workshopavonden"met"een"lullig"partijtje"voetbal.”" 173"Ibid.,"25." 174"Ibid."“verschillen"in"techniese"vaardigheid.”"

65" " Amateurs-versus-professionals- While"Breuker"and"Elsen"focused"primarily"on"playing"with"experienced"musicians," albeit"working"from"divergent"principles,"Elstak"and"De"Wit"primarily"focused"on" amateur"musicians"with"little"experience."The"participant’s"level"of"playing"confronted" musicians"with"the"problem"of"professionalism;"what"makes"a"professional"jazz" musician"and"who"gets"to"decide"on"those"criteria?"This"problem"became"evident"in"a" discussion"between"the"union"for"improvising"musicians"(BIM)"and"workshop" participants."The"BIM"took"a"hostile"position"towards"workshop"participants"who" wanted"to"become"a"BIM"member"to"benefit"from"the"group"funding,"fearing"it"would" devalue,"and"therefore"threaten,"the"carefully"created"image"of"the"BIM"member"as"a" professional"artist."Bouman,"who"saw"the"binary"between"amateurs"and"professionals" as"problematic"for"the"further"development"of"workshops,"argued"that"workshops"(and" their"participants)"deserved"to"be"equally"appreciated"and"thus"equally"paid"as" professional"improvising"musicians.175" " Most"participating"leaders"saw"the"independent"funding"of"workshops"and"the"initiation" of"a"diplomaHsystem"as"crucial"for"the"further"emancipation"of"jazz"workshops."Until" 1970,"the"ministry"of"CRM"only"incidentally"supported"educational"activities"in"the"field" of"jazz."Although"BIM"and"SJIN"included"the"organization"of"workshops"in"their"funding" scheme—"In"May"1966,"the"SJN"planned"to"“organize"workshops"for"young"musicians”— the"government"did"not"grant"direct"funding"to"workshops."176"Besides"receiving"a" contribution"from"the"participants,"most"workshops"were"part"of"either"cultural"centers," funded"by"the"department"of"Jeugdzaken"(youth"affairs)"at"the"ministry"of"CRM"(as"was" the"case"for"Oktopus),"or"of"cultural"organizations"part"of"universities"and"therefore" funded"by"the"ministry"of"Education"(the"cultural"center"CREA,"which"up"to"the"present" day"is"part"of"the"University"of"Amsterdam)."The"position"of"workshops"under"youth" affairs"underlined"the"status"of"workshops"as"a"form"of"leisure"and"thus"amateur"affair," much"to"the"frustration"of"workshop"leaders."Workshop"leaders"felt"hindered"by"the" government’s"lack"of"acknowledgement."De"Wit,"who"showed"an"extraordinary" commitment"to"the"revaluation"of"workshops,"saw"diplomas"as"a"way"to"evaluate"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 175"Ibid.,"78H79." 176"Jazzwereld"6,"May"1966."

66" " the"status"of"workshop"participants:"“Hereby"I"declare"that"workshops"have"become"an" indispensable"part"of"improvised"music."All"these"other"institutes"offer"you"a"diploma"…" that"only"get"you"as"far"as"the"orchestra"pit."Perhaps"you’ll"make"it"to"concertmaster," first"violinist"or"clarinet"player."We"can’t"do"that,"because"we"can’t"get"a"diploma.”177" Bouman’s"1978"study,"which"is"basically"a"plead"for"the"emancipation"and"recognition"of" jazz"workshops,"proposes"in"her"conclusion"the"“independent"funding"of"workshops"for" jazz"and"improvised"music.”"However,"despite"the"initial"efforts"to"integrate"workshops" into"the"funding"plans"of"the"BIM"and"SJN,"the"CRM"dismissed"a"direct"funding"of" workshops,"considering"it"“an"unjustified"step"towards"professionalism.”178" " While"most"workshops"largely"centered"around"Amsterdam"and"the"Randstad,"similar" ventures"were"to"be"found"around"the"country"during"the"1970s.179"Bass"player"and" pianist"Niko"Langenhuijsen"organized"improvised"music"workshops"in"Tilburg"in"the" south,"while"Alan"Laurillard"was"active"in"the"northern"town"of"Groningen.180"From" November"1969,"pianist"and"composer"Chaia"Gerstein"at"the"conservatory"in"Groningen" taught"modern"music"from"an"improvisational"perspective."In"1970,"Gerstein"together" with"conductor"Wybren"Veenman"also"gave"live"electronics"workshops"Amsterdam’s" Studio"7.181"From"1975,"Herman"de"Wit"began"to"lead"workshops"as"part"of"the" association"Jeugd"en"Muziek,"most"notably"in"Utrecht"in"the"center"of"the"Netherlands" and"Middelburg"in"the"southern"part"of"the"country."The"idea"of"gezamenlijk-spelen- zonder-afspraken-vooraf"(collective"playing"without"preconditions),"as"promoted"by"De" Wit,"developed"into"the"core"method"of"bass"player"Arnold"Dooyeweerd,"who,"from" 1975"until"the"presentHday"continues"to"organize"workshops"at"the"Bimhuis"under"that" same"name."Most"workshop"leaders"remained"hesitant"about"the"benefits"of"educational" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 177"Bouman,"Workshops,"80."“Bij"dezen"verklaar"ik"dat"de"workshops"wat"mij"betreft"een"onvervreemdbaar" onderdeel"zijn"van"de"geïmproviseerde"muziek."Op"allerlei"andere"instituten"kun"je"een"diploma"krijgen" als"je"zoveel"jaren"hard"gewerkt"hebt,"en"dan"word"je"bekwaam"genoeg"geacht"om"in"de"orkestbak"zitting" te"gaan"nemen."Je"zou"het"nog"kunnen"brengen"tot"eerste"konsertmeester"of"eerste"violist"of"eerste" klarinetspeler."Bij"ons"is"dat"niet,"want"wij"krijgen"geen"diploma.”" 178"Minutes"general"meeting"BIM,"d.d."27"November"1973." 179"Workshops"during"the"1970s,"included"those"organized"by"Chaia"Cherstein"and"Wybren"Veenman"and" Loek"Dikker"(Studio"7,"1970);"Arjen"Gorter,"Martin"van"Duynhoven,"Loek"Dikker,"Burton"Greene,"Ed" Neumeister"and"Judith"Pertz"(Oktopus,"1972H1976);"Nico"Bunnink"(Bimhuis,"1974H1975),"Arnold" Dooyeweerd"(Bimhuis,"1975Hpresent),"Gilius"van"Bergeyk"(The"Hague)." 180"Jacques"Los,"“Alan"Laurillard:"‘Ik"vind"vernieuwing"in"de"muziek"belangrijk’,”"accessed"February"17," 2015,"http://www.draaiomjeoren.com/interviews/laurillard.html;"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde- Muziek,"114." 181"Bouman,"Workshops,"7."

67" " programs,"fearing"institutionalization"would"hinder"the"creative"development"of"the" individual."During"a"1979"roundHtable"discussion"with"other"workshop"leaders," Langenhuijsen"doubted"whether"jazz"education"was"useful."“I"think"with"every"type"of" education"you"risk"a"further"institutionalization,"also"with"a"workshop.”182" Notwithstanding,"more"experimental"musicians"became"part"of"and"attempted"to" initiate"jazz"programs"at"what"is"arguably"the"most"formalized"and"institutionalized" platform"to"learn"how"to"play"jazz:"the"conservatory." " Policy- During"the"1970s,"jazz"plans"and"surveys"increasingly"addressed"issues"of"education," signaling"the"increasing"awareness"among"musicians"on"the"importance"of"jazz" education"as"a"way"to"improve"the"situation"of"jazz"and"its"practitioners."The"ministry"of" CRM"awarded"the"first"educational"program"for"jazz"in"1969,"when"it"granted"some" young"musicians"with"funding"to"follow"a"jazz"course"at"the"JazzHAkademie"in"the" German"town"of"Remscheid"that"focused"on"modern"musical"styles,"including" improvised"music.183"" " While"musicians"around"1970"seldom"outspokenly"aspired"to"become"jazz"educators"at" an"institution,"they"did"realize"the"need"for"educational"programs"in"order"for"the"music" to"survive."Wim"Knulst’s"1970"survey"as"well"as"the"1970"BEVEM"report"signaled"“a"lack" of"educational"programs"for"young"musicians.”184"Knulst’s"survey"showed"a"majority"of" musicians"that"considered"a"form"of"specialized"and"formal"jazz"programs—whether"or" not"at"a"conservatory"—as"crucial"for"the"viability"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."While"32" percent"preferred"learning"by"practice,"15"percent"considered"jazz"courses"and" workshops"as"the"primary"educational"route.185"The"BEVEM"report"also"signaled"how" the"lack"of"educational"institutions"hindered"the"further"development"of"improvised" music."“[This"group"faces"the"following"problems]:"the"lack"of"a"fullHfledged"institute"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 182"“Workshops"en"beroepsopleiding,”"Jazz-Nu"4"(January"1979):"142." 183"E."Dieter"Fränzel,"Sounds-like-Whoopataal-(Essen:"Klartext"Verlage"2006),"157H163;"“Rapport" werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"1." 184"Bouman,"Workshops,"75."Jazzwereld-31,-September"1970." 185"Knulst,"Jazz-anno-1970,"33."

68" " were"young"musicians"can"orientate"and"educate"themselves.”186"The"report"proposed" to"improve"this"situation"by," " 1)"fully"integrating"jazz"into"all"educational"institutions"that"have"music" on"their"program;"" 2)"integrating"jazz"into"the"professional"music"education"and"into"the" musicology"program"at"the"universities;"and" 3)"encouraging"the"development"of"educational"programs"exclusively"for" jazz,"for"example,"by"establishing"an"Instituut-voor-Jazzstudie-(Institute"for" Jazz"Studies)."(“Jazz"plan,”"Jazzwereld"28,"March"1970)"187"" " The"improvising"musicians"realized"very"well"the"paradoxical"nature"of"their"desire"to" institutionalize"a"music"that"was"both"musically"and"politically"associated"with"antiH establishment"and"freedom."“While"one"can"question"whether"conservatories"in"its" current"form"are"suitable"for"engaging"with"improvised"music,"and"as—from"an" ideological"perspective—it"would"hold"the"preference"to"create"alternative"institutes," the"situation"needs"to"change"now."Conservatories"should"install"work"and"study" centers"for"improvised"music.”188"Improvising"musicians"legitimized"their"paradoxical" view"of"formalized"education,"by"underlining"the"music’s"creative"potential,"which"could" potentially"improve"the"creative"abilities"of"what"they"considered"the"“unHcreative" reproducers”"that"graduated"from"the"conservatories."As"the"BEVEM"report"notes," " Improvised"music"could"contribute"positively"to"the"conservatories," because"until"now,"these"institutions"have"limited"themselves"to"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 186"“Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"1."“Punt"2"uit"situatieschets:"[de" problemen"waar"deze"groep"mee"te"maken"heeft"zijn:"]"Het"ontbreken"van"een"volwaardig"instituut"waar" de"aankomende"musici"zich"kunnen"oriënteren"en"scholen.”" 187"Jazzwereld"28,"March"1970."October"1973"The"SJN"and"BIM"submitted"the"Plan"voor"de"Jazz."“Edukatief" Werk:"“naast"het"mogelijk"maken"van"meer"konserten"en"het"waarborgen"van"de"kreatieve"kontinuïteit" binnen"deze"muziek,"blijft"er"de"noodzaak"tot"struktureel"edukatief"werk.”" 188"“Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"2."“Hoewel"de"vraag"opgeworpen"kan" worden"of"de"conservatoria"in"hun"huidige"vorm"de"geëigende"instituten"zijn"om"zich"met"g.m."bezig"te" houden,"en"uit"ideëel"oogpunt"alternatieve"instituten"de"voorkeur"zouden"verdienen,"moeten,"om"de" huidige"situatie"zo"snel"mogelijk"uit"de"wereld"te"helpen,"de"conservatoria"werkH"en"studiecentra"bevatten" die"zich"met"g.m."bezighouden."De"enkele"in"de"subcultuur"opgekomen"éénmansHinitiatieven"zoude"via" subsidies"de"mogelijkheid"moeten"krijgen"een"betere"vorm"hiervoor"te"ontwikkelen,"zolang"deze" initiatieven"niet"ingepast"worden"binnen"de"bestaande"instituten.”"

69" " production"of"uncreative"reproducers."The"uncreativeness"of"these" graduated"students"obstructs"composers"of"new"music,"because"new" music"tends"to"require"more"than"just"the"reproduction"of"specific"notes" in"a"specific"order."If"we"compare"little"children’s"urge"to"improvise"with" that"of"musicians"who"have"studied"for"years"[…]"it"becomes"obvious"how" traditional"musical"education"squeezes"to"death"every"inch"of"this"innate" creativity."(Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,"BEVEM,"1970," 2)189" " The"search"for"appropriate"models"for"jazz"education"reflected"the"ideological"divide" between"the"notion"of"jazz"as"a"creative"process"versus"the"notion"of"jazz"as"a"craft"of" which"the"basic"principles"can"be"taught."This"becomes"clear"from"the"1973"Jazz"Plan" from"the"SJN"and"the"Jazz"Plan"Zwolle"from"the"same"year,"which"both"articulate"their" ambitions"according"to"this"divide."In"October"1973,"the"SJN"together"with"the"BIM" submitted"a"Jazz"Plan,"which"included"a"proposal"for"jazz"that"would"secure"the" continuity"of"jazz"as"a"creative"process."While"this"plan"proposed"workshops"as"the"main" educational"tool,"stressing"the"creative"aspect"of"jazz,"the"Jazz"Plan"Zwolle"explicitly" promotes"educational"programs"and"school"concerts"as"important"ways"to"disseminate" jazz,"in"this"case"in"the"provincial"town"of"Zwolle:" " Because"education"plays"a"key"role"in"conditioning"the"youth’s"musical" taste,"it"is"necessary"that"primary"and"secondary"schools"spend"a" reasonable"amount"of"time"on"jazz."Currently,"teachers"are"generally" unequipped"to"spread"the"message"of"jazz"and"therefore"need" professional"training."Pedagogical"institutions"as"well"as"conservatories" should"no"longer"treat"jazz"as"a"luxury"accessory,"but"rather"need"to"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 189"“Van"de"g.m."kan"binnen"de"conservatoria"een"gunstige"werking"uitgaan,"omdat"deze"intituten"zich"tot" nu"toe"hebben"beperkt"tot"het"voortbrengen"van"aHcreative"reproducenten."Deze"aHcreativiteit"van" afgestudeerde"musici"is"een"belemmering"voor"componisten"van"nieuwe"muziek,"aangezien"ook"in"de" nieuwe"muziek"van"de"uitvoerder"dikwijls"iets"meer"wordt"verlangd"dan"het"reproduceren"van"exact" voorgeschreven"tonen"in"een"exacte"volgorde."Als"we"de"improvisatiedrang"van"kleuters"met"die"van" musici"die"een"jarenlange"studie"achter"de"rug"hebben"vergelijken,"blijkt"duidelijk"dat"de"traditionele" muzikale"scholing,"evenals"onze"hele"maatschappelijke"constellatie,"de"eenieder"aangeboren"creativiteit," hoe"klein"ook,"dooddrukt.”"

70" " integrate"jazz"in"the"curriculum"of"Algemene"Muzikale"Vorming"(general" musical"training)"and"School"Music."(Jazz"plan"Zwolle,"1973,"12)" " These"different"approaches"support"the"idea,"albeit"implicitly,"that"formal"jazz"programs" became"increasingly"associated"with"ideas"of"conservatism,"traditionalism,"whereas" workshops"came"to"embody"ideas"of"creativeness"and"openness."It"would"not"be"until" 1976,"however,"before"the"first"fulltime"jazz"program"at"a"conservatory"became"a"fact."

Jazz&at&the&conservatory&

During"the"1970s,"jazz"education"at"the"conservatories"gradually"developed"from" optional"courses"into"independent"educational"programs."The"earliest"programs"started" under"the"name"of"lichte-muziek-[literally:"light"music],"underlining"jazz’s"alignment" with"show"business"in"contrast"to"the"“serious"art”"taught"at"the"classical"music" departments."These"programs"originated"in"occasional"initiatives"that"had"been" organized"at"conservatories"from"as"early"as"1932,"when"Eddy"Noordijk"organized"the" aforementioned"jazz"course"at"the"conservatory"of"The"Hague."From"1970,"however," these"courses"took"place"on"an"increasingly"regular"basis."In"1970"Gilius"van"Bergeyk" conducted"a"group"at"the"Royal"Conservatory"of"The"Hague"that"performed"“music"with" significant"improvisational"elements.”190"From"September"that"year,"the"conservatory"of" Rotterdam"started"the"soHcalled-improvisatieHstudiecentrum,"a"study"center"for" improvisation"led"by"Theo"Loevendie,"meant"as"a"meeting"point"for"musicians"to"engage" with"“improvisation"in"connection"with"the"jazzHtradition,"avantHgarde"concert"music," and"exotic"music.”191"Around"the"same"time,"pianist"and"arranger"Frans"Elsen"frequently" organized"arranging"classes"at"conservatories"throughout"the"country."From"September" 1971,"students"at"the"conservatory"of"the"provincial"town"of"Zwolle"could"receive"an" aantekening-lichte-muziek"(registration"for"entertainment"music)"on"their"classical" music"diploma,"which"basically"meant"they"had"successfully"finished"Elsen’s"jazz" arranging"course."In"1975,"Elsen"became"national"coordinator"of"this"Oriëntatiecursus- Lichte-Muziek,"a"series"of"introductory"jazz"courses"funded"by"the"ministry"of"CRM"at"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 190"“Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"appendix"3." 191"Ibid."The"report"fails"to"mention"the"arranging"classes"taught"by"modern"jazz"pianist"Frans"Elsen" around"this"period"at"the"conservatory"of"Rotterdam,"underlining"the"tensions"at"play"between"modern" jazz"musicians"and"improvising"musicians."

71" " conservatories"throughout"the"country,"consisting"of"classes"in"solfège,"theory"of" harmony,"instrumentation,"and"big"band.192"The"course"took"place"once"a"week"and" specifically"aimed"at"educating"classically"trained"musicians"in"jazz"and"other"popular" music." " The"establishment"of"jazz"programs"at"the"Dutch"conservatories"coincided"with"similar" initiatives"throughout"Europe."One"of"the"earliest"attempts"to"institutionalize"jazz" education"in"Europe"was"the"1928"foundation"of"a"shortHlived"jazz"department"at"the"Dr." Hoch"Konservatorium"in"Frankfurt"am"Main.193"One"of"Europe’s"first"influential"jazz" departments,"however,"was"the"Institut"für"Jazz"in"the"Austrian"city"of"Graz,"founded"in" 1965"by"lecturer"and"jazz"promoter"Friedrich"Körner.194"Largely"modeled"after"the" Berklee"School"of"Music,"the"Graz"jazz"department"in"its"curriculum"combined"both" theoretical"as"well"as"practical"aspects"jazz.195"The"Graz"jazz"department"served"as"one" of"the"inspirational"models"for"the"Rotterdam"jazz"department"(as"will"be"discussed" later"in"this"chapter)." " Institutionalization- It"was"first"of"all"the"students"who"instigated"the"process"of"curricular"reform"at"the" conservatories"by"means"of"optional"courses"in"musical"styles"other"than"the"nineteenth" century"repertoire."In"search"of"a"broader"musical"perspective,"students"during"the" 1970s"addressed"their"desire"to"learn"about"other"musical"practices"to"individual" teachers"or"the"board"of"directors."Practitioners"of"the"early"music"movement,"for" example,"advocated"the"possibility"of"specializing"in"historically"informed"performance" practice."Similarly,"students"at"the"conservatory"of"Zwolle"(Ruud"van"Dijk,"Rik"Elings"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 192"Samama"and"Van"Lingen,-Nederlandse-muziek-in-de-20Hste-eeuw,"301." 193"Mátyás"Seiber"led"a"jazz"program"that"" consisted"of"two"hours"private"instrumental"lessons"(on"piano,"saxophone,"trumpet,"drums,"banjo"and" trombone),"two"hours"ensemble"playing"and"one"hour"of"instrumentation"on"a"weekly"basis."However," under"the"influence"of"the"national"socialistic"regime"that"did"not"allow"for"a"further"promotion"of"black" American"music,"the"department"already"ceased"to"exist"in"1933."See,"for"example,"Susan"C."Cook,"“Jazz"as" Deliverance:"The"Reception"and"Institution"of"American"Jazz"during"the"Weimar"Republic,”"American- Music"7/1"(1989):"30H47." 194"Christa"BrucknerHHaring,"“Ein"historische"Überblick"der"Jazzentwicklung"in"Österreich,”" Jazzforschung/-Jazz-Research-44"(2012),"53H74."" 195"See"Karlheinz"Miklin"in"“Report"on"the"1st"IASJ"Jazz"Education"conference,”"2003,"16;"Friedrich"Körner," “Letter"from"Friedrich"Körner,”"Journal-of-the-American-Musicology-Society"12H3"(1969),"531."

72" " Henk"Zomer)"demanded"an"arranging"teacher"in"the"field"of"jazz."The"Jazz"Plan"Zwolle"in" 1973"asserted"the"increasing"desire"among"students"for"a"fullHtime"jazz"program:" " Obviously,"we"are"pleased"that"lichte-muziek"has"found"its"place"at"the" curriculum"of"Zwolle."However,"we"would"like"to"advise"the"conservatory" board"to"further"develop"the"lichte-muziek"(read:"jazz)"program"…"The" current"lichte-muziek"course"plus"the"workshops"and"summer"courses"are" the"first"steps"towards"a"specialized"jazz"institute"at"the"conservatory"of" Zwolle."(Jazz"Plan"Zwolle,"1973,"17)196" " The"conservatories,"in"return,"increasingly"facilitated"musical"programs"that"focused"on" musical"fields"other"than"the"classical"repertoire."From"the"institutions’"perspective,"the" added"jazz"curriculum"was"motivated"by"a"Ministerial"Order"that"required"all"hogeschool" institutions"to"have"a"minimum"of"sixHhundred"students."Conservatories"responded"to" these"political"changes"by"broadening"their"programs,"in"the"hope"to"attract"more" students."“Since"the"target"group"prefers"jazz"and"pop"over"Brahms"and"Bruckner,”" journalist"Erik"van"den"Berg"observed"in"1988,"“Lichte-Muziek"has"become"one"of"the"hot" items"at"the"music"education"market.”197"As"a"result"of"this"broadened"focus," conservatories"began"to"offer"a"major"in"popular"music,"but"also"in"medieval,"baroque," and"chamber"music.198" " While"the"jazz"department"at"the"conservatory"of"Zwolle"did"not"materialize"until"the" midH1980s,"the"first"fullyHfledged"jazz"programs"in"the"Netherlands"developed"in"the" midH1960s."The"initiation"of"these"jazz"departments"at"conservatories"was"a"gradual" process"that"did"not"necessarily"follow"from"a"preconceived"plan."This"was"especially" the"case"with"the"1976"initiation"of"lichte-muziek-program"at"the"conservatory"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 196"“Hoe"blij"wij"uiteraard"ook"zijn"met"de"aanwezigheid"van"lichte"muziek"op"het"Zwolse"lesrooster,"toch" willen"wij"het"bestuur"van"het"conservatorium"in"overweging"geven"om"met"alle"kracht"naar"een"verdere" uitbouw"van"het"vak"lichte"muziek"(lees:"jazz)"te"streven."[…]"Het"huidige"vak"lichte"muziek"plus"het" organiseren"van"workshops"en"summerHschools"vormen"tezamen"een"stevig"opstapje"naar"de"mogelijke" instelling"van"een"gespecialiseerd"jazzHinstituut"aan"het"Zwols"conservatorium.”" 197"Erik"van"den"Berg,"“Briefcase"Bop"and"Gloss"Paint:"Spectacular"Jazz"Debuts;"Heated"Discussions"in"the" Era"of"a"New"Conservatism,”"Keynotes-24,"1987,"45H54." 198"“Leerplan"Koninklijk"Conservatorium,”"1979."

73" " Rotterdam,"allegedly"the"first"jazz"fullHfledged"jazz"program"in"the"Netherlands.199"Elsen," who"was"part"of"a"large"group"of"initiators"involved"in"the"process,"recalled"in"a"2007" interview"how"“a"large"group"set"up"the"plan”"during"“endless"meetings.”200"" " MidH1970s,"saxophone"player"Leo"van"Oostrom"was"involved"in"the"initiation"of"the" department"of"lichte-muziek"at"the"conservatory"of"Rotterdam.201"The"jazz"institute"in" Graz"served"as"an"inspirational"model"for"the"Rotterdam"jazz"department."Early"1970s," the"director"of"the"Rotterdam"conservatory"Kees"van"Stolwijk"invited"Van"Oostrom"to" develop"his"own"teaching"practice."Stolwijk"send"Van"Oostrom"and"bass"clarinetist"Henri" Bok,"who"would"become"coordinator"of"the"jazz"curriculum,"to"Austria"to"the"visit"the" Institut"für"Jazz"in"Graz,"to"investigate"its"educational"model"for"jazz,"which,"Van" Oostrom"remembered"as"“including"a"broad"variety"of"styles"that"focused"on"dance" repertoire,"such"as"“tango’s,"Viennese"waltzes"and"jazz.”202" " In"The"Hague,"in"contrast,"the"1979"initiation"of"the"jazz"department"followed"from"a" wellHstructured"plan"that"was"developed"by"the"small"team"of"Elsen"together"with"music" theory"teacher"Boudewijn"Leeuwenberg."Elsen"remembered"the"collaboration"with" Leeuwenberg"went"very"smoothly:"“[Leeuwenberg]"and"I"made"suggestions"we"both" agreed"on"within"five"minutes."The"hour"tables"and"the"whole"curriculum"were"done"in" no"time.”203"Around"the"same"period,"in"1975,"pianist/arranger"Boudewijn" Leeuwenberg"began"a"jazz"group"at"the"conservatory"in"The"Hague."Leeuwenberg,"from" 1971,"worked"as"a"teacher"in"classical"music"theory"at"the"conservatory"and"was"active" with"and"arranging"for"entertainment"groups"such"as"the"Lurelei"Cabaret,"vocal"group" the"Sissies,"and"the"vocalists"Gerard"Cox"and"Frans"Halsema."As"Leeuwenberg"recalls," """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 199"Because"of"the"gradual"and"relatively"uncoordinated"nature"of"its"development,"it"is"difficult"to" pinpoint"the"exact"year"of"execution."Journalist"Jeroen"de"Valk"and"Erik"van"den"Berg"have"pinpointed"the" starting"year"at"1974"and"1978"respectively,"while"the"conservatory"celebrated"the"jazz"department’s" twentyHfifth"anniversary"in"2004."In"1982"Joan"Reinders,"still"received"a"“aantekening"lichte"jazz”"on"his" classical"musicHcertificate"of"Zwolle."In"order"to"receive"this"registration,"Reinders"had"followed"courses" with"Frans"Elsen"and"Cees"Smal."Van"den"Berg,"“Briefcase"Bop"and"Gloss"Paint,”"50." 200"Elsen,"interview,"2007." 201"Leo"van"Oostrom,"interview"by"author,"June"14,"2007,"Amsterdam."Van"Oostrom"received"a"classical" training"on"both"clarinet"and"saxophone"at"the"conservatory"of"The"Hague,"the"latter"a"novelty"at"the"time." In"1961"Van"Oostrom"convinced"director"Kees"van"Baaren"to"hire"Adriaan"Bosch,"a"classical"saxophonist" working"for"the"Koninklijke"Militarie"Kapel"(Royal"Military"Band),"with"whom"he"studied"between"1961" and"1966." 202"Rusch,"“Jazzpracticum,”"44." 203"Elsen,"interview,"2007."

74" " students"were"well"aware"from"this"background"and"increasingly"asked"him"to"teach" them"how"to"improvise"and"play"jazz."At"the"insistence"of"the"students—and"future" conservatory"teachers—Jan"Faas,"Albert"Beltman"and"Bob"Zimmerman,"Leeuwenberg" organized"a"jazz"ensemble"for"which"he"wrote"the"arrangements."When"the"ensemble" developed"into"a"big"band,"Leeuwenberg,"who"felt"unfit"for"the"job,"invited"Elsen"to"take" over."On"January"26,"1979,"the"Koninklijk"Conservatorium"organized"a"special"jazz"night," presenting"the"arrangements"and"compositions"of"student"and"teachers."The"positive" evaluation"of"the"concert"was"reported"to"director"Jan"van"Vlijmen"and"legitimized"the" further"initiation"of"the"independent"jazz"program"at"the"conservatory"of"The"Hague." " The-bebop-school- Elsen"and"Leeuwenberg’s"1979"educational"plan"for"the"jazz"department"of"the" Conservatorium"in"The"Hague"was"exemplary"for"most"jazz"departments"in"the"country." The"jazz"curriculum"evolved"from"the"classical"program"was"extended"with"the"main" subject"taught"by"a"jazz"musician"and"complemented"with"additional"jazz"courses."From" 1979"the"institution"offered"jazz"majors"in"piano,"electric"guitar,"drums,"bass,"flute," clarinet,"saxophone,"trumpet,"and"trombone."Most"jazz"departments"offered"degrees" under"the"names"of"Uitvoerend-Musicus"(Performing"Artists,"UM)"or"Docerend-Musicus" (Teaching"Musician,"DM),"which"prepared"the"student"for"a"career"respectively"as"a" soloist"or"a"teacher"at"a"music"school."To"enter"the"program,"the"students"needed"to"do"a" practical"exam,"consisting"of"the"performance"of"a"classical"piece"and"improvising"over"a" chord"scheme,"and"a"theoretical"exam,"testing"the"knowledge"of"theory"and"solfège."In" addition,"classical"students"following"the"performance"or"school"music"programs" continued"to"have"the"option"to"obtain"the"lichte-muziek-registration."The"curriculum" was"subdivided"into"different"theoretical"courses,"including"theory"of"harmony,"solfège," jazz"history,"classical"music"history,"music"analysis"and"pedagogical"classes"such"as" methods"and"practical"groups."In"addition,"the"curriculum"consisted"of"several"practical" classes,"such"as"ensembles"and"a"compulsory"minor"in"second"instrument." " The"first"generation"of"jazz"teachers"at"the"conservatories"consisted"mostly"of"jazz" musicians,"who"regularly"worked"for"the"radio"and"television"studios"based"in" Hilversum."Partly"as"a"result"of"the"decreasing"employment"possibilities"in"broadcasting" orchestras,"many"of"these"musicians"found"an"additional"income"working"as"a"

75" " conservatory"teacher.204"An"extra"and"steady"income"was"an"import"motive"to"start" teaching"as"were,"to"a"lesser"extent,"the"enthusiasm"for"jazz"and"the"inspirational" environment"offered"by"the"conservatorium.205"With"its"focus"on"technical"skills," arranging"and"music"history,"the"curriculum"of"the"early"jazz"programs"reflected"the" background"of"the"teaching"staff."As"pointed"out"in"Chapter"One,"these"studio"musicians" generally"saw"knowledge"of"the"jazz"tradition,"technical"skills,"and"“the"ability"to"swing”" as"essential"tools"for"the"individual"development"of"the"musician."" " Modern"jazz"pianist"Frans"Elsen’s"views"particularly"marked"the"development"of"formal" jazz"education."Both"as"the"coHfounder"of"the"jazz"departments"in"Rotterdam,"Den"Haag," and"Zwolle,"and"as"a"piano"and"arranging"teacher"in"Hilversum"and"Utrecht,"he"was" closely"involved"in"the"education"of"students,"the"appointment"of"teachers"and"in" developing"the"outlines"of"the"educational"programs."Elsen,"who"was"largely"responsible" for"the"appointment"of"the"teaching"staff,"selected"the"teachers"primarily"based"on"their" playing"skills."“They"were"all"people"whom"I"considered"fit"for"the"job."You"need"people" that,"first"of"all,"know"how"to"play"and,"secondly,"of"which"you"expect"they"can"get"their" ideas"across.”206Elsen"received"a"classical"piano"training"at"the"conservatory"of"The" Hague,"during"which"he"picked"up"his"activities"as"a"jazz"pianist."Elsen"aimed"at"a"clearH structured"trajectory"for"jazz"education,"from"amateurHcourses"at"music"schools,"a"two" to"three"year"preliminary"training"at"regional"departments"of"conservatories,"followed" by"a"specialized"jazz"and"improvised"music"program"at"the"conservatory,"the"latter" accessible"through"an"entrance"exam."“My"ideal"is"the"American"collegeHsystem,"with"the" option"of"an"intern"campus"…"with"a"jazz"club,"a"bar,"a"concert"hall"and"recording"studios," where"you"can"learn"every"aspect"of"the"field.”207"Besides"the"obvious"financial"benefits," Elsen’s"teaching"career"was"born"out"of"a"frustration"with"the"studio"work."“I"worked" with"radioH"and"television"orchestras"at"the"Hilversum"studio’s,"and"I"really"developed" an"aversion"against"it."The"music"and"the"atmosphere"nearly"drove"me"round"the"bend."I" didn’t"enjoy"it."The"work"was"shallow"and"unmusical."This"whole"idea"of"making"music"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 204"The"orchestras"of"the"KRO,"VARA,"and"AVRO"were"discontinued"in"respectively"1964,"1986,"and"1997." 205"Rusch,"Jazzpracticum,"44." 206"Elsen,"interview,"2007." 207"Bouman,"Workshops,"80."

76" " just"for"the"dough"[broodmuzikantenmentaliteit]"really"goes"against"the"grain"with" me.”208"" " With"his"aesthetics"and"didactical"ideas"firmly"based"in"classical"western"harmony"and" the"bebop"idiom,"Elsen"was"both"appreciated"and"criticized"for"his"distinct"and"stern" views."Elsen"in"2007"explained"how"he"deliberately"chose"for"a"schoolish"setHup"of"his" arranging"class"that"was"partly"taken"from"the"classical"curriculum,"noting"that"he" “wrote"exercises"on"a"big"chalkboard"with"staffs”"and"let"the"students"“perform"tasks," very"schoolish.”"For"example,"he"would"write"down"a"melody"and"tell"them"to"put" chords"underneath"and"to"connect"them."“Or"I"played"an"harmonic"progression"on"the" piano"and"asked"them"to"listen"carefully,"check"whether"they"could"hear"what"was"going" on.”209"As"Elsen"asserted,"“it’s"all"pretty"straightforward,"and"I"like"that."At"a" conservatory"you"need"to"present"things"as"clear"as"possible."Music"is"vague"enough"as"it" is.”"Elsen"thus"strongly"believed"it"is"not"the"teacher’s"task"to"confront"the"student"with" complex"artistic"dilemmas:" " You"just"have"to"teach"them"how"to"multiply,"that’s"the"purpose"of"a" school."Don’t"be"too"ambitious"by"starting"with"all"these"complex"artistic" problems."A"school"is"a"school"and"within"that"environment"you"need"to" teach"things"that"fit"that"environment;"simple,"basic"things."It’s"just"kids" that"need"to"learn"something,"that’s"all."(Frans"Elsen,"interview"by"author," 2007)210" " Underlying"Elsen’s"teaching"method"is"the"idea"that"jazz"as"part"of"a"tonalityHbased" musical"tradition,"against"which"current"musical"practices"can"be"positioned"and"valued:" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 208"Elsen,"interview,"2007."“Ik"werkte"in"Hilversum"in"de"studio’s"in"allerlei"radioHen"televisieorkesten"[en]" dat"ging"me"zo"tegenstaan."Ik"werd"gek"van"de"muziek"die"ik"daar"moest"spelen,"van"de"hele"sfeer."Ik"vond" het"niet"leuk."Het"was"oppervlakkig,"niet"muzikaal."Echt"broodmuzikantenmentaliteit"en"dat"stuitte"me" tegen"de"borst.”" 209"Ibid."“Ik"had"altijd"een"groot"bord"met"notenbalken"en"daar"deed"ik"oefeningen"op."[…]"Ik"liet"ze"ook" heel"schools"oefeningen"maken"op"het"bord."Dan"schreef"ik"een"melodietje"op"of"een"toplijn"van"noten"en" dan"zei"ik:"“Zet"er"maar"akkoorden"onder,"verbind"ze"maar,”"dat"soort"dingen."Of"ik"speelde"een"progressie" op"de"piano"en"dan"vroeg"ik"ze"om"te"luisteren"of"ze"konden"horen"hoe"die"verliep.”" 210"Ibid."“Je"moet"ze"gewoon"de"tafels"van"onder"de"tien"leren,"daar"is"een"school"voor."En"niet"beginnen" met"allerlei"artistieke"problemen,"daar"schiet"je"je"doel"mee"voorbij."Een"school"is"een"school"en"daar"moet" je"als"een"school"in"lesgeven:"heel"simpele"en"basale"dingen."Het"zijn"kinderen,"die"moeten"gewoon"iets" leren,"meer"niet.”"

77" " How"it"is"possible"to"make"mistakes"in"music?"Well,"that’s"easy:"some" things"just"sound"better"than"others."Obviously"you"can"argue"about"these" things,"but"there"are"certain"standards"you"have"to"take"into"account." Without"these"standards,"every"type"of"education"is"useless."And"usually"it" is"pretty"clear"what"these"standards"are."The"standard"if"you"teach"a" language"is"to"make"oneself"heard,"or"to"be"able"to"write"or"speak"the" language."The"criterion"for"arranging"is"that"it"just"needs"to"sound"good," and"there"are"certain"rules"for"that."(Frans"Elsen,"interview"by"author," 2007)211" " These"rules"or"standards,"according"to"Elsen’s"view,"derive"from"a"large"part"from"the" classical"principles"of"harmony,"because"“jazz"harmony"is"just"an"added"color"to"the" classical"harmony”"and"therefore"“jazz"harmony"doesn’t"exist.”"When"asked"about"the" role"of"formal"education"in"the"creative"process,"Elsen"notes,"“as"the"name"indicates,"a" conservatory"is"conservative"in"principle.”"He"explained," " You"can’t"teach"a"process."It"doesn’t"need"to"have"come"to"a"complete" standstill,"because"everything"is"a"process."As"long"as"you"live,"you’ll" continue"to"develop"and"you’re"music"will"change,"that’s"a"fact."The"way"I" teach"now"is"completely"different"from"the"way"I"taught"twenty"years"ago," because"I"have"developed."But"I"do"teach"those"things"that"have"developed" otherwise"I"can’t"do"it."If"I"don’t"know"how"things"work"myself,"I’ll"never" be"able"to"teach"it"to"someone"else."(Frans"Elsen,"interview"by"author," 2007)212"" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 211"Ibid."“Hoe"kun"je"in"muziek"fouten"maken?"Nou,"dat"is"heel"makkelijk:"het"één"klinkt"gewoon"beter"dan" het"andere."En"daar"kun"je"natuurlijk"over"twisten,"maar"er"is"gewoon"een"maatstaf"die"je"aan"moet"nemen." Als"je"geen"maatstaf"hebt,"dan"is"ieder"onderricht"overbodig."En"meestal"is"de"maatstaf"heel"duidelijk."Als" je"taalonderwijs"geeft,"dan"is"de"maatstaf"dat"je"verstaanbaar"bent,"of"dat"je"het"kunt"lezen"of"spreken."Bij" het"arrangeren"is"de"maatstaf"dat"het"gewoon"goed"moet"klinken"en"daar"heb"je"een"norm"voor.”" 212"Ibid."“Ik"denk"dat"een"conservatorium,"zoals"de"naam"al"aangeeft,"in"principe"conservatief"is."Je"kan"niet" iets"onderwijzen"wat"nog"in"ontwikkeling."Het"hoeft"niet"allemaal"uitontwikkeld"te"zijn,"want"niks"is" uitontwikkeld."Zolang"als"een"mens"leeft"zal"hij"zichzelf"ontwikkelen"en"zal"de"muziek"die"hij"maakt" veranderen,"dat"is"duidelijk."Ik"denk"dat"ik"nu"lesgeef"op"een"heel"andere"manier"dan"waarop"ik"twintig" jaar"geleden"lesgaf,"omdat"ik"mezelf"ontwikkeld"heb."Maar"ik"geef"wel"les"in"de"dingen"die"zoveel"mogelijk" ontwikkeld"zijn,"anders"kan"ik"het"niet."Als"ik"het"zelf"niet"weet,"dan"kan"ik"het"zeker"een"ander"niet" vertellen.”"

78" " This"view"contrasted"with"the"idea"of"openness"as"advocated"by"De"Wit,"Bouman,"and" other"promoters"of"workshops"and,"again,"reflected"their"different"views"on"the"meaning," value,"and"direction"of"jazz." " However,"in"contrast"to"his"image"as"a"relentless"and"conservative"propagator"of"“the" correct"notes,”"Elsen"basically"saw"the"conservatory"as"a"place"where"knowledge"can"be" brought"together:" " There"are"things"you"cannot"do"by"yourself,"for"which"you"need"help." Friends"might"be"able"explain,"but"you"have"to"go"to"their"place"or"they" have"to"come"to"you"and"that"is"all"very"timeHconsuming."A"school"is"an" excellent"place,"if"you"quickly"want"to"learn"a"few"things."…"It’s"not"so" much"about"what"you"learn."The"main"thing"is"you"pressure"the"students" to"thoroughly"engage"with"it."You"need"a"deadline."If"I"have"to"write"a" piece"without"a"deadline,"there"is"a"big"chance"it"will"never"be"finished."If" they"tell"me"it"has"to"be"finished"next"week,"I"will"go"on"night"and"day"to" finish"it"on"time."The"same"goes"for"a"study"at"the"conservatory."(Frans" Elsen,"interview"by"author,"2007)" " So,"rather"than"as"a"place"that"allowed"him"to"pass"on"what"the"critics"saw"as"Elsen’s" purist"doctrine,"he"basically"saw"the"conservatory"as"a"timesaving"institute."Elsen"thus" advocated"an"evolutionist"view"on"jazz,"a"way"of"developing"music"that"is"not"focused"on" radical"change"and"revolutionist"ideas,"but"one"that"is"firmly"rooted"in"a"musical" tradition." " In"response"to"the"idea"of"jazz"or"music"as"an"individual"expression"that"cannot"be" taught,"promoters"of"jazz"education"saw"imitation"as"an"indispensable"part"of"the" learning"process."In"this"view,"knowledge"of"the"jazz"tradition"and"good"technical"skills" formed"the"basic"tools"to"every"musician."As"head"of"the"jazz"department"in"The"Hague" Wouter"Turkenburg"noted"in"1988"“If"you"know"how"to"play"bop,"you"have"nailed"the" changes,"than"you"can"play"anything.”213"Jan"Huydts,"coordinator"of"the"jazz"department" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 213"Van"den"Berg,"“Het"is"museumtaal"geworden,”"3."

79" " in"Hilversum"observed"how"“People"blame"us"for"creating"oneHtrick"ponies"and"for" creating"a"bebop"cult,"but"we"aim"to"educate"the"students"in"the"broadest"possible"way" and"to"reach"them"the"tools"for"becoming"professional"musicians.214"Generally,"both" opponents"and"advocates"for"professional"jazz"education"agreed"that"the"conservatory" alone"would"not"get"you"far."“Practice"during"the"day,"play"at"night,"that’s"how"it’s"done," according"to"drummer"John"Engels.215" " Nevertheless,"the"teaching"model"as"advocated"by"Elsen"and"alike"was"met"by"fierce" criticism,"which"came"especially"from"journalists"and"musicians"with"a"more" experimental"approach"to"jazz."With"the"exception"of"Jeroen"de"Valk,"who"wrote"several" articles"in"support"of"jazz"programs"at"the"conservatories,"most"journalists"were"very" critical"of"the"institutionalization"of"jazz"education."Paraphrasing"Dutch"poet"Willem" Kloos’"notion"of"art"as"“the"most"individualistic"expression"of"the"most"individualistic" emotion,”"journalist"Bert"Vuijsje"noted"in"1986"that"jazz"is"“the"most"spontaneous" expression"of"the"most"spontaneous"emotion.”"“Therefore,”"Vuijsje"reasoned,"“it"is" impossible"to"capture"jazz"in"a"systematic"education"program.”216"The"emphasis"on" technical"skills"and"musical"tradition"within"the"curriculum"they"reasoned,"were"at"the" cost"of"exploring"the"individuality"of"expression"and"the"freedom"that"jazz"represented." In"1983,"the"aforementioned"workshop"organizer"Elstak"fiercely"criticized"the"jazz" programs"at"the"conservatory,"arguing"that"they"produced"“clones,”"a"“series"of"identical" musicians.”"He"especially"opposed"the"teaching"model"that"jazz"teachers"had"taken"over" from"the"classical"department,"arguing"that"“the"jazz"scene"used"to"keep"far"from"the" dogmatism"that"prevailed"at"the"conservatories;"now,"paradoxically,"exactly"this"seems" to"thrive"among"the"jazz"teachers.”217"Implicitly"Elstak"criticized"the"essentially" hierarchical"nature"of"teacherHstudent"relation,"which"he"considered"far"from"the" democratic"model"of"musicHmaking"he"proposed"in"his"workshops—although"these"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 214"Ibid." 215"De"Valk,"“Jazzopleidingen,”"91." 216"Jeroen"de"Valk,"“Jazzopleidingen,”"in"Jazzjaarboek-5,"ed."Erik"van"den"Berg"and"Frank"van"Dixhoorn" (Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep,"1986),"91."“allerspontaanste"expressie"van"de"allerspontaanse"emotie.”" 217"Erik"van"den"Berg,"“Het"is"museumtaal"geworden:"De"Nederlandse"jazzHconservatoria"en"de"muzikale" identiteit,”"De-Volkskrant,"Augustus"5,"1988,"3."“Er"rolt"een"reeks"identieke"muzikanten"van"de"band."Ik"zet" grote"vraagtekens"bij"het"lerarencorps."Het"dogmatisme"dat"vroeger"op"de"conservatoria"leefde,"en"waar" de"jazzwereld"juist"altijd"op"af"heeft"gegeven,"lijkt"juist"bij"die"uit"de"jazz"afkomstige"leraren"het"sterkst," paradoxaal"genoeg.”"

80" " were"similarly"criticized"for"being"based"on"undemocratic"decisionHmaking,"as"has"been" pointed"out"earlier"in"this"chapter."" " While"improvising"musicians"and"journalists"criticized"the"formal"jazz"education"for" what"they"felt"was"its"uncreative"nature,"musicians"with"a"more"conventional"approach" to"jazz"disapproved"of"it"for"its"intellectualism."Vocalist"Rita"Reys,"who"had"learned"to" sing"on"stage,"strongly"believed"in"the"view"of"talent"as"something"that"cannot"be"taught" and"therefore"doubted"the"use"of"a"professional"training."On"a"workshop"she"gave"at"the" Rotterdams"Conservatorium,"Reys"commented:" " I"could"not"teach"them"how"to"sing."You"either"can"or"you"can’t"sing."You" have"to"be"able"to"sing"in"tune,"and"if"you"don’t"have"it"in"you,"it"is"simply" impossible."Timing"is"something"that"can’t"be"taught,"either."You"either" have"it"in"you,"or"you"don’t."Rita"Reys,"Rita-Reys:-Lady-Jazz"[Amsterdam:" Thomas"Rap,"2004],"195H6)218" " This"way,"following"the"“it"don’t"mean"a"thing,"if"it"ain’t"got"that"swing”Hdoctrine,"Reys’" rejection"of"formal"jazz"education"was"closely"linked"to"a"more"general"aversion"against" the"further"intellectualization"of"jazz." " By"the"midH1980s,"in"eight"of"the"eleven"conservatories,"more"than"a"thousand"students" were"enrolled"at"jazz"or"lichte-muziek"departments,"as"“Conservatory"Boards" acknowledged"the"artistic"significance"of"pop,"jazz,"and"improvised"music.”219- While"during"the"1970s"only"the"conservatories"of"Rotterdam,"The"Hague"and" Amsterdam"offered"jazz"programs,"by"the"midH1980s"all"eleven"conservatories"(Utrecht," Hilversum,"Groningen,"Maastricht,"Tilburg,"Enschede,"Zwolle,"Arnhem)"included"jazzH related"programs"in"their"curriculum."In"addition,"the"teachers’"training"colleges"in"the" cities"of"Alkmaar,"Hilversum"and"Leeuwarden"offered"degrees"in"music"as"well."By"1985," the"total"number"of"students"at"jazz"departments"had"grown"to"approximately"oneH

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 218"Bert"Vuijsje"and"Rita"Reys,"Rita-Reys:-Lady-Jazz"(Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap,"2004),"195H6."“Maar"ze" hebben"geen"peper"in"hun"kont,"ze"timen"niet"goed.”" 219"Erik"van"den"Berg,"“Briefcase"Bop"and"Gloss"Paint:"Spectacular"Jazz"Debuts;"Heated"Discussions"in"the" Era"of"a"New"Conservatism,”"Keynotes-24,"1987,"45H54."

81" " thousand,"with"a"largely"majority"from"the"conservatories"of"Hilversum"(360)"and" Rotterdam"(240)."As"a"result"of"different"teaching"staff,"these"departments"developed"a" distinct"character."While"The"Hague"became"known"for"its"bebop,"the"departments"of" Amsterdam"and"Arnhem"attracted"students"for"their"free"approach"to"jazz.220"The" Rotterdam"department"became"known"for"its"versatile"program,"as"many"students" focused"on"rock,"jazz,"Latin,"and"popular"music."Journalist"Erik"van"den"Berg"typified"the" distinctive"departments"in"1988"as:"“Rotterdam"and"Hilversum"draw"the"link"between" jazz,"pop,"fusion,"and"rock"music."The"Hague"is"a"pure"jazz"school."Amsterdam"keeps"an" ‘open"mind’"and"does"not"adhere"to"any"particular"kind"of"style.”221"The"improvised" music"department"of"Amsterdam"differed"significantly"from"those"of"Hilversum,"The" Hague,"Utrecht,"and"Rotterdam"which,"because"of"its"largely"overlapping"teaching"staff," showed"great"similarities"in"terms"of"its"main"objectives."The"lichte-muziek-department- was"founded"in"1979"by"bass"player"and"workshop"leader"Arnold"Dooyeweerd"and"bass" player"Niko"Langenhuijsen,"both"musicians"with"a"more"open"attitude"towards" improvised"music."Ironically,"Mengelberg,"Bennink"and"Breuker—who"had"opposed"to" these"formalized"ways"of"learning"how"to"play"music—became"members"of"staff." However,"partly"as"a"result"of"a"lack"of"coherence"in"the"curriculum—the"main"focus" being"on"individual"expression"at"the"cost"of"developing"technical"and"analytical"skills— the"educational"program"of"the"department"of"improvised"music"did"not"prove"very" successful."Moreover,"the"informal"character"of"the"program"and"the"lack"of"consistency" in"the"program"finally"lead"to"the"failure"of"the"Amsterdam"department." " In"response"to"the"conservatory"programs,"musicians"during"the"1980s"also"sought"for" alternatives,"mostly"in"the"form"of"workshopsHseries"or"independent"jazz"schools."The" 1981"Stichting"Workshops"in"Nederland"voor"Geïmproviseerde"Muziek"(Association" Workshops"for"Improvised"Music"In"the"Netherlands,"SWING)"proposed"a"further" organization"and"funding"of"workshops."The"“stimulating"open"structure”"of"workshops" allowed"participants"to"“further"develop"the"creativity,"ensemble"playing"and"other" important"skills"in"musical"improvisation.”222"The"association"argued"that"the" conservatory"focused"too"much"on"technical"skills,"teaching"methods,"consequently" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 220"De"Valk,"“Jazzopleidingen,”"90." 221"Van"den"Berg,"“Het"is"museumtaal"geworden,”"3." 222"“Plan"voor"de"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"1983,"10."

82" " creating"a"divide"between"education"and"musical"practice."It"stressed"the"individual" development"as"the"core"of"education:"“In"practice"the"most"important"things"in"jazz"are" to"develop"an"individual"style"and"to"play"together.”223"Following"the"open"and" democratic"structure"of"the"workshops,"integrating"SWING"into"existing"educational" programs"was"out"of"the"order:"“These"workshops"cannot"be"integrated"in"the"existing" educational"system"without"losing"its"specific"nature"and"meaning."Workshops"are"not" compatible"with"institutionalization.”224"" " From"the"1980s,"the"jazz"programs"as"based"on"the"model"as"proposed"by"Elsen"and" Leeuwenberg"in"The"Hague,"have"developed"into"varied"programs"that"cover"a"wide" range"of"styles"and"genres"in"improvised"music."Considering"the"ideological"divide" between"its"teaching"staffs,"the"1998"fusion"of"the"jazz"departments"of"Amsterdam"and" Hilversum"was"remarkable."While"the"new"department,"for"promotional"reasons,"was" allocated"in"Amsterdam,"the"new"teaching"staff"consisted"predominantly"of"teachers" from"the"Hilversum"department"and"therefore"of"the"musicians"that"firmly"rooted"in"the" industry"of"radio"and"television."As"a"result,"the"fused"department"continued"largely"in" the"tradition"and"the"aesthetics"of"modern"jazz,"although"the"aforementioned" Dooyeweerd"also"continued"to"give"his"free"improvisation"groups." " Wouter"Turkenburg"in"a"2007"interview"argued"that,"as"far"as"jazz"programs"at"the" conservatories"are"concerned,"the"conflict"between"Elsen"and"Breuker"has"completely" disappeared:"“Since"a"couple"of"years"students"enter"the"conservatory"of"The"Hague"who" are"well"aware"of"different"styles"and"approaches"of"jazz."To"them,"bebop"and"free"jazz" are"“different"chapters"in"the"book"of"jazz"fairy"tales.”225"Students,"according"to" Turkenburg,"can"hardly"imagine"why"different"approaches"to"jazz"used"to"cause"so"much" trouble,"although"the"richtingenstrijd"resonates"in"discussions"with"teachers"of"a" pensionable"age."Nevertheless,"the"discussion"nowadays"has"largely"shifted"from" justifying"the"jazz"department"to"justifying"its"curricular"content."Conservatories"focus" on"the"broadening"of"the"students’"chances"and"opportunities."Students"from"the" classical"department"are"taking"part"in"jazz"courses"and"vice"versa."Also,"the"classical" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 223"Ibid." 224"Ibid.,"30."“De"workshops"verdragen"het"niet"geïnstitutionaliseerd"te"worden.”" 225"Wouter"Turkenburg,"interview"by"author,"June"25,"2007,"The"Hague."

83" " department"no"longer"functions"as"the"sole"base"model"for"music"programs."During"the" first"IASJ"Jazz"Education"Conference"in"2003,"for"example,"the"relevance"and" opportunities"of"improvisational"techniques"in"classical"music"education"were"discussed." Internationalization"is"another"aspect"of"recent"developments"in"formal"jazz"education." The"large"numbers"of"foreign"students"that"take"part"in"Dutch"music"programs"create" new"influxes"and"gives"new"impulses"to"Dutch"music"practices."Additionally," international"collaborations"are"organized,"such"as"student"exchange"programs"and" international"meetings"and"gatherings"such"as"the"IAJE"and"IASJ."These"developments" correspond"with"the"revaluation,"professionalizing"and"internationalization"within" broader"jazz"practices."

Conclusion&&

This"chapter"dealt"with"the"institutionalization"and"professionalization"of"jazz"education" in"the"Netherlands"through"an"exploration"and"comparison"of"workshops"and"jazz" programs"as"taught"at"the"conservatories."I"have"shown"how,"within,"the"process"of" institutionalization"two"main"perspectives"on"jazz"education"can"be"distinguished."The" avantHgardist"perspective,"on"the"one"hand,"underlines"the"aspect"of"music"as"a"creative" form"of"art,"whiles"the"traditionalistic"perspective,"on"the"other"hand,"focuses"more"on" history"and"skills."These"perspectives"coincide"with"the"ideological"divide"as" represented"by"the"richtingenstrijdHnarrative."Herman"de"Wit"and"other"organizers"of" workshops"generally"saw"workshops,"with"its"open"character,"as"the"most"fit"place"for" learning"to"play"together"and"to"explore"new"ways"of"organizing"music,"a"view"that"was" underlined"by"the"SJN,"which"in"its"plans"repeatedly"noted"workshops"as"the"most" important"learning"environment"for"improvised"music."" " While"their"informal"and"flexible"organization"of"workshops"interrelated"with"the" notion"of"jazz"as"a"creative"process"of"renewal"and"change,"the"formal"jazz"programs" taught"at"conservatories"fitted"in"and"followed"from"the"notion"of"jazz"as"a"musical" tradition"and"art"as"a"craft"of"which"the"basic"can"be"taught."Moreover,"with"its"emphasis" on"technical"skills,"tradition"and"craftsmanship,"the"notion"of"jazz"promoted"by" conservatory"teachers"such"as"Frans"Elsen"closely"connected"with"the"nineteenthH century"musical"traditionalist"methods"taught"at"the"conservatories."Consequently,"jazz" as"a"craft"and"as"firmly"based"in"a"tradition"was"more"suitable"for"integrating"into"a"

84" " formal"educational"plan"than"the"notion"of"jazz"as"a"creative"art"and"as"a"free"individual" expression"as"promoted"by"improvising"musicians."The"rather"segmented"organization" of"jazz"education"in"the"Netherlands"thus"reflected"the"conflicts"and"debates"within"the" Dutch"jazz"community"and"reinforced"the"understanding"of"jazz"in"the"stereotypical" binary"between"“the"radical"improvising"musician”"and"the"“conservative,"traditionalist" jazz"musician.”"This"way,"I"propose"that"by"critically"engaging"with"education’s" underlying"ideologies,"this"chapter"contributes"to"the"further"understanding"of"the" institutionalization"of"knowledge"and"how"this"facilitates"and"directs"musical"change."In" the"next"chapter"I"delve"more"deeply"into"the"intertwining"of"jazz"and"cultural"politics."

8"5" 3.&State&arts&funding&and&the&cultural&politics&of&selfHorganization&

The"1965"Antibes"Jazz"Festival"in"the"French"JuanHLesHPins,"the"luxurious"meeting"place" of"the"rich"and"famous"at"the"Mediterranean"cote"d’Azur,"was"an"event"featuring"the" famous"jazz"artists"of"the"time,"including"the"John"Coltrane"quartet,"Marion"Williams"and" her"Gospel"Group,"Nina"Simone,"and"the"Woody"Herman"Herd."With"a"total"attendance" of"an"estimated"eighteen"thousand"people"and"an"eighty"thousand"dollar"budget,"the" festival’s"sixth"edition"“consolidated,”"according"to"the"American"Billboard"magazine," “the"event’s"position"as"the"most"important"jazz"manifestation"in"Europe.”226"While" taking"notice"of"these"big"American"names,"Dutch"journalists"highlighted"a"rather" different,"more"modest"performance"that"opened"the"Saturday"evening"program"at"the" city’s"Place"du"Gould;"the"“Dutch"allHstar"big"band”"of"Boy"Edgar."The"band"performed" arrangements"of"the"established"American"jazz"repertoire"such"as"Ellington’s"“"In"My" Solitude,”"and"“Summertime”"performed"together"with"Dutch"actress"and"guestHvocalist" Nelly"Frijda."The"Dutch"press"made"the"most"of"the"performance,"praising"the"hourHlong" concert"and"the"cheering"crowd"that"“kept"on"shouting"for"an"encore,"even"after"all"the" instruments"were"packed.”227"Likewise,"they"praised"the"band’s"version"of" “Summertime”"which,"in"Boy"Edgar’s"version"was"“stripped"from"Gershwin’s"romantic" presumptions.”228"Earlier,"journalists"had"dramatically"announced"the"last"radio" appearance"before"departure"as"the"band’s"afscheidsconcert-(farewell"concert).229"The" concert’s"broadcast"on"prime"time"television"in"the"Netherlands,"Friday"night"at"8.45" pm,"further"illustrated"the"significance"of"the"concert"as"a"major"achievement"in"the" development"of"Dutch"jazz.230"" " Besides"as"an"illustration"of"the"international"ambitions"of"Dutch"jazz,"the"media" highlighted"the"event"because"of"another"reason;"the"1965"tour"of"Boy’s"Big"Band"was" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 226"“Antibes"Jazz"Fest"Proves"Point,”"Billboard,-August"14,"1965,"24." 227"“Boy"Edgar"heeft"succes"in"JuanHLesHPins,”"De-Telegraaf,"June"26,"1965,"7;"“Boys"Big"Band"Blinkt"uit"op" jazzfestival,”"Het-Vrije-Volk,"June"26,"1965,"2;"“Boy"Edgars"‘big"band’"had"succes"op"het"festival,”" Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden,"August"6,"1965,"13."“Meer"dan"een"uur"speelde"Boy’s"‘Big"Band’"voor"een" enthousiast"public,"dat"zelfs"nadat"de"instrumenten"waren"ingepakt"nog"om"een"toegift"bleef"roepen.”" 228"“Boy’s"Big"Band"blinkt"uit"op"jazzfestival,”"Het-Vrije-Volk,-June"26,"1965,"2."“...dat"in"de"EdgarHopvatting" de"wat"valse"romantiek"van"Gershwin"heeft"afgeschud.”" 229"“‘Afscheidsconcert’"Boy’s"big"band,”"Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden,"July"19,"1965,"6." 230"“Boy’s"Big"Band"in"Antibes,”"Friese-Koerier,"June"23,"1965,"2."

86" " the"first"to"receive"a"direct"subsidy"of"the"Dutch"government."The"band"received"eight" thousand"guilders"from"the"ministry"of"Cultuur,"Recreatie"en"Maatschappelijk"Werk- (“Cultural"Affairs,"Recreation"and"Social"work,”"CRM)"to"travel"to"and"perform"at"the" prestigious"festival.231"In"addition,"the"VARA,"a"televisionH"and"radio"broadcasting" association"funded"by"the"Dutch"government,"budgeted"another"two"thousand"guilders" for"the"director"and"producer"Nico"Knapper"to"join"the"leading"French"director"Jean" Christopher"Averty,"who"recorded"the"concert"for"the"French"broadcasting"association" ORTF.232"Declaring"that"the"Dutch"government"now"“officially"acknowledged”"the"band’s" accomplishments,"the"press"used"the"concert"as"evidence"to"support"the"idea"that"the" authorities"had"finally"begun"to"accept"jazz"as"a"serious"form"of"art.233" " “It’s"a"great"time"for"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,”"Misha"Mengelberg"observed"in"a"1966" local"paper,"“Local"artists"produce"more"records;"the"ministry"of"Culture"and"other" institutions"grant"subsidies;"there"is"an"important"annual"(money)"award"of"the"Prins" Bernhard"Fonds;"and"slowly"everyone"starts"to"recognize"the"value"of"jazz,"including"the" educational"institutions.”234"In"1978,"Frans"van"Leeuwen,"who"wrote"extensively"on"the" socioHeconomic"status"of"Dutch"improvising"musicians,"called"the"first"1965"funding" crucial"in"what"he"considered"the"“emancipation”"of"Dutch"improvised"music"from" American"jazz.235"Comparing"the"concert"with"the"first"U.S."State"Department"sponsored" jazz"tour"with"Dizzy"Gillespie"in"1956"and"Richard"Nixon’s"presentation"of"the" Presidential"Medal"of"Freedom"to"Duke"Ellington"in"1969,"the"Dutch"jazz"critic"observed" how"the"event"landmarked"the"intertwining"of"jazz"and"politics"in"the"Netherlands."For" Van"Leeuwen"these"events"demonstrated"the"fruitful"contribution"of"the"government"to" the"further"recognition"of"jazz."Although"we"have"seen"in"the"first"chapter"how"jazz"in" the"Netherlands"in"the"1960s"developed"into"a"seemingly"marginal"musical"subculture," losing"its"status"as"a"mainstream"popular"music"genre"in"favor"of"pop"groups,"the"music" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 231"Previous"delegates"to"the"festival"included"the"Pim"Jacobs"trio"with"Rita"Reys"(1960),"the"Diamond"Five" (1961),"the"Louis"van"DijkHCarl"Schulze"quartet"(1962),"and"the"Jacques"van"Poll"trio"with"Leddy"Wessels" (1964)."Unlike"Boy"Edgard’s"big"band,"these"groups"did"not"receive"any"funding"from"the"government." 232"“Boy"Edgars"‘big"band’"had"succes"op"het"festival,”"Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden"August"6,"1965,"13." 233"“Boy’s"Big"Band"naar"JuanHlesHPins"mèt"subsidie,”"De-Tijd,"June"18,"1965,"3." 234"“Gasten"op"het"feest,”"De-Tijd,"July"8,"1966,"5."“Het"is"een"gunstige"tijd"voor"jazz"in"Nederland:"Er" worden"méér"platen"gemaakt"van"eigen"mensen,"het"ministerie"van"Cultuur"en"tal"van"instellingen" verlenen"subsidies,"er"is"een"jaarlijkse"grote"(geld)"prijs"van"het"Prins"Bernhard"Fonds"en"langzaam"maar" zeker"gaat"men"overal"de"waarde"van"de"jazz"inzien,"ook"bij"het"onderwijs.”" 235"Frans"van"Leeuwen,""De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),""Jazz/Press"49"(1978b):"12H14."

87" " (and"its"representatives)"played"a"surprisingly"significant"role"in"the"Netherlands’" cultural"debates"throughout"the"second"half"of"the"twentieth"century."" " In"this"chapter,"I"engage"with"the"intertwining"between"cultural"policyHmaking"and" improvised"music"practice"in"the"Netherlands,"and"study"how"improvised"musicians" used"collective"musicHmaking"to"mediate"their"esthetical"and"socioHpolitical"agendas."" What"exactly"was"the"involvement"of"national"and"local"authorities"in"the"development" of"jazz?"What"arguments"did"they"use"to"legitimize"the"increasing"public"spending"on" arts"other"than"the"opera"and"symphony"orchestras?"What"was"the"role"of"jazz" musicians"and"journalists"in"the"establishment"of"structural"funding"for"jazz"in"the" Netherlands?"Is"there"any"significance"in"policy"in"terms"of"international"(rather"than)" national"tours?"And"in"what"ways"did"changes"in"cultural"policy"influence"the" establishment"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands?"This"chapter"deals"with" the"position"of"jazz"in"the"debates"around"cultural"policymaking."It"studies"the"political" debates"from"a"variety"of"angles,"respectively;"the"changes"in"position"of"the"government" towards"the"arts"as"reflected"by"changes"in"policyHmaking;"the"role"of"improvising" musicians"in"these"debates;"and"the"effects"of"changes"in"cultural"policyHmaking"on"the" further"development"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."By"studying"the"interrelation"between" political"and"cultural"change,"this"chapter"exposes"the"cultural"politics"behind"jazz"and" improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands."

The&principle&of&Cultuurspreiding+ In"the"course"of"the"1960s,"the"Dutch"authorities"showed"an"increasing"interest"in"music" practices"beyond"those"belonging"to"the"symphony"orchestras."After"WWII,"the" government’s"attitude"towards"the"arts"and"culture"became"intimately"linked"with"social" welfare"design."As"the"Netherlands"developed"into"a"welfare"state,"the"authorities" increasingly"expressed"a"desire"for"a"more"participatory"and"democratic"organization"of" the"arts,"a"desire"that"was"motivated"by"the"nineteenth"century"moralist"view"on"the"arts" as"an"educational"tool"that"could"serve"to"emancipate"the"working"class."“It"can"no" longer"be,"that"the"area"of"the"arts"and"culture"solely"belong"to"the"privileged,”"MP" Willems"of"the"AntiHRevolutionairen"Partij-(AntiHRevolutionary"Party,"ARP)"pleaded"in" 1950"in"the"House"of"Representatives:"“All"ranks"of"society"should"be"able"to"have"their"

88" " share."The"government"should"determine"to"continuously"strengthen"the"connection" between"the"arts"and"the"people.”236"" " One"way"to"realize"this"more"participatory"and"democratic"cultural"policy"was"through" the"principle"of"cultuurspreiding,-a"geographical"distribution"of"art"and"cultural" institutions"from"the"cities"in"the"west"to"all"areas"of"the"Netherlands.237"There"was" broad,"crossHparty"agreement"on"the"idea"of"cultuurspreiding."Willems’"view"won"the" support"of"the"liberal,"centerHright"People’s"Party"for"Freedom"and"Democracy"(VVD)," which"declared"that,"in"the"words"of"MP"Zegering"Hadders,"the"“government"needs"to" introduce"their"citizens"to"arts"and"culture,"beginning"with"the"youth."It"should"develop" art"centers—decentralized—and"permit"local"authorities"to"financially"support"regional" orchestras"and"theatre"companies.”238"The"initiation"of"a"Raad"voor"de"Kunst"(National" Arts"Council)"on"6"July"1956—replacing"the"provisional"Arts"Council"installed"in"1947— officially"acknowledged"this"new"governmental"responsibility"for"the"arts,"which,"in"the" words"of"that"evening’s"Polygoon"newsreel"broadcast,"were"of"“great"importance"for"the" mental"and"physical"welfare"of"all"Dutch"citizens.”239"The"arts"fell"under"the" responsibility"of"the"ministry"of"Onderwijs,"Cultuur"en"Wetenschap-(Education,"Cultural" Affairs"and"Science,"OCW),"which"underlined"the"arts’"educational"value.240" " By"actively"stimulating"a"decentralized"distribution"of"the"arts,"the"government" contributed"to"the"development"of"an"extensive"cultural"infrastructure"that"included" festivals,"arts"committees,"conservatories,"music"schools"and"orchestras."The"new"policy" stimulated"the"increase"of"system"of"regional"and"provincial"orchestras"and"was"carried" out"on"national,"provincial,"and"local"levels,"and"through"private"funds,"such"as"the"Prins" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 236"“Kunst"en"cultuur"in"de"Tweede"Kamer:"Pleidooien"voor"gedecentraliseerde"kunstcentra," streekorkesten"en"streektoneelgezelschappen,”"Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden,"September"23,"1950,"9."" 237"For"an"overview"of"cultural"policy"in"the"Netherlands,"see"Roel"Pots,-Cultuur,-koningen-en-democraten:- Overheid-en-cultuur-in-Nederland"(Nijmegen:"SUN,"2000)." 238"“Kunst"en"cultuur"in"de"Tweede"Kamer:"Pleidooien"voor"gedecentraliseerde"kunstcentra," streekorkesten"en"streektoneelgezelschappen,”"Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden,"September"23,"1950,"9."“De" overheid"moet"de"bevolking"in"aanraking"brengen"met"kunst"en"cultuur"en"daarmede"bij"de"jeugd" beginnen."Er"moeten"kunstcentra"zijn,"gedecentraliseerd,"en"de"kleine"gemeenten"moeten"subsidie"mogen" geven"aan"streekorkesten"en"streektoneelgezelschappen.”" 239"“Minister"Cals"installeert"Raad"voor"de"Kunst,”"PolygoonHProfilti,"Nederlands"Instituut"voor"Beeld"en" Geluid,"accessed"November"28,"2014," http://www.openbeelden.nl/media/52693/Minister_Cals_installeert_Raad_voor_de_Kunst." 240"The"arts"department"remained"under"OCW"until"1965,"when"it"was"integrated"in"the"new"ministry"of" Cultuur,"Recreatie"en"Maatschappelijk"Werk"(Culture,"Recreation"and"Social"Work,"CRM)."

89" " Bernhard"Fonds.241."Except"for"Drenthe"and"Zeeland,"all"the"provinces"established"their" own"philharmonic"orchestras,"some"of"which"were"renamed"to"reflect"its"new"provincial" focus.242"Four"orchestras—the"Concertgebouworkest,"the"Residentie"Orkest,"the" Rotterdams"Philharmonisch"Orkest"and"the"Amsterdams"Philharmonisch"Orkest—were" expected"to"operate"on"a"national"and"international"level."Further,"the"system"included" five"radio"orchestras:"the"Radio"Philharmonisch"Orkest,"the"Omroep"Orkest,"the"Radio" Kamer"Orkest,"the"Promenade"Orkest"and"the"Metropole"Orkest,"later"on"added"by"the" Nationale"Balletorkest"(1965)"and"the"Gewestelijk"Orkest"(1968)."Altogether,"the" number"of"orchestras"grew"from"sixteen"in"1955"to"twentyHone"by"1976."That"year,"an" estimated"78.7"million"guilders"of"the"national"arts"budget,"went"to"symphony" orchestras,"creating"jobs"for"approximately"1,550"fullHtime"musicians."This"budget" consisted"of"funding"by"the"local"(38.4),"provincial"(11.7)"and"national"(28.6)" authorities.243" " Directly"linked"to"the"policy"of"cultuurspreiding"was"the"initiation"of"associations"such"as" Jeugd"en"Muziek"Nederland-(Youth"and"Music"the"Netherlands,"JM).244"The"JM"was" founded"as"a"member"organization"of"the"Jeunesses"Musicales"International,"an" association-that"was"founded"in"Brussels"on"17"July"1945"with"the"mission"of" encouraging"“young"people"to"develop"through"music"across"all"boundaries.”"The" government’s"policy"of"cultuurspreiding"stimulated"the"JM"to"develop"into"a"national" network"of"local"and"provincial"departments."While"most"departments"set"a"more" traditional"course,"focusing"on"classical"music,"the"departments"of"Amsterdam"and"the" province"of"Zeeland"(JMZ)"proved"particularly"vital"in"the"support"and"promotion"of"jazz" and"experimental"music."The"impact"of"public"funding"on"the"performance"of" improvised"music"will"be"discussed"more"fully"in"Chapter"Six." " The"interlinking"of"the"government"and"the"arts"was"further"stimulated"by"an"economic" growth"of"respectively"an"average"of"4.2"percent"in"the"1950s"and"5.5"percent"in"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 241"Tweede"Kamer"der"StatenHGeneraal,"“Nota"Orkestenbestel,”"1976."Ministerie"van"Onderwijs,"Cultuur" en"Wetenschappen,"Cultuurbeleid-in-Nederland"(Den"Haag:"Sdu,"2002)." 242"For"an"overview"of"these"orchestras,"see"Samama"and"Van"Lingen,-Nederlandse-muziek-in-de-20Hste- eeuw,"284." 243"Tweede"Kamer"der"StatenHGeneraal,"“Nota"Orkestenbestel,”"1976,"8"and"54." 244"The"JM"is"currently"active"under"the"name"of"Jeugd-en-Muziek-Holland."

90" " 1960s,"allowing"the"government"to"spend"more"money"on"sports,"culture"and"arts.245" Consequently,"during"the"1960s"and"1970s,"the"federal"spending"increased"from"0.04"to" 0.06"percent"of"the"GNP,"peaking"in"1975"with"a"140.8"million"guilders"(see"table"1)."As" Rubinoff"observes"in"her"study"of"the"Early"Music"movement"in"the"Netherlands:" " In"the"1970s,"in"the"wake"of"the"artistic"and"political"turmoil"of"the"1960s," the"Dutch"welfare"state"expanded"exponentially,"and"so"too"did"spending" on"the"arts"and"arts"education."This"was"especially"the"case"under"the" leadership"of"Prime"Minister"Joop"den"Uyl,"who,"as"head"of"the"Labour" Party,"held"office"from"1973"to"1977:"his"cabinet"was"the"most"socially" progressive"in"Dutch"political"history."According"to"the"Ministry"of" Education,"Culture,"and"Science,"overall"federal"spending"on"the"arts" increased"astronomically"during"this"period,"from"28"million"guilders"in" 1965"to"61.4"million"guilders"in"1970,"and"to"a"peak"of"140.8"million" guilders"by"1975."(Rubinoff,""Cracking"the"Dutch"Early"Music"Movement,”" 9)" " Local"budgets"for"the"development"of"cultural"infrastructures"and"facilities"grew"rapidly" as"well."From"1947"onwards,"the"local"authorities’"spending"on"the"arts"were"averagely" twice"as"large"as"the"national"arts"budget,"money"that"went"to"performance"venues," museums,"libraries,"music"schools,"and"creative"centers.246" " The"principle"of"cultuurspreiding"and"the"willingness"of"governments"of"different" political"positions"to"facilitate"cultural"renewal"legitimized"a"shift"in"the"arts"budget"that" allowed"for"an"increased"spending"on"experimental"forms"of"art,"although"it"remained"a" pittance"in"comparison"to"the"money"that"went"to"the"classical"orchestras."As"noted" earlier,"the"subsidies"were"initially"given"on"an"incidental"basis,"by"means"of"travel" grants"and"money"to"support"concert"series."In"a"1967"bill,"the"government"proposed"a" further"stimulation"of"eigentijdse-muziek"(contemporary"music)"and"scheppende-kunst- (creative"arts)"by"raising"the"financial"support"of"contemporary"music"ensembles"and" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 245"“Parlement"en"politiek:"Cijfers"cabinetHDen"Uyls"(1973H1977),”"accessed"November"28,"2014," http://www.parlement.com/id/vhteley98hzf/cijfers_kabinet_den_uyl_1973_1977" 246"Pots,"Cultuur,"koningen-en-democraten,"423."

91" " their"related"institutions,"Donemus,"Gaudeamus,"Kunst"en"Bedrijf"(Art"and"Company)" and"the"Nederlandse"Kunststichting"(Dutch"Art"Foundation)."That"same"year,"the"word" “jazz”"appeared"for"the"first"time"in"the"state"budget:"“In"the"area"of"jazz,"the"public" performance"of"the"‘workshop’"conducted"by"Boy"Edgar"and"Theo"Loevendie"during"the" Holland"Festival"has"attracted"particular"attention,"as"did"the"performance"of"a"group"of" jazz"musicians"centered"around"Misha"Mengelberg.”247" " The"government"began"to"support"jazz"and"improvised"music,"initially"by"means"of" individual"travel"grants,"money"to"support"concert"series"and"other"incidental"grants." Likewise,"the"national"authorities"in"July"1966"supported"the"Misha"Mengelberg/"Piet" Noordijk"quartet"to"participate"at"the"renowned"Newport"Jazz"Festival"in"the"United" States."The"total"costs"of"this"fourHday"trip"amounted"to"twelve"thousand"guilders."The" Ministry"of"CRM"supported"the"tour"with"four"thousand"guilders,"in"addition"to"grants" from"nonHprofit"organizations"the"Prins"Bernhard"Fonds,"the"BUMA"Cultuur"Fonds"and" the"FentenerHVan"Vlissingen"Fonds."These"grants"allowed"the"quartet"to"open"the" Sunday"evening"of"the"festival"with"a"halfHhour"set.248"Between"1965"and"1970"Willem" Breuker,"the"Theo"Loevendie"Consort,"the"Nederlands"Jazz"Orkest"and"the"Instant" Composers"Pool"received"respectively"six,"nine,"sixteen"and"twelve"thousand"guilders"to" support"a"concert"series"in"the"Netherlands.249"Altogether,"the"government"annually" invested"a"total"sum"of"about"sixtyHtwo"thousand"guilders"in"jazz"and"improvised"music" between"1965H1970.250" " In"addition"to"the"general"arts"budget,"CRM"minister"Marga"Klompé,"as"of"1970," reserved"money"to"stimulate"cultural"experiments."Klompé,"member"of"the"Catholic" party"KVP"and"in"1956"the"first"female"Minister"of"the"Netherlands,"allocated"the" subsidies"according"to"the"advice"of"the"National"Arts"Council."Again,"the"policy"of"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 247"Tweede"Kamer"der"StatenHGeneraal,"“Rijksbegroting"voor"het"dienstjaar"1968:"Hoofdstuk"XVI"H"Cultuur," Recreatie"en"Maatschappelijk"Werk,”"1967,"4."“Op"het"gebied"van"de"jazz"heeft"een"‘workshop’"onder" leiding"van"Boy"Edgar"en"Theo"Loevendie,"welke"uitmondde"in"een"openbaar"optreden"tijdens"het"Holland" Festival,"sterk"de"aandacht"getrokken,"evenals"b.v."het"optreden"van"een"groep"jazzHmusici"rond"Misha" Mengelberg.”"" 248"“Misja"Mengelberg"naar"jazzfestival"van"Newport,”"De-Tijd,"June"24,"1966,"4;"“Kwartet"Misja" Mengelberg"naar"Newport,”"Het-Vrije-Volk"June"24,"1966,"25." 249"“Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970,"appendix"II." 250"For"more"details"on"public"spending"on"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"see"Jazzwereld,"Juli"1966,"22.-

92" " cultuurspreiding"played"a"role"in"the"distribution"of"this"money,"as"part"of"the"arts" funding"was"awarded"under"the"condition"that"is"was"spent"in"areas"other"than"the" urbanized"Randstad."While"most"musicians"welcomed"the"idea"of"equally"distributing" the"arts"budget"throughout"the"country,"it"was"also"met"with"resistance."Breuker,"for" example,"recalled"unhappily"how"“[the"common"line"of"thought"was]"it"is"more" important"to"play"for"two"men"and"a"dog"in"a"crumb"on"the"map,"than"to"give"a"concert" in"the"city"for"people"who"were"actually"interested.251"In"the"1970s,"at"least"60"percent" of"the"jazz"funding"by"local"authorities"came"from"the"three"biggest"cities"in"the" Netherlands;"Amsterdam,"Rotterdam"and"The"Hague.252"Together"this"added"up"to"1.5" million"guilders"of"federal"spending"on"jazz"and"improvised"music,"an"amount"that" “sharply"contrasted”"with"the"100"million"guilders"subsidy"that"went"to"theatre.253"Thus," despite"the"authorities’"interest,"these"and"above"figures"underline"how"jazz"remained" both"an"underpaid"and"predominantly"urban"affair."

Countercultural&activism& Recalling"how"Boy"Edgar"regularly"visited"the"CRM"department"to"convince"the"ministry" to"financially"support"his"band,"Van"Leeuwen"asserted"in"1978"that," " even"if"the"officials"fobbed"him"off"with"some"cash"just"to"get"rid"of"him,"it" created"a"precedent,"as"they"acknowledged"improvised"music"as"an"art" form"worth"funding."From"then"on,"musicians"applying"for"funding"could" refer"to"this"acknowledgement."It’s"a"fact"that"many"jazz"musicians"who" followed"Boy"Edgar’s"example"often"left"the"CRM"with"money"in"their" pockets."(Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"[deel"3],”"21)254"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 251"Frans"van"Leeuwen,""De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"3),""Jazz/Press"51"(1978c):"21H24."“Dat"je"in"Lutjebroek" voor"drie"boeren"speelde,"was"tien"keer"belangrijker,"dan"dat"je"in"Utrecht"een"goed"konsert"gaf"voor"echte" belangstellenden."Dit"was"de"tendens"in"die"jaren.”" 252"Van"Leeuwen,""De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),""32."The"local"authorities"added"another"800"thousand" guilders,"of"which"500"thousand"guilders"from"the"“big"three”"(Amsterdam,"Rotterdam"and"The"Hague)."Of" The"Hague’s"budget"of"186"thousand"guilders,"90"percent"went"to"the"threeHday"international"North"Sea" Jazz"Festival."Van"Leeuwen,""De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),""32." 253"Ibid." 254"“Zelfs"indien"de"ambtenaren"op"dat"ministerie"toen"hebben"gedacht:"“Geef"die"man"die"paar"centen," dan"zijn"we"van"het"gezeur"af,”"dan"nog"schiepen"zijn"een"precedent,"in"die"zin"dat"zij"de"geïmproviseerde" muziek"erkenden"als"een"subsidiabele,"dus"waardevolle"kunstuiting,"op"welke"erkenning"andere" muzikanten"zich"konden"beroepen"bij"hun"aanvragen"om"subsidie…Feit"is"dat"in"het"voetspoor"van"Boy" "

93" " " Van"Leeuwen"‘s"anecdote"not"only"illustrates"how"government"institutions"and"jazz" increasingly"interconnected,"it"also"reveals"how"the"musicians"themselves"initiated"the" involvement"of"the"government"in"the"further"promotion"of"their"music."In"1967,"the" Instant"Composers"Pool"(ICP)"figured"among"the"first"attempts"by"musicians"to"organize" themselves"musically"as"well"as"politically."The"musicians"of"the"ICP"regularly"discussed" plans"to"gain"governmental"funding,"as"well"as"to"establish"a"union"for"improvising" musicians"and"a"center"for"improvised"music.255"Reflecting"the"musicians’"ideals"of"selfH control"and"democratization,"the"ICP"organized"their"own"tours,"succeeded"in"getting" individual"group"funding"from"national"and"local"authorities"and"produced"and"sold" their"own"records"(twelve"LP’s"in"six"years)."In"addition,"improvising"musicians"took" control"over"their"work"by"creating"their"own"independently"produced"labels,"such"as" ICP"and"Breuker’s"BVHaast."However,"these"attempts"were"far"from"isolated"incidents," but"fitted"in"with"the"1960s"countercultural"movement"and"the"attempts"to"break"away" from"the"ruling"order.256"Artists"typically"no"longer"tried"to"create"changes"from"within" the"system"and"through"official"channels,"but"increasingly"pursued"them"through"public" protests"and"debates."" " Among"the"most"prominent"and"historically"cited"events"in"music"was"the"soHcalled" Notenkrakersactie"(Notecrackers’"Action)"of"17"November"1969,"when"conservatory" students,"composers,"musicians,"and"other"artists"disrupted"a"concert"of"the" Concertgebouw"Orchestra.257"The"group"railed"against"what"they"felt"was"the" conservative"programming"and"insisted"on"a"“democratization”"of"the"Concertgebouw’s" artistic"management."The"protests"were"instigated"by"a"quintet"of"young"men"known"as" De-Vijf-(The"Five),"all"of"them"Kees"van"Baaren’s"composition"students"at"the"Royal"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" Edgar"vele"jazzmuzikanten"de"weg"naar"CRM"wisten"te"vinden"en"daar"veelal"niet"met"lege"handen" vandaan"kwamen.”" 255"Jan"Rensen,"Jazz/Press"43"(1977):"13." 256"I"give"a"more"detailed"account"of"the"musical"and"political"collaboration"between"artists"from"different" musical"fields"in""Common"Ground:"1970s"Improvised"Music"as"Part"of"a"CrossHGenre"Dutch"Ensemble" Culture,""in""Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,""ed."Nicholas"Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research- Journal"5.1/5.2"(2011):"123H141." 257"For"a"detailed"account"of"the"Notenkrakersactie,"see"Peter"Peters,"De"Notenkrakers"en"de"politiek:" Geëmancipeerde"arbeiders"en"dissonanten,""in"Mens-en-Melodie"49"11/12"(1994):"610H617;"Samama"and" Van"Lingen,-Nederlandse-muziek-in-de-20Hste-eeuw;"Rubinoff,""Cracking"the"Dutch"Early"Music"Movement,”" 3H22."

94" " Conservatory"in"The"Hague;"Louis"Andriessen,"Reinbert"de"Leeuw,"Misha"Mengelberg," Peter"Schat,"and"Jan"van"Vlijmen."For"a"socioHcultural"understanding"of"the"event,"it"is" perhaps"the"term"Notenkraker-in"itself"that"is"most"revealing."Aside"from"the"pun"on"the" title"of"Tchaikofsky’s"famous"ballet"(in"Dutch,"noten"means"both"nuts"and"musical"notes)," kraken-(to"crack,"or"to"squat)"in"Dutch"refers"to"the"contemporary"squatters’"movement" active"in"the"capital"and"their"semiHlegal"ambition"to"reclaim"empty"buildings"for" housing."In"this"way,"through"the"sphere"of"art,"the"Notenkrakers"meant"to"reclaim"what" they"saw"as"a"hollowedHout"and"decrepit"music-for"public"use,"an"action"that"fitted"in" with"the"rest"of"countercultural"movements"and"“happenings”"in"Amsterdam"at"that" time.258" " The"call"for"renewal"and"democratization"of"Dutch"concert"life"was"fueled"by"the"fact" that,"despite"the"incidental"funding,"the"government"support"until"the"1970s"remained" predominantly"reserved"for"symphony"orchestras"and"opera"companies."In"1966,"for" example,"over"fourHfifths"(81"percent)"of"the"total"national"arts"budget"for"music"went"to" symphony"orchestras,"while"ten"years"later,"the"allocation"was"still"more"than"half"of"the" budget.259"Focusing"primarily"on"nineteenth"century"repertoire"and"large"orchestras," this"policy"reflected"a"rather"limited"and"traditionalist"view"of"what"kind"of"arts"would" serve"the"masses."Breuker,"among"others,"fiercely"criticized"this"traditionalist"view"held" by"the"government"and"opposed"the"idea"of"high"art"as"an"educational"tool"for"the" masses."Displaying"his"lowHclass,"socialist"background,"Breuker"despised"the"notion"of"a" government"enforcing"the"“bourgeois”"with"ideas"of"“Art"with"a"capital"A,”"adding"that" “the"idea"that"the"art"of"the"nineteenth"century,"the"Concertgebouw"Orkest,"and"all"that" shit,"should"be"made"accessible"for"every"Tom,"Dick"and"Harry"is"a"mistake,"because" Tom,"Dick"and"Harry"should"in"the"first"place"be"made"aware"of"their"own"situation."And" this"calls"for"their"own"music,"not"Beethoven.”260"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 258"For"an"account"of"socioHcultural"changes"in"the"1960s,"see"James"Kennedy"and"Simone"KennedyH Doornbos,"Nieuw-Babylon-in-aanbouw:-Nederland-in-de-jaren-zestig-[Building"New"Babylon:"Cultural" Change"in"the"Netherlands"during"the"1960s]"(Amsterdam"etc.:"Boom,"1995)." 259"Sannie"Hoogervorst,"“Kwaliteit"of"spreiding:"Orkesten"en"overheid"1900H1990,”"In"Waar-bemoei-je-je- mee.-75-jaar-belangenstrijd-van-de-vereniging-Het-Concertgebouworkest,"ed."Johan"Giskes"et"al." (Zutphen:Walburg"Pers,"1991):"172H194." 260"Ischa"Meijer,"“‘Ik"maak"muziek"voor"iedereen,"maar"waarom"vindt"iedereen"het"zo"afgrijselijk?’,”" Haagse-Post"(October"13,"1973):"72."“De"Kunst"voor"de"bourgeois."De"kunst"uit"de"vorige"eeuw,"het" Concertgebouw"Orkest,"al"die"ellende"meer,"die"moeten"we"toegankelijk"maken"voor"Jan"Met"De"Pet."En" "

95" " " The"persuasive"collaborative"actions"from"within"artistic"fields"only"partly"resulted"in" the"desired"change"and"the"dissatisfaction"remained"persistent"throughout"the"1970s." Breuker,"in"a"1973"interview,"showed"his"frustrations"with"the"establishment,"accusing" the"music"promoters"of"ignoring"Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music:" " One"can’t"help"noticing"that"other"types"of"music,"like"these"little"subH divisions"of"symphony"orchestras"and"intuitions"such"as"Gaudeamus,"have" smaller"audiences,"but"nevertheless"receive"governmental"support."With" the"government"you"always"end"up"talking"to"people"who"either"hate"the" music"or"don’t"know"it."During"our"last"meeting"at"the"CRM"office,"the" officials"hadn’t"even"read"our"report."(Meijer,"“‘Ik"maak"muziek"voor" iedereen,"maar"waarom"vindt"iedereen"het"zo"afgrijselijk?’:”"68H77)261" " In"1975,"the"newly"established"jazz"magazine"Jazz/Press"propagated"a"more"equal" treatment"of"the"arts"by"the"government"and"explicitly"expressed"its"desire"to"“stop"the" discrimination”"against"jazz"and"improvised"music."Comparing"jazz"with"opera,"the" magazine-pointed"out"how,"while"equivalent"in"audience"size"(around"1.5"percent"of"the" total"of"concertHgoers)"a"significantly"larger"part"of"the"music"budget"went"to"opera." According"to"their"figures,"the"opera"company"Forum,"which"was"primarily"active"in"the" desolate"northeastern"part"of"the"Netherlands,"alone"received"eight"million"guilders"of" national,"provincial"and"local"funding,"while"the"total"governmental"spending"on"jazz" was"less"than"half"a"million."“Why"subsidize"the"opera"orchestras"and"the"philharmonic" orchestras"and"ignore"the"improvising"combos"and"orchestras?”"Jazz/Press"critic"Han" Schulte"asked"himself,"expressing"his"discontent"with"current"art"policyHmaking.”262"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" dat"vind"ik"een"drogreden,"want"Jan"met"de"pet"moet"in"de"eerste"plaats"op"zijn"eigen"situatie"gedrukt" worden"en"daar"hoort"ook"zijn"eigen"muziek"bij,"daar"hoort"geen"Beethoven"bij.”" 261"“En"dan"merk"je"dat"andere"soorten"muziek,"die"eigenlijk"in"een"kleinere"publieksbelangstelling"staan" dan"de"onze,"Gaudeamus"en"dat"soort"instituten,"clubjes"die"zich"afscheiden"van"symfonieHorkesten"en" zo—dat"die"wél"in"aanmerking"komen"voor"steun"van"de"overheid."Je"komt"langzamerhand"in"een" overlegsituatie"met"de"overheid"en"dan"kom"je"terecht"bij"mensen"die"muziek"haten"of"niet"kennen."Het" laatste"gesprek"op"CRM"met"beleidsambtenaren—toen"bleek"dat"ze"ons"jazzHrapport"nog"nooit"gelezen" hadden.”" 262"Han"Schulte,"“Jazz/Press"vraagt"subsidie"bij"CRM,”"Jazz/Press-1"(September"17,"1975):"2."“Waarom" worden"wel"de"operaHorkesten"en"de"philharmonische"orkesten"gesubsidieerd"en"niet"de"improviserende" combo’s"en"orkesten?”"

96" " " While"the"Notenkraktersactie"and"similar"protests"are"often"explained"in"terms"of" revolutionary"acts,"the"idea"of"a"radical"break"with"the"past"should"be"understood"in" terms"of"1960s"rhetoric"than"as"a"an"actual"discontinuation."This"is"underlined"by"the" fact"that"earlier"contemporary"composers"had"attempted"to"restructure"the"Dutch" musical"landscape,"proposing"similar"ideas."In"1964,"composer"Ton"de"Leeuw"was" among"the"first"to"raise"awareness"of"what"he"felt"was"the"“urgent"situation”"within" Dutch"concert"life."In"his"open"letter"to"the"daily"newspaper"Algemeen-Handelsblad,"he" criticized"the"soHcalled"orkestenbestel,"or"the"infrastructure"of"established"musical" institutions,"for"focusing"on"a"historically"and"geographically"too"narrow"musical"field" and"which"he"therefore"considered"it"unfit"for"the"more"progressive,"experimental"music" of"the"avantHgarde.263"Rather,"anticipating"the"idea"of"a"flexible"ensemble,"De"Leeuw" proposed"a"soHcalled"“mobile"ensemble”"as"a"more"democratic"alternative"to"the" traditional"orchestras."So,"while"De"Leeuw"presents"similar"solutions"to"the"lack"of"space" for"experimental"music,"his"ideas"are"usually"not"understood"in"terms"of"radicalism"or" revolution."Indeed,"the"ideal"of"countercultural"movements"working"“outside”"the"status" quo"can"be"seen"as"constructed"and"idealized"and,"as"I"will"demonstrate"in"the"following" paragraphs,"as"part"of"a"deliberate"strategy"to"gain"further"recognition"in"the"cultural" field."

Strategies& During"the"1970s,"countercultural"activism"began"to"affect"the"Dutch"musical"landscape," as"musicians"further"united"and"organized"themselves."The"establishment"of"the" association"Beweging"voor"de"Vernieuwing"van"de"Muziekpraktijk-(Movement"for"the" Renewal"of"Musical"Practice,"or"BEVEM),"in"May"1970"was"important,"in"that"its" activities"were"“to"lay"the"foundationHstone"for"the"Dutch"ensemble"culture.”264"The"goal" of"the"BEVEM"was"the"“radical"and"democratic"renewal"of"musical"life”"and"its"members" sought"to"“unite"composers"and"performers"in"the"struggle"to"realize"the"principles"of" workers’"control"and"selfHdetermination"in"the"musical"field.”265"The"support"among" composers"and"musicians"was"significant."Seventy"composers,"performers,"and"groups," """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 263"Ton"de"Leeuw,"“De"toestand"is"urgent,”"Algemeen-Handelsblad,"October"24,"1964." 264"Adlington,"“Organizing"Labor,”"540." 265"Ibid."

97" " signed"a"call"to"a"meeting"on"14"March,"including"the"jazz"players"and"improvising" musicians"Boy"Edgar,"Gilius"van"Bergeijk,"Misha"Mengelberg"and"Theo"Loevendie." In"the"year"of"its"initiation,"the"BEVEM"set"up"a"special"working"group"to"investigate"the" socialHeconomic"situation"of"improvising"musicians."This"soHcalled"Workgroup" Geïmproviseerde"Muziek"(consisting"of"vocalist"Ann"Burton,"pianist"Loek"Dikker,"and" the"aforementioned"Breuker,"Loevendie,"Van"Manen,"and"Mengelberg)"in"1970" published"a"report"based"on"a"survey"among"musicians,"which"signaled"the"poor" economic"status"of"jazz"musicians"in"the"Netherlands.266"While"13"percent"earned"more" than"half"of"their"income"in"improvised"music,"only"6"percent"of"the"musicians"heard" made"a"living"just"by"playing."Also,"the"report"mentioned"the"poor"status"of"jazz"at"the" conservatories"and,"except"for"incidental"courses"and"workshops,"a"lack"of"educational" institutions"to"stimulate"a"further"development"of"the"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the" Netherlands."To"improve"the"circumstances"for"the"improvising"musicians,"the"working" group"suggested"to"support"individual"musicians"with"grants,"a"funding"system"that"was" common"in"the"field"of"authors."Further,"it"proposed"to"adjust"the"existing"training" programs"at"conservatories"by"adding"both"extracurricular"courses"for"classical"music" students"as"well"as"fullHfledged"programs"in"improvised"music"(see"Chapter"Two)." " Defining"improvised"music"as"“the"music"made"by"instrumentalists,"vocalists"and" composers"who"connect"to"tradition"of"jazz,"consequentially"excluding"the" improvisational"practices"of"new"music"and"pop"music,”"the"BEVEM"working"group"was" among"the"first"to"identify"improvising"musicians"as"a"separate"social"group"that"faced" its"own"set"of"specific"problems.267"While"the"1967"report"by"the"SJN"had"noted"how"the" media"failed"to"acknowledge"jazz"as"a"distinct"musical"practice,"the"BEVEM"working" group"explicitly"noted"that"jazz,"in"order"to"achieve"the"necessary"attention"and" recognition"from"the"authorities,"needed"to"be"separated"from"its"connotation"with"light" entertainment"and"repositioned"as"a"higher"art"form"that"was"valued"equally"to"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 266"“Herdruk"Jazzplan"1970,”"SJN/BIM,"1973,"4H5." 267"“Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970."“Als"in"dit"rapport"wordt"gesproken" over"geïmproviseerde"(g.m.)"wordt"hiermee"bedoeld"de"muziek"die"gemaakt"wordt"door"de"zich"al"of"niet" jazzHmusicus"noemende"instrumentalisten,"vocalisten"en"componisten"die"bij"de"jazzHtraditie"aansluiten." Met"buitensluiting"dus"van"die"nieuwe"muziek"en"popmuziek"waarin"improvisatie"een"rol"speelt.”"

98" " European"concert"music.268"To"illustrate"the"impact"of"the"notion"of"jazz"as"a"music"of" light"entertainment"and"reproduction,"the"report"pointed"out"the"common"practice"in" radio"and"television"associations"to"pay"improvising"musicians"only"for"playing"the" score"while"ignoring"the"musician’s"creative"input,"resulting"in"an"unfair"payment" system.269"To"enable"the"institutions"to"evaluate"improvised"music"on"its"own"merits," stressing"improvised"music’s"“essentially"creative"nature,”"the"working"group"proposed" a"further"recognition"of"improvised"music"as"a"separate"and"“autonomous”"music" category."Following"the"BEVEM’s"report,"the"repositioning"and"revaluation"of"jazz"from" more"entertainment"to"a"higher"form"of"art"impacted"on"the"jazz"plans"written"during" the"1970s."The"SJN"in"1970,"for"example,"emphasized"the"status"of"jazz"as"an"autonome- kunstvorm-(autonomous"art"form)"and"considered"its"perceived"associations"with"light" entertainment"as"an"obstruction"to"further"development:"270" " " The"[poor]"status"of"jazz"within"the"musical"establishment"hinders"a" further"exploration"of"the"possibilities"of"jazz"music."In"our"opinion,"jazz" and"“pop”"are"too"often"tarred"with"the"same"brush"by"the"press,"on"radio" and"television"and"within"government"policies."Yet"jazz—especially"its" latest"developments—takes"up"a"specific,"nonHcommercial"position"within" our"culture."(Herdruk"Jazzplan"1970,”"SJN/BIM,"1973,"4H5)271" " Arjen"Gorter,"Breuker’s"doubleHbass"player"from"1975"onwards,"observed"in"a"1978" interview"that," "

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 268"In"1979,"the"SJN"changed"its"name"into"SJIN,"an"abbreviation"of"Stichting-Jazz-en-Geïmproviseerde- Muziek-in-Nederland-(Foundation"for"Jazz"and"Improvised"Music"in"the"Netherlands)."The"SJIN" discontinued"in"1997"as"a"result"of"the"installment"of"a"new"plan"for"the"arts,"called"the"Kunstenplan-(the" Arts"Plan)." 269"“"Rapport"werkgroep"geïmproviseerde"muziek,”"BEVEM,"1970." 270"Jazz"policy"plans"in"the"1970s"and"1980s"regularly"appeared"to"be"literally"copied"from"existing"jazz" histories"without"further"reference."For"example,"both"Jazz-Plan-Zwolle-(1973)"and"Jazz-in-ZuidHHolland" (1987)"used"Knulst’s"Jazz-Anno-(1972)"as"the"basis"for"their"historical"overviews"of"jazz"in"the" Netherlands."“Jazz"plan"Zwolle,”"(Zwolle:"Stichting"Jazz"Zwolle,"October"1973)." 271"“De"status,"die"jazzHmuziek"binnen"het"bestel"heeft,"(blijkt)"remmend"te"werken"op"een"volwaardige" ontplooiing"van"zijn"mogelijkheden."Onzes"inziens"ten"onrechte"worden"jazz"en"‘pop’"in"pers,"radio,"TV"en" overheidsbeleid"al"te"vaak"over"één"boeg"gegooid."Jazz—en"zeker"de"nieuwste"uitingen"daarvan—neemt" echter"binnen"de"kultuur"een"duidelijke"nietHcommerciële"positie"in.”"

99" " [t]o"solve"these"political"issues,"we"have"to"remind"the"musicians"of"their" social"values"and"besides"we"need"to"establish"a"recognition"and" validation"of"our"music"that"is"equal"to"“contemporary”"classical"music," allowing"jazz"to"move"beyond"its"status"of"danceHand"entertainment"music." (François"Buzelin"and"Jean"Buzelin,"Willem-Breuker:-Maker-van- mensenmuziek,"trans."Marco"Nakken"(Zutphen:"Walberg"Pers,"1994)," 65)272" " The"SJN’s"referral"to"“especially"the"latest"developments”"underlines"the"improvising" musicians’"efforts"to"distance"themselves"both"from"what"they"generally"considered"the" moldy"figs"of"early"jazz"and"the"commercialism"of"modern"jazz."By"calling"the"work"of" representatives"of"more"traditionalist"jazz"styles"“commercial,”"they"implicitly" denounced"the"others"as"“sellHouts”"who"compromised"their"artistic"integrity"by"letting" the"market"place"call"the"tune."This"way,"the"BEVEM"report"and"other"plans"illustrated" how"jazz"and"improvising"musicians"increasingly"felt"hindered"by"what"they"considered" an"image"problem"of"jazz."Moreover,"it"reflected"a"growing"awareness"among"musicians" of"the"implicit"values"and"powers"of"representation,"and"the"need"to"create"a"distinct" musical"group"that"could"be"separated,"musically"and"socially,"from"other"musical" practices." " SelfHorganization- The"BEVEM"report"not"only"expressed"a"growing"desire"among"improvising"musicians" for"their"practice"to"be"judged"on"its"own,"but"also"legitimated"a"further"organization"of" improvised"music"into"a"distinctive"pressure"group."At"the"same"time,"the"BEVEM" working"group"also"felt"hesitant"about"the"institutionalization"of"improvised"music," fearing"a"loss"of"autonomy"and"sharing"skepticism"about"forming"a"group"of"what" seemed"like"irreconcilable"personalities."Van"Manen,"for"example,"doubted"whether" improvising"musicians"would"succeed"in"creating"what"he"called"a"“powerful"lobby" group,”"because"“there"is"just"too"much"individualism"and"competition"and"a"lack"of"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 272"“Om"de"politieke"problemen"die"zich"voordoen"op"te"kunnen"lossen"moeten"we"de"musici"laten"zien" waar"hun"gemeenschappelijke"belang"ligt"en"daarnaast"moeten"we"streven"naar"de"erkenning"van"onze" muziek"op"hetzelfde"niveau"als"de"‘moderne’"klassieke"muziek,"zodat"de"jazz"niet"de"status"houdt"van" dansH"en"amusementsmuziek.”"

100" " communication"between"the"different"styles.273"These"doubts,"however,"did"not"keep"the" improvising"musicians"from"continuing"the"processes"of"setting"up"an"infrastructure"for" jazz"and"improvised"music." " While"during"the"1960s,"improvising"musicians"collaborated"with"their"contemporaries" in"order"to"make"themselves"heard,"they"increasingly"felt"the"need"to"distinguish" themselves"as"a"separate"music"category."In"connection,"the"musicians"realized"the"need" for"their"own"organizational"platforms,"venues,"and"audiences,"resulting"in"the" Foundation"for"Jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"the"first"attempt"to"structurally"improve"the" position"of"(exclusively)"jazz"musicians"in"the"Netherlands."The"foundation"originated" from"the"1963"establishment"of"a"Dutch"jazz"award,"the"Wessel"Ilcken"Prijs,"named"after" one"of"the"Netherlands"famed"1950s"jazz"drummers.274"Awardees—Dutch"jazz" musicians"who"“contributed"significantly"to"development"of"jazz”—received"two" thousand"guilders"commissioned"by"the"Prins"Bernhard"Fonds,"added"with"a"radio" broadcast"with"the"winner’s"music"and"a"sculpture"by"the"Dutch"visual"artist"and"writer" Jan"Wolkers,"both"provided"by"the"radioHand"television"broadcasting"association" VARA.275"The"sponsors’"request"for"an"official"body"through"which"they"could"make" their"donations"resulted"on"13"August"1965"in"the"official"installment"of"the"SJN."The" original"board"consisted"of"fourteen"jazz"enthusiasts,"including"the"journalists"Ben" Bunders"(chairman),"Harm"Mobach"(treasurer),"Piet"Koster,"Rud"Niemans,"the"young" and"upcoming"Bert"Vuijsje,"and"radio"maker"Michiel"de"Ruyter,"who"aspired"to"“support" jazz"practices"and"to"encourage"all"jazzHrelated"activities"in"the"Netherlands.”276"The" central"argument"for"the"Prins"Bernhard"Fonds"to"legitimatize"spending"on"jazz"was" found"in"the"idea"that"jazz"was"a"serious"art"form"that"needed"financial"support"from"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 273"Willem"van"Manen,"“Pannen"voor"de"jazz,”-Jazzwereld"31"(September"1970):"17."“Omdat"ik"een" krachtige"pressieHgroep"in"de"vorm"van"een"“bond"voor"jazzHmusici”"niet"van"de"grond"zie"komen." Daarvoor"is"het"individualisme"te"groot"en"de"broodnijd"nog"te"groot"en"de"kommunikatie"tussen"de" diverse"stijlen"te"ver"zoek."Het"grootste"probleem"blijft"hoe"al"die"goedbedoelde"en"doordachte"plannen"bij" de"machthebbende"instanties"aanslaan"zodat"er"werkelijk"iets"van"terecht"komt.”" 274"In"the"first"years,"the"Wessel-Ilcken-Prijs"was"also"referred"to"as"the"Grote-Jazz-Prijs"(the"Grand"Jazz" Award)." 275"The"award"was"presented"annually"until"1975,"when"the"Prins"Bernhard"Fonds"discontinued"its" financial"support."Willem"van"Manen,"“De"geschiedenis"van"de"stichting"Jazz"in"Nederland,”"Van"Eyle,"ed.," Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek,"22."“..."door"muzikaalHkreatieve"arbeid"in"het"jazz"voorafgaande"aan"de" juryHbenoeming"een"bijdrage"aan"de"jazz"heeft"geleverd"die"als"de"belangrijkste"kan"worden"beschouwd.”" 276"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),”"12."“..."de"beoefening"van"jazz"in"Nederland"te"bevorderen" en"alle"activiteiten"op"jazzgebied"te"stimuleren.”"

101" " authorities."“The"funding"is"granted"because"jazz"is"not"yet"officially"recognized"as"an"art" form,”"a"reporter"wrote"in"a"local"newspaper"in"1965,"“resulting"in"a"lack"of" governmental"subsidies"within"this"field.”277"This"way,"as"a"promotional"tool"for"Dutch" jazz"rather"than"as"an"economic"boost"for"the"individual"musician,"the"Wessel"Ilcken" Prijs"contributed"to"the"music’s"perceptional"shift"away"from"light"entertainment."“The" award"has"speeded"up"the"process"of"formal"recognition"of"jazz"as"an"autonomous"art" form,”"the"Netherlands"National"Press"Agency"ANP"reported"in"1965,"“this"is"further" demonstrated"by"the"CRM"grant"that"allowed"Boy’s"Big"Band"to"travel"to"the" international"jazz"festival"in"JuanHlesHPins.”278" " Although"the"main"goal"remained"the"annual"presentation"of"the"Wessel"Ilcken"Prijs,"the" SJN"in"the"first"years"expanded"its"activities"by"realizing"a"jazz"library,"issuing"travelling" grants"for"talented"musicians"and"offering"support"for"jazz"research."Through"the"SJN’s" agency,"the"JazzHart"association"received"funding"from"the"Amsterdam"authorities"to" organize"jazz"concerts"in"Amsterdam;"the"CRM"supported"a"monthly"concert"series"in" Amsterdam"by"the"Hobby"Orkest;"and"the"CRM"supplied"travel"grants"for"festivals"and" jazz"courses"abroad,"including"the"1965"travel"grant"that"allowed"Boy"Edgar’s"big"band" to"the"travel"to"the"Antibes.279"In"1966,"the"foundation"also"collected"over"a"thousand" jazz"books"that"found"a"place"at"the"musicology"department"of"Utrecht."In"addition,"the" SJN"presented"two"reports"to"gain"insight"into"the"specific"problems"of"jazz"in"the" Netherlands"and"to"formulate"solutions."In"the"Jazz"on"Radio"and"T.V."report,"for" example,"the"association"signaled"the"lack"of"media"attention"for"jazz"in"the"Netherlands," in"comparison"to"the"international"display"of"jazz"and"to"national"display"of"other"music" genres."In"1969,"the"SJN"drew"up"a"rather"sketchy"plan"proposing"structural"funding"of" jazz"by"financially"supporting"jazz"venues,"school"concerts"and"jazz"on"radio"and" television,"and"by"issuing"(travel)"grants"and"other"funding"to"musicians.280"Further,"the" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 277"“Prins"BernhardHfonds"schenkt"twee"mille"voor"JazzHprijs,”"De-Tijd,"May"25,"1965,"6."“Bij"de"toekenning" van"deze"subsidie"heeft"meegespeeld"dat"de"jazz"als"kunstvorm"nog"niet"officieel"wordt"erkend,"waardoor" deze"sector"van"de"muziek"van"overheidswege"niet"voor"subsidies"in"aanmerking"komt.”" 278"Friese-Koerier,"August"14,"1965,"2."“De"instelling"van"deze"prijs"heeft"de"officiële"erkenning"van"de"jazz" als"zelfstandige"kunstvorm"versneld."Dit"blijkt"o.a."uit"het"toekennen"van"een"subsidie"voor"de"reis"van" Boy"Edgars"Big"Band"naar"het"internationale"jazz"festival"in"JuanHlesHPins"door"het"ministerie"van" Recreatie,"Cultuur"en"Maatschappelijk"Werk.”"" 279"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),”"12H14." 280"“Naar"een"Structuurplan"voor"de"Jazzmuziek"in"Nederland”"SJN,"1969."Mentioned"in"Willem"van"Manen," “De"geschiedenis"van"de"stichting"Jazz"in"Nederland,”"in"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek,"22."

102" " organization"contributed"to"the"international"network"of"jazz"organizations,"most" notably"by"becoming"part"of"the"European"Jazz"Federation"in"Venice"in"1967." Nevertheless,"in"their"attempts"to"structurally"engage"with"the"support"of"jazz"activities" in"the"Netherlands,"the"SJN"time"and"again"was"confronted"with"problems"of"a"lack"of" funding,"hindering"the"further"realization"of"their"goals." " As"a"result"of"the"SJN’s"limited"success,"dissatisfaction"grew"among"jazz"musicians,"who" demanded"a"more"active"promotion"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands." Following"the"radical"course"of"countercultural"actions,"demonstrations"and"sitHins," musicians"decided"to"take"over"the"SJN."On"3"November"1970—only"six"months"after"the" foundation"of"the"BEVEM—the"ICP"musicians"Breuker,"Van"Manen,"Peter"Bennink"and" Maarten"van"Regteren"Altena"allegedly"broke"into"a"board"meeting"of"the"SJN"in"the" town"of"Alphen"aan"den"Rijn,"during"an"infamous"event"that"became"known"as"the" Overval-(raid)."In"keeping"with"the"BEVEM’s"adagio"of"publicHcontrol"and"desire"for"the" full"democratization"of"musical"life,"the"musicians"insisted"on"actively"taking"part"in"the" organization"of"the"SJN."Like"the"Notenkrakersactie,"the"soHcalled"raid"is"usually" explained"in"terms"of"radicalism."However,"other"readings"are"possible."Floris"Schuiling," for"example,"presents"views"of"the"initial"SJN"board"member"Michiel"de"Ruyter,"who"said" the"leadership"was"more"or"less"given"up"as"opposed"to"taken"in"violent,"revolutionary" way.281"In"this"view,"these"rhetorics"can"also"be"understood"as"part"of"a"constructed"and" romanticized"image"of"the"improvising"musician"as"the"“revolutionary"rebel.”" " As"a"more"decisive"model"and"an"alternative"to"the"SJN,"the"musicians"referred"to" activities"of"the"Stichting"Jazz"Werkgroep"Amsterdam"(SJWA),"a"local"working"group"for" jazz"in"Amsterdam."From"September"1969,"the"SJWA,"under"the"guidance"of"jazz" promoter"Hein"van"Warmerdam"and"organ"player"Herbert"Noord,"distributed"a"weekly" jazz"calendar"and"actively"promoted"the"distribution"and"production"of"independent" Dutch"jazz"labels."Modelled"after"the"SJWA,"the"musicians"proposed"a"small"SJN"board," with"musicians"holding"the"majority.282"Although"the"original"SJN"board"considered"the" critique"out"of"proportion,"they"did"agree"with"the"installment"of—yet"another—

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 281"Floris"Schuiling,"Animate-Structures,"60." 282"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),”"13."

103" " working"group"of"the"four"musicians"added"by"three"board"members:"Rudy"Koopmans," Hein"van"Warmerdam"and"Jaap"de"Rijke."On"21"December,"only"seven"weeks"after"the" raid,"the"working"group"replaced"the"original"SJNHboard."During"this"renowned" Overname-(takeHover)"the"musicians"and"other"jazz"enthusiasts"present"appointed" Koopmans,"Van"Warmerdam"and"De"Rijke"as"respectively"the"new"chairman,"secretary" and"treasurer." " The"new"SJNHboard’s"main"mission"was"to"acquire"structural"financial"support"from"the" government,"with"the"goal"of"“improving"the"status"of"‘live"jazz’.”"In"order"to"achieve" this,"the"board"developed"the"Structuurplan"voor"Jazz"in"Nederland-(Structural"Plan"for" Jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"from"here"on:"Structuurplan),"a"fiveHpart"plan"meant"to" structurally"support"a"wide"variety"of"jazz"activities,"covering"the"costs"of"rehearsals," performances,"education"and"administrative"work.283"Breuker"and"Van"Manen"wrote"the" plan"together"with"Jaap"Roberts,"a"jazz"enthusiast"who"worked"for"the"ministry"of" CRM.284"In"contrast"to"the"1969"plan,"the"Structuurplan"not"only"signaled"the"poor"status" of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"but"also"consisted"of"a"detailed"financial"and"structural"plan" to"improve"this"situation."Budgeted"at"around"1.3"million"guilders,"it"reserved"most" money"for"the"soHcalled"Poolplan"(pool"plan)"and"Podiumplan-(venue"plan)."The" Poolplan,"budgeted"at"543.240"guilders,"enabled"musicians"to"rehearse"on"a"regular" basis"in"flexible"group"settings,"consequently"offering"an"alternative"to"the"common" practice"of"supporting"fixed"groups."The"Podiumplan-proposed"extra"financial"support" for"venues"in"need"of"additional"funding"to"cover"concert"costs.285"An"educational"plan" encompassed"the"development"and"organization"of"workshops"and"school"concerts."In" addition,"the"plan"proposed"the"support"of"individual"projects,"including"composition" commissions,"study"grants,"and"interdisciplinary"collaborations."Also,"the"plan"budgeted" for"a"coordinating"secretariat.286"In"keeping"with"the"Structuurplan,"the"SJN"would" receive"and"distribute"all"subsidies"for"jazz"provided"by"the"city"of"Amsterdam"and"the" ministry"of"CRM."In"May"1971,"the"SJN"presented"the"Structuurplan"to"the"Ministry"of"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 283"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),”"13." 284"Buzelin,"Willem-Breuker,"13." 285"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),”"32." 286"“Herdruk"Jazzplan"1970,”"SJN/BIM,"1973,"4H5."

104" " CRM."The"approval"of"the"plan"depended"on"the"National"Arts"Council,"whose"advice" played"a"decisive"role"in"the"CRM’s"decisionHmaking"process."" " Although"the"National"Arts"Council"gave"sympathetic"consideration"to"the"idea"of" structural"funding"of"jazz,"it"considered"the"SJN,"as"an"institution"without"a"membership," unfit"for"carrying"out"the"plan."In"response"to"this"critique,"the"SJN,"six"months"later," established"a"union"for"improvising"musicians"(Beroepsvereniging"van"Improviserende" Musici,"or"BIM)."The"official"installment"took"place"on"22"November"1971,"during"a" meeting"at"the"Amsterdam"theatre"de"Brakke"Grond."The"board"consisted"of"musicians" only;"Misha"Mengelberg"(chairman),"pianist"Loek"Dikker,"saxophonist"Peter"Bennink," bass"player/vocalist/poet"Henny"Vonk"and"bass"player"Arnold"Dooyeweerd."In"its"first" few"years,"the"BIM’s"membership"grew"rapidly,"amounting"to"170"in"May"1977"and"181" in"1978.287"This"membership,"for"the"first"time,"officially"identified"jazz"and"improvising" musicians"as"a"distinct"musical"community."Moreover,"as"a"prior"condition"for"the" National"Arts"Council’s"positive"advice,"the"BIM"membership"was"crucial"for"the" government"to"start"their"financial"support."" " To"gain"control"on"processes"of"political"decisionHmaking,"the"BIM"secured"itself"a"place" in"some"of"the"country’s"most"important"cultureHpolitical"bodies."It"joined"the"Federatie" Kunstenaarsverenigingen"(Federation"of"Artists’"Associations)"and"sent"representatives" to"join"the"National"Arts"Council,"the"Amsterdam"Arts"Council"and"different"committees" of"the"Federation"of"Artists’"Associations.288"The"music"department"of"the"Amsterdam" Art"Council"was"chaired"by"composerHconductor"Reinbert"de"Leeuw,"and"had"as" additional"members"Van"Manen,"who"represented"the"BIM,"Breuker,"on"behalf"of"the" Genootschap"van"Nederlandse"Componisten"(Dutch"Composers"Society)"and"delegates" of"the"Amsterdams"Philharmonisch"Orkest,"the"Concertgebouworkest,"and"the" Nederlands"Blazers"Ensemble."In"addition,"the"BIM"accomplished"a"minimum"fee"of"150" guilders"gross"per"concert"per"musician."Even"though"opportunities"for"jazz"musicians" were"improving,"the"BIM"members"still"felt"the"need"for"their"own"stage."Three"years" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 287"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),”"33." 288"The"Federatie"Kunstenaarsverenigingen,"initiated"in"1946,"was"one"of"the"founding"fathers"of"the"Raad" voor"de"Kunst."The"initiators"saw"the"collaboration"between"the"arts’"unions"and"the"government"as"the" key"to"success"for"a"“thriving"cultural"life.”"See"also,"Willem"van"Manen,"“De"geschiedenis"van"de"stichting" Jazz"in"Nederland,”"in"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek,"23."

105" " after"the"establishment"of"the"BIM,"the"municipality"offered"free"use"of"a"former" furniture"showroom"at"the"Oude"Schans"in"Amsterdam.289"On"1"October"1974,"the"soH called"Bimhuis"opened"its"doors,"housing"a"concert"venue,"the"offices"of"the"BIM"and"the" SJN,"and,"from"1980"the"Dutch"Jazz"Archive"founded"by"Breuker,"Wim"van"Eyle,"Pim"Gras" and"Herman"Openneer"and"Harry"Coster." " Paradoxically,"the"musicians"that"ten"years"earlier"had"fought"on"the"barricades"for" freedom,"selfHcontrol,"and"against"the"established"authorities,"now"began"to"secure"their" place"within"boards,"councils,"and"committees."Trombone"player"Willem"Van"Manen,"for" example,"showed"an"extraordinary"enthusiasm"in"lobbying"for"the"support"of" improvised"music."During"the"1970s,"Van"Manen"joined"the"following"institutions"and" functions"on"a"national,"provincial"and"local"level:"general"secretary"and"deputy" chairman"of"the"SJN;"committee"member"of"the"national"board"of"Jeugd"en"Muziek" Nederland;"member"of-the"advisory"board"of"Buma290,"the"Dutch"copyright"organization" for"music"authors;"member"of"the"Culturele"Raad"ZuidHHolland,"the"provincial"arts" council"of"the"province"of"ZuidHHolland;"BIMH"representative"of"the"Amsterdamse" Kunstraad"(Amsterdam"Art"Council);"treasurer"of"the"Bimhuis"management"Stibemos;" and"committee"member"of"the"Fonds"voor"Scheppende"Toonkunst-(Fund"for"the" Creative"Performing"Arts).291"Others"who"had"their"fingers"deep"in"the"organization" were"Arjen"Gorter"and"Willem"Breuker."From"the"founding"in"1974"until"2005,"Gorter" was"involved"in"the"organization"behind"the"Bimhuis."For"twelve"years"he"was"a"board" member"of"the"BIM"and"for"six"years"he"was"a"member"of"the"Raad"voor"de"Kunst." Likewise,"Breuker"was"an"active"member"of"the"SJN"and"the"BIM"during"the"1970s."His" long"list"of"organizational"activities"included"board"memberships"of"the"Amsterdam"Arts" Council,"of"Jeugd"and"Muziek"Nederland"(Youth"and"Music"the"Netherlands),"for"which" he"went"to"the"annual"international"meeting"in"Stockholm"in"1975,"and"Vereniging"Het" Schoolconcert"(Association"School"Concert).292"In"a"1973"interview,"Breuker" commented"on"these"lobby"activities"with"his"characteristic"sense"of"drama,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 289"According"to"Breuker’s"biography,"both"the"municipality"and"the"national"government"contributed"to" paying"the"rent"of"the"building"was"paid"by."Buzelin,"Willem-Breuker,"66." 290"Buma"is"an"abbreviation"of"Bureau-voor-MuziekHAuteursrechten." 291"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek,"117." 292"Buzelin,"Willem-Breuker,"85."

106" " complaining"that"it"was"“Terrible"and"disgusting,"but"necessary.”293"Not"all"improvising" musicians"shared"Breuker"and"Van"Manen’s"drive"to"change"cultural"life"in"terms"of" politics"and"organization."Pianist"and"composer"Leo"Cuypers,"for"example,"prided" himself"for"his"lack"of"involvement"in"organizational,"political,"and"for"that"matter," educational"activities."“I"was"seriously"involved"in"my"muse,"if"I"wasn’t"busy"making" music,”"Cuypers"jokingly"remarked,"reinforcing"romanticist"notions"of"the"artist’s"life.294" However,"much"as"the"Dutch"improvising"musicians"preached"an"antiH establishmentarian"stance,"they"fully"understood"that"if"the"cultural"landscape"were"to" change,"they"had"to"compromise"these"ideals"by"collaborating"with"the"establishment." " As"an"active"contact"organization"mediating"between"the"government"and"the"jazz"field," the"SJN,"supported"by"the"BIM"and"with"the"Bimhuis"as"it"headquarters,"became"the"first" institution"to"draw"up"and"carry"out"national"policy"plans"for"jazz"in"the"Netherlands" The"actual"role"division"within"these"organization"was"rather"obscure."After"its" foundation,"the"BIM"took"over"the"discussion"with"the"CRM"on"the"realization"of"the" Structuurplan,"while"the"SJN"carried"on"as"an"advisory"body"to"the"BIM.295"The"initial" plan"to"change"the"SJNHboard"back"to"nonHmusicians"to"secure"its"autonomy"was"not" carried"out."To"complicate"things"even"further,"the"BIM"installed"a"soHcalled" programmaraad,"an"advisory"committee"consisting"for"the"larger"part"of"musicians"who" advised"on"the"distribution"of"the"funding." " Subversion- Most"intriguingly,"subverting"the"authorities"became"a"conscious"tactic"in"order"to"gain" (financial)"recognition"from"these"same"authorities."In"a"1981"interview"with"Gérard" Rouy"in"Jazz-Magazine,"Mengelberg"recollected"how"“we"regularly"visited"the"ministry" and"just"kept"annoying"them.”296"But"the"strategic"use"of"(selfH)representation"is"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 293"Meijer,"“‘Ik"maak"muziek"voor"iedereen,"maar"waarom"vindt"iedereen"het"zo"afgrijselijk?’,”"75." “Vreselijk,"walgelijk,"maar"ik"vind"dat"het"moet.”" 294"Leo"Cuypers,"interview"by"author,"September"19,"2013."“Ik"was"ernstig"met"de"muze"bezig,"als"ik"al"niet" met"de"muziek"bezig"was.”" 295"Jazzwereld"reported"regularly"on"these"debates,"See"for"example"John"Müller,"“Jazz"in"Nederland"1971:" een"documentaire"over"plannen,"subsidies"en"haat"en"nijd,”"Jazzwereld-36"(November/December"1971):" 18H20." 296"Gérard"Rouy,"“Misha"Mengelberg:"‘…comme"des"chiens"de"garde’,”"Jazz-Magazine"295"(March"1981):" 31."

107" " perhaps"best"explained"through"the"actions"of"Breuker,"who"throughout"his"career" notoriously"insulted"governmental"institutions,"creating"media"attention"for"his"work" that"resulted—paradoxically—in"an"increase"in"governmental"support."For"example," after"winning"the"Wessel"Ilcken"award"on"23"December"1970,"Breuker"strategically" created"media"attention"to"comment"on"what"he"considered"the"poor"jazz"situation"in" the"Netherlands"and"to"launch"his"plans"to"improve"this"situation.297"Pianist"Loek"Dikker" was"very"critical"about"what"he"called"Breuker’s"“political"games.”"In"a"letter"to" Jazz/Press,"he"criticized"Van"Leeuwen"for"consulting"only"Breuker"and"other"musicians," and"therefore"accused"him"of"misrepresenting"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands."At" the"time"of"writing"Breuker"and"Dikker"were"respectively"temporary"chairman"and" general"board"member"of"the"SJN."“The"temporary"chairman"is"not"only"a"respectable" man,"he"is"also"a"political"man;"some"say"he"is"leftist,"others"say"he"is"the"exact"opposite," but"either"way:"he"is"a"political"man,”"Dikker"remarked,"adding"that"“Van"Leeuwen"may" have"thought"he"was"talking"to"the"chairman"of"the"SJN,"but"in"the"meanwhile"he"let" himself"be"completely"fooled"by"Willem"Breuker"the"political"man.”298"

Effects& Structural-funding-of-jazz- Despite"these"struggles,"the"strategies"of"institutionalization"and"revaluation"did"begin" to"pay"off"in"the"midH1970s."Jazz"had"indeed"been"brought"to"the"attention"of"the" authorities,"who"supplied"financial"support"on"a"more"regular"basis"than"in"the"decades" before."On"1"October"1974,"three"years"after"the"first"application"of"the"SJN’s" Structuurplan,"the"ministry"of"CRM"awarded"the"SJN"with"forty"thousand"guilders"to" start"the"structural"funding"of"jazz"and"improvised"music."Although"it"was"still"a"minor" sum"compared"to"the"140.8"million"guilders"of"that"year’s"total"national"arts"budget"of" 1975,"the"structural"subsidy"by"means"of"the"aforementioned"podiumHplan"enabled"the" SJN"to"organize"450"concerts"throughout"the"country.299"Covering"that"year’s"last"three" months,"the"1974"budget"went"almost"entirely"to"the"opening"of"the"Bimhuis"in"October." """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 297"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),”"13." 298"Loek"Dikker,"letter"to"the"editor,"Jazz/Press"52"(1978):"34."“De"provisionele"voorzitter"is"niet"alleen"een" achtenswaardig"man,"hij"is"ook"een"politiek"mens;"het"schijnt"dat"hij"links"is,"anderen"beweren"het" tegendeel,"maar"in"ieder"geval:"hij"is"een"politiek"mens."Van"Leeuwen"meende"de"voorzitter"van"de" Stichting"Jazz"in"Nederland"aan"het"woord"te"laten"maar"liet"zich"intussen"door"de"politieke"mens"Willem" Breuker"een"geweldige"flapoor"aannaaien.”" 299"Koopmans,"Jazz,"183."

108" " For"the"occasion,"the"SJN"and"the"BIM-organized"the"first"in"a"series"of"“October"Jazz" Months,”"during"which"concerts,"workshops"and"other"jazzHrelated"activities"took"place" throughout"the"country."While"the"Oktober"Jazzmaand"was"initially"set"up"to" demonstrate"the"potential"of"structural"funding"of"jazz,"it"also"proved"a"successful" promotional"device."In"a"1977"interview,"prime"initiator"and"BIMHboard"member"Hans" Dulfer"put"the"idea"of"a"special"Jazz"Month"in"perspective,"stating,"“the"October"Jazz" Month"doesn’t"exist."We"organize"these"concerts"all"year"round."We"could"just"as"easily" have"called"it"April"Jazz"Month.”"300"Dulfer"further"underlined"the"commercial"argument" for"organizing"such"an"event"by"adding"that,"“You"need"to"blow"things"out"of"proportion" to"attract"interest.”301" "

Table&1:&CRM&jazz&funding302& Year& Structural&funding" Total&CRM&spending&on&jazz& (Guilders)" (Guilders)& 1973" 0" 100,000" 1974" 40,000" 270,000" 1975" 160,000" 450,000" 1976" 250,000" 575,000" 1977" 300,000" "Ca."650,000" 1978" 300,000" Ca."700,000" " The"governmental"recognition"of"“jazz,"pop"music,"and"chamber"music”"was"fully" established—for"the"time"being—in"1976,"when"the"authorities"presented"the"Nota" Orkestenbestel,"a"bill"that"announced"cuts"in"spending"on"symphony"orchestras"in"order" to"reserve"funds"for"other"music"practices,"a"redistribution"of"funds"in"favor"of"newer" genres"including"jazz,"pop"and"chamber"music.303"As"a"result,"the"situation"of"jazz"and" improvised"music"improved,"by"means"of"an"increase"of"venues"and"more"and"better" paid"gigs.304"Of"the"1976"budget"of"575"thousand"guilders,"250"thousand"of"structural" funding"went"to"the"SJN,"to"be"divided"by"the"BIM"advisory"board,"of"which"30"thousand" guilders"went"to"the"Poolplan."The"city"council"of"Amsterdam"granted"the"Bimhuis"with"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 300"“Hans"Dulfer"en"de"truc"van"Oktober"Jazzmaand,”"De-Waarheid,"October"1,"1977,"21."“Oktober" Jazzmaand"bestaat"helemaal"niet."We"organiseren"het"hele"jaar"door"dit"soort"concerten."We"hadden"net" zo"goed"april"tot"jazzmaand"kunnen"uitroepen.”" 301"Ibid."“Je"moet"iets"opblazen"om"in"de"belangstelling"te"komen.”" 302"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"3),”"21H24." 303"Tweede"Kamer"der"StatenHGeneraal,"“Nota"Orkestenbestel,”"1976." 304"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),”"32."

109" " an"additional"90"thousand"guilders.305"Between"1977"and"1979,"except"for"an" insufficient"inflation"correction"of"4"percent,"no"increase"in"support"took"place.306" " The"national"institutionalization"of"jazz"through"the"SJN,"the"BIM,"and"others"effected" the"further"organization"of"jazz"throughout"the"country."Musicians"and"enthusiasts" increasingly"organized"themselves"in"local"associations"and"foundations"that"allowed" local"musicians"and"jazz"fans"to"negotiate"with"both"local"and"provincial"authorities." Local"initiatives"included"Leiden’s"Hot"House;"Jazz"in"Den"Haag;"Jazz"in"Beverwijk;"Jazz" in"Groningen;"Jazz"in"Utrecht;"the"OhmHkollektief"in"Tilburg;"the"Koöperatieve" Vereniging"Het"Muziek"Totaal"(Cooperative"Association"Total"Music)"in"Amsterdam;"and" the"Initiatiefgroep"Oss.307"The"local"authorities"started"to"support"jazz"and"improvised" music"through"these"associations,"initially"by"granting"small"additional"subsidies"to" compensate"for"organizational"costs"such"as"rent,"electricity,"administration"and" publicity.308" " While"the"establishment"of"structural"funding"became"effective"at"the"end"of"1974,"the" government"continued"the"incidental"funding"of"individual"groups"established"in"1965,"a" decision"that"caused"confusion"among"musicians.309"While"welcoming"the"financial" input,"musicians"felt"hesitant"about"continuing"the"individual"group"funding,"fearing"it" would"demotivate"rather"than"stimulate"artistic"innovation."“We"certainly"need"the" money,”"Theo"Loevendie"remarked"in"1978,"“but"I"fear"it"will"lead"to"artistic"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 305"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"3),”"22." 306"Ibid.Van"Leeuwen’s"account"of"the"national"funding"of"jazz"in"1978"gives"insight"in"the"distribution"of" governmental"funding."That"year,"the"CRM’s"budget"for"jazz"amounted"to"700"thousand"guilders," subdivided"in"340"thousand"guilders"that"went"to"individual"groups,"300"thousand"guilders"that"went"to" the"execution"of"the"Structuurplan-and"60"thousand"guilders"that"went"to"travel"grants,"a"concert"series"at" the"Amsterdam"Stedelijk-Museum"and"“various"other"expenses.”"In"1978,"the"government"allocated"an" estimated"300,000"guilders"to"jazz,"while"symphony"orchestras"received"41"million"guilders,"dance" companies"10"million,"opera"25"million"(15"million"in"1975)." 307"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),”"14." 308"In"a"letter"to"the"editor,"Heeck"gives"the"example"of"the"Haarlem"jazz"club,"which"from"1962"was" supported"by"the"local"sports"and"juvenile’s"affaires"(Gemeentelijke"Dienst"voor"Sport"en"Jeugdzaken)." Rob"Heeck,"letter"to"the"editor,"Jazz/Press"28"(1976):"23." 309"In"1973,"the"ministry"of"CRM"granted"individual"jazz"groups,"ICP"and"the"groups"of"Boy"Edgar,"Loek" Dikker"and"Theo"Loevendie,"with"an"estimated"100"thousand"guilders."Of"the"1975"budget"of"450" thousand"guilders,"160"thousand"went"to"the"structural"support"of"jazz,"while"a"fair"amount"of"the" remaining"went"to"the"ICP"and"the"groups"of"Boy"Edgar,"Loek"Dikker,"Theo"Loevendie,"Willem"Breuker," Rein"de"Graaff,"Karel"van"Gorkum,"Kees"Hazevoet,"Willem"van"Manen"and"Nico"Bunnink."

110" " fossilization.”310"Although"the"CRM"in"1975"decided"that"it"was"necessary"to"drop"the" individual"group"funding"as"proposed"in"the"Poolplan"in"favor"of"the"Structuurplan,"the" SJN"considered"it"too"early,"as"the"Structuurplan"was"still"in"its"preliminary"phase." However,"following"the"example"of"the"city"of"Amsterdam,"which"from"1976"appointed" the"Bimhuis"as"the"main"distributor"of"public"money"in"jazz,"both"parties"agreed"on"the" temporarily"freeze"of"the"individual"group"funding.311" " Jazz-immigrants- From"the"first"subsidies"in"1965,"the"Netherlands"also"began"to"gain"an"international" reputation"as"a"place"with"good"financial"prospects"in"terms"of"paid"gigs."The"public" funding"for"jazz"created"an"artistic"working"climate"that"gained"recognition"across"the" border."As"Cuypers"saw"it"in"1980"“[f]or"jazz,"the"Netherlands"and"Germany"are"the" places"to"be"in"Europe."…"In"comparison"with"every"other"country"in"the"world,"the" Netherlands"state"does"most"to"subsidize"jazz."Saying"this"will"doubtless"make"the"jazz" guard"want"to"lynch"me"because"they"think"the"money"is"allotted"pretty"poor"in" comparison"with"other"disciplines."But"the"very"fact"that"the"word"“jazz”"even"figures"in" the"government"books"can"be"called"unique.”312"From"the"first"subsidies"in"1965,"the" news"of"the"increasing"public"support"for"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"spread"through" reports"in"jazz"magazines."For"example,"the"American"Down-Beat"in"1965"announced" that"the"“Dutch"allHstar"big"band"led"by"Boy"Edgar"received"financial"support"from"the" Dutch"government"…"the"first"time"the"government"had"supplied"such"aid.”313"" Consequently,"the"Netherlands"attracted"jazz"musicians"from"abroad."As"noted"in" Chapter"One,"the"1978"Handboek-voor-Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek-in-Nederland" (“Companion"for"Jazz"and"Improvised"Music"in"the"Netherlands”)"listed"seventyHone" musicians"who"were"born"outside"the"Netherlands"(nearly"10"percent)"that" permanently—or"at"least"on"a"regular"basis—"earned"part"of"their"income"by"playing" jazz"in"the"Netherlands."The"SouthHAfrican"born"bass"player"Harry"Miller,"for"example," was"part"of"the"influx"of"musicians"from"Britain"who"moved"to"the"continent."“British"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 310"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"3),”"23."Theo"Loevendie:"“de"bestaande"situatie"bevriest,”"“Het" geld"is"zeker"nodig."Wat"ik"niet"zou"willen,"is"dat"er"een"artistieke"verstarring"komt.”" 311"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"3),”"22." 312"Max"Pam,"“Leo"Cuypers:"Lone"Wolf"of"the"Improvised"Music"Scene,”"Key-Notes:-Musical-Life-in-the- Netherlands"11"(1980):"11." 313"Strictly"Ad"Lib,"Down-Beat-(September"9,"1965),"43."

111" " jazz"needed"Europe,”"asserts"British"jazz"writer"Duncan"Heining"after"having"observed" how"“Harry"Beckett,"Harry"Miller,"Alan"Skidmore,"Kenny"Wheeler,"Evan"Parker,"Derek" Bailey,"Tony"Oxley,"Chris"McGregor"and"many"others"found"themselves"better"able"to" make"a"decent"living"across"the"Channel"than"up"the"M1.”314"The"influx"of"foreign" musicians"was"welcomed"for"its"creative"input,"but"also"met"with"resistance."The" aforementioned"Verbeke,"for"example,"saw"yet"another"reason"for"the"BIM’s"failure"in" what"he"felt"was"a"corrupt"money"distribution"system"that"supported"immigrant"rather" than"local"musicians:"“Take"a"guy"like"[Dutch"pianist]"Nico"Bunnink…he’s"a"nice"guy," that’s"not"the"point,"but"he"receives"subsidy,"right?"And"who"is"playing"in"his"band?" Americans"only."They"come"all"the"way"from"Paris"to"nibble"at"our"money."It’s"insane," really.”315" " Debates- While"from"elsewhere"in"Europe,"where"improvised"music"received"little"to"no" governmental"support,"the"BIM"seemed"like"an"extraordinary"and"enduring"success,"the" organization"in"the"Netherlands"was"subject"of"fierce"debates"among"local"musicians" and"journalists."Both"musicians"and"journalists"fiercely"criticized"the"organizational" structure"of"the"BIM"and"the"SJN,"accusing"its"boards"of"amateurism"and"favoritism."In" 1976"Misha"Mengelberg"came"under"attack"from"the"BIM"members,"who"accused"him"of" using"his"position"as"BIMHnegotiator"for"his"own"benefits."During"a"tumultuous"general" meeting"on"the"March"29"of"that"year,"fellowHboard"member"Hans"Dulfer"publicly" confirmed"the"persistent"rumors"that"Mengelberg"had"pushed"his"own"group"forward"in" the"negotiations"over"a"ten"thousand"guilders"engagement"with"the"Holland"Festival." After"the"meeting,"which"lasted"until"well"after"midnight,"Mengelberg"left"with"slamming" doors,"refusing"to"be"part"of"a"board"with"Dulfer"any"longer.316"" " Journalists"were"also"particularly"involved"in"the"discussion,"advocating"the"financial" support"of"more"experimental"forms"of"jazz"and"taking"a"critical"stance"towards"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 314"Heining,"Trad-Dads,-Dirty-Boppers-and-Free-Fusioneers,"2012." 315"Martin"Rohde,"“Harry"Verbeke:"‘Het"zit"met"die"BIM"helemaal"fout’,”"Jazz/Press-27"(1976):"15."“Als"je" zo’n"jongen"als"Nico"Bunnink"neemt…een"hele"aardige"vogel,"daar"gaat"het"niet"om,"maar"die"krijgt" subsidie."En"wat"zit"er"in"z’n"orkestje?"Allemaal"Amerikanen."Die"komen"speciaal"uit"Parijs"om"hier"de" subsidie"op"te"peuzelen."Dat"is"toch"eigenlijk"krankzinnig.”" 316"Han"Schulte,"“Leo"Cuypers:"'Je"moet"je"jatten"goed"onder"controle"hebben’,”"Jazz/Press"28"(1976):"5."

112" " handling"of"the"funding"for"jazz"and"improvised"music"by"the"BIM."Accusing"the"BIM"of" amateurism,"journalist"Han"Schulte"in"1976"dismissed"the"BIM"board"altogether."He" summed"up:" " 1. The"BIM"lacks"fullHtime"professionals"to"run"the"organization;" 2. There"is"a"lack"of"consensus"among"the"board"members,"who"lack"the"expertise" to"financially"advise"its"members,"especially"when"it"involves"tax"matters;" 3. The"chairman"is"inconsistent;" 4. There"is"a"lack"of"communication"between"the"board"and"the"BIM"members." 5. The"board"lacks"the"balls"to"tell"the"government"that"the"current"policy"is"chicken" feed."(Han"Schulte,"“Bim"moet"kiezen,”"Jazz/Press"16"[1976],"2)317" " Van"Manen,"whom"we"saw"was"deeply"involved"in"a"variety"of"commissions"and"boards," defended"the"SJN"and"BIM"during"a"radioHinterview"by"stating"that"“[s]ome"say"we"only" represent"a"small"group"of"musicians."That’s"nonsense."We"work"for"everybody,"also"for" studio"musicians.”318"Nevertheless,"skepticism"prevailed"in"the"early"SJNHyears."Noting" the"political"connotation"of"Van"Manen’s"words,"Van"Leeuwen"stated"that"“[o]f"course," the"compilers"primarily"designed"the"Structuurplan"for"their"own"benefit"and"maybe" some"ICPHmembers."I"sincerely"doubt"his"supposed"support"of"studio"musicians.”319" Likewise,"representatives"of"jazz"styles"other"than"improvised"music"felt"discriminated" by"what"they"perceived"as"an"Amsterdam"and"ICP"controlled"subsidyHsystem."Modern" jazz"saxophonist"Harry"Verbeke,"for"example,"dismissed"the"BIM"system,"accusing"the" board"members"of"favoritism:" "

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 317"“1.Het"ontbreek"de"BIM"aan"goede,"fulltime"beroepskrachten"voor"het"runnen"van"de"organisatie;"2." Het"ontbreekt"het"bestuur"aan"eensgezindheid"en"voldoende"praktische"kennis"om"de"leden"op"het" financiële"vlak"bij"te"staan,"met"name"waar"het"om"belastingtechnische"zaken"gaat;"3."Het"ontbreekt"het" bestuur"aan"een"rechtlijnig"werkende"voorzitter;"4."Het"ontbreekt"het"bestuur"aan"een"goede" kommunikatie"met"haar"eigen"leden;"5."Het"ontbreekt"het"bestuur"aan"voldoende"lef"om"tegen"CRM"te" zeggen"dat"de"huidige"subsidieregeling"niets"meer"of"minder"dan"een"hondenfooi"is.”" 318"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),”"14."“Er"wordt"gezegd"dat"we"[de"overvallers]"maar"een" kleine"groep"musici"vertegenwoordigen."Dat"is"onzin."We"werken"voor"iedereen,"ook"voor"mensen"die"in" de"studio"werken.”" 319"Ibid."“Natuurlijk"vertegenwoordigden"de"opstellers"van"het"plan"IN"DIE"FASE"allereerst"zichzelf,"ICPH aanhangers"en"nog"wat"verstrooide"eenlingen."Over"de"gesuggereerde"steun"aan"de"studioHmuzikanten" heb"ik"zo"mijn"twijfels.”"

113" " It"just"ends"up"in"the"wrong"hands."The"Diamond"Five"applied"for"a"total" subsidy."All"done"according"to"the"rules."Cees"Slinger"showed"me"how"he" did"it."It"was"rejected,"completely"rejected."Theo"Loevendie,"Misha" Mengelberg"and"others,"they"get"money,"don’t"they?"See,"things"are"a"mess" at"the"BIM."It’s"friends"only."Those"are"the"ones"that"benefit."Back"in"the" days"of"the"Sheherazade"we"were"the"pioneers"of"jazz,"playing"every"single" night."And"now"they"turn"their"backs"against"us."(Martin"Rohde,"“Harry" Verbeke:"‘Het"zit"met"die"BIM"helemaal"fout’,”"Jazz/Press-27"[1976],"15)320" " Verbeke’s"criticism"reveals"how"the"distribution"of"funding"caused"conflicts"not"only" between"different"styles"represented"by"different"jazz"scenes,"but"also"ran"across" generational"divides;"the"established"modern"jazz"musicians,"in"this"case"represented"by" the"Diamond"Five,"Cees"Slinger"and"Verbeke"himself,"felt"they"were"being"put"aside"by" the"new"generation"of"improvising"musicians."In"this"way,"the"tensions,"distrust"and" conflicts"that"arose"during"the"process"of"institutionalization"signaled"a"generational" shift."While"the"improvising"musicians"took"control"over"the"structural"funding"of"jazz," the"modern"jazz"musicians"continued"to"dominate"the"fields"of"radio"and"television"and" formal"jazz"education." " The"formation"of"the"BIM"and"its"membership"not"only"illustrated"how"musicians" strategically"tried"to"create"a"distinct"Dutch"jazz"community"represented"by"an"active" lobby"group,"but,"at"the"same"time,"exposed"the"problematic"nature"of"such"an"attempt."" In"contrast"to"the"freedom"principles"advocated"by"the"improvising"musicians,"the" formation"of"the"BIM"membership"confronted"them"with"issues"of"qualification," categorization,"inclusion"and—consequently—exclusion."This"conflict"became"painfully" apparent"in"November"1977,"when"the"board"halted"the"handling"of"membership" applications,"after"about"forty"new"applications"arrived"from,"mainly,"visitors"of" workshops."Fearing"a"devaluation"of"the"professional"group,"the"BIM"adopted"an"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 320"“Het"komt"gewoon"in"verkeerde"handen."De"Diamond"Five"hebben"een"totale"subsidie"aangevraagd." Het"is"heel"keurig"gedaan."Ik"heb"het"van"Cees"Slinger"gezien,"hoe"hij"het"gedaan"heeft."Wat"we"allemaal" gedaan"hebben!"Afgewezen"hoor…helemaal"afgewezen."Theo"Loevendie,"Misha"Mengelberg"en"zo"krijgen" het"toch"wel?"Het"zit"met"die"BIM"helemaal"fout."Het"is"alleen"maar"voor"vriendjes."Die"profiteren"er" gewoon"het"meeste"van."Wij"waren"in"de"Sheherazade"tijd"de"eerste"pioniers"die"elke"avond"Jazzclub"open" hadden."En"we"worden"nu"eigenlijk"met"de"reet"aangekeken.”"

114" " admittance"policy"specifying"that"new"applicants,"from"then"on,"needed"the"approval"of" the"BIM"by"means"of"a"majority"vote"of"its"members." " To"overcome"the"problem"of"creating"a"new"elite,"Van"Leeuwen"proposed"a"qualification" system"that"would"support"musicians"at"different"levels"of"playing."Besides"the"very" problematic"aspect"of"ranking"musicians,"his"1978"proposal"gives"insight"in"the"implicit" hierarchy"among"the"improvising"musicians"and"of"the"power"relations"at"play:"“If"we" don’t"try"to"differentiate"and"the"employment"remains"the"same,"in"twenty"years,"we" will"see"the"same"musicians"playing,"with"the"only"difference"that"Arjen"Gorter"has" grown"obscenely"fat,"Martin"van"Duynhoven"is"possibly"even"more"scrawny,"while"Hans" Dulfer"looks"as"washed"out"as"Stan"Getz.”321"Van"Leeuwen"compared"the"jazz"community" with"a"pigsty,"with"the"established"BIM"members"as"the"wellHfed:"“The"starved"pigs" jostle"one"another"to"get"to"the"trough,"while"the"fat"ones"look"quasiHsurprised"to"see" them"in"such"a"state.”322"

Conclusion& This"chapter"has"demonstrated"how"an"increasing"involvement"of"national"and"local" authorities"in"the"arts"by"means"of"funding"significantly"shaped"the"further" establishment"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands."A"changing" governmental"attitude"towards"the"arts"proved"crucial"in"this"process."After"WWII" cultural"policyHmaking"was"motivated"by"the"idea"of"art"as"an"educational"tool," democratization"of"the"arts"and"other"welfare"ideals."These"ideals"stimulated"an" increasing"interest"in"and"support"of"experimental"and"more"avantHgarde"art"forms," including"jazz."A"growing"economic"prosperity"further"allowed"the"government"to" translate"these"ideals"into"policies"that"actively"stimulated"the"diversification"of"art" forms."Paradoxically,"by"financially"supporting"improvising"musicians"and"other"leftist" revolutionaries,"the"authorities"appropriated"countercultural"activity,"an"act"that"was" most"likely"motivated"by"the"hope"to"restrict"the"dangers"of"an"actual"revolt."This"rather" dualist"stance"towards"countercultural"activity"supports"historian"James"Kennedy’s"idea" that"the"most"important"agent"of"cultural"change"in"the"postHwar"Netherlands"were"the" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 321"Van"Leeuwen,"“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),”"33." 322"Ibid."“De"magere"varkens"verdringen"zich"voor"een"bijna"lege"trog,"terwijl"de"dikke"zich"kwasiH verbaasd"afvragen,"hé,"waarom"zijn"jullie"zo"mager?”"

115" " authorities."In"his"extensive"study"of"cultural"change"in"1960s"the"Netherlands,"Kennedy" argues"how"the"country"“has"owed"its"tolerant"and"progressive"climate,"paradoxically,"to" an"amorphous"group"of"cautious"leaders"who"were"so"concerned"about"maintaining"a" grip"on"developments"that"they"permitted,"even"encouraged,"patterns"of"behavior" seldom"countenanced"elsewhere.”"Thus,"Kennedy"continues,"“the"most"important"agent" of"cultural"change"was"a"class"of"people"from"whom"great"change"was"least"expected.”323" Consequently,"by"facilitating"and"supporting"crossHgenre"collective"and"other" formations"beyond"those"belonging"to"the"established"nineteenth"century"repertoire," the"local"and"national"authorities"responded"to,"but"also"stimulated"significant"social" shifts"in"the"cultural"hierarchies."" " However,"I"would"like"to"add"to"Kennedy’s"argument"that,"while"the"government" through"its"tolerant"policy"allowed"for"these"changes"to"happen,"it"was"the"people"from" within"the"field"who"instigated"these"processes."Apart"from"a"willing"government"and" the"right"socioHeconomic"conditions,"this"chapter"also"showed"how"changes"within" artistic"life"proved"crucial"to"the"establishment"of"Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music."By" engaging"in"public"decisionHmaking"processes,"improvising"musicians,"together"with" artists"from"other"disciplines,"demanded"the"governmental"support"necessary"for" realizing"their"works"of"art."Relying"on"both"existing"as"well"as"newly"created"financial" infrastructures—a"procedure"strikingly"parallel"to"their"interdisciplinary"and"crossH genre"musical"working"methods—improvising"musicians"in"the"1970s"successfully" created"the"institutional"infrastructure"(SJN,"BIM"and"others)"necessary"to"enable"public" funding"for"jazz"and"improvised"music."- - The"BIMHmembership,"newspaper"articles,"and"the"minutes"of"the"SJN"and"BIM"meetings" further"expose"how"improvising"musicians"deliberately"and"strategically"adapted"their" discourses"to"fit"different"agendas."These"strategic"attempts"to"gain"governmental" support"conflicted"with"the"musicians’"antiHauthoritarian"stance,"compromising"notions" of"improvised"music"as"“nonHcommercial,”"“antiHauthoritarian”"and"“subversive.”"Thus," while"improvising"musicians"in"the"media"propagated"a"way"of"making"music"that" challenged"cultural,"musical"and"political"authorities,"they"began"to"deeply"entrench" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 323"James"Kennedy,"Nieuw-Babylon-in-aanbouw,"4."

116" " themselves"in"bureaucracy"and"lobbyism,"effectively"creating"their"own"infrastructure"of" venues,"programs"and"institutions"to"support"the"promotion,"distribution,"and" performance"of"their"work."Altogether,"the"musician’s"strategic"use"of"the"existing" distributing"systems"of"governmental"funding"and"their"continuous"lobbying"illustrates" the"growing"awareness"among"the"musicians"of"their"social"position"and"the"willingness" to"play"with"their"image"in"order"to"change"this"position."As"pianist"and"composer"Leo" Cuypers"observes,"“[the"improvised"music"in"the"1970s]"was"not"something"new,"but" rather"a"new"set"of"circumstances,”"adding,"“it"was"just"a"generation"that"knew"how"to" make"use"of"the"system.”324- " The"study"of"the"establishment"of"a"governmental"funding"system"for"jazz"further" reveals"how"the"notion"of"a"distinctive"and"local"sound"in"jazz"became"of"increasing" importance"throughout"the"1960s."The"earliest"supported"acts"such"as"Boy’s"Big"Band" and"other"firmly"based"in"the"American"jazz"repertoire"showed"how"funding"institutions" and"media"initially"expressed"little"desire"to"encourage"the"development"of"specific," local"sounds"in"jazz."In"fact,"when"alto"saxophonist"Piet"Noordijk"won"the"Wessel"Ilcken" Prijs"in"1965,"journalists"praised"him"for"playing"in"a"way"that"sounded"“bijna-onH Nederlands”"(“almost"unHDutchHlike”).325"However,"during"the"1970s"the"focus"shifted" towards"the"support"of"the"ICP,"WBK"and"other"more"experimental"improvised"music" groups"that"became"increasingly"labeled"as"distinctively"Dutch."In"the"next"chapter,"I" delve"more"deeply"into"the"construction"of"the"idea"of"a"distinctive"Dutch"type"of"jazz"by" studying"the"role"of"written"media"in"these"processes."Who"were"the"prime"journalists," how"did"they"position"themselves"in"the"debates"on"the"future"of"jazz?"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 324"Leo"Cuypers,"interview"by"author,"September"19,"2013."“Ik"moet"je"eerlijk"zeggen"dat"ik"zover"nog"niet" had"doorgedacht,"hoor,"dat"dat"iets"compleet"nieuws"was…het"was"meer"een"compleet"nieuwe" gelegenheid…"Het"was"eerder"een"generatie"die"van"de"kanalen"gebruik"wist"te"maken.”" 325“Piet"Noordijk"wint"Grote"Jazz"Prijs,”"De-Telegraaf","November"30,"1965,"19."

117" " 4.&“Piep$piep$knor&and&wooden&shoe&timing”:&On&Dutch&jazz&criticism&

In"the"summer"of"1966,"the"eighth"and"last"edition"of"the"international"jazz"festival"in"the" Belgian"city"of"ComblainHLaHTour"took"place,"a"large"openHair"festival"known"as"the" “European"Newport"Festival”"headlining"American"stars"such"as"Stan"Getz,"Benny" Goodman"and"Anita"O’Day"and"featuring"a"total"of"fortyHone"groups"from"twelve" countries,"including"five"from"the"Netherlands:"the"Leddy"Wessel"trio;"the"Franz"Kamp" Hammond"Trio,"Robert"van"Leeuwen"Quintet,"Magnolia"Jazz"Group;"Mudfield"Skiffle" Group.326"The"German"group"led"by"vibraphone"player"Gunther"Hampel"also"included"a" Dutch"musician;"the"young"reed"player"Breuker,"who"one"month"earlier"had"provoked"a" scandal"in"the"Netherlands"with"the"performance"of"his"“Litany"for"the"14th"of"July,"1966”" at"the"competition"of"the"Loosdrecht"Jazz"Festival"(see"Chapter"One)"and"who"had"just" returned"from"playing"at"the"Carthago"Jazz"festival"in"Tunisia."The"mixed"lineHup"of"jazz" and"beat"groups"targeted"at"young"audiences,"attracted"approximately"twentyHfive" thousand"visitors—mostly"youth"“beatniks”"who"spent"the"day"drinking"beer"and"eating" fries"and"sausages.327"Among"the"listeners"was"a"group"of"young"Dutch"friends,"students" of"the"University"of"Amsterdam"that"celebrated"the"end"of"the"academic"year"with"a"trip" to"the"festival.328"Unlike"the"beatniks,"these"students—Pé"Hawinkels"(1942),"Peter" Smids"(1942),"Bert"Vuijsje"(1942)—would"all"become"part"of"what"Vuijsje"calls"“het- clubje”"(“the"gang”),"a"group"of"students"strongly"committed"to"the"case"of"jazz.329"" Together"with"the"slightly"older"critics"Arend"Jan"Heerma"van"Voss"and"Ruud"Kuyper" the"group"reported"on"the"festival"in"daily"newspapers,"weekly"magazines"and" specialized"jazz"magazines.330""

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 326"Pé"Hawinkels,"“Comblain"66,”"De-Nieuwe-Linie,"August"13,"1966,"17." 327"See,"for"example,"Ben"Dull,"“Jazz"en"beat"in"poel"van"modder,”"Het-Parool,"August"8,"1966,"5."Pé" Hawinkels"estimated"the"number"of"visitors"around"25.000,"Pé"Hawinkels,"“Comblain"66,”"De-Nieuwe-Linie," August"13,"1966,"17."Kuyper"gives"and"elaborate"description"of"the"audience"in"Ruud"Kuyper,"“Regen"en" waterige"jazz"op"een"internationaal"festival,”"Nieuwe-Rotterdamse-Courant,"August"9,"1966,"5." 328"Bert"Vuijsje,"conversation,"26"August"2014." 329"Journalists"associated"with"the"group"include"the"following"journalists,"including"the"newpapers"they" reported"to:"(Martin"Schouten,"Algemeen-Handelsblad;"Pé"Hawinkels,"De-Nieuwe-Linie;"Bert"Vuijsje,"Vrij- Nederland;"Peter"Smids,"De-Groene-Amsterdammer;"Simon"Korteweg,"Het-Parool;"Rudy"Koopmans,"De- Volkskrant)." 330"Diverse"media"reported"on"the"event,"including"the"AmsterdamHbased"daily"Het-Parool,"the"Nieuwe- Rotterdamse-Courant,"progressive"weekly"magazines"De-Groene-Amsterdammer"and"De-Nieuwe-Linie,"and" the"specialized"jazz"magazine"Jazzwereld."

118" " Although"jazz"critics"occasionally"addressed"the"lack"of"female"musicians"within"Dutch" jazz,"jazz"criticism"remained"largely"a"boy’s"club.331"In"his"study"of"Jazzwereld,"Van"de" Leur"observes"how"the"Jazzwereld"was"“largely"written"and,"judged"by"the"letters"sent"to" the"editor,"read"by"men,”"illustrating"the"marginalization"of"women"within"Dutch"jazz" life."This"is"demonstrated"by"Hawinkels,"who,"in"his"review"of"the"English"singer"Julie" Driscoll,"notes"that"the"discussion"among"the"jazz"critics"present"“got"stuck"on"the" question"whether"or"not"she"was"wearing"bra"(she"wasn’t),”"adding"that,"“another" noteworthy"personality"was"Miss"Belgium,"because"“[h]er"behind"was"not"as"fat"[as"the" one"of"the"also"present"Wallonian"television"star"Jean"Claude"Trouot],"but"attracted"the" attention"anyway,"as"it"was"covered"with"a"trousers"embroidered"with"goldthread.”332" Criticizing"the"extensive"program"for"its"many"insignificant"highlights,"Hawinkels" further"observes"how"the"festival"resulted"in"an"“amorphous"mass”"of"“Dixieland"and" mainstream,”"“capitalist"songs”"and"“semiHexperimental"tryHouts,”333"while"Kuyper"notes" that"Breuker"was"“the"only"Dutch"performer"of"the"latest"jazz"that"we"find"credible"at"the" moment.”334"Although"evidently"touched"by"the"exuberance"of"male"youth,"the"reviews" give"a"sense"of"the"sociologistHpolitical"approach"to"writing"and"the"drive"to"promote"the" latest"jazz"in"favor"of"what"they"considered"“commercialized”"modern"jazz"and"“lousy”" beat.335" " This"chapter"explores"the"role"of"Dutch"jazz"criticism"in"the"development"of"postwar"jazz" in"the"Netherlands,"and"more"specifically,"to"its"role"in"Dutch"jazz’s"shift"away"from" American"models"of"playing"jazz."Who"were"these"mediators"and"promoters"of"jazz"and" what"arguments"did"they"use"to"validate"and"legitimize"their"observations?"How"did"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 331"Similarly,"Van"de"Leur"observes"how"Jazzwereld-journalists"either"ignored"women,"or"downplayed" their"role"by"focusing"on"their"appearances"rather"than"their"musical"achievements,"Van"de"Leur," “Improvisatoren"versus"clichéHmachines,”"33H34." 332"Hawinkels,"“Comblain"66,”"17."“In"Comblain"baande"in"elk"geval"Eddy"Boyd,"naïef"glimlachend"zoals"dat" betaamd,"de"weg"voor"de"R&BHklanken:"de"Engelse"Steam"Packets,"met"zang"van"Julie"Driscoll,"e[e]n" jongedame,"bij"de"discussie"over"wier"merites"de"verzamelde"Nederlandse"jazzH"en"bluesscribenten"bleven" steken"in"de"vraag"of"ze"nu"een"B.H."droeg"of"niet"(ze"droeg"er"geen),"werden"zelfs"al"hier"en"daar"krachtig" toegejuicht.”"“Een"andere"vermeldenswaardige"persoonlijkheid"behoorde"misschien"aan"Miss"België."Haar" achterwerk"was"niet"zo"dik"[als"dat"van"de"aanwezige"Waalse"televisiester"Jean"Claude"Trouot],"maar"trok" toch"de"aandacht,"gestoken"als"het"was"in"een"geheel"gouddraden"pantalon.”" 333"Ibid." 334"Ruud"Kuyper,"“Regen"en"waterige"jazz"op"een"internationaal"festival,”"Nieuwe-Rotterdamse-Courant," August"9,"1966,"5."“Breuker—die"vorige"week"heeft"gespeeld"op"het"Carthago"Jazzfestival"in"Tunesië—is" voorlopig"de"enige"Nederlandse"vertolker"van"de"allernieuwste"jazzideeën"in"wie"wij"wel"willen"geloven.”" 335"Hawinkels,"“Comblain"66,”"17."

119" " critics"position"jazz"against"the"backdrop"of"the"fragmentation"into"different"jazz"scenes," the"professionalization"and"institutionalization"of"jazz"practices,"the"emancipation"from" American"jazz"practices,"and"the"declining"audiences"as"a"consequence"of"changes" within"teenage"culture?"To"answer"these"questions,"this"chapter"critically"engages"with" the"writings"of"some"of"the"leading"Dutch"jazz"critics"of"the"1960s"and"1970s"(Rudy" Koopmans,"Bert"Vuijsje,"Michiel"de"Ruyter,"Ruud"Kuyper,"among"others)"and"examines" their"work"in"connection"with"their"esthetical"and"political"beliefs."" " As"John"Gennari"has"pointed"out"so"beautifully"in"his"Blowin’-Hot-and-Cool-(2006),"jazz" critics"play"a"formative"role"in"cultural"life"by"mediating"the"relationship"between"the" musicians"and"the"audiences—not"merely"as"writers,"but"in"many"cases"as"producers," broadcasters,"concert"organizers,"and"public"intellectuals"as"well.336"By"processes"of" selection"and"evaluation—in"both"aesthetic"and"ethical"terms—critics"were"crucial"in" shaping"jazz"narratives,"consisting"of"musical"terminology,"musicians,"styles,"labels," associations,"and"imagery"that"altogether"serve"as"a"fluid,"vital,"albeit"often"problematic," frame"of"reference."Announcements,"reports,"and"reviews"in"newspapers"and"popular" music"magazines"are"particularly"important"in"studying"the"developments"of"jazz"in"the" Netherlands,"as"they"give"insight"into"the"socialHcultural"context,"the"status,"and"the" reception"of"jazz"as"perceived"by"the"general"public."While"these"sources"place"jazz"in"a" broader"socioHcultural"perspective,"jazz"books"and"specialized"magazines—most" notably"Jazzwereld-(1965H1973),"Roaring-(1969H2000),"Rhythm-and-Blues-(1959H1991)" and"Jazz/Press—contribute"to"the"understanding"of"the"increasingly"specialized"jazz" discourse"among"jazz"devotees."A"further"investigation"of"piepHpiepHknor-and"other" languageHspecific"terminology"not"only"reveals"the"increasing"desire"to"understand"jazz" within"local"settings,"but"also"the"implicit—and"explicit—ideologies"that"informed"these" writings."

Primitive&exoticism&

The"intimate"bond"between"jazz"and"Dutch"criticism"goes"back"to"1919,"when“jazz,”"also" spelled"”yasz”"or"“jasz,”"began"to"appear"in"advertisements"and"announcements"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 336"John"Gennari,"Blowin’-Hot-and-Cool:-Jazz-and-its-Critics-(Chicago/London:"University"of"Chicago"Press," 2006)."

120" " newspapers"in"the"Netherlands."Competition"in"Dutch"leisure"life"was"fierce"during"the" prosperous"years"after"WWI,"forcing"casinos,"variety"theatres,"and"dancing"schools"to" look"for"novelties"and"new"attractions."In"search"for"the"latest"dance"trends," entertainment"entrepreneurs"such"as"Max"van"Gelder"(1973H1943)"and"Jean"Louis" Pisuisse"(1880H1927)"advertised"ragtimes,"pickers,"rockers,"peaces,"and"other"dance" fads.337"Together"with"members"of"the"Imperial"Society"of"Dance"Teachers,"jazz"became" the"new"BritishHAmerican"crowdHpuller"in"Dutch"leisure"life."Enthusiasts"and"opponents" discussed"the"artistic"and"ethical"qualities"of"jazz"in"columns,"articles"and"letters"to"the" editor."The"Rotterdamsch-Nieuwsblad"in"1919,"for"example,"observed"how"“The"Jazz" Band"consists"of"one"or"more"negroes;"a"banjo"player,"a"few"people"making"as"much" noise"as"possible"on"cupper"pans,"some"playing"the"rinkelbom"(a"type"of"tambourine)," while"others"are"playing"the"castanets,"a"pijper,"a"few"bellemannen"(autoHmobile"hooters)" and"some"sirens.”338"While"enthusiasts"praised"the"rhythmic"quality"and"use"of" dissonant"chords,"opponents"feared"the"loud"noisiness"of"the"music"and"the"physicality" of"the"dance."These"opponents"typically"dismissed"the"jazz"craze"as"immoral"and"as" something"for"the"uncivilized:"“That"Indians"and"Negroes"dance,"I"can"understand." Aren’t"we"trying"to"civilize"these"people"from"here?"Now,"that"says"it"all.”339"" " Moreover,"these"written"media"contributed"significantly"to"the"notion"of"jazz"as"an" exotic"form"of"entertainment,"by"placing"jazz"within"a"setting"of"visual,"nonHtextual" imagery."For"example,"in"1926—two"years"after"it"first"published"a"picture"of"a"French" jazz"band—the"illustrated"weekly"society"magazine"Het-Leven-introduced"their" readership"to"a"new"world"of"jazz"by"means"of"black"and"white"photographs."One"of"the" pictures"published"in"Het-Leven"shows"the"Original"Ramblers,"a"Dutch"“jazzy"dance" orchestra”"initiated"by"bandleader"Theo"Uden"Masman,"which"would"become"one"of"the" longestHlasting"jazz"orchestras"in"the"Netherlands.340"The"formal"setting"and"positioning" of"the"orchestra’s"members—male"musicians"in"uniform"suits,"with"striped"ties,"neat" hairHcuts,"polished"shoes"and"a"polite"smile—is"only"one"of"the"many"images"that" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 337"“Danslessen"in"Besloten"Kring,”"Nieuwe-Rotterdamsche-Courant,"November"19,"1919,"4." 338"“De"Jazz"Band,”"Nieuwe-Rotterdamsche-Courant,"July"14,"1919:"13." 339"Unknown"author,"“De"dansHwaanzin,”"Limburgs-Dagblad,"September"18,"1920,"10."“Indianen"en"negers" dansen,"kan"ik"mij"begrijpen."Stelt"men"van"hieruit"niet"pogingen"in"het"werk"om"die"menschen"te" beschaven?"Dat"zegt"immers"genoeg.”" 340"Het-Leven-was"published"between"1906"and"1941."“Dance"cabaret,”"Nieuwe-Rotterdamsche-Courant," October"28,"1926,"16."

121" " became"part"of"the"standard"visual"repertoire"of"jazz."As"the"main"platforms"for" promoting"and"discussing"jazz,"written"media"thus"played"a"reflective"and"generative" role"in"the"development"of"jazz"culture,"presenting"jazz"as"an"exotic"and"primitive"blackH American"entertainment"form"that"was"valued"mostly"for"its"rhythmic"qualities.341" " The"discussions"about"the"value"of"jazz"continued"during"the"1930s,"in"special"sections" on"jazz"in"the"newspapers,"jazz"magazine"De-Jazzwereld,"and"other"publications."Early" jazz"critics,"mostly"young,"middleHclass"men"who"had"taken"up"writing"as"a"hobby,"not" only"actively"promoted"the"music"in"their"writing,"but"also"played"a"decisive"role"in"the" further"organization"of"jazz"life."In"1931,"the"sixteenHyear"old"saxophonist"and" bandleader"Ben"Bakema,"alias"Red"Debroy"(1916H1969),"founded"De-Jazzwereld-(1931H 1940),"the"first"Dutch"magazine"published"between"1931H1940"that"was"solely" dedicated"to"jazz."Set"out"to"inform"its"readers"about"jazz"concerts,"the"latest" gramophones,"and"lectures,"the"magazine"also"promoted"the"further"dissemination"of" jazz"by"organizing"annual"jazz"competitions."Moreover,"from"1933"the"magazine" functioned"as"the"official"platform"of"the"Nederlandse"Hot"Club-(Dutch"Hot"Club,"NHC)" that"was"initiated"that"same"year"by"Eddy"Crommelin"(1914H1982),"an"amateur" drummer"who"worked"as"a"Dutch"sales"representative"and"producer"for"the"British" Decca"Records."In"order"to"stimulate"the"dissemination"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"the" NHC"organized"lectures,"concerts,"and"discussions"on"jazz"and"actively"sought" cooperation"with"broadcasting"companies"and"with"the"international"record"industry."In" addition,"in"1936,"De-Jazzwereld-was"responsible"for"publishing"the"world’s"first"known" photo"book"on"jazz.342" " De-Jazzwereld"journalists"outspokenly"promoted"their"view"of"jazz"as"an"essentially" AfricanHAmerican"musical"practice,"differentiating"the"“real”"and"“pure”"“hot"jazz”"of" Louis"Armstrong,"Duke"Ellington,"and"other"black"American"musicians"from"the" “commercialized”"and"“tasteless”"dance"music"of"their"white,"often"European" counterparts.343"Similarly,"separating"the"“hot"dance"music”"of"swing"bands"such"as"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 341"From"1925,"the"daily"Het-Vaderland-published"a"special"section"on"jazz"called"De-Elfde-Muze"(“The" Eleventh"Muse”),"added"in"1934"with"the"section"Uit-de-Wereld-van-de-Jazz-(“From"the"World"of"Jazz”)." 342"Unknown"editor,"FotoHalbum-van-de-Jazzwereld"(Den"Haag:"Moorman's"Periodieke"Pers,"1936"[1939])." 343"J.B."van"Praag,"Ronald"D."Roberts,"“Red”"Debbie,"“AvantHgarde,”"De-Jazzwereld"4"(April,"1932):"2.""

122" " Casa"Loma"Orchestra"from"the"serious"jazz"of"Ellington’s"band,"a"columnist"of"the"daily" paper"Het-Vaderland-wrote"in"1934"that," " [n]ot"all"jazz"is"art;"a"large"part"is"entertainment"music,"although"of"an" exceptionally"high"level"because"it"requires"a"sense"of"‘feeling’"to"truly" understand"the"music."In"the"‘Art’"category"only"some"classics"of"Ellington," Carter"and"a"few"instrumental"improvisations,"remain."(Benny"C." Newrhythm,"Het-Vaderland,"1934,"10)344"" " Among"the"most"prominent"prewar"books"on"Dutch"jazz"was"the"1939"Jazzmuziek:- Inleiding-tot-de-volksmuziek-der-noordHamerikaanse-negers-(Jazz:"Introduction"of"the" NorthHAmerican"Negroe"Folk"Music)"by"Will"G."Gilbert"and"C."Poustochkine,"a" publication"containing"written"out"bluesHschemes,"chapters"on"swing"and" improvisation.345"Praised"for"its"“technical"details,”"“excellent"bibliography”"and"for"its" well"documented"writing,"the"book"was"reprinted"in"1947"and"1957"and"translated"in" Swedish"(Jazzmusik),"illustrating"the"international"appeal"the"book"held"to"readers.346" Altogether,"these"and"other"writings"were"based"on"firm"ideological"and"esthetical" beliefs,"reinforcing"the"notions"of"jazz"as"an"essentially"AfricanHAmerican"and—from"a" Dutch"perspective—therefore"exotic"practice."Moreover,"these"writings"demonstrated" the"dualist"nature"of"jazz,"which"from"its"earliest"days"in"the"Netherlands"meandered" between"the"status"of"a"high"and"a"low"art."

Postwar&jazz&writing&

Postwar"the"Netherlands"saw"an"increasingly"professionalized"and"specialized"body"of" jazz"writing,"which"informed"its"readership"through"newspapers,"monthly"journals," books,"and"specialized"jazz"magazines."Popular"music"magazines"such"as"Tuney-Tunes-

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 344"Benny"C."Newrhythm,"“Uit"de"wereld"van"Jazz:"Het"karakter"der"jazzmuziek,”"Het-Vaderland,"October"9," 1934,"10."“Alleen"kunnen"we"niet"zeggen"dat"alle"jazz"kunst"is;"een"groot"gedeelte"is"louter" amusementsmuziek,"hoewel"van"een"zeer"goed"gehalte;"ze"eischt"soms"heel"wat"‘feeling”"om"haar"te" kunnen"begrijpen."Onder"de"rubriek"“Kunst”"vallen"slechts"enkele"classics"van"Ellington,"iets"van"Carter"en" ten"slotte"eenige"goed"geslaagde"instrumentale"improvisaties.”" 345"Will"G."Gilbert"[Willem"Henri"Adriaan"Steensel"van"der"Aa]"and"Constantin"Poustochkine,"Jazzmuziek.- Inleiding-tot-de-volksmuziek-der-NoordHAmerikaansche-negers-(Den"Haag:"Kruseman,"1939)." 346"Han"Schulte,"“Honderd"jaar"Nederlandstalige"jazzliteratuur,”"in"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde- Muziek,"163."

123" " and"Muziek-Express-focused"on"the"popular"musicians"of"the"day"in"interviews,"record" reviews,"main"stories,"and"lyrics."Also,"Muziek-Express-introduced"what"would"become" the"primary"decoration"of"teenage"rooms:"the"pop"star"poster."Edited"by"radioHdeejay," journalist"and"ardent"supporter"of"“light"swing"music”"Skip"Voogd,"the"monthly"Tuney- Tunes"averaged"a"circulation"of"twenty"thousand"copies."347"In"January"1955,"Muziek- Express-was"initiated"by"Paul"Acket,"a"Tuney-Tunes-contributor"and"publisher"who" during"the"1960s"developed"into"one"of"the"leading"jazz"impresarios."With"a"wide" readership,"peaking"in"1974"at"375"thousand"per"issue,"the"magazine"remained"the" largest"youth"magazine"until"halfway"the"1970s"and"was"published"until"December" 1989.348"During"the"1960s"Tuney"and"Muziek-Expres"increasingly"covered"pop"and"rock" artists."While"those"magazines"initially"focused"on"both"American"and"Dutch" entertainment"music,"including"popular"Dutch"jazz"groups"such"as"the"Skymasters,"the" Ramblers,"the"Dutch"Swing"College"Band,"beat"and"pop"groups"increasingly"became"the" headlines"of"the"magazines."As"pointed"out"in"Chapter"One,"the"decreasing"coverage"of" jazz"in"popular"music"magazines"signaled"the"jazz’"shift"from"a"popular"music"genre"for" the"youth,"to"a"subculture."However,"after"Paul"Acket"sold"Muziek-Express"together"with" the"Popfoto"magazine"to"publisher"VNU,"he"used"his"profit"to"start"the"North"Sea"Jazz" Festival"in"1976."Thus,"while"Muziek-Expres"had"lost"its"interest"in"jazz,"the"music" magazine’s"success"in"terms"of"sale"numbers"fascinatingly"fed"into"the"promotion"of"jazz" in"the"Netherlands.349"Nevertheless,"pop"music"increasingly"replaced"jazz"in"popular" music"magazines,"which"responded"to"the"increasing"demand"for"pop"music"by"a" growing"group"of"teenagers." " Although"during"the"1960s"jazz"could"still"be"considered"part"of"popular"music"culture" (see"Chapter"One),"rock"and"roll"and"beat"music"began"to"replace"jazz"as"the"primary" music"for"the"youth."“Jazz"back"in"those"days"[in"the"fifties]"had"a"different"function"than" now,”"jazz"journalist"Ruud"Kuyper"observed"in"1967,"“this"music"symbolizes"the" resistance"of"the"youth"against"older"generations;"people"back"then"said"exactly"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 347"Tuney-Tunes"was"published"from"1944"until"1966,"when"Paul"Acket"renamed"it"Popfoto"to"underline"its" new"focus"on"the"latest"pop"music." 348"Righart,"De-eindeloze-jaren-zestig,"162." 349"Ibid."

124" " same"things"about"jazz"as"they"say"now"about"beat"music.”350"While"the"readership"of" Tuney-Tunes"and"Muziek-Express"had"included"teenagers,"it"was"not"until"the"late"1950s" that"media"began"to"aim"directly"and"exclusively"at"this"newly"emerging"group."The"first" magazine"initiated"by"teenagers"themselves"was-Twen,"published"between"November" 1960"until"May"1961,"when"it"was"renamed"Taboe."The"twentyHseven"year"old"André" van"der"Louw"and"Almar"Tjepkema"initiated"the"magazine,"modeled"after"a"German" magazine"of"the"same"name."Like"its"German"counterpart,"the"magazine"aimed"at" teenagers"from"approximately"sixteen"years"and"up,"using"the"slang"of"younger" educated"readers"and"discussed"music,"fashion,"drugs,"and"socialHpolitical"themes" concerning"the"housing"shortage"and"the"monarchy.351"The"magazine"Twen,"in"contrast" focused"on"jazz"rather"than"rock"and"roll,"with"regular"columns"by"the"young"writer" Remco"Campert"and"artistic"portraits"by"photographer"Ed"van"der"Elsken.352"Van"der" Elsken’s"courseHgrained"black"and"white"photographs"of"American"artists"such"Ella" Fitzgerald,"Chet"Baker,"Dizzy"Gillespie,"and"the"audiences"during"the"legendary" nachtconcerten-(night"concerts)"at"the"capital’s"Concertgebouw,"captured"the"spirit"of" the"young"teenagers"in"suits"and"ties.353" " Publications"on"jazz"that"appeared"between"the"late"1940s"and"the"midH1960s"focused" mostly"on"the"history"of"jazz."With"telling"titles"such"as"Jazz:-Van-oerwoudrhythme-tot- Hollywoodsymphonie"(Jazz:"From"Jungle"Rhythm"to"Hollywood"Symphony,"1949),"these" histories"typically"begin"the"story"of"jazz"in"the"seventeenth"century"with"the"settling"of" African"slaves"in"the"United"States,"establishing"work"songs,"spirituals"and"the"blues"as" the"main"pillars"of"jazz"and"relying"on"key"musicians"and"groups"to"illustrate"the"music’s" evolution"from"blues,"ragtime"and"spirituals"to"the"“pure"jazz”"of"New"Orleans"and" Chicago."354"Hans"de"Vaal,"author"of"the"1949"Jazz,"was"a"journalist"interested"in" American"culture"who"interviewed"several"contemporary"writers"(Elliott"Stein,"Carson" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 350"Kuyper,"Over-Jazz,"24."“De"jazz"had"toen"[in"de"jaren"vijftig]"immers"een"andere"functie"dan"nu."Deze" muziek"was"een"van"de"symbolen"van"het"verzet"van"de"jeugd"tegen"de"oudere"generatie;"er"werd"toen" precies"zo"over"gesproken"en"geschreven"als"de"laatste"jaren"over"de"beatmuziek." 351"Righart,"De-eindeloze-jaren-zestig,"162." 352"Ibid." 353"Ed"van"der"Elsken,"Jazz"(Amsterdam:"De"Bezige"Bij,"1959)." 354"See,"for"example,"Hans"de"Vaal,"Jazz:-Van-oerwoudrhythme-tot-Hollywoodsymphonie-(Amsterdam:"Jacob" van"Kampen,"1949);"Adriaan"Heerkens,"Jazz:-Het-wezen-en-de-geschiedenis"(Baarn:"Bosch"en"Keuning," 1955);"Rolf"ten"Kate,"ed.,"Zes-over-jazz:-Kaleidoscoop-van-een-deels-miskende,-deels-overschatte-muze" (Zaandijk:"Heynis,"1958);"Ton"de"Joode,"Jazz-onder-het-mes"(Amsterdam:"Ten"Brink,"1962)."

125" " MacCullers,"Alfred"Chester,"Charles"Wright,"among"others)"for"the"AmsterdamHbased" literary"magazine"Litterair-Paspoort.-Locating"what"he"refers"to"as"“pure"jazz”"at"the" heart"of"New"Orleans"and"Chicago,"De"Vaal"aligns"himself"with"the"American"vernacular" prose"of"Ramsey"Jr."and"Ch."Smiths’"Jazzmen"(1939),"works"that"tell"the"American"story" as,"in"the"words"of"Gennari,"“an"epic"full"of"largerHthanHlife"heroes"and"unforgettable" places"that"cohered"into"a"new"national"mythology,”"while"locating"“the"holy"grail"of"jazz" authenticity"in"New"Orleans"street"parades,"southHsides"Chicago"saloons,"and"Harlem" rent"parties.”355"While"De"Vaal"aimed"at"an"“objective"study"of"the"nature"and"essence"of" the"music,”"meant"for"“all"those"who"are"interested"in"the"problem"of"jazz,”"his"book"is" basically"a"passionate"plea"for"the"“zuivere"jazzmuziek”"(pure"jazz).356"Moreover," distinguishing"the"“pure"jazz”"of"“North"American"Negroes”"from"what"he"considers" jazz’s"inferior"derivatives"of"“commercial"swing,”"dance"music"and"“degenerated"ReH Bop,”"De"Vaal’s"history"is"exemplary"in"its"tendency"to"explain"jazz"in"terms"of"racial"and" geographical"binaries,"reinforcing"essentialist"ideas"of"“the"real"jazz”"as"AfricanH American"and"resulting"in"an"evolutionist,"essentialist"and"music"stylistic"explanation"of" jazz." " De"Vaal"is"also"the"author"of"the"earliest"known"book"section"on"jazz"in"the"Netherlands," a"short"threeHpage"chapter"on"jazz"and"swing"in"the"Netherlands"that"could"equally"be" understood"as"a"plea"for"the"“pure"jazz”"from"the"United"States."Lamenting"the"scarce" access"to"jazz"and"swing"via"American,"English,"and"Dutch"radio"broadcasts"and" expensive"gramophones,"De"Vaal"argues"for"more"American"jazz"on"radio"and"in" magazines."In"doing"so,"he"fiercely"criticizes"the"music"of"the"four"leading"Dutch"jazz" orchestras"of"the"time,"the"Dutch"Swing"College"Band,"the"Skymasters,"the"Ramblers,"and" the"Metropole"Orkest,"mostly"for"not"playing"“the"real"thing,”"or"for"having"sold"its"soul" to"the"commercialized"swing."“The"Dutch"Swing"College"Band’s"escape"of"swing,”"De"Vaal" states,"“doesn’t"mean"that"what"they"play"can"be"called"jazz.”"The"“Charlie"Barnett”"type" of"music"played"by"the"“unsurpassed"radio"orchestra”"the"Skymasters"remains"swing"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 355"Gennari,"Blowin’-Hot-and-Cool,"123." 356"Hans"De"Vaal"is"a"relatively"unknown"writer."Some"of"his"work"is"published"in"Frans"de"Bruyn"and"Jaap" Romeyn,"ed.,"“Vandaag"5:"Nieuw"Werk"van"Nederlandse"en"Vlaamse"Schrijvers,”"in"Literair-Akkoord:-Een- Keuze-uit-de-Bijdragen-Verschenen-in-de-ZuidHen-Noordnederlandse-Letterkundige-Tijdschriften-van-het-Jaar- 1956,"ed."by"Pierre"H."Dubois,"Hubert"van"Herreweghen,"Karel"Jonckheere"and"Garmt"Stuiveling"(Utrecht:" Bruna,"1958)."

126" " “nonetheless,”"while"the"“silly"songs"and"teenybopper"love"tunes”"by"the"“once"popular" Ramblers”"“can’t"even"be"considered"dance"music.”"De"Vaal,"however,"held"hope"for"the" Metropole"Orkest,"led"by"David"Gijsbert"“Dolf”"van"der"Linden."According"to"the"writer" the"orchestra"showed"“great"potential,”"if"it"would"only"concentrate"on"the"works"of" American"and"English"composers"such"as"Aaron"Copland,"Ferde"Grofé,"Robert"Russell" Bennett,"Percy"Grainger,"William"Grant"Still,"and"Eric"Coates."357"" " Jazz"journalist"Ton"de"Joode"in"1962"Jazz-onder-het-Mes-(Jazz"under"the"knife)"similarly" portrays"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"and"its"neighboring"countries"as"inferior"to"American" jazz."In"his"attempt"to"position"Dutch"jazz"against"both"American"and"other"European" jazz,"he"observes:"“[O]f"course,"not"everything"from"across"the"Atlantic"[is]"of"a"superior" quality,"but"even"those"who"play"rather"mediocre,"technically"tower"above"the"leading" figures"from"European"countries.”358"Notwithstanding"this"criticism,"De"Joode"is" enthusiastic"about"Dutch"players"such"as"Wessel"Ilcken,"Rita"Reys,"Pim"and"Ruud"Jacobs," “Bill”"Overgaauw,"and"the"young"and"upcoming"pianists"Rob"Madna"and"Louis"van"Dijk," whom"he"praises"for"playing"with"a"“hearthwarming"quality”"and"for"having"earned"a" reputation"that"“extends"well"beyond"the"borders"of"the"Netherlands.”359"Besides"these" modern"jazz"musicians,"De"Joode"compliments"traditionalist"groups"such"as"the"Dutch" Swing"College"Band,"the"Rivertown"Dixieland"Band"and"the"New"Orleans"Seven"for" attempting—“in"their"own"way”—to"“keep"the"jazz"fire"burning.”360" " De"Joode’s"work"is"interesting,"because"he"is"one"of"the"few"Dutch"jazz"critics"in"the"early" 1960s"that"engages"with"a"comparative,"albeit"very"generalizing"study"of"different" European"jazz"practices."Referring"to"Chris"Barber"and"other"revivalist"traditional"jazz" from"the"UK,"he"observes"how"the"English"situation"is"much"more"“limited”"than"the" Dutch,"noting"that"“in"general"one"could"say"that"the"Englishman"refuses"to"engage"with" postH1940s"jazz"styles.”361"France,"according"to"the"Joode,"is"“the"only"country"that"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 357"Hans"de"Vaal,"Jazz:-Van-oerwoudrhythme-tot-Hollywoodsymphonie-(Amsterdam:"Jacob"van"Kampen," 1949)." 358"De"Joode,"Jazz-onder-het-mes,"129."“Natuurlijk"was"lang"niet"alles,"wat"van"over"de"Oceaan"kwam,"van" superieure"kwaliteit,"maar"opvallend"was"toch"dat"Amerikanen,"die"slechts"middelmatig"spel"lieten"horen," technisch"nog"een"aanzienlijk"aantal"centimeters"uitstaken"boven"de"topfiguren"van"de"Europese"landen.”" 359"Ibid.,"129H130." 360"Ibid.,"131H132." 361"Ibid.,"132H134."

127" " during"the"interwarHyears"has"affected"the"development"of"jazz"in"America"and"abroad,”" referring"to"Hugues"Panassié,"Sidney"Bechet,"and"the"Hotclub"the"France,"while"“modern" jazz"thrives”"in"Scandinavian"countries"and"in"postHwar"Germany,"where"Hans"Koller," Albert"Mangelsdorff,"and"Kurt"Edelhagen"contributed"to"what"he"calls"a"“vivid"jazzH cult.”362"In"an"intriguing"tenHpage"chapter"“Jazzmode,"snobisme"en"doop”(“Jazz"fashion," snobbism,"and"dope”),"De"Joode"further"criticizes"the"young"jazz"listeners"from"Europe," arguing"for"a"more"critical"engagement"with"jazz."Recalling"Miles"Davis’"remark"that"“In" Europe"they"dig"everything"you"do,"even"the"wrong"notes,”"De"Joode"portrays"the" European"listeners"as"uncritical,"rebellious"snobs."“[It"is"this"rebellious"aspect"of"jazz”]" that"makes"the"youth"want"to"copy"jazz"musicians,"in"the"way"they"dress,"but"also— luckily"not"too"often—in"the"use"of"narcotics.”363" " While"these"and"other"writings"on"jazz"until"1960s"appeared"only"occasionally"and"were" predominantly"written"by"enthusiasts"on"a"nonHprofit"basis,"jazz"professionals"during" this"period"were"mainly"active"on"radio."One"of"its"most"influential"exponents"was" Michiel"de"Ruyter"(1926H1994),"who"was"active"as"an"editor"of"programs"such"as"AVRO’s" Jazz"Societeit"(1952H1958),"Radio"Jazz"Magazine"(1961H1972)."Likewise,"record" producer"and"allegedly"the"first"deejay"on"Dutch"radio,"“Pete”"Felleman"(1921H2000)" from"1947"presented"Swing-&-Sweet,-From-Hollywood-&-52nd-Street-(later-LP-Parade)"for" VARA"radio"and"USA-Cabaret"on"Hilversum"I.364"However,"midH1960s"a"new"group"of" jazz"journalists"emerged"that"used"written"media"as"the"main"platform"for"discussing" jazz.365"They"manifested"themselves"by"initiating"specialized"jazz"magazines"such"as" Jazzwereld,-Jazz/Press,"by"writing"columns"in"daily"newspapers"and"popular"music" magazines"such"as"Oor,-and"by"publishing"books.366"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 362"Ibid.,"129H140." 363"Ibid.,"121."“Het"is"voor"een"groot"deel"eenzelfde"opstandigheid,"die"zoveel"jongere"mensen"in" verschillende"dingen"jazzmusici"doet"naHapen,"in"kleding"enzovoorts,"maar"ook—hoewel"gelukkig"minder" veelvuldig—in"het"gebruik"van"verdovende"middelen.”"" 364"Pete"is"an"alias"of"Jaap"Albert"Louis"Sidney." 365"Michiel"de"Ruyter"produced"Radio-Jazz-Magazine"together"with"Aad"Bos"and"Kees"Schoonenberg." 366"Journalists"associated"with"Jazzwereld"Rudy"Koopmans,"Pé"Hawinkels,"Hans"Dulfer,"Ted"Szantó," Michiel"de"Ruyter,"Peter"Smids,"Martin"Schouten,"Simon"Korteweg,"Gezinus"Wolters,"Frank"Visser,"Arend" Jan"Heerma"van"Voss,"and"Bert"Vuijsje."Specialized"jazz"magazines"that"have"appeared"in"the"Netherlands" include"De-Jazzwereld"(Scheveningen,"Augustus"1931H"November"1940);"Rhythme"(Eindhoven,"October" 1949"H"September"1961);"Jazzwereld"(Hilversum,"July"1965"H"June"1973);"Muziekkrant-Oor"(Amsterdam," 1971"onwards);"True-Note"(September"1973"H"October"1974)"Key-Notes:-Musical-Life-in-the-Netherlands- "

128" " Ideologies&and&opinions& In"1967"journalist"Ruud"Kuyper"compiled"the"book"Over-Jazz"(On"Jazz),"which"discussed" jazz"from"a"variety"of"angles:"Dutch"jazz;"the"role"of"jazz"criticism;"jazz"as"a"form"of" low/high"art;"the"difference"between"jazz"and"beat;"new"directions"in"jazz;"the"blues;" and"jazz"audiences."367"With"the"exception"of"Kuyper"(1937H1999)"and"editor"for"the" Haagse-Post"Trino"Flothuis,"all"contributors"(Pé"Hawinkels,"Bert"Vuijsje,"Trino"Flothuis," Peter"Smids,"Arend"Jan"Heerma"van"Voss"and"Martin"Schouten)"were"college"students" born"between"1932"and"1942."In"his"introduction"to"the"book"Kuyper"explicitly"puts"his" work"in"the"tradition"of"American"sociologist"and"jazz"critic"Marshall"W."Stearns."As" noted"in"the"introduction"to"this"chapter,"these"were"all"young"and"eager"students"that" set"out"to"challenge"jazz"discourse"in"the"Netherlands."These"journalists"not"only" discussed"jazz"in"most"of"Dutch"newspapers,"they"also"wrote"for"and"initiated" specialized"magazines"such"as"Jazz/Press"and"Jazzwereld."Moreover,"as"jury"members"of" significant"jazz"competitions"such"as"the"Wessel"Ilcken"Award,"they"contributed" significantly"to"the"promotion"and"dissemination"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."The"book- Over-Jazz-not"only"showed"the"writers’"ambitions,"but"was"at"the"same"time"reflective"of," in"the"words"of"Gennari,"the"“academic"overtones”"that"postwar"jazz"discourse"began"to" take"on.368" " In"contrast"to"evolutionist"and"essentialist"jazz"narratives"of"earlier"jazz"histories"in"the" Netherlands,"this"generation"of"journalists"advocated"an"independent"and"critical" reflection"of"jazz.369"“[J]azz"writing"should"be"based"on"a"thorough"knowledge"of"facts" and"backgrounds,”"former"Jazzwereld-editor"Vuijsje"noted"in"1983,"adding,"“the"purpose" of"a"meeting"between"a"journalist"and"a"musician"is"not"to"hangHout,"drink"booze"and" smoke"cannabis,"but"to"record"significant"and"reliable"statements"by"the"interviewee.”370"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" (Amsterdam,"1975H1977),"Jazz-/Press"(Almelo,"September"1975"H"September"1978);"Jazz-Nu"(Tilburg," 1978H2000);"Philharmonic"(Pete"Felleman)." 367"Between"1972"and"1980"Bert"Vuijsje"published"“Jazz"Nieuws,”"a"bimonthly"column"on"jazz"in"Oor." Vuijsje"continued"to"publish"in"the"popular"music"magazine"until"1982." 368"Van"Eyle,"ed.,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek,"112." 369"Van"de"Leur,"“Improvisatoren"versus"clichéHmachines,”"30H37." 370"Bert"Vuijsje,"Jazzportretten:-Van-Ben-Webster-tot-Wynton-Marsalis"(Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep,"1983),"7." “Gedegen"kennis"van"feiten"en"achtergronden"…"dat"was"onze"opvatting"van"jazz"journalistiek:"niet"de"(al" dan"niet"alcoholische"of"cannabische)"verbroedering"tussen"muzikant"en"schrijver"dient"het"doel"van"de" ontmoeting"te"zijn,"maar"het"vastleggen"van"belangwekkende"en"betrouwbare"uitspraken"van"de" geïnterviewde.”"

129" " The"initiation"of"Jazzwereld"in"July"1965"was"a"direct"response"to"Rhythme,"the"monthly" magazine"for"“modern"music”"published"between"1949"and"1961."The"magazine" promoted"jazz"as"a"“happy"music”"and"was"therefore"dismissed"by"Vuijsje"as"the"“youth" trauma"of"a"whole"generation"of"jazz"fans.”371"In"1973,"in"the"last"edition"of"Jazzwereld," chief"editor"Bert"Vuijsje"recalled"that"they"had"started"the"magazine"in"July"1965"with" three"goals:"" " First"of"all,"we"shared"the"conviction"that"it"should"be"possible"to"write" differently"about"jazz"than"Rhythme"..."Second,"we"felt"the"urge"to"inform" the"jazz"audience"about"the"“new"thing”"as"it"was"called"a"year"after"the" “October"Revolution"in"Jazz”"and"a"month"after"the"recording"of" [Coltrane’s]"Ascension."And"third—although"initially"a"oneHman"crusade" of"Arend"Jan"Heerma"van"Voss—we"were"driven"by"the"fact"that"there"was" a"fascinating,"in"the"Netherlands"hardly"known"music,"the"“blues.”"(Bert" Vuijsje,"“Afscheid:"De"laatste"Jazzwereld,”"Jazzwereld,"43"May/June"1973," 3)372" " In"contrast"to"the"prewar"De-Jazzwereld-and"Rhythme,"critics"of"Jazzwereld"positioned" jazz"as"a"high"art"worthy"of"serious"attention,"critical"analysis"and"philosophical"debate." Consequently,"Jazzwereld-journalists"tended"to"ignore"musicians"and"groups"(Dutch" Swing"College,"Pim"Jacobs,"Rita"Reys)"who"sought"to"entertain"their"audiences," dismissing"them"for"having"“fallen"into"the"trap"of"commercialism.”373As"such"it"took"on" a"much"more"radical"stance"than,"for"example,"the"American"Down-Beat,"which"served" the"music"industry"as"well"as"consumers"of"jazz.374" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 371"Bert"Vuijsje,"“Afscheid:"De"laatste"Jazzwereld,”"Jazzwereld,"43"May/June"1973,"3." 372"The"Jazzwereld-discontinued"in"1973,"when"editor"Bert"Vuijsje"considered"it"no"longer"useful"to" continue"the"magazine"because"of"“"too"high"production"costs”"and"a"general"“musical"malaise”"in"jazz." “Zoals"ik"er"op"terugkijk,"ging"Jazzwereld"in"juli"1965"van"start"met"een"drievoudige"boodschap."Ten"eerste" de"overtuiging"dat"het"mogelijk"moest"zijn"op"een"andere"manier"over"jazz"te"schrijven"dan"in"Rhythme" (1949H’61,"jeugdtrauma"van"een"hele"generatie"jazzfans)"gebruikelijk"was."Ten"tweede"de"drang"om"het" jazzpubliek"te"vertellen"dat"er"iets"nieuws"te"horen"was:"the"new"thing”"zoals"dat"toen,"het"jaar"na"“The" October"Revolution"in"Jazz”"en"een"maand"na"de"opname"van"[Coltranes]"Ascension"heette."En"ten"derde," maar"dat"was"aanvankelijk"een"volstrekte"eenmansHonderneming"van"Arend"Jan"Heerma"van"Voss,"de" wetenschap"dat"er"een"fascinerende,"in"Nederland"hoegenaamd"niet"bekende"muziek"bestond,"de"‘blues’.”" 373"Van"de"Leur,"“Improvisatoren"versus"clichéHmachines,”"33." 374"Ibid.,"33."

130" " Similarly,"the"Jazz/Press,"a"bimonthly"“noncommercial”"jazz"paper,"promoted"the"music" as"serious"form"of"art,"albeit"in"a"less"outspoken"way"than"Jazzwereld.-From"September" 1975,"a"“collective"of"editors,"designers"and"a"photographer”"worked"on"Jazz/Press,"a" bimonthly"“noncommercial”"jazz"paper"with"the"aim"of"“providing"a"complete"overview" of"the"current"jazz"activities"in"the"Netherlands.”375"The"magazine"circulated"with"fiftyH three"hundred"copies,"of"which"five"thousand"went"to"fortyHfive"jazz"clubs"throughout" the"country,"and"even"needed"to"create"a"waiting"list"because"of"the"increasing" demand.376"Besides"informing"its"readership"on"the"latest"jazz,"Jazz/Press-also"dedicated" itself"to"the"fight"against"the"“discrimination”"in"the"public"funding"system,- " The"governmental"funding"of"the"Nederlandse-Opera"[Dutch"Opera]" amounts"to"millions."Operagezelschap-Forum,"covering"the"eastern"and" northern"part"of"the"Netherlands,"on"itself"receives"4"million"guilders" annual"funding,"in"addition"to"4"million"guilders"of"provincial"and"local" funding."The"annual"funding"of"Dutch"jazz"organizations"is"significantly" smaller,"less"than"half"a"million!"The"percentage"of"opera"listeners"in"the" Netherlands"is"practically"the"same"as"the"percentage"of"jazz"listeners:"app." 1,5"%."Jazz/Press"obviously"wants"to"end"this"discrimination"(Editorial," “Ruimer"Subsidiebeleid,”"Jazz/Press"2"[1975],"1H2)377" " Furthermore,"Jazz/Press"set"out"to"critically"follow"the"position"of"jazz"within"the"radio" broadcasting"network"(“Hilversum"4”)"and"its"place"in"the"planned"national"archive"for" recordings.378" " The"journalists’"drive"towards"a"more"politically"engaged"form"of"writing"resulted"in" analysis"and"reflections"often"in"the"charged"language"of"the"1960s"and"1970s." """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 375"Editorial,"“Ruimer"Subsidiebeleid,”"Jazz/Press"2"(1975):"1H2."The"magazine"was"published"between" 1975H1978,"from"1976"it"received"governmental"support"in"terms"of"structural"subsidy." 376"Ibid.,"1." 377"“De"subsidie"aan"de"Ned."Opera"bedraagt"vele"miljoenen."Alleen"al"Operagezelschap"Forum,"dat"OostHen" Noord"Nederland"bestrijkt"krijgt"per"jaar"4"miljoen"regeringssubsidie"plus"4"miljoen"provinciale"en" gemeentelijke"subsidie,"De"subsidie"aan"de"Nederlandse"jazzorganisaties"is"jaarlijks"beduidend"minder" dan"een"half"miljoen!"Het"percentage"operaliefhebbers"is"in"Nederland"nagenoeg"gelijk"aan"het"percentage" jazzliefhebbers:"beiden"ca."1,5%."Jazz/Press"wil"duidelijk"een"einde"maken"aan"deze"discriminerende" situatie.”" 378"Editorial,"“Ruimer"Subsidiebeleid,”"Jazz/Press"2"(1975):"1H2."

131" " Reflective"of"the"socially"aware,"Marxist"writings"of"American"jazz"critics"such"as"Frank" Kofsky—described"by"the"aforementioned"Gennari"as"“the"ardent"champion"of"black" cultural"nationalism,”379"A.B."Spellman"and"others,"these"critics"attempted,"for"the"first" time,"to"write"a"socioHcultural"jazz"narrative,"stressing"economic"and"political"change"as" crucial"factors"to"what"they"considered"the"“jazz"revolution"of"the"1960s.”"Arguably"the" most"politically"outspoken"jazz"critic"was"Rudy"Koopmans"(1932H1983),"a"professional" sociologist"who"published"regularly"on"jazz"in"daily"papers"(De"Volkskrant,-Haagse-Post,- De-Groene-Amsterdammer)"and"music"magazines"(Jazzwereld,"Oor,-Jazz/Press,-Key-Notes)." Graduated"in"sociology,"and"in"the"1970s"working"as"a"lecturer"at"the"university"of" Amsterdam,"Koopmans"published"several"books"on"avantHgarde"art"forms"and"their" socioHpolitical"context."Moreover,"both"as"chairman"of"SJN"and"coHfounder"of"the"ICPH label,"he"was"actively"involved"in"the"further"professionalization"of"jazz"in"the" Netherlands."Following"Kofsky’s"premise"that"free"jazz"is"a"class"struggle,"his"1977"Jazz:- Improvisatie-en-organisatie-van-een-groeiende-minderheid-contains"Dutch"translations"of" articles"by"A.B."Spellmann"and"Frank"Kofsky."Because"“musicians"should"have"the"last" word,”"the"last"third"of"the"book"is"dedicated"to"a"series"of"reprinted"interviews"with" sixteen"musicians,"all"Dutch"with"the"exception"of"Peter"Brötzmann,"David"Murray,"Olu" Dara,"Phillip"Wilson"and"Derek"Bailey.380"" " In"his"1977"book,"Koopmans"explains"his"sociological"view"on"understanding"jazz," stating"that," " it"is"impossible"to"gain"insight"into"jazz"when"one"limits"himself"to"the" product:"the"music."To"gain"insight"in"the"music-of"jazz,"is"to"gain"insight"in" the"world"of"jazz,"which"is"far"from"an"isolated"area."…"Jazz"musicians"are" not"part"of"the"establishment,"nor"are"their"views."In"contrary,"jazz" musicians"are"a"minority"in"every"respect...This"is"also"the"case"in"the" Netherlands."It"becomes"apparent"in"the"rewards,"the"working"conditions," jazz’s"position"within"cultural"policy"and"media"networks,"the"way"it"is" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 379"Gennari,"Blowin’-Hot-and-Cool,-252." 380"Koopmans’"Jazz"(1977)"contains"interviews"with"Hans"Dulfer,"Misha"Mengelberg"(2),"Arjen"Gorter,"Han" Bennink"(2),"Maarten"van"Regteren"Altena,"Kees"Hazevoet,"Theo"Loevendie,"Willem"Breuker"(2),"Tristan" Honsinger,"Mr."Slim,"Leo"Cuypers,"Peter"Brötzmann,"David"Murray,"Olu"Dara,"Phillip"Wilson,"and"Derek" Bailey."

132" " treated"by"record"companies"and"the"way"jazz"is"(not)"integrated"into" educational"systems."…"The"corruption"[of"jazz]"takes"place"through" corrupted"public"taste"and"imposed"by"commercial"mass"media"like"radio" and"television,"record"companies,"the"business"industry,"commercialized" art"institutions,"etcetera."Successful"musicians"are"immediately"taken" hostage"by"these"institutions,"which"has"a"negative"effect"on"their"artistic" achievements."(Rudy"Koopmans,"Jazz:-Improvisatie-en-organisatie-van-een- groeiende-minderheid"[Amsterdam:"SUA,"1977],"8H9)381" " Altogether,"while"aiming"for"a"critical,"inHdepth"examination"of"jazz,"reflecting"the"idea" that"jazz"was"a"serious"art"form,"the"1960s"generation"of"jazz"critics"also"explicitly" propagated"the"more"experimental"forms"of"arts,"condemning"and"therefore"largely" ignoring"what"they"considered"corrupted"types"of"music."382"Thus,"these"journalists"not" only"advocated"a"more"engaged"and"critical"reflection"of"jazz,"but,"by"doing"so," contributed"to"the"repositioning"of"jazz"as"a"serious"art"form,"away"from"entertainment" and"commercialism."" " Musicians"generally"felt"ambivalent"about"the"role"of"jazz"critics."One"the"one"hand" musicians"depended"on"the"media"as"a"promotional"tool."While"improvising"musicians" of"the"similar"age,"most"notably"Willem"Breuker,"knew"very"well"how"to"use"the"media" in"order"to"receive"attention"for"his"music,"not"every"musician"felt"comfortable"with"the" unconditional"support"by"some"journalists."Drummer"Pierre"Courbois,"for"example," remained"hesitant"about"the"lavish"praise"he"received"from"songwriter,"poet,"translator" and"Jazzwereld-contributor"Pé"Hawinkels."“Pé"went"overboard"occasionally."He"was"one"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 381"“Die"heersende"ideeën,"die"heersende"muziek"echter"dringen"wel"voortdurend"in"de"jazzmuziek"binnen." Dit"is"wat"men"verloedering"van"de"jazz"kan"noemen."Die"verloedering"komt"binnen"via"verschillende" maatschappelijke"kanalen:"via"een"verloederde"publieke"smaak,"via"de"kommerciële"opzet"van" massamedia"zoals"radio"en"televisie,"via"de"macht"van"de"platen"producerende"maatschappijen,"via"de" invloed"van"het"bedrijfsleven"en"gecommercialiseerde"kunstinstituten"op"het"onderwijs,"enzovoort." Jazzmusici"die"een"beetje"publiek"succes"hebben"worden"al"snel"in"de"wurggreep"van"de"bemiddelende" instituten"genomen"waarna"het"bergafwaarts"gaat"met"hun"prestaties.”" 382"Bert"Vuijsje,"“Afscheid:"De"laatste"Jazzwereld,”"Jazzwereld,"43"May/June"1973,"3."

133" " of"my"biggest"fans."Even"if"I"had"played"the"drums"upside"down"with"a"circular"saw,"he" still"would"have"liked"it."And"that’s"no"good,"either.”383""

Canonizing&Dutch&jazz& During"the"1970s,"journalists"and"musicians"increasingly"came"to"recognize"improvised" music"as"a"distinctively"Dutch"jazz"practice."Along"the"lines"of"the"canonization" processes"described"so"eloquently"by"Scott"DeVeaux"in"his"widely"acclaimed" “Constructing"the"jazz"tradition,”"Dutch"jazz"journalists"increasingly"attempted"to" capture"the"story"of"Dutch"jazz"into"a"singular"narrative,"stressing"its"particularities" rather"than"similarities"with"the"dominant"American"jazz"narrative."Their"writing" reflected"the"growing"awareness"of"Dutch"jazz"musicians,"who"during"this"period"began" to"understand"their"music"in"relation"to"their"local"roots"in"a"more"outspoken"way— although,"one"has"to"add,"most"musicians"did"not"think"of"their"music"in"terms"of" national"identity.384"Han"Bennink"and"Willem"Breuker"were"among"the"most"outspoken" about"using"their"own"roots"in"order"to"create"a"cultural"identity."In"a"1973"interview" Bennink"recalled"how"Breuker"and"he"shared"a"background"in"American"music"and" developed"it"into"what"he"called"the"“ZeeburgerdijkHmuziek,”"a"music"with"its"“own" specific"timing,”"named"after"the"street"where"Breuker"was"born"and"raised."Likewise," reed"player"Breuker"in"a"1973"interview"recalled"meeting"another"Dutch"musician"in" Libya:" " This"guy"was"all"busy"imitating"Oscar"Peterson."In"Libya!"So"I"say:"“Man," you’re"out"of"your"mind!"What"on"earth"are"you"trying"to"achieve"by" playing"Oscar"Peterson"in"Libya?"That"makes"absolutely"no"sense"at"all!" You"have"to"check"out"your"own"shit,"from"here."See"what"you"can"do"with" that.385" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 383"See"Kusters"and"Schulz,"Pierre-Courbois,"19."“Pé"sloeg"wat"mij"betreft"soms"een"beetje"door"naar"de" andere"kant."Hij"was"een"van"mijn"grootste"fans."Al"had"ik"achterstevoren"op"m’n"kop"met"een"cirkelzaag" achter"de"drums"gezeten,"dan"had"hij"het"nog"mooi"gevonden."En"dat"is"eigenlijk"ook"niet"goed.”" 384"Walter"van"de"Leur"observes"a"similar"tendency"in"Jazzwereld."Van"de"Leur,"“Improvisatoren"versus" clichéHmachines,”"36H37." 385"In"March"1967"the"Dutch"airlines"KLM"invited"the"Mengelberg"Quartet"to"perform"at"a"party"of"staff" members"of"the"KLM"and"the"Dutch"embassy"in"Tripoli,"Libya."By"the"end"of"1966"the"original"quartet"of" Mengelberg"added"a"fifth"member,"Willem"Breuker."Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"157."Although"the"original" quartet"included"Piet"Noordijk"on"alto"saxophone,"apparently"Breuker"took"over"this"time."Buzelin,"Willem- Breuker,"19."“We"waren"eens"in"Libië"en"daar"ontmoetten"we"ook"een"jazzHmuzikant."Nou,"die"was" "

134" " " Reflecting"this"growing"awareness"and"the"desire"to"create"a"musical"identity"of"their" own,"musicians"more"outspokenly"and"more"confidently"separated"their"music"from"the" American"and"European."Bennink,"much"to"his"later"regret,"noted"in"a"1970"interview" that"“[t]here"is"no"such"thing"as"an"American"avantHgarde."Also,"there"is"no"European" scene,"there"is"only"a"Dutch"scene."Believe"me,"it’s"true,"the"best"music"of"the"moment" can"be"heard"in"the"Netherlands.”386"“I"read"somewhere"that"people"organize"jazzHtrips" from"the"Netherlands"to"the"United"States"…Well,"that"is"absolute"ludicrous."The"trips"go" the"wrong"direction."They"should"organize"for"the"Americans"to"come"over"here!”387" Similarly,"Koopmans"in"the"last"issue"of"Jazzwereld-observes"how"“we"should"cherish" improvised"music”"because"it"is"“perhaps"the"first"music"in"the"Netherlands"with"a" distinct"character.”"However,"while"these"and"similar"comments"signaled"a"growing" sense"of"selfHawareness,"musicians"nor"writers"in"the"first"half"of"the"1970s"explicitly- positioned"the"musical"avantHgarde"as"distinctively"Dutch,"or"as"related"to"a"specific" Dutch"cultural"identity.388" " The"1977"publication"of"Vuijsje’s"article"“Hoe"groot"is"de"Hollandse"school?”"(How"big"is" the"Dutch"school?)"and"Koopmans’"historical"overview"of"Dutch"jazz"in"Jazz:- Improvisatie-en-Organisatie-van-een-Groeiende-Minderheid-(“Jazz:"Improvisation"and" Organization"of"a"Growing"Minority,”"1977)"are"the"earliest"examples"of"critics’"attempts" to"connect"the"work"of"improvising"musicians"to"its"local"context.-However,"while" Vuijsje"in"his"exploration"of"the"Dutch"school"confidently"credits"the"independent"jazz" label"ICP"for"creating"an"influx"of"small,"independent"labels,"he"remains"reluctant"to"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ontzettend"druk"bezig"met"Oscar"Peterson"na"te"spelen."In"Libië!"Ik"zeg,"man,"je"bent"niet"goed"bij"je"hóófd." Wat"wil"je"in"godsnaam"in"Libië"met"Oscar"Peterson?"Dat"slaat"helemaal"nergens"op!"Je"moet"een"beetje" naar"je"eigen"troep"kijken"hier."Om"daar"wat"uit"te"halen.”"Meijer,"“‘Ik"maak"muziek"voor"iedereen,"maar" waarom"vindt"iedereen"het"zo"afgrijselijk?’,”"77." 386"Rudy"Koopmans"and"Bert"Vuijsje,"“Han"Bennink:"‘Shepp,"Sanders,"Ayler,"Murray,"het"is"om"te"huilen’,”" Jazzwereld-30"(July"1970):"19."“Ik"heb"gelezen"dat"er"nu"jazzHreizen"georganiseerd"worden"van"Nederland" naar"Amerika."Nou,"dat"is"volslagen"overbodig,"voor"mij"tenminste."De"reizen"gaan"de"verkeerde"kant"op." Er"zouden"reizen"georganiseerd"moeten"worden"voor"de"Amerikanen"hier"naar"toe.!.”" 387"Rudy"Koopmans"and"Bert"Vuijsje,"“Han"Bennink:"‘Shepp,"Sanders,"Ayler,"Murray,"het"is"om"te"huilen’,”" Jazzwereld-30"(July"1970):"19."Original"text:"“Ik"heb"gelezen"dat"er"nu"jazzHreizen"georganiseerd"worden" van"Nederland"naar"Amerika."Nou,"dat"is"volslagen"overbodig,"voor"mij"tenminste."De"reizen"gaan"de" verkeerde"kant"op."Er"zouden"reizen"georganiseerd"moeten"worden"voor"de"Amerikanen"hier"naar"toe.!.”" 388"Rudy"Koopmans,"Jazzwereld-43"(May/June,"1977):"15H16."“Wellicht"de"eerste"muziek"in"Nederland"die" een"specifiek"karakter"vertoont."[…]"Daarom"moet"het"prille"plantje"van"onze"geïmproviseerde"muziek" liefderijk"gekoesterd"worden.”"

135" " answer"the"question"whether"the"musical"impact"of"improvised"music"has"extended" beyond"the"works"of"individuals"such"as"Willem"Breuker,"Leo"Cuypers,"Misha" Mengelberg"and"Han"Bennink,"praising"both"couples"for"their"unique"duoHplaying.389- A"more"elaborate"and"definitive"account"comes"from"the"same"year"from"Rudy" Koopmans,"whose"historical"overview"of"Dutch"jazz"can"be"seen"as"the"first"attempt"to" canonize"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"into"a"singular"Dutch"jazz"narrative."Stressing" economic"and"political"change—both"national"and"international—as"crucial"factors"to" what"he"considered"the"jazz"revolution"of"the"1960s,"he"states,"“the"music"that"has"taken" shape"from"1968"specifically"in"our"country,"has"become"known"as"‘aktuele" geïmproviseerde"muziek’"[contemporary"improvised"music]."This"means"that"one"not" only"improvises"according"to"the"rules"of"jazz,"but"that"any"material"can"be"used"to" improvise"on."Obviously,"the"element"of"improvisation"derives"from"jazz,"which"remains" the"main"background"of"these"musicians.”390- " Koopmans"is"the"first"to"engage"with"the"musicians’"local"roots"and"knowledge"of"other" musical"traditions,"considering"it"crucial"factors"that"have"shaped"this"new"music:"" " Reed"player"Willem"Breuker"asserts"that"the"music"of"his"early"childhood" years"in"AmsterdamHOost"were"just"as"important"[as"jazz]:"barrel"organs," carillons,"mandolin"ensembles"and"brass"bands."Reed"player"Loevendie" has"become"increasingly"aware"of"his"KinkerbuurtHpast:"brass"bands"and" church"bells."At"the"same"time"he"has"become"part"of"the"Turkish"music" tradition,"feeling"closer"with"Turkish"folk"singers"than"with"blues"singers." Pianist"Misha"Mengelberg"ones"noted"that"his"meeting"with"John"Cage"and" Thelonious"Monk"was"crucial,"but"later"acknowledged"how"he"comes"from" a"much"broader"tradition"that"includes"Schubert,"Herbie"Nichols"as"well"as" Fluxus."Han"Bennink"explores"a"wide"range"of"folk"music,"first"of"all"from" Africa,"but"also"from"other"areas."In"addition,"he"doesn’t"hesitate"to"pick" up"the"popular"tradition"of"the"musical"saw."Bass"player"Maarten" Regteren"van"Altena"occupies"himself"with"the"minimal"music"of"Terry"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 389"Bert"Vuijsje,"“Hoe"groot"is"de"Hollandse"school?”"Muziekkrant-Oor"6/7"(April"1977):"30H31." 390"Koopmans,"Jazz,-159."

136" " Riley,"Spanish"revolutionary"music,"to"name"a"few."Piano"player"Kees" Hazevoet"engages"with"the"music"of"the"Pygmies.”"(Koopmans,"Jazz," 159)391" " Besides"the"growing"political"consciousness"of"Dutch"musicians,"journalists"saw"the" American"developments"in"jazz"as"an"important"reason"for"the"departure"of"American" models"of"playing"jazz."Koopmans"marks"the"end"of"the"1960s"as"the"absolute"breaking" point,"as"he"observes"how"“A"threefold"rupture"took"place"during"these"years:"a" departure"from"American"jazz"(as"a"result"of"a"lack"of"significant"jazz"in"the"U.S."and"the" death"of"John"Coltrane),"a"departure"from"the"world"of"dance"and"entertainment,"and"a" departure"from"the"broadcasting"system.”392"Vuijsje,"a"year"later,"similarly"observes" changing"economic"and"politic"conditions"as"crucial"factors"in"the"establishment"of" Dutch"jazz."He"mentions"the"declining"avantHgarde"scene"in"New"York"and"the"emerging" socioHpolitical"awareness"of"Dutch"improvising"musicians"as"vital"for"the"establishment" of"Dutch"improvised"music."“For"the"first"time"in"jazz"history,”"Vuijsje"observes,"“the" great"exemplary"musicians"from"New"York"seemed"to"get"so"offHtrack,"that"it"was"easy" for"the"European"musicians"to"free"themselves"from"the"American"hegemony.”393The" establishment"of"Dutch"jazz"as"suggested"by"Koopmans"and"Vuijsje"should"be" understood"as"part"of"an"iterative"process;"it"is"not"only"born"out"of"social,"cultural"and"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 391"“De"muziek,"zoals"die"sinds"1968"in"ons"land"specifiek"gestalte"krijgt,"wordt"veelal"aangeduid"als" “aktuele"geïmproviseerde"muziek.”"Daarmee"wordt"aangegeven"dat"niet"langer"alleen"op"jazzmatige"wijze" wordt"geïmproviseerd"op"jazzmateriaal,"maar"dat"geïmproviseerd"wordt"op"allerlei"materiaal."Het" element"improvisatie"is"natuurlijk"afkomstig"uit"de"jazz,"die"de"belangrijkste"achtergrond"van"de"musici" blijft"vormen."Rietblazer"Willem"Breuker"stelt"vast"dat"voor"hem"de"muziek"die"in"zijn"jonge"jaren"in" AmsterdamHOost"hoorde"evenzeer"meespeelt:"draaiorgels,"carillons,"mandolineHensembles"en" harmonieorkesten."Rietblazer"Loevendie"verklaart"dat"hij"zich"steeds"meer"bewust"is"geworden"van"zijn" KinkerbuurtHverleden:"fanfareHklokken"en"kerkklokken."Tegelijkertijd"weet"hij"zich"ook"deel"van"de" Turkse"muziekwereld."Met"een"Turkse"volkszanger"heeft"hij"een"nauwere"relatie"dan"met"een"blueszanger." Pianist"Misha"Mengelberg"stelde"eens"dat"voor"hem"de"kennismaking"met"John"Cage"en"Thelonious"Monk" doorslaggevend"was,"maar"later"geeft"hij"er"zich"rekenschap"van"dat"hij"voortbouwt"op"een"veel"breder" historisch"materiaal,"dat"zowel"Schubert,"Herbie"Nichols,"als"de"ervaringen"met"Fluxus"omvat."Slagwerker" Han"Bennink"put"uit"een"breed"arsenaal"van"volksmuziek,"in"de"eerste"plaats"uit"Afrika"en"daarnaast"uit" andere"gebieden."Daarbij"schroomt"hij"niet,"de"populaire"traditie"van"de"zingende"zaag"weer"op"te"nemen." Bassist"Maarten"van"Regteren"Altena"houdt"zich"bezig"met"minimal"music"van"Terry"Riley"en"met"Spaane" revolutie"muziek,"om"maar"eens"een"greep"te"doen."Pianist"Kees"Hazevoet"is"onder"meer"bezig"met"de" muziek"van"de"Pygmeeën.”" 392"Koopmans,"Jazz,"10."In"her"1978"doctoral"thesis"on"Dutch"workshops,"musicologist"Eva"Bouman"wrote" a"threeHpage"section"on"postHwar"developments"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"focusing"primary"on" educational"practices"in"jazz."She"is"one"of"the"few"authors"who"in"her"work"addresses"the"role"of"women" in"Dutch"jazz." 393"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,"146H147."

137" " political"change"but"also"informs"social,"cultural"and"political"change."The"category" “Dutch"jazz”"is"therefore"crucial"to"claim"a"sense"of"distinct"identity"in"order"to"secure" the"funds"and"infrastructural"changes"that"I"have"identified"earlier"in"Chapter"Three."" " Dutch-jazz-narrative- Most"critics"maintain"the"“classic”"style"of"historiographical"writing."Koopmans"in"his" historiographical"writing"maintains"a"classical,"evolutionary"view"on"history"in"which"he" periodically"divides"the"history"of"Dutch"jazz"in"successive"stylistic"genres.394"This" becomes"evident"by"the"use"of"sentences"such"as:" " Black"power"entered"the"Concertgebouw"with"a"Max"Roach’s"group"in" 1964"(“esthetics"as"protest”)."A"little"later"alto"player"Eric"Dolphy"played" here"with"Mengelberg’s"group,"almost"crossing"the"boundaries"of"bop." Albert"Ayler’s"quartet"in"the"new"season"permanently"changed"[jazz’s]" course."(Koopmans,"Jazz,"157)" Or," Also"in"the"Netherlands"we"saw"how"musicians"who"started"playing"bop," changed"West"Coast"during"the"1950s,"switching"over"to"hardHbop"around" 1965."(Koopmans,"Jazz,-156H7)395" " Implicitly,"Koopmans"dismisses"the"value"of"modern"jazz"musicians"after"Wessel"Ilcken’s" death,"at"least"suggesting"a"causal"connection"between"the"emergence"and"death"of" Dutch"jazz."In"Koopmans’"view,"the"increasing"incorporation"of"jazz"musicians"into" radioHorchestras"signaled"the"death"of"Dutch"jazz"as"the"broadcasting"system"has"failed" to"actively"stimulate"contemporary"music"in"the"Netherlands:"“After"Ilcken’s"death"the" identity"of"Dutch"jazz"faded"away."[…]"Musicians,"including"Rita"Rays"and"the"Jacobs" brothers,"increasingly"assimilated"into"the"system"of"radioHorchestras"of"Hilversum,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 394"Similar"observations"have"been"made"in"Van"de"Leur’s"study"of"Jazzwereld."Van"de"Leur," “Improvisatoren"versus"clichéHmachines,"30H37." 395"“Black"power"wandelde"het"Concertgebouw"binnen"met"de"groep"van"Max"Roach"in"1964"(“schoonheid" als"protest”)"Even"later"kwam"altist"Eric"Dolphy"hier"spelen"met"de"groep"van"Mengelberg:"de"grens"van" de"bop"werd"bijna"overschreden."In"het"seizoen"kwam"het"kwartet"van"Albert"Ayler"naar"Nederland," waarmee"de"bakens"definitief"verzet"werden.395"Ook"in"Nederland"hebben"we"bij"verscheidene"musici" kunnen"zien"hoe"ze"als"boppers"begonnen,"in"het"begin"van"de"jaren"vijftig"WestHcoast"gingen"spelen,"om" rondom"1956"over"te"schakelen"op"hardHbop.”"

138" " although"they"initially"continued"to"be"successful"in"jazz,"for"example,"by"winning"the" first"prize"at"the"Antibes"Jazz"festival.”396" " To"Koopmans,"the"earliest"attempts"in"creating"a"musical"identity"was"the"emergence"of" “modern"jazz”"as"represented"by"its"“undisputed"leader”"Wessel"Ilcken,"the"“centre"of" modern"jazz""the"Sheherazade"and"the"Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes"series"that"“contributed"to"a" distinct"identity"and"an"international"reputation:”397" " The"situation"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"changed"drastically"when"Ilcken" entered"the"scene."He"formed"the"center,"a"prestigious"leader,"the" American"example"became"less"significant,"and"a"distinct"group"of"jazz" musicians"emerged"that"were"fullHtime"active"playing"jazz"and"which" could"no"longer"be"associated"with"the"world"of"dance"and"entertainment" orchestras"[…]"the"party"ended"on"the"13th"of"July"1957"when"Wessel" Ilcken"passed"away."Without"exaggerating"one"can"say"that"with"him"and" his"group"Dutch"jazz"began"to"stand"on"its"own"feet.398" " Dutch"jazz"histories"published"after"1977"share"a"consensus"on"what"this"typical"Dutch" practice"contained;"these"include"improvisation,"composition,"eclecticism,"absurdist," humor,"irony,"theatrical"forms,"nonHconformism,"and"antiHhierarchical"musical" organizations."Also,"there"is"a"sense"of"agreement"on"the"key"figures"and"key"moments"in" Dutch"jazz."While"Koopmans"saw"the"early"death"of"Dutch"drummer"Wessel"Ilcken"as" the"ending"of"a"crucial"first"phase"in"the"emancipation"of"Dutch"jazz"from"the"American" models"of"playing,"the"general"consensus"among"postH1977"histories"of"Dutch"jazz" typically"take"1966"is"a"pivotal"year"in"the"emancipation"of"Dutch"jazz."That"year"Willem" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 396"Koopmans,"Jazz,"153H4,"177."“Na"de"dood"van"Ilcken"vervaagde"de"identiteit"van"de"Nederlandse"jazz" weer."Zoals"reeds"werd"gezegd,"steeds"meer"musici"werden"opgenomen"in"het"radioHorkestenbestel"van" Hilversum,"waaronder"ook"Rita"Reys"en"de"gebroeders"Jacobs."Wel"behaalden"ze"aanvankelijk"nog" successen"op"jazzgebied,"zoals"een"eerste"prijs"in"het"jazzfestival"in"Antibes.”" 397"Koopmans,"Jazz,"153."“…"terwijl"de"PhilipsHjazzserie"‘Jazz"Behind"the"Dikes’"zorgde"voor"een" beginnende"eigen"identiteit"en"bekendheid"tot"over"de"grenzen.”" 398"Ibid."“Met"het"optreden"van"Ilcken"veranderde"de"jazzsituatie"in"Nederland"radikaal."Er"was"nu"een" duidelijk"middelpunt,"een"aanvoerder"met"een"groot"prestige,"er"werd"wat"minder"dan"voorheen"naar" Amerikaanse"voorbeelden"gekeken,"en"er"was"nu"een"duidelijke"groep"jazzmusici"fullHtime"bezig"in"het" jazzveld"H"Wessel"Ilcken"en"zijn"medestanders"konden"niet"geassocieerd"worden"met"de"wereld"van"dansH" en"radioHorkesten."Het"feest"duurde"tot"13"juli"1957,"toen"Ilcken"vroegtijdig"overleed."Zonder"overdrijving" kan"gezegd"worden"dat"met"hem"en"zijn"groep"de"Nederlandse"jazz"op"eigen"benen"kwam"te"staan.”"

139" " Breuker"performed"his"“Litany"for"the"16th"of"June”"(see"Chapter"One),"which"in" retrospect"contains"most"of"the"musical"characteristics"associated"with"Dutch" improvised"music"while"also"displaying"a"socioHpolitical"awareness."Groups"and" musicians"that"are"usually"named"in"Dutch"jazz"histories"include"Misha"Mengelberg,"Han" Bennink,"Willem"Breuker,"Leo"Cuypers,"Instant"Composers"Pool,"Willem"Breuker" Kollektief."Furthermore,"while"the"institutionalization"of"jazz"education"is"largely" ignored"in"Dutch"jazz"historiography,"aspects"of"selfHorganization"(BIM,"SJN," independent"labels)"are"usually"very"much"elaborated"on,"suggesting"a"politicization"of" jazz"historiography"that"reflected"the"writers’"own"political"agendas." " While"Dutch"jazz"writing"from"the"midH1970s"tended"to"explain"musical"change"from"a" sociological"perspective,"as"a"reflection"of"shifting"authorities"and"power"relations,"the" American"jazz"narrative"remains"a"dominant"frame"of"reference"against"which" individual"musicians"are"positioned"and"valued."This"is"illustrated"by"common" descriptions"of"Dutch"musicians,"such"as"trumpeter"Nedley"Elstak"who"is"complimented" as"“Dizzy"Gillespie’s"little"brother”"or"alto"saxophonist"Piet"Noordijk,"who"is"described"as" “Charlie"Parker’s"Dutch"nephew.”399"Similarly,"Koopmans"observed"how"René"Thomas" had"played"so"well"at"the"1964"Loosdrecht"Jazz"Competition"that"he"“almost"reached"an" American"level.”400"Notwithstanding"these"backhanded"compliments,"journalists"around" 1977,"so"roughly"ten"years"after"what"they"generally"take"as"the"starting"point"in"the" establishment"of"Dutch"improvised"music,"occasionally"attempted"to"understand" musical"change"within"local"settings."However,"not"all"critics"were"keen"on"the"notion"of" “improvised"music”"as"a"school."Fearing"a"straightjacket"of"all"sorts"of"musical" restrictions,"and"considering"young"Dutch"musicians"(such"as"Boy"Raaijmakers,"Maarten" van"Norden"and"Bob"Driessen)"as"imitators"of"American"jazz"musicians"(such"as"Ornette" Coleman,"Eric"Dolphy"and"John"Coltrane),"Jan"Rensen"in"1977"concluded"that"“there"is" no"such"thing"as"a"‘Dutch"school’"except"for"Breuker"and"Mengelberg,”"adding"“we" should"avoid"getting"too"chauvinistic”"and"“stop"cultivating"this"soHcalled"“Dutch"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 399"Kuyper,"Over-Jazz,"22." 400"Rudy"Koopmans,"“Albert"Ayler:"New"Grass,”"Jazzwereld"24,"(June/July"1969):"12H18."

140" " school.”401"Rather,"he"argued"for"the"understanding"of"Dutch"jazz"as"part"of"a"European" movement." " Despite"the"awareness"of"the"dangers"of"a"simplification"as"raised"by"Rensen"in"1977," the"idea"of"a"typical"Dutch"jazz"found"following"in"the"further"organization"of"jazz"life"in" the"Netherlands"by"the"end"of"the"1970s."As"organizers"and"concert"promoters"began"to" use"the"national"reference"as"a"marketing"tool"to"organize"concert"series,"resulting"in" names"such"as"“Holland"Impro”"(1977),"a"series"of"concerts"organized"in"the"northern" city"of"Groningen—with"actually"an"international"lineHup—or"the"1980"educational" program"“Improvising"Musician”"at"the"Conservatory"of"Amsterdam.402" " PiepHpiepHknor- The"term"“piepHpiepHknor”"is"revealing"in"this"case,"as"the"onomatopoeic"word"reflecting" the"extended"sounds"used"by"improvising"musicians.403"Similar"phrases"have"been"used" in"different"countries"to"refer"to"this"type"of"music,"including"the"English"“squeaky"gate”" music,"or"the"Russian"“sobaka”"[the"dog’s"music]"and"“sobachatina”.404"The"Dutch"term" originated"in"popular"music"discourse"of"the"midH1960s,"and"began"to"appear"in"Hitweek- and"other"popular"music"magazines-to"refer"to"the"progressive,"electric"sounds"of"bands" such"as"Pink"Floyd,"Captain"Beefheart"and"his"Magic"Band,"and"Soft"Machine."During"the" 1970s"the"term"settled"into"jazz"discourse,"initially"as"a"positive"“nickname”"for"Dutch" improvised"music.405"Martin"Schouten"in"1971"used"piepHenHknor"in"his"1971"review"of" Pleasure,"a"quartet"album"by"Dutch"pianist"Kees"Hazevoet,"in"which"he"notes"that"the" quartet"“in"a"classical"lineHup”"plays"“a"sort"of"modernist"jazz"that"sounds"almost" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 401"Jan"Rensen,"“De"erfenis"van"John"Coltrane"(slot):"PiepHpiep"knor"uit"Europa,”"Muziekkrant-Oor"16" (August,"10,"1977):"31." 402"Concert"Hall"The"Oosterpoort"in"the"northern"city"of"Groningen"organized"the"first"concert"in"a"new" series"called"“Holland"Impro,”"featuring"the"following"musicians:"Peter"Bennink"(as,"ss,"bagpipes);"Peter" Brötzmann,"ts,"as;"Dud"Pukwana,"as,"percussion;"Willem"Breuker,"ts,"ss,"cl;"Han"Bennink,"drs"and"the" Guinnese"group"Africa"Djolé."Eddie"Determeyer,"“Nogal"chaotisch"swingfeest"van"Holland"Impro,”" Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden,"21"October"21"1977,"5."The"first"concert"attracted"approximately"300" visitors."The"following"year"the"number"of"visitors"dropped"to"60."Eddy"Determeyer,"“Holland"Impro," waarheen?,”"Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden,"March"2,"1978,"17." 403"Although"journalists"have"attempted"to"translate"the"term"into"English—Dutch"jazz"journalist"Erik"van" den"Berg"lists"“bingHbongHplink"music”"and"“bonkey"squaky"music”—"it"has"never"seriously"caught"ground," Erik"van"den"Berg,"column,"Jazz-Bulletin-81,"(December"2011):"13." 404"The"term"sobachatina"is"a"loaded"term,"meaning"as"much"as"“dogism.”"It"derives"from"gonyat’-sobaku" [literally:"to"chase"a"dog"around"the"place],"which"is"the"Russian"musicians’"slang"for"“playing"out"there,”" or"“playing"free.”"Cyril"Moshkow,"email"correspondence,"25"August"2015." 405"Erik"van"den"Berg,"column,"Jazz-Bulletin-81"(December"2011):"13."

141" " outdated,"as"something"from"the"sixties;"the"knor-and"piep"syndicate,"as"a"befriended" pop"fan"likes"to"call"it.”406"A"year"later,"in"1972"saxophonist"and"journalist"Hans"Dulfer"in" Jazzwereld-uses"“piep-en-knor-muziek”"to"describe"some"of"the"modern"music,"albeit"yet" without"a"clear"Dutch"connotation.407"Likewise,"the"popular"music"magazine"Oor"[“Ear”]" in"1974"described"the"pop"musicians"Thijs"van"Leer"and"Jan"Akkerman"and"their"band" Focus—which"scored"an"international"hit"with"“Hocus"Pocus”—and"their"album"The- Masters-of-Rock"(Imperial,"1974)"as"pioneers"of"the"“Hollandse"School”"[Dutch" School].408"In"1977"Muziekkrant-Oor-headlined"a"historical"overview"by"Jan"Rensen" entitled"“PiepHpiepHknor"uit"Europa.”409" " A"further"study"of"the"label"also"reveals"how,"during"the"1980s,"“piepHpiepHknor”"or" Dutch"improvised"music,"as"feared"by"Jan"Rensen"in"1977,"had"indeed"turned"into"a" “school”"or"at"least"into"a"recognizable"style,"to"be"used"by"other"players"as"material"for" improvisation."The"following"concert"review"is"exemplary"for"the"idea"of"Dutch" improvised"music"as"a"genre:" " The"influence"of"the"BreukerHschool"became"evident"in"a"suiteHlike"piece" that"combined"repetitive"music"and"WestHIndian"Calypso"with"the"“piepH knor”"[“squeak"oink”]"style."Other"than"that,"the"musicians"took"a"great" leap"backward,"sticking"mostly"to"late"bop"and"early"free"jazz.410" " In"his"1982"review"of"the"De-Band,"a"group"consisting"of"members"of"the"Willem"Breuker" Kollektief"(WBK)"and"the"Gemeentereiningsorkest"Vaalbleek"(“Public"Sanitation" Department"Orchestra"Pale"Pallid”)"from"the"southern"town"of"Tilburg,"Dutch"jazz" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 406"Martin"Schouten,"review,"Jazzwereld-33"(March"1971):"26."Schouten"reviews"Kees"Hazevoet’s"album" “Peasure"One,”"(Peace"Records"1003,"1970),"with"Kees"Hazevoet,"p,"tp,"cl;"Kris"Wanders,"as;"Arjen"Gorter," b;"Louis"Moholo,"d."“Ook"voor"de"muziek"van"Pleasure,"een"kwartet"in"een"zeer"klassieke"bezetting"dat"een" soort"modernistisches"jazz"speelt"dat"al"bijna"ouderwets"aandoet,"als"iets"van"vroeger,"van"de"jaren"zestig." Het"knorHenHpiepHsyndicaat"zegt"een"bevriend"popliefhebber.”" 407"Hans"[H.F.]"Dulfer,"“Dulfers"Kolom,”"Jazzwereld"38"(April/May"1972):"13." 408"Bert"Vuijsje,"“Hoe"groot"is"de"Hollandse"school?”"Oor"6/7"(April"17,"1977):"31." 409"Jan"Rensen,"“De"erfenis"van"John"Coltrane"(slot):"PiepHpiep"knor"uit"Europa,”"Muziekkrant-Oor"16" (August,"10,"1977):"31." 410"Eddy"Determeyer."“De"Band"en"het"onderzoek"naar"de"“wortels,”"Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden,"April"13," 1982."De"invloeden"van"de"BreukerHschool"waren"evident"in"een"suiteHachtige"stuk,"met"elementen"uit"de" repetitieve"muziek,"het"WestHIndische"calypsoHvocabulaire"en"de"“piepHknor”"richting"bijeen"waren" gebracht."Maar"voor"het"overige"bleven"de"muzikanten"dichterbij"de"late"bop"en"de"vroege"free"jazz," waarmee"ze"een"fikse"sprong"terug"maakten"in"de"tijd.”"

142" " journalist"Eddy"Determeyer"observes"how"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands"has" arrived"at"a"crossroads,"splitting"in"three"directions.411"While"Willem"Breuker,"Leo" Cuypers,"members"of"the"Instant"Composers"Pool"and"other"first"generation"improvising" musicians"“continue"in"the"1970s"idiom,”"a"new"generation"of—unspecified— improvising"musicians"has"broadened"their"scope,"listening"to"“Punk,"New"Wave"Rock" and"Funk.”"De-Band,"according"to"Determeyer,"belongs"to"a"third"category"of"musicians" that"has"begun"to"investigate"their"musical"roots,"resulting"in"a"mixture"of"styles." " Determeyer’s"observations"are"interesting,"because"they"are"an"early"example"of"the" now"common"but"much"debated"notion"of"Dutch"improvised"music"as"a"distinctive" (Dutch)"musical"practice.412"While"the"Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes"series"(Phonogram,"1955H 57),"the"“first"modern"jazz"recordings"in"the"Netherlands,”"has"come"to"represent"a" generation"of"jazz"musicians"whose"playing,"although"praised"for"its"technical"excellence," remained"highly"dependent"on"the"American"idiom,"the"1982"review"signals"the" increasing"attempts"to"understand"local"jazz"within"its"own"local"context,"away"from"the" dominant"American"narrative."Moreover,"the"review"illustrates"how"Dutch"improvised" music"(or"“BreukerHschool”)"has"extended"from"a"mere"social"category,"representing"a" social"group"of"AmsterdamHbased"musicians"born"in"the"midHforties,"to"a"stylistic"genre," representing"an"eclectic,"interdisciplinary,"experimental,"often"humorist"approach"to" musical"performance."This"way,"opposing"modern"and"traditional"jazz"groups,"Dutch" improvised"music,"and"the"“piepHknor”"style,"has"become"part"of"a"repertoire"of"styles" (“bop,”"“free"jazz”)"that"these"musicians"have"mastered"and"play"with." " While"terms"such"as"“improvised"music”"and"the"1998"“New"Dutch"Swing”"usually"serve" to"represent"the"music"either"neutral"or"positive"ways,"piepHpiepHknor-has"increasingly" become"known"among"the"broad"public"as"improvised"music’s"negative"counterpart," reflecting"the"listener’s"perception"of"improvised"music"as"a"random,"incoherent"and" incomprehensible"succession"of"sounds,"no"longer"recognizable"as"music,"and,"perhaps" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 411"De-Band-consisted"of"Boy"Raaymakers,"tp;"Paul"van"Kemenade,"as;"Ron"van"Rossum,"pi,"co;"Niko" Langenhuijsen,"b;"and"Rob"Verdurmen,"dr." 412"Exemplary"for"the"understanding"of"Dutch"improvised"music"as"a"distinctively"Dutch"scene"are,"for" example,"Tetterettet"(1996)"a"series"of"interviews"with"twentyHtwo"Dutch"improvising"musicians" conducted"by"Dutch"journalist"Bas"Andriessen"and"New-Dutch-Swing,"a"1998"study"of"the"Amsterdam" improvised"music"scene"by"American"jazz"journalist"Kevin"Whitehead,"in"which"he"argues"for"the"idea"of" Amsterdam"as"a"“distinctive"scene"with"a"distinctive"sound.”"

143" " worst"of"all,"paid"for"with"“our"public"money.”"This"negative"connotation"is"illustrated"by" a"1981"description"of"a"jazz"club"in"the"city"of"Rotterdam"called"Thelonious,"which"is" described"as"“for"some"the"Walhalla"of"free"music"for"some,"to"others"a"shady"place"of" piepHpiepHknor.”413"Moreover,"as"part"of"a"growing"vocabulary"surrounding"these"local" jazz"practices,"the"term"is"expressive"of"the"increasing"desire"to"understand"jazz"within" settings"other"than"the"American"narrative."This"is"underlined"by"Vuijsje,"who"in"his" 1978"introduction"to"a"series"of"interviews"with"Dutch"musicians"Willem"Breuker,"Misha" Mengelberg,"Han"Bennink"and"Leo"Cuypers,"journalist"Bert"Vuijsje"coins"the"term"“piepH piepHknor-op-klompen”"(“piepHpiepHknor-on"wooden"shoes”),"underlining,"again"the" national.414"

Conclusion&

This"chapter"has"shown"how"critics"during"the"1970s"attempted,"for"the"first"time,"to" canonize"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"into"a"singular"narrative,"stressing"economic"and" political"change"as"crucial"factors"to"what"they"considered"the"jazz"revolution"of"the" 1960s."From"its"earliest"liaisons"with"jazz,"written"media"played"both"a"reflective"and" generative"role"in"the"development"of"jazz"culture."Studying"developments"in"Dutch"jazz" through"its"criticism"reveals"the"increasing"desire,"by"both"musicians"and"writers,"to" understand"local"developments"in"jazz"developments"in"jazz"as"part"of"an"American"as" well"as"a"Dutch"jazz"narrative,"resulting"during"second"half"of"the"1970s"in"the"first" attempts"to"canonize"the"story"of"Dutch"jazz."With"their"explicit"support"of"the"more" experimental,"avantHgarde"jazz"forms,"jazz"critics,"most"notably"those"associated"with" Jazzwereld,"contributed"to"the"repositioning"of"jazz"as"a"serious"art"form,"away"from" entertainment."Moreover,"by"inventing"new"critical"tropes"and"creating"new" terminology"these"critics"underlined"the"music’s"particularities"rather"than"similarities" in"relation"to"the"dominant"American"narratives,"reinforcing"the"idea"of"improvised" music"as"a"distinctively"Dutch"jazz"practice."As"such,"journalists"played"a"formative"role," not"only"in"defining"the"history"of"Dutch"jazz"but"also"in"shaping"its"significance"in"Dutch" cultural"life." " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 413"Willem"van"Empel,"“Nieuwe"muziek,"roots"en"beboppers"in"Thelonious,”"Het-Vrije-Volk,"March"28,"1989," 2." 414"Vuijsje,"De-nieuwe-jazz,-146."

144" " Ultimately,"the"study"of"the"interconnectedness"between"the"social"and"musical" practices"of"jazz"and"written"media"demonstrates"how"the"mediatization"of"jazz"both" conditions"and"generates"shared"value"systems"and"consequently"contributes"to"the" identification"of"musical"communities.415"By"processes"of"selection"and"evaluation—in" both"aesthetic"and"ethical"terms—critics"played"a"crucial"role"in"shaping"the"Dutch"jazz" narrative;"a"narrative"of"musical"terminology,"musicians,"styles,"labels,"associations,"and" stereotyped"imagery"that"continues"to"serve"as"a"vital—albeit"often"problematic—frame" of"reference"up"to"the"present"day."As"such,"this"fluid,"interpretative"framework" continues"to"enable"actors"within"the"field"of"jazz"(musicians,"programmers," policymakers,"audiences,"and"the"like)"to"position"and"give"meaning"to"the"music"they" are"making,"selling,"portraying,"and"hearing."Altogether,"this"chapter"has"showed"how" written"media"are"a"valuable"source"of"studying"the"implicit"value"systems"than"inform" musical"practices,"functioning"as"an"important"platform"to"discuss,"disseminate"and" reflect"on"cultural"change."Especially"in"the"preHdigital"age,"the"influence"of"these"written" sources"on"the"common"perception"of"jazz"was"significant."In"the"next"chapter"I"further" investigate"how"narratives"are"constructed"and"informed"by"locally"rooted"socioH political"discourse."I"do"this"by"examining"the"ways"in"which"the"American"Down-Beat,"as" a"platform"of"mainstream"jazz"discourse,"has"engaged"with"nonHAmerican"practices."

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 415"The"shift"in"coverage"to"specialized"magazines"such"as"Jazzwereld"and"the"marginalizing"position"in" popular"music"magazines"such"as"Muziekkrant-Oor"signaled"the"shifting"position"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands." Similarly,"Vuijsje"in"1978"detected"the"Mengelberg/Bennink"duo"as"a"defining"moment"in"the"process"of" emancipation"from"American"models"of"jazz,"while"Breuker"increasingly"focused"on"musicHtheater."Vuijsje," De-nieuwe-jazz,"157."

145" " 5.&Down+Beat:&Dutch&jazz&and&the&American&mainstream&

“In"keeping"with"the"worldHwide"interest"in"jazz"and"the"growing"international"character" of"Down-Beat,"we"shall"begin,"in"the"next"issue,"a"series"of"articles"dealing"with"jazz"in" various"countries.”416"In"September"1962,"the"massHcirculated"American"jazz"magazine" Down-Beat-editorial"proudly"announced"its"renewed"international"focus."From"its"1934" initiation,"the"bimonthly"had"informed"its"international"readership"on"a"widespread" range"of"jazzHrelated"topics,"discussing"the"latest"jazz"in"fullHpage"articles"and"sections" such"as"the"editorial,"Record"Review,"the"Blindfold"Test,"Strictly"Ad"Lib,"and"the"annual" International"Jazz"Critics"Poll.417"From"the"1960s,"however,"Down-Beat"together"with"an" international"base"of"correspondents"pursued"an"active"international"policy,"reporting" on"the"expatriate"life"and"travels"of"American"jazz"musicians"and,"occasionally," discussing"nonHAmerican"jazz"practices"as"well."In"this"period,"fullHpage"articles"appear" with"historical"overviews"of"important"musicians,"recordings,"and"jazz"clubs"in"countries" and"regions"such"as"Germany,"Southeast"Asia,"Latin"America,"Poland,"Russia"and"France." Arguably"one"of"the"most"authoritative"and"internationally"wellHread"jazz"magazines," Down-Beat,"together"with"the"French"Jazz-Hot,"the"British"Jazz-Journal,"and"the"Canadian" Coda,"functioned"in"the"Netherlands"as"an"important"medium"to"learn"about"the"latest" jazz."Promoting"jazz"as"a"popular"music"for"the"youth"and"with"its"international"focus," Down-Beat"during"the"1960s"was"a"vital"platform"for"mainstream"jazz"discourse." " This"chapter"engages"with"the"understanding"of"nonHAmerican"jazz"practices"and"the" global"spread"of"jazz"from"an"American"mainstream"perspective,"by"studying"the" mediation"of"Dutch"and"European"jazz"in"the"American"jazz"magazine"Down-Beat."Who" were"the"main"correspondents"writing"on"jazz"in"Europe,"what"did"they"write"about,"and" what"did"Europe,"the"Netherlands"and"its"musicians"represent?"In"order"to"understand" processes"of"mediation"and"representation"it"is"crucial"to"examine"the"ways"in"which" mainstream"jazz"discourse"is"informed"by"the"American"jazz"narrative,"or"the" constructed"jazz"history."As"I"discussed"in"the"last"chapter,"DeVeaux"demonstrates"the" desire"within"the"community"of"mainstream"jazz"to"simplify"jazz"history"as"a"neatly" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 416"Editorial,"DB,"September"27,"1967." 417"Down-Beat"was"distributed"every"two"weeks"until"1979,"when"it"changed"into"a"monthly"magazine."

146" " organized"succession"of"stylistic"periods,"(ranging"from"1920s"New"Orleans-to"the" eclectic-period"of"anything"from"the"1970s"and"beyond).418"In"this"view,"the"American" jazz"narrative"is"an"oversimplified,"socially"constructed"interpretation"of"the"history"of" jazz,"which"continuously"informs,"and"is"informed"by,"contemporary"jazz"discourse." DeVeaux"criticizes"the"American"jazz"narrative"as"it"reinforces"stereotyped"notions,"such" as"jazz"as"a"male"dominated,"essentially"African"American"music"practice"(see" Introduction)."Within"this"context,"Down-Beat"is"a"useful"source,"promoting"this"view"of" the"American"narrative."Most"fullHpage"articles"and"record"reviews"focus"on"male" American"jazz"musicians,"while"not"a"single"European"jazz"musician"made"it"to"the"top" ten"in"the"annual"Jazz"Critics"Polls"during"the"1960s.419"Moreover,"a"further"study"of"the" reception"of"nonHAmerican"jazz"by"Down-Beat-critics,"will"give"insight"in"the"role"and" function"of"Europe"(and"Dutch"jazz)"within"the"American"jazz"narrative."To"get"insight" into"the"role"of"Europe"in"the"American"jazz"narrative"as"represented"by"Down-Beat,"the" next"paragraphs"exploring"the"role"and"function"of"some"of"the"key"actors"through"which" the"story"of"European"jazz"is"told:"correspondents,"American"musicians"visiting"and" migrating"to"Europe,"European"musicians,"and"European"audiences."

Pioneers&and&adventurers;&Europe&as&an&imaginary&space& To"keep"up"its"aim"for"the"worldwide"coverage"of"jazz,"Down-Beat"during"the" 1960s"and"1970s"relied"heavily"on"the"reports"made"by"local"correspondents." These"correspondents"came"from"all"over"the"world"and"included"some"of"the" most"dedicated"jazz"critics,"such"as"“young"suburban"white"girl"from"England”" Valerie"Wilmer;"the"engaged"German"“Cold"Warrior”"JoachimHErnst"Berendt,"who" reported"extensively"on"the"repression"of"jazz"as"part"of"East"German"communist" politics;"and"Danish"writer"and"producer"Jack"Lind,"who"wrote"passionate" reports"on"European"jazz,"especially"on"the"Danish"scene.420"In"the"July"4"issue"of" 1963,"Down-Beat-listed"for"the"first"time"a"Dutch"correspondent:"Hans"Dulfer,"the" twentyHthree"year"old"tenor"saxophonist,"who"played"in"the"bands"of"Willem" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 418"DeVeaux,"“Constructing"the"Jazz"Tradition:"Jazz"Historiography,”"525H560." 419"In"1965"and"1966,"Down-Beat"lists"the"following"European"musicians"in"the"category"of"“talent" deserving"of"wider"recognition”:"“Jean”"Tielemans"(B),"Albert"Mangelsdorff"(D),"NielsHHenning"Ørsted" Pedersen"(DE),"Karin"Krog"(N)"and"John"Tchicai"(DE)"in"1965,"followed"by"René"Thomas"(B)"en"JeanHLuc" Ponty"(F)"in"1966." 420"McKay,"Circular-Breathing,"23."For"an"analysis"of"the"socioHcultural"and"political"implications"of" JoachimHBerendt’s"activities"as"a"jazz"promoter,"see"Hurley,"The-Return-of-Jazz.""

147" " Breuker,"Theo"Loevendie,"and"Boy"Edgar’s"band"and"who"wrote"columns"for"the" Dutch"jazz"magazine"Jazzwereld."From"the"1970s,"Dulfer"became"actively" involved"in"the"promotion"and"organization"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"both"as"a" programmer"of"a"jazz"concert"series"in"pop"music"venue"Paradiso"and"as"a"board" member"of"the"union"for"improvising"musicians"BIM." " As"with"other"European"jazz,"most"references"to"Dutch"jazz"are"found"in"the"short," factual"reports"of"the"Strictly"Ad"Lib"section,"which"consists"of"two"to"three"hundred" word"reports"on"local"jazz"activities,"categorized"by"American"cities,"nonHAmerican" capitals,"countries"and"sometimes"continents."The"reported"activities"include" appearances"of"Dutch"jazz"musicians"on"television,"concerts,"winners"of"competitions" and"the"passing"of"musicians"and"lists"significant"jazz"prizes,"such"as"the"Edison"Award," and"the"Wessel"Ilcken"Award.421"Dulfer"touched"upon"activities"within"a"diversity"of"jazz" practices,"ranging"from"early"jazz"groups"such"as"the"Perdido"Street"Paraders"who"won" the"Loosdrecht"Jazz"Festival"in"the"“traditional"division”"to"the"tours"of"“avant"garde" pianist”"Piet"Kuiters."Further,"Dulfer"underlines"the"international"activities"and" ambitions"of"Dutch"musicians,"reporting"on"their"participation"in"international" competitions."From"the"reports"we"learn"that"in"1963"the"Dutch/"German"formation"of" drummer"Pierre"Courbois"and"multiHinstrumentalist"Gunther"Hampel"were"offered"a" month’s"engagement"at"the"Blue"Note"in"Paris;"in"1964"Dutch"pianist"Jack"van"Poll"and" his"trio"won"the"first"prize"at"the"German"Amateur"Jazz"Festival"at"Düsseldorf;"the" female"pianist"Pia"Beck"in"1966"toured"the"United"States;"that"same"year"drummer" Pierre"Courbois"recorded"with"Peter"Brötzmann,"Karlheinz"Berger"and"Peter"Kovach"for" the"German"DGG"label."European"jazz"musicians,"in"return,"frequently"visited"the" Netherlands,"giving"evidence"of"the"international"appeal"the"country"held"on"the" international"stage."For"example,"the"opening"attraction"of"a"“permanent"jazz"cave”"in" Rotterdam"was"opened"by"an"English"combo"with"saxophonists"Tony"Roberts"and"Ray" Warleigh,"trombone"player"Chris"Pyne,"pianist"Peter"Lemer,"bass"player"Rob" Matthewson,"and"drummer"John"Cox."Altogether,"the"short"reports"portray"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 421"Reports"mention"the"Amsterdam"Concertgebouw,"the"BH14"and"the"Rotterdam"Jazz"Club"in"Rotterdam," the"jazz"club"in"Loosdrecht,"Persepolis"in"Utrecht,"and"the"Haarlem"Concert"Hall."

148" " Netherlands"as"part"of"a"lively"transnational"jazz"practice,"with"Dutch"jazz"musicians" touring"the"world"and"international"jazz"musicians"finding"their"way"to"the"country." " Although"the"Strictly"Ad"Lib"reports"contain"mainly"factual"information,"implicit" qualitative"remarks"give"insight"into"the"status"and"appreciation"of"individual"musicians." Pianist"Pim"Jacobs"and"vocalist"Rita"Reys,"for"example,"were"explicitly"referred"to"as" “prominent"jazz"musicians,”"while"Jos"van"Heuverzwijn"was"posthumously"hailed"as" “one"of"the"Netherlands’"leading"saxophonists.”"The"1963"concert"of"Art"Blakey"and"the" Jazz"Messengers"according"to"the"report"was"well"attended,"with"some"3,500"fans"who" “jammed"the"Apollo"Hall”"in"Amsterdam"during"a"midnight"concert."In"contrast,"Bill" Evans'"concert"that"took"place"two"years"later"at"the"Amsterdam"Concert"Hall,"was" commemorated"as"a"“financial"flop""as"“only"eight"hundred"of"the"two"thousand"seats" were"occupied.”422"However,"considering"Dulfer’s"own"ambitions"as"a"performer"and"a" concert"promoter,"these"short"reports"should"also"be"understood"as"a"promotional"tool." This"becomes"evident"from"the"following"rave"report"on"a"series"of"jazz"concerts"in"the" popular"music"venue"Paradiso,"initiated"by"Dulfer"in"the"previous"year:" " The"Paradiso"Jazz"Club"in"Amsterdam"(original"a"rock"emporium)"started" its"second"season"with"concerts"by"pianist"Mal"Waldron,"Nico"Bunnink" and"Burton"Greene."The"first"year"was"very"successful."Big"crowds"(1,000H 1,800)"came"on"Wednesday"nights"to"listen"to"top"Dutch"musicians"(and" Afrocuban"group"Ritmo"Naturel"and"international"jazz"musicians)."(Ad"Lib," DB,"March"5,"1970,"40H41)" " A"critical"investigation"of"these"and"similar"reports,"gives"evidence"of"the"increasing" desire—among"Dutch"reports,"at"least—to"understand"Dutch"jazz"as"a"transnational"and" increasingly"professional"musical"practice,"which"deserved"recognition"on"the" international"stage."Furthermore,"the"short"reports"on"the"governmental"recognition" through"subsidies"and"the"appearances"of"jazz"groups"at"high"art"events"such"as"the" Holland"Festival,"signaled"how"Dutch"jazz"critics"in"the"Netherland"increasingly"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 422"DB,"May"20,"1965,"42."

149" " positioned"jazz"as"a"transnational"art"form,"rather"than"an"American"form"of" entertainment.423"" " Besides"the"short"Ad"Lib"reports,"live"performances"provided"international"critics"with" an"opportunity"to"comment"on"local"jazz"practices."When"American"Down-Beat-editor" Dan"Morgenstern"visited"the"Laren"Jazz"Festival"in"1975,"for"example,"he"thought"of"the" Piet"NoordijkHJohnny"Griffin"Quintet"(with"Spanish"pianist"Tet'e"Montoliu,"Danish" bassist"NielsHHenning"Ørsted"Pedersen"plus"ItalianHborn"and"BelgianHbred"drummer" Bruno"Castellucci)"as"“one"of"the"most"swinging"sets"of"the"entire"event.”424"The" American"critic"observed"that"Noordijk"“is"a"very"confident"player"with"his"Parker"roots" and"a"nice"edge"on"his"tone,”"with"an"approach"that"“sometimes"reminds"me"of"Phil" Woods”"yet"he"observed"that"the"alto"player"“has"his"own"thing,"and"speaks"jazz"without" any"foreign"accent.”425"The"Laren"festival,""one"of"the"most"pleasant"and"wellHproduced" jazz"events”"according"to"Morgenstern,"was"organized"by"the"governmentHoperated"and" nonHprofit"Dutch"broadcasting"association"NOS"and"produced"by"Joop"de"Roo,"together" with"the"prominent"jazz"promoters"and"radio"makers"Michiel"de"Ruyter"and"Aad"Bos."It" was"the"sixth"edition"of"the"festival,"which"started"in"Loosdrecht"but"after"three"years" moved"to"Laren,"a"small"town"close"to"the"center"of"radio"and"television"studios," Hilversum."On"this"occasion,"Morgenstern"was"particularly"enthusiastic"about"the"Dutch" Herbie"White"Combo—named"after"the"bandleader"Herman"de"Wit’s"pseudonym—that" opened"on"Wednesday"night,"traditionally"the"avantHgarde"night"of"the"festival:" " Much"of"the"music"by"the"eightHpiece"group"is"a"parody"of"brass"band" music,"of"what"sounds"like"a"Spanish"village"band,"of"old"fashioned"dance" music,"of"popular"classics,"and"in"one"hilarious"instance,"of"a"Dutch" drinking"song,"performed"by"De"Wit"in"a"surprisingly"strong"and"true" tenor"voice."Intermittingly"there"is"such"madness"as"a"bagpipe"and"an" accordion"duet,"a"trio"of"musical"saw,"tenor"sax"and"acoustic"piano,"and"a" nice"moment"when"the"pianist"runs"romantic"arpeggios"while"Bennink" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 423"The"Dutch"allHstar"big"band"led"by"Boy"Edgar"received"financial"support"from"the"government"so"that" the"group"could"appear"at"the"jazz"festival"at"Antibes,"France,"held"last"month."It"was"the"first"time"the" government"had"supplied"such"aid…(Strictly"Ad"Lib,"DB,"September"9,"1965,"43)" 424"Dan"Morgenstern,"DB,"December"18,"1975,"44." 425"Ibid."

150" " goes"wild"with"various"percussive"and"noisemaking"devices." Intermittingly,"Bennink"proves"himself"a"very"fine"drummer;"in"fact,"all" eight"are"excellent"musicians,"with"altoist"Peter"Bennink,"bassist"Maarten" van"Regteren"Altena"and"trumpeter"Kees"Klaver,"the"wittiest"soloist."" " Morgenstern"identifies"the"absurdist"and"theatrical"elements"that,"as"I"have" outlined"in"the"previous"chapter,"have"become"associated"with"the"notion"of" Dutch"jazz."“With"its"goodHnatured"satire"of"bourgeois"sounds,”"Morgenstern" observed,"“the"music"[of"the"Herbie"White"Combo]"is"far"removed"from"its" American"'counterparts'"except"in"the"production"of"strange"sounds.”"Because"of" its"“theatrical"essence”"Morgenstern"observed"“some"kinship"with"the"music"of" Carla"Bley—in"particular"the"Hotel-Band-in-Escalator-Over-the-Hill,”"yet"he" concluded,"“Holland"is"one"of"the"strongholds"of"the"European"free"jazz" movement."426" " The"coverage,"content,"and"frequency"of"writings"on"European"jazz"depended"to"a"great" extent"on"the"aims"and"ambitions"of"these"individual"reporters."The"aforementioned" Lind"was"among"the"most"dedicated"to"the"subject"of"jazz"in"Europe."While"no"fullHpage" articles"on"Dutch"jazz"appeared"in"Down-Beat"in"the"1960s"and"1970s,"the"Danish" reporter"regularly"contributed"fullHpage"articles"on"the"Danish"jazz"scene."Lind"not"only" wrote"on"visiting"and"resident"American"musicians"such"as"Dexter"Gordon"and"Herb" Geller,"but"also"reflected"on"the"local"activities"of"Danish"jazz"musicians."It"can"be"largely" credited"to"his"writing,"for"example,"that"Danish"bass"player"Niels"Henning"Ørsted" Pedersen"was"frequently"named"in"Down-Beat"as"one"of"the"best"players"of"Europe." “[T]here"is"nearly"complete"unanimity"that"an"18HyearHold"Danish"bass"player"named" NielsHHenning"Ørsted"Pedersen"is"a"striking"exception"to"this"rule,”"Lind"wrote"in"1965," noting"that,"“his"refusal"to"be"awed"by"the"fame"and"stature"of"the"American"musicians" has"contributed"to"his"remarkable"selfHassured"playing.”427"The"remarks"on"Pedersen" were"made"during"a"roundtable"discussion"with"Art"Taylor,"Sahib"Shihab,"Ray"Brown," Dexter"Gordon,"American"musicians"who"migrated"to"Europe"and"who"shared"their"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 426"Ibid." 427"DB,"June"3,"1965,"18."

151" " enthusiasm"for"Pedersen’s"playing."“NielsHHenning"is"the"best"bass"player"I’ve"played" with"in"Europe,”"Taylor"observes,"while"Shihab"praises"the"young"Danish"bass"player"for" having"“great"conception.”"“He’s"fantastic"in"all"respects,”"Gordon"continues,"“He"reads" well,"has"great"time."He"can"play"with"anybody.”428"Brown"simply"states,"“The"kid"is" unbelievable.”" " Expatriates,-imitators,-and-the-“intellectual-European”-- A"critical"investigation"of"the"role"of"Europe"and"European"musicians"in"1960s"and" 1970s"Down-Beat"shows"that"Europe"serves"in"the"first"place"as"a"potential"working" place"for"American"musicians."In"this"view,"the"continent"promised"the"Americans" ongoing"gigs"in"wellHestablished"clubs,"with"serious"listeners,"and"away"from"the"fierce" competition"of"the"United"States."As"the"Down-Beat-editor"asserted"in"1965,"“Though" jazz"musicians"seldom"agree"about"anything,"most"allow"that"Europe"has"virtues"as"a" source"of"income"and"place"of"residence.”429"Except"for"the"occasional"articles"written"by" Morgenstern,"Lind,"and"others,"the"1962"announcement"of"an"increased"focus"on"jazz" outside"the"United"States,"translated"mostly"in"articles"on"expatriatism,"underlining"the" notion"of"jazz"as"an"American"affair."Down-Beat"occasionally"picks"up"on"the" international"spread"of"jazz,"for"example,"in"the"1963"“Three"Views"on"Europe,”"a"series" of"articles"dealing"with"respectively"jazz"in"great"Britain,"a"report"of"Les"McCann’s" travels"in"Europe"and"a"portrayal"of"Sahib"Shihab’s"expatriate"life.430"“Similarly,"in"the" 1964"article"“Americans"in"Europe:"A"Discussion,”"expatriates"Leo"Wright,"Kenny"Drew," Dexter"Gordon,"and"Ray"Pitts"discussed"their"life"overseas.431"Europe"and"European" musicians"are"mentioned"mostly"in"the"context"of"American"musicians"visiting"or" migrating"to"Europe."Among"the"first"Down-Beat-writers"to"discuss"American"jazz" musicians"migrating"to"Europe"was"the"aforementioned"Lind,"who"in"1960,"so"two"years" prior"to"the"announcement,"summed"up," " The"first"of"the"American"jazz"musicians"to"settle"in"Europe"was,"of"course," Sidney"Bechet,"for"whom"France,"where"he"died"last"year,"had"become"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 428"Ibid.,"18H19." 429"DB,"October"21,"1965,"11." 430"DB,"March"14,"1963." 431"DB,"July"2,"1964,"6."

152" " home."Kenny"Clarke"moved"to"France;"so"did"Bud"Powell"and"Lucky" Thompson."Trumpeter"Bill"Coleman"lived"abroad"so"long"that"he"is" virtually"forgotten"in"America."Tenor"saxophonist"Don"Byas"chose"Holland" for"a"home,"married"a"Dutch"girl,"and"has"been"living"abroad"for"10"years."" Others"chose"Sweden,"another"country"that"is"particularly"hospitable"to" jazzmen"and"their"talents."Former"Dizzy"Gillespie"drummer"Joe"Harris" hopped"off"during"a"tour"and"stayed,"and"is"now"married"to"a"Swedish"girl."" Quincy"Jones"has"spent"more"time"in"Europe"than"in"America"in"the"past" three"or"four"years,"working"a"great"deal"in"Sweden."Trumpeter"Benny" Bailey,"another"Gillespie"alumnus,"had"been"living"in"Sweden"for"three" years"until"he"joined"Quincy’s"big"band"during"its"European"tour"recently." (Jack"Lind,"DB,"April"14,"1960)" " Lind"saw"American"jazz"musicians"as"“fugitives"from"the"American"scene”"whose" “exodus”"was"primarily"motivated"by"economic"reasons"or"racial"issues:432" " Tensions"in"the"States—the"struggles"with"the"booking"agent,"the"haggling" with"the"nightHclub"owner,"the"constant"moving"from"gig"to"gig—they"all" seem"to"have"a"visibly"straining"influence"on"the"musical"freedom"for" which"every"jazzman"strives."In"the"case"of"the"Negroe"musicians,"they" also"have"to"cope"with"rejections,"discriminations,"and"the"Jim"Crow" attitude."That’s"why"they"come"to"Europe."(Jack"Lind,"DB-September"13," 1962,"14)" " Although"journalists"in"Down-Beat-occasionally"raised"the"issue"of"race"as"a"reason"for" leaving"the"United"States,"musicians"remained"hesitant"to"questions"of"racism."Only" Dexter"Gordon"gave"a"very"clear"answer"to"the"question"whether"racial"prejudice" motivated"him"to"leave"the"United"States:"“Well,"I’m"not"gonna"lie."Yes.”433"Europe," however,"was"not"just"a"Utopian"space,"free"of"racism"and"full"of"economic"prospects." When"Lind"in"1962"reported"on"the"working"conditions"in"Europe,"he"observed"how"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 432"See,"for"example,"Jack"Lind,"DB,"April"14,"1960." 433"DB,"July"2,"1964,"70."

153" " “the"pay"…"is"generally"lower"than"in"the"States,”"“in"many"areas"there"is"a"severe" housing"shortage,”"“the"cost"of"living"is"high,”"adding"that,"“racial"prejudice"prevails"in" some"European"cities.”434"" " Within"this"context,"European"musicians"and"audiences"are"generally"portrayed"as"oneH dimensional"characters,"respectively"the"eager"but"average"musician"and"the"serious" listener,"who"predominantly"serve"to"tell"the"success"story"of"American"musicians"in" Europe."In"terms"of"European"musicians,"American"expatriates"living"in"Europe"also" often"saw"themselves"confronted"with"a"lack"of"competition."In"his"1965"article," journalist"Lind"asserts,"“All"[U.S."jazzmen"who"have"gone"to"Europe]"complain"about"the" same"thing:"European"rhythm"sections"leave"a"good"deal"to"be"desired."The"rhythm" players"have"been"described"as"stiff,"unimaginative,"noncohesive"[sic],"and"in"other"lessH refined"terms.”435"Feeling"frustrated"by"these"musically"uninspiring"conditions," American"musicians"in"Europe"saw"visiting"American"musicians"as"an"indispensable" lifeline"to"the"latest"musical"developments.436"There"were"exceptions,"however."“Not" many"EuropeanHborn"musicians"have"been"admitted"to"the"select"inner"circle"of"jazz" innovators,”"Morgenstern"notes"in"a"1971"article"on"the"Belgian"harmonica"player"Toots" Thielemans,"“One"of"the"few,"of"course,"is"Django"Reinhardt,"the"amazing"BelgianHborn" gypsy"guitarist,”"continuing"with"Thielemans,"whose"“amazing"capacity"to"coax"real" music”"from"his"harmonica"made"him"“a"likely"candidate"for"admission"to"that"circle.”437" When,"in"the"same"year,"Morgenstern’s"British"colleague"Val"Wilmer"reports"on"the"Jazz" Jamboree"’70"held"in"the"Polish"town"of"Warsaw,"she"praises"the"playing"of"British"free" jazz"saxophonist"John"Surman,"concluding"that"“Even"if"it"is"a"derivative,"European"jazz" seems"to"be"holding"its"own"at"last.”438"" " Other"European"musicians"who"met"the"American"standard"according"to"these"critics" included"Danish"bass"player"NielsHHenning"Ørsted"Pedersen,"Danish"drummer"Alex"Riel,"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 434"Jack"Lind,"DB,"September"13,"1962,"14." 435"DB,"June"3,"1965,"18H19." 436"Pianist"Kenny"Drew,"who"took"up"residency"in"Copenhagen"in"the"1960s,"shuddered"at"the"thought"of" being"disconnected"with"American"input:"“If"I"had"to"."."."work"seven"nights"a"week"for"a"year"and"half"with" people"I"couldn’t"play"with,"like"a"completely"French"rhythm"section"."."."oh,"no."I"wouldn’t"even"have"been" there.”"DB,"July"2,"1964,"68." 437"Dan"Morgenstern,"“Triple"treat"Toolemans,”"DB,"November"25,"1971,"25." 438"Valerie"Wilmer,"“Warsaw"Warmth:"Jazz"Jamboree"’70,”"DB<"January"21,"1971,"22."

154" " and"Swedish"bass"player"Sture"Nordin."When"pianist"Les"McCann"commemorated"his" European"trip,"he"also"discussed"his"stay"in"the"Netherlands,"where"he"played"in" Amsterdam,"The"Hague"and"at"the"American"air"force"installation"Camp"New" Amsterdam."“Holland"was"just"great."Unlike"other"cities,"we"had"time"to"do"some" sightseeing"…"In"Amsterdam,"there"were"many"curtain"calls"and"beautiful"people."And" we"met"a"wonderful"young"Dutch"bass"player"named"Rudy"Jacobs.”439"Notwithstanding" these"exceptions,"European"musicians"primarily"appear"in"Down-Beat-as"representatives" on"jazz"festival"programmes,"or"as"part"of"the"inevitable"rhythm"section"for"American" soloists"and"rarely"as"musical"innovators." " It"becomes"evident"from"interviews"with"American"expatriates"living"in"Europe"to"what" extent"descriptions"of"European"audiences"were"informed"by"a"stereotyped"image"of"the" “the"intellectual"European.”"While"Dutch"critic"Ton"de"Joode"in"1962"had"called"the" European"listeners"“young,"rebellious"snobs”"(see"Chapter"Four),"Down-Beat-critics"tend" to"portray"European"audiences"as"more"intellectual,"serious,"and"culturally"better" educated"than"the"average"American"jazz"enthusiast."When"reed"player"Ray"Pitts"in" 1964,"for"example,"discussed"his"experience"playing"for"audiences"in"European"clubs,"he" referred"to"it"as"“some"of"the"most"honest"listening.”440"He"observed"that"it"is"not"always" that"way"as"“there"are"people"walking"around"talking"and"making"out"with"chicks"just" like"there"are"in"the"States”"yet"he"observed"that"“the"people"are"receptive”:" " I’ve"seen"Dexter"playing,"working"in"the"Montmartre,"and"I"have"seen"at" the"end"of"a"piece"he"has"been"playing,"a"reception"from"the"audience"that" I"have"very"seldom"seen"in"the"States."…"In"the"States"I"just"got"the" impression"that"the"people"were"there,"but"it"was"a"sort"of"“let"me"first" down"this"Scotch"and"let"me"see"if"I"can"talk"to"this"chick"and"this"and"that" and"the"other"thing"and"when"I"can’t"think"of"anything"to"say"anymore,"I’ll" listen"to"the"music"for"a"little"while.”"At"the"Montmartre"they"were"there." (Ray"Pitts,"DB,"July"2,"1964,"67)" "

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 439"DB,"March"14,"1963,"16." 440"Ray"Pitts,"DB,"July"2,"1964,"67."

155" " Similarly,"reed"player"Dexter"Gordon"thought"of"European"audiences"as"more"“inside”"as" they"listened"to"the"“emotions”"and"“modifications.”"Pitts"gives"evidence"to"similar" sentiments,"stating"that"Europeans"have"“a"much"broader"cultural"education,"and"they" are"so"much"more"receptive"to"artistic"influences"than"a"great"many"people"in"the" States.”441"In"his"report"on"a"European"tour"with"trumpeter"Ted"Curson"in"December" 1964,"saxophonist"Bill"Barron"concludes"that"the"Scandinavian"audiences"were"“very" sincere,”"because"they"kept"coming"back"to"his"concerts."He"noted"that"in"Paris"the"band" was"“well"received,”"although"the"crowd"was"different"every"night."The"people"in" Germany"seemed"“somewhat"aloof,”"until"they"got"to"know"some"of"them."Barron"added" that"in"Scandinavia"the"people"“seemed"closer"to"the"mainstream"things”"than"in" Germany"and"France,"though"their"critics"like"avantHgarde.442"Saxophonist"Brew"Moore" found"the"audience"at"the"Danish"jazz"club"Montmartre"“strange”"because,"they"“take"the" music"terribly"serious.”"Likewise,"Dexter"Gordon"thought"of"the"Scandinavian"audiences" as"“very"discerning,”"while"Kenny"Drew"stated"that"“it"depends"on"the"country"you’re"in" […]"The"Italians"will"accept"anything.”443"At"the"heart"of"these"depictions"lies"a" romanticist"view"of"Europe"as"the"cradle"of"civilization,"described"by"John"Gennari"in" Blowin’-Hot-and-Cool"(2006)"“the"image"of"Europe"as"a"standardHbearer"of"high"art," ostensibly"transcendent"civilizational"values,"and"superior"skills"of"cuttingHedge"artistic" awareness.”444"Implicitly,"these"observations"demonstrate"thus"a"deeply"racialized"and" oneHdimensional"thinking"about"Europe." " An"exploration"the"role"of"jazz"in"Europe"becomes"clear"that,"as"for"Europe’s"inhabitants," Down-Beat-held"a"rather"ambiguous"view."While"European"audiences"are"praised"for"its" serious"attitude"towards"jazz,"European"jazz"musicians"are"generally"valued"less" positively."This"divide"builds"on"stereotyped"notions"of"European"intellectualism"and" Europe"as"the"home"of"serious"art,"in"which"the"European"listener"is"presented"as"an" essentially"civilized"human"being."The"portrayal"of"European"jazz"musicians"as"inferior" to"the"American"jazz"musicians,"however,"presents"Europe"as"an"uncultivated"space"of" jazz"performance."Also,"there"is"a"sense"of"exoticism"tied"to"Europe"within"these"reports."

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 441"DB"July"2,"1964,"67H68." 442"DB,"January"14,"1965,"9." 443"DB,"July"2,"1964,"68." 444"Gennari,"Blowin’-Hot-and-Cool,"20."

156" " Down-Beat"generally"presents"American"musicians"who"tour"settle"in"Europe"as" pioneers"that"brought"jazz"to"the"faraway"European"hinterland,"with"local" correspondents"reporting"their"adventures"that"then"were"brought"back"to"the" motherland"by"Down-Beat."In"this"context,"the"reports"on"international"jazz"activities" expresses"ageHold"feelings"of"frontierism,"not"in"the"nostalgic"sense"of"what"Tony" Whyton"calls"a"“longing"for"a"bygone"era,”"but"more"as"what"Albert"Murray"has"called" “the"need"to"face"new"situations"on"the"frontier.”445"As"the"aforementioned"Lind"asserts" in"his"1960"report"on"Stan"Getz’"expatriate"life"in"Copenhagen:"“Europe"today"has"a"large" and"growing"colony"of"American"jazzmen"[Italics"added].”446"Within"this"view,"the" Netherlands"in"Down-Beat-by"and"large"was"to"be"understood"as"part"of"Europe,"which" was"basically"a"place"where"American"musicians"could"play,"earn"a"livelihood"and"at" times,"settle."From"that"perspective,"the"Netherlands,"Germany,"Denmark,"Belgium"and" other"Western"European"countries"were"interchangeable."

National&sounds& Considering"the"dominating"view"of"Europe"as"a"working"place,"it"comes"as"no"surprise" that"only"few"references"appear"on"national"sounds"in"Europe."Andrew"Wright"Hurley"in" his"2011"study"of"the"aforementioned"German"critic"JoachimHErnst"Berendt"argues"that" critics"during"the"1960s"began"to"reflect"on"the"national"qualities"of"the"music."Hurley" argues,"“in"these"critics’"opinions,"European"musicians"owed"a"debt"to"America,"but" were"in"the"process"of"finding"their"own,"distinctively"national"voice.”"However,"while" Hurley’s"analysis"suggests"that"critics"during"the"1960s"already"showed"an"awareness"of" thinking"in"terms"of"national"sounds"and"differences,"I"argue"that"this"sense"of"national" awareness"only"became"explicit"in"jazz"criticism"from"midH1970s."This"is"asserted"by"the" writing"of"Dutch"jazz"critics,"who,"as"we"have"seen"in"the"previous"chapter,"only"from" 1977"onwards"began"to"explore"Dutch"improvised"music"in"relation"to"a"national" context." "

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 445"Tony"Whyton,"Jazz-Icons:-Heroes,-Myths-and-the-Jazz-Tradition-(Cambridge:"Cambridge"University"Press," 2010),"27;"Albert"Murray,"“The"Function"of"the"Heroic"Image,”"in"the-Jazz-Cadenze-of-American-Culture,"ed." Robert"G."O’Meally"(New"York:"Columbia"University"Press),"571." 446"DB,"April"14,"1960."

157" " The"following"paragraphs"show"how"Down-Beat-critics"around"the"same"time,"albeit" slightly"earlier,"began"to"explicitly"investigate"the"idea"of"jazz"and"nationalism."The"issue" of"national"sounds"first"and"foremost"concerned"the"idea"of"jazz"as"an"American"music." Although"the"idea"of"jazz"as"essentially"American"was"by"no"means"a"new"issue,"the" worldwide"dissemination"of"jazz"and"the"growing"international"community"of"jazz" musicians"contributed"to"a"sense"of"urgency"in"explicitly"promoting"the"idea"of"jazz"as" essentially"American."In"1975,"for"example,"Down-Beat-published"a"special"issue"on" American"music,"themed"around"“several"aspects"of"‘American"music,’"including"a" searching"dialogue"on"its"nature"and"effect,”"and"which"on"the"cover"prominently" showed"the"American"flag."The"editorial"stated" " This,"and"any,"examination"of"American"music"phenomena"makes"at"least" two"suppositions"which"pose"as"important"questions"relating"to"our" general"welfare:"(1)"What"are"the"music"to"which"the"label"“Made—or" assembled—in"the"U.S.A.”"can"be"applied?"(2)"Why"is"it"so"important"for" American"music"to"be"so"identified"and"analyzed?"And"why"now?" (Editorial,"DB,"February"27,"1975,"6)" " In"the"article"“What"is"American"Music?”"Down-Beat-critic"Bob"Palmer"addresses"these" and"similar"questions,"falling"back"on"romanticized"American"ideals"of"freedom"and" democracy."In"his"attempt"to"investigate"the"American"distinctiveness"in"the"works"of" American"composers"such"as"Charles"Ives,"Edgar"Varèse,"Stefan"Wolpe,"and"Steve"Reich," the"critic"separates"the"composers’"“"sense"of"nonHproprietariness”"from"the"works"of" similar"European"composers,"who"rather"“instantly"transformed"them"into"systems,"into" schools,"into"methods.”"Further,"Palmer"attempts"to"find"ways"in"which"to"understand" both"contemporary"composers'"music"as"well"as"folk"and"popular"American"music," arguing"that"“before"we"can"define"American"music,"then,"we"need"a"set"of"procedures" we"will"allow"us"to"evaluate"Charles"Ives"and-James"Brown"[Italics"in"original].”447"He" reasons"that"the"AfricanHAmerican"practice"of"jazz"is"“an"area"which"is"of"overwhelming" importance"if"we"are"eventually"to"arrive"at"an"estimate"of"how"much"and"in"what"ways"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 447"Bob"Palmer,"“What"is"American"Music?,”"DB,"February"27,"1975,"11."

158" " our"music"has"been"influenced"by"that"of"Africa.”448"Underlying"Palmer’s"exploration"is" the"idea"that"jazz,"as"other"forms"of"popular"music,"is"undervalued"by"institutions"and"by" the"establishment."Palmer,"then,"basically"argues"for"the"recognition"of"jazz"as"a"vital" part"of"American"culture"and"for"the"revaluation"of"jazz"as"an"art"form." " Although"most"international"Down-Beat-correspondents"during"the"1960s"propagate" American"jazz"as"the"original"and"the"real,"they"did"increasingly"signal"European" musicians"that"met"the"American"standard."In"the"International"Jazz"Critics"Poll"of"1963," British"correspondent"Charles"Fox"claims,"“the"time"is"drawing"near"when"a"really"major" jazz"artist"will"arise"outside"of"the"United"States.”449"While"CzechHAmerican"Eric"Vogel"in" 1962"signals"that"“the"gap"between"U.S."and"foreign"musicians"narrows"yearly,”"he" concludes"two"years"later,"that"“now,"for"the"first"time,"a"whole"combo—the"Albert" Mangelsdorff"Quintet—has"achieved"a"musical"level"which"is"comparable"with"firstHclass" American"counterparts.”450"Critic"Pete"Welding,"for"example,"lists"the"AustrianHborn" pianist"Joe"Zawinul"for"being"one"of"“a"handful"of"nonHAmerican"musicians"to"have" achieved"any"prominence"in"jazz,”"praising"the"pianist"for"commanding"the"idiom"with" “an"exceptional"authority"even"more"fluently”"than"“his"almost"perfectly"Americanized" English,"in"which"only"a"slight"accent"betrays"his"Viennese"origins.”451"Similarly,"JeanH Luc"Ponty"considers"jazz"“a"universal"music”"with"Europeans"Martial"Solal"and"NielsH Henning"Ørsted"Pederson"as"“being"the"equal"of"any.”"“Obviously,"since"jazz"was"created" in"America,"and"aspiring"musicians"are"brought"up"in"the"environment"where"the"best" jazz"is"readily"available,"America"is"more"propitious"for"the"development"of"a"jazz" musician.”452"In"other"words,"Zawinul,"Ponty,"and"Ørsted"Pedersen"are"considered"wellH respected"jazz"musicians,"because"they"have"successfully"and"completely"incorporated" the"American"jazz"idiom"in"their"playing." " The"only"two"Dutch"albums"reviewed"in"Down-Beat-in"the"1960s"are"understood"along" similar"lines."When"critic"Gilbert"Erskine"reviewed"the"Dutch"Swing"College"Band’s"Dixie-

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 448"Ibid." 449"DB,"July"18,"1963,"18." 450"DB,"August"13,"1964,"40H42." 451"Pete"Welding,"DB,"November"17,"1966,"23." 452"JeanHLuc"Ponty,"DB,"November"3,"1966,"25."

159" " Gone-Dutch"(Philips,"1962)"in"1962,"for"example,"he"heard"“many"flavors"of"jazz”"running" through"the"tracks:" " King-of-the-Zulus-is"a"Louis"Armstrong"Hot"Five"item,"but"it"runs"more" Duke"Ellington’s"way"than"Armstrong’s."Schilperpoort’s"baritone," especially"on"Please-Don’t-Talk,"has"a"decided"and"pleasant"Bud"Freeman" flavor."On"Ory’s-Creole-Trombone-Kaart"plays"all"of"Ory’s"awkward"phrases," but"it"isn’t"impossible"to"be"annoyed,"because"it"isn’t"that"he"didn’t"know" better,"or"that"he"was"trying"to"mimic"Ory—he"simply"did"not"want,"out"of" respect,"to"change"the"breaks."(DB,"August"30,"1962,"25)" " Critic"Gilbert"Erskine"considered"the"album"“decent,"but"lacking"originality"and" therefore"typical"for"European"jazz”"yet"concluded"that"it"is"“another"portent"of"the" healthy"state"of"jazz"in"Europe.”453"Similarly,"Michael"Zwerin’s"review"of"The-Misja- Mengelberg-Quartet-(As-Featured-at-the-Newport-Jazz-Festival-1966)-(Artone,"1966)," although"applicative"of"the"group’s"attempt"to"“to"forge"its"own"identity"between"Johnny" Hodges"and"Cecil"Taylor,”"is"swollen"with"comparisons"with"American"music"in"an" attempt"to"position"and"understand"their"music."When"Erskine"describes"Dutch" saxophonist"Piet"Noordijk’s"playing"in"“Hodjazz”,"he"observes"how"the"player"“comes" out"of"his"natural"modified"Ornette"Coleman"bag"and"does"a"marvelous"tribute"to"Johnny" Hodges"in"the"latter’s"own"style,"although"he"sometimes"overlaps"[Phil]"Woods"more" than"anyone"else.”454" " Reflecting"the"international"tendency"within"jazz"criticism"to"evaluate"the"work"of" individual"jazz"musicians"and"groups"in"terms"of"nationalism"and"local"roots,"the" question"of"national"and"local"sounds"in"jazz"becomes"more"pressing"in"Down-Beat- during"the"1970s."When"Berendt"in"1977"reports"on"the"fiveHday"Berlin"Jazz"Days"event," for"example,"he"observes"how"Willem"Breuker,"“goes"back"to"his"European"roots"as"an" American"player"might"go"back"to"blues"and"gospel”"yet"observed,"“Breuker"is"a"real"jazz"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 453"DB,"August"30,"1962,"25." 454"DB,"December"15,"1966,"9."

160" " musician.”455"Berendt"notes"that"Breuker"in"his"Kollektief"“incorporates"European"folk" music,"marches"and"19th"century"dance"sounds,"schmaltzy"romanticisms"ad"kitschy" operetta"bliss,”"combining"these"“musically,"but"also"dramatically"and,"above"all," critically"and"humorously.”"Referring"to"Breuker"as"the"“’Kurt"Weill"of"European"jazz,'" with"the"permutation"techniques"and"the"political"consciousness"of"Bertold"Brecht"and" Hanns"Eisler,”"he"concludes,"“If"anything"that"has"been"said"about"the"emancipation"of" Europe"makes"sense,"then"Amsterdam"composer"and"saxophonist"Willem"Breuker"is"the" 'most"European'"of"all"European"jazz"players.”"456"Not"all"Dutch"musicians"receive"such" rave"reports,"however."The"Down-Beat"critic"Chuck"Berg"in"his"review"of"Dutch"pianist" Louis"van"Dijk’s"Round-Midnight-(Columbia"M"34511),"credits"the"album"with"two"stars," accusing"the"pianist"of"“instead"of"being"a"jazz"musician,"[he]"is"nothing"more"than"a" congenial"cocktail"pianist"whose"efforts"are"mostly"inoffensive.”"He"continuous,"“lacking" technical"panache"or"dramatic"flair,"Van"Dijk’s"monochromatic"soundscapes"hang"as" listly"as"the"doubts"that"line"the"motel"lounges"where"music"like"this"is"usually"the" norm.”457" " Notwithstanding"these"occasional"debates,"the"discussions"in"1970s"Down-Beat"shift" towards"issues"of"genre,"fusion,"and"the"role"of"electronic"instrumentation"in"musical" practice."Following"the"increasing"interest"in"the"pop,"fusion"and"rock"music"of" musicians"such"as"Pat"Williams,"Frank"Zappa"and"Carla"Bley,"the"magazine"mentions"the" Dutch"rock"group,"such"as"Focus."Mike"Bourne"in"his"1973"review"of"Introspection- (Colombia"KC"32346)"praises"the"rock"group’s"fusion"of"different"styles,"stating"that"the" album"“isn’t"rock—it"is"indeed"introspective,"chamber"music"arranged"and"conducted" with"classical"panache"by"Rogier"van"Otterloo,”"concluding"that"the"band’s"flutist,"pianist" and"composer"Thijs"van"Leer"“has"proven"that"classical"forms"and"styles"offer"a"source" of"music"of"great"beauty"and"not"simply"something"trendy"to"play.”458"Chuck"Mitchell,"a" year"later,"welcomes"guitarist"Jan"Akkerman"and"his"partner"George"Flynn"“to"the"land" of"the"category"breakers,”"noting"on"their"album"Tabernakel"(Atco"SD"7032)"that,"“if" you're"a"categorical"purist—that"is,"if"you"insist"that"classical"is"classical,"rock"is"rock," """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 455"JoachimHErnst"Berendt,"transl."Helmut"and"Barbara"Bredigkeit,"“Berlin"Jazz"Days"’76,”"DB,"February"10," 1977,"34." 456"Ibid." 457"Chuck"Berg,"record"review,"DB,"March"23,"1978,"24H25." 458"Mike"Bourne,"record"review,"DB,"December"20,"1973,"27."

161" " and"never"the"twain"shall"meet—then"by"all"means"keep"your"head"and"temper"intact"by" avoiding"this"album."Everyone"else,"get"set"for"a"real"delight,"courtesy"of"Jan"Akkerman," the"Dutch"lead"guitarist"of"Focus.“459" " However,"while"European"improvising"musicians"during"the"1960s"and"1970s" increasingly"explored"their"own"local"roots"in"search"of"a"musical"identity"of"their"own," both"critics"and"musicians"remained"hesitant"in"explaining"European"music"in"terms"of" national"sounds."In"1963,"the"aforementioned"Berendt,"stereotypes"European"styles"in" his"description"of"the"Yugoslavian"way"of"playing."He"observes"how"the"Yugoslavs," " have"the"feeling"for"style"of"the"Swedes,"the"individuality"of"the"French," the"musicality"of"the"German[s],"and"the"professionalism"of"the"English;" and,"furthermore,"they"have"something"other"peoples"in"Europe"lack:"the" ancient"musicianly"[sic]"vitality"of"the"Balkans."(JoachimHErnst"Berendt," DB,"December"5,"1963,"21)460" " As"Hurley"observes"in"his"2011"study"of"Joachim"Ernst"Berendt,"the"critic"during"the" 1960s"“softened"his"own"position"on"the"notion"of"‘German’"jazz,"formerly"rejecting"such" an"idea"in"his"defense"of"the"idea"of"jazz’"internationality.”"Berendt,"according"to"Hurley," “discerned"the"idea"that"the"leading"German"jazzmen"of"the"day"were"influenced"by" German"traditions”"and"deliberately"placed"the"music"of"German"jazz"musicians"within"a" European"context."“Now"don’t"go"thinking"that"I"am"associating"jazz"with"Blut-und-Boden" [blood"and"soil]."That"is"loathsome"to"me."We"are"not"dealing"with"German,"but"rather" European"developments"here.”461"In"1977"when"Down-Beat-critic"Steve"Lake"asked" Norwegian"reed"player"Jan"Garbarek"whether"there"was"any"bond"among"the"musicians" that"give"Norwegian"jazz"its"particular"character,"Garbarek"responded,"“It's"hard"for"me" to"hear"the"special"Norwegian"quality"in"our"playing,"but"I"know"that"a"lot"of"people"do" definitely"hear"it.”462"Garbarek"saw"this"typical"Norwegian"sound—currently"also" referred"to"as"the"“Nordic"Tone”—as"a"result"of"producer"Manfred"Eicher,"noting"that" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 459"Chuck"Mitchell,"record"review,"DB,"April"11,"1974,"24H25." 460"Similarly,"according"to"a"Strictly"ad"Lib"report,"Spanish"jazz"in"1964"was"“lagging"behind”"compared"to" the"rest"of"Europe,"although"its"musical"heritage"gave"it"a"lot"of"potential,"DB,"March"12,"1964,"10." 461"Hurley,"The-Return-of-Jazz,"140." 462"DB,"November"17,"1977,"16H17,"46."

162" " “In"Manfred's"case,"the"special"recording"situation,"the"sound"quality,"is"being"used"as"an" instrument."It's"part"of"the"recording.”463" " Thus,"while"the"critics"remained"critical"about"understanding"nonHAmerican"jazz"in" terms"of"emancipation"from"the"American,"they"did"see"a"progress"in"stylistic" development."When"Charles"Mitchell"in"1975"wrote"an"article"on"the"German" saxophonist"Klaus"Doldinger"and"his"development"from"bebop"player"to"jazzHrock" player,"he"noted,"“we’re"well"past"the"point"where"there’s"a"question"of"Europeans" having"the"ability"to"hold"their"own"as"players"with"Americans.”464"Mitchell,"like"other" Down-Beat"critics,"struggled"with"the"problem"of"European"players"performing"a"music" that"was"rooted"in"AfricanHAmerican"culture"and"which"he"therefore"saw"as"an"act"of" appropriation."“The"nonHAmerican"‘jazz’"musician’s"acute,"perhaps"insoluble"problem"is" to"find"himself"in"a"musical"tradition"that"is"not"his—indeed,"that"he"may"be"trying"to" find"at"the"same"time"as"he"searches"for"his"own"identity."He"must"create"his"voice"in" another"language.”465" " The"frequent"use"of"stereotyped"images"to"understand"nonHAmerican"practices,"further" underlines"how"Down-Beat"in"the"1960s"and"1970s"gives"little"testimony"of"the"settling" of"jazz"in"Europe"and"the"outcomes"of"its"dialog"with"local"cultures."NonHAmerican" musicians"in"Down-Beat"throughout"the"1960s"are"valued"as"playing"below"or"according" to"the"American"standard,"but"are"seldom"understood"in"terms"of"being"different." Consequently,"by"understanding"the"works"of"individual"jazz"musicians"in"terms"of" equality"compared"to"the"American"jazz"tradition"rather"than"by"its"inequality,"these" writings"tend"to"reinforce"the"notion"of"jazz"as"an"essentially"American"music"practice." While"Down-Beat"during"the"1960s"and"1970s"does"increasingly"report"on"jazz"in" Europe,"the"lack"of"diversification"in"local"sounds"suggests"that"the"growing" international"focus"of"Down-Beat"should"in"the"first"place"be"understood"as"an"interest"in" the"geographical"expansion"of"American"jazz."In"that"respect,"again,"the"Netherlands"was" as"good"as"any"other"country."As"Mitchell"puts"it"in"his"1975"article"on"German" saxophonist"Doldinger:"“Listening"to"Jan"Garbarek,"Terje"Rypdal,"Miroslav"Vitous,"Klaus" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 463"Ibid." 464"Charles"Mitchell,"DB,"August"14,"1975,"19." 465"Ibid."

163" " Doldinger,"and"others"in"the"new"European"wave,"we"may"be"getting"to"the"stage"where" we"can"talk"about"nonHAmericans"as"innovators,”"Mitchell"observed"in"the"same"1975" article"on"Doldinger,"to"conclude"relentlessly"and"crystalHclear,"“but"it"won't"be"as"‘jazz’" innovators.”466"

Conclusion& In"this"chapter"I"have"discussed"different"tropes"and"narratives"that"have"informed"the" understanding"of"nonHAmerican"jazz."By"exposing"underlying"defining"notions,"such"as" “jazz"as"an"essentially"American"music"practice”"and"“the"intellectual"European,”"this" chapter"demonstrates"how"local,"nonHAmerican"jazz"practices"in"Down-Beat-during"the" 1960s"and"1970s"are"understood—misunderstood,"perhaps—in"terms"of"equality" rather"than"in"differentiating"terms"in"comparison"with"the"American"jazz"tradition." Although"jazz"critics"in"Down-Beat-increasingly"express"in"their"writing"a"desire"to" present"jazz"as"an"essentially"American"culture,"thinking"about"jazz"in"terms"of"national" differences"and"identities"is"hardly"part"of"the"narrative"in"Down-Beat"until"midH1970s." Despite"Down-Beat’s"international"focus,"the"acclaimed"center"of"musical"authority," creativity"and"renewal"during"the"1960s"remained"the"United"States."Although"Down- Beat"readers"can"learn"about"nonHAmerican"jazz,"the"reports"are"usually"without" reference"to"the"local"context"in"which"these"practices"took"place."The"American"jazz" narrative"is"the"standard"against"which"local,"nonHAmerican"jazz"practices"are"measured." Jazz"played"by"Europeans"is"pitted"against"American"jazz"in"terms"of"“better”"or"“worse,”" but"it"was"hardly"ever"discussed"in"terms"of"local"differences."Therefore,"without" providing"a"context"to"create"an"understanding"of"these"nonHAmerican"developments," Dulfer’s"short"factual"Ad"Lib"reports,"as"most"other"reports"on"nonHAmerican"jazz"served" hardly"any"other"purpose"than"to"confirm"that"jazz"was"doing"well"abroad." " Considering"the"language"and"socioHgeographical"barriers,"the"understanding"of"Dutch" jazz"practices"by"nonHDutch"audiences"necessarily"takes"place"within"different" perceptional"frameworks."So,"while"the"nonHconformist"stance"of"improvising"musicians" and"other"social"implications"of"Dutch"jazz"practices"are"implicit"knowledge"for"Dutch" audiences,"it"is"by"no"means"unambiguous,"or"understood"internationally."For"a"nonH """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 466"Ibid."

164" " Dutch"listener,"or"a"Dutchman"indifferent"to"jazz,"it"would"take"a"wellHinformed" mediator"to"create"a"deeper"understanding"of"the"many"faces"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands." Notwithstanding"Down-Beat’s-announced"international"focus,"the"magazine"primarily" concentrates"on"the"promotion"of"American"jazz,"reinforcing"stereotyped"notions"of"jazz" as"a"maleHdominated,"essentially"African"American"music"practice."This"type"of" stereotypeHimposed"storytelling,"together"with"a"general"resistance"against"explaining" jazz"in"national"sounds"(as"we’ve"seen"in"the"case"of"Berendt),"partly"explains"why"little" references"are"found"on"more"specific"characteristics"in"local"sounds"and"audiences"in" Europe."It"demonstrates"how,"for"example,"when"Down-Beat"journalist"Michael"Zwerin" criticizes"Dutch"pianist"Misha"Mengelberg"for"playing"“too"intellectual”"and"overH occupied"with"“harmonic,"thematic"and"formalistic"aspects,”"he"both"draws"from"and" reinforces"the"idiom"of"stereotyped"imagery"that"is"inextricably"bound"up"with"the" American"jazz"narrative,"in"this"case"of"the"“intellectual,"white"European.”467" Consequently,"constructed"jazz"histories"are"inclined"to"marginalize"other"voices,"such" as"the"female"and"nonHAmerican"perspective."As"an"interpretative"framework,"therefore," the"American"jazz"narrative"hardly"provides"journalists"with"sufficient"tools"to" understand"nonHAmerican"perspectives." " In"the"final"chapter,"I"delve"more"deeply"into"the"construction"of"the"idea"of"a"distinctive" Dutch"jazz"from"a"performance"perspective."I"will"do"this"by"a"close"examination"of"the" production,"funding"and"performance"of"the"Zeeland-Suite"(1977)"by"pianist"and" composer"Leo"Cuypers,"one"of"the"most"fascinating"musical"outcomes"of"the"intricate" liaison"between"media,"arts,"and"policyHmaking."

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 467"DB,"December"15,"1966,"9."

165" " 6.&Zeeland+Suite&(1977):&Jazz,&public&funding&and&national&identity&

In"the"summer"of"1977,"an"extraordinary"event"took"place"in"the"Dutch"province"of" Zeeland"(“Sealand,”"pronounced"as"zāHlǝnt),"the"flat,"bare"and"windy"delta"province"in" the"southwest"corner"of"the"Netherlands."For"three"days,"a"string"of"vans"and"buses" could"be"seen"travelling"through"the"Zeeland"landscape,"passing"dikes"and"bridges"and" pausing"at"quintessential"Zeeland"sites."The"troupe"stopped"at"the"famous"Dutch" Deltaworks,"the"Haamstede"castle,"the"crossroads"of"St."Annaland,"the"small"harbor"of" the"little"village"of"Hoedekenskerke,"the"industrial"estate"Borssele,"the"beach"of" Domburg,"Fort"Rammekens"in"Ritthem,"and"the"salt"marsh"of"the"Verdronken-Land-van- Saefthinge-(submerged"land"of"Saefthinge)."At"these"sites,"musicians,"radio"and" cameramen,"officials"and"spectators,"left"their"vehicles"to"set"up"for"a"series"of"outdoor" concerts,"performed"by"the"leading"improvising"musicians"of"the"time."They"were" Willem"Breuker"(1944H2010)"and"Bob"Driessen"(1947)"on"reeds,"Willem"van"Manen" (1940)"on"trombone,"Martin"van"Duynhoven"(1942)"on"drums,"Harry"Miller"(1941H1983)" and"Arjen"Gorter"(1948)"on"bass,"and"Leo"Cuypers"(1947)"on"piano."All"were"part"of"the" premiere"performance"of"the"Zeeland-Suite,"a"multiHmovement"work"for"jazz"septet"by" pianist"and"composer"Leo"Cuypers."The"event"took"place"as"part"of"the"annual"threeH week"Festival"Nieuwe"Muziek"(New"Music"Festival,"FNM),"the"provincial"counterpart"of" the"Amsterdam"Holland"Festival"that"was"organized"annually"by"the"association"Jeugd" en"Muziek"Zeeland-(Youth"and"Music"Zeeland,"JMZ)." " Dutch"filmmaker"Hans"Hülscher"(b."1939),"who"had"started"the"year"before" experimenting"with"reworking"dance"productions"for"Dutch"television,"made"a"unique" 49Hminute"film"of"the"performance,"which"premiered"on"10"January"1978"on"Dutch" television."The"documentary"style"film"gives"a"fascinating"insight"into"the"performative" aspects"of"improvised"music,"highlighting"the"performance’s"eclecticism"and"humor"and" showing"musicians,"listeners"as"well"as"specific"Zeeland"surroundings."Combining" spectacular"aerial"shots"with"closeHups,"the"film"shows"how"children"at"the"garden"of"the" Haamstede"Castle"joyfully"gather"around"Cuypers,"who"is"playing"his"solo"piece" “impromptu”"at"the"grand"piano."Gorter"and"Van"Manen,"both"dressed"up"in"Lederhosen- and"Tyrolean"hats,"are"frolicking"and"playing"with"table"tennis"bats"and"scoop"balls."At" the"same"location"the"musicians"perform"with—or"rather"alongside—a"folkloristic"

166" " dance"group"under"the"name"of"Medioburgum"(Latin"for"Zeeland’s"capital"Middelburg)" that"performs"singing"in"traditional"costumes."In"another"scene,"Gorter"and"Miller"carry" their"basses"through"the"sand"of"an"industrial"site"to"the"next"location,"a"pontoon"used" for"the"construction"of"the"Philipsdam."While"the"piano"introduction"of"the"tutti"piece" “Something"Else”"plays,"Cuypers"can"be"seen"theatrically"hiding"himself"in"the"large" bucket"of"an"excavator,"which"at"the"same"time,"lifts"a"grand"piano"onto"the"floating" platform."Halfway"through"the"film,"Breuker"and"Driessen"are"at"a"sheepfold"in"the"salt" marsh,"playing"a"duet"for"two"soprano"saxophones,"“Bach"I.”"They"can"hardly"continue," as"the"rain"and"wind"wets"Driessen’s"glasses"and"washes"away"their"sheet"music."The" director"draws"the"viewer"into"the"performance,"as"the"camera"slowly"gets"soaked"with" rain,"blurring"the"image"of"the"duo."Further,"in"between"the"performances,"the"musicians" can"be"seen"in"the"bus,"singing"and"chatting"as"they"move"from"one"location"to"the"next." " The"suite,"typical"for"improvised"music,"but"by"no"means"at"its"musical"forefront,"rested" firmly"on"the"cultural"infrastructure"for"jazz"and"improvised"music"created"in"the" preceding"years."As"shown"in"the"previous"chapter,"the"government’s"attitude"towards" the"arts"and"culture"had"become"intimately"linked"with"social"welfare,"and"avantHgarde" musicians"had"secured"themselves"a"place"within"the"subsidy"system"that,"based"on"the" principle"of"cultuurspreiding,"encouraged"a"further"development"of"a"diversity"of"art" forms"throughout"the"country."During"the"1970s"this"system"of"public"funding"for"the" arts"in"the"Netherlands,"shaped"by"the"policies"of"cultuurspreiding"and"diversification," reached"its"full"potential."Largely"funded"by"the"Dutch"government,"the"Zeeland-Suite" was"one"of"the"fascinating"musical"outcomes"of"these"years"of"active"lobbying"by"the" improvising"musicians."The"suite"was"also"consciously"marketed"and"used"as"a" promotional"tool"for"the"province"of"Zeeland,"making"it"exemplary"for"the"increasing" involvement"of"the"media"and"jazz"promoters"in"improvised"music."The"following" paragraphs"explore"processes"of"meaningHmaking"and"identity"formation"on"the"level"of" a"musical"performance,"by"combining"oral"history,"music"analysis,"and"sociological" perspectives."" " By"deconstructing"and"closeHreading"the"suite’s"production,"performance"and" representation,"this"chapter"explores"how"these"two"developments,"the"establishment"of" a"structural"public"funding"system"and"the"emergence"of"Dutch"improvised"music,"began"

167" " to"interact"during"the"1970s."In"return,"by"studying"the"musical"performance"in" connection"to"cultural"symbols"that"have"come"to"represent"the"regional"cultural" identity"of"Zeeland"(the"province’s"motto"“Luctor"et"emergo”,-the"Deltaworks"et"al),"the" suite"shows"how"studying"music"as"a"carrier"of"cultural"meaning"contributes"to"the" understanding"of"issues"of"cultural"identity."To"get"insight"into"the"meaning"of"and" politics"behind"the"notion"of"Dutch"improvised"music,"the"following"paragraphs"discuss" the"composition,"performance,"funding"of"the"suite,"and"subsequently"engages"with"the" question"how"and"why"this"piece"invites"the"listener"to"think"of"the"performance"in" terms"of"“Distinctly"Dutch.”"Before"we"continue,"I"would"like"to"provide"some" background"to"the"performance,"by"giving"a"short"introduction"into"the"works"and"views" of"its"composer:"Leo"Cuypers.""

Moderate&romanticist&

Unlike"most"improvising"musicians,"composer"and"pianist"Leo"Cuypers"(Heemstede,"1" December"1947)"spent"his"childhood"and"adolescent"years"outside"of"Amsterdam"in"the" cities"of"Heemstede"and"Maastricht,"the"latter"in"the"southernmost"city"of"the" Netherlands."Raised"in"a"catholic"family"with"six"children,"his"early"musical"training" consisted"of"singing"Bach"and"Mozart"and"playing"piano"and"drums."His"experiences"as"a" drummer"effected"his"piano"playing,"which"was"characterized"by"percussive"style"and" “"playing"completely"from"the"wrist.”"During"the"three"years"he"received"classical"music" training"at"the"conservatory"of"Maastricht,"teachers"criticized"this"technique."Cuypers," feeling"oppressed"by"what"he"felt"was"a"dictatorial"regime"of"classical"music,"left"the" school"in"1968"to"dedicate"himself"to"the"new"ways"of"musicHmaking"he"had"found"in" jazz.468" " As"a"relative"outsider,"Cuypers,"in"1969,"won"the"Loosdrecht"Jazz"Competition"with"his" solo"pieces"“Trip"1”and"“Trip"2,”"which"jumpstarted"his"career"in"improvised"music." Through"the"years"he"and"Breuker"developed"a"long"lasting,"but"turbulent"friendship— Cuypers"left"the"WBK"after"a"dispute."Cuypers’"recollection"of"their"first"meeting" revealed"the"different"backgrounds"of"the"workingHclass"Breuker"and"the"middleHclass" Cuypers."He"recalls"how"Breuker,"seeing"Cuypers"on"television"win"the"Loosdrecht"prize," """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 468"Han"Schulte,"“Leo"Cuypers,”"5."

168" " initially"thought"of"him"as"“hideous"petty"bourgeois;"cleanHcut,"wearing"a"tie,”"but" nonetheless"liked"his"playing."When,"later"that"year,"Breuker"needed"a"pianist"to"replace" the"German"Joachim"Berendt"Kuhn"at"the"legendary"“Free"Jazz"Treffen”"in"BadenHBaden," Germany,"he"arranged"Cuypers"to"travel"from"Maastricht"to"BadenHBaden.469"Their"first" collaboration"was"captured"on"Gittin’-to-Know-Y’All-(MPS"Records,"1970),"the"acclaimed" album"that"gained"significance"as"an"early"example"of"musical"exchange"between"the"

American"and"European"jazz"avantHgardes.470"After"moving"to"Amsterdam"in"1972," Cuypers"became"known"for"his"solo"work,"as"a"member"of"the"ensembles"of"Willem" Breuker"and"Theo"Loevendie,"and"for"interdisciplinary"music"theatre"pieces."His"music" theatre"pieces,"characterized"by"a"distinct"vernacular"approach,"often"integrated" popular"Dutch"figures."His"Johnny-Rep-Suite-(1972)"for"example,"was"named"after"the" famed"Ajax"soccer"player"and"was"written"in"the"year"that"Ajax"dominated"world" football"by"winning"the"Intercontinental"Cup,"the"European"Champions"Cup"and"the" Super"Cup."" " Cuypers,"who"claimed"to"have"“no"interest"whatsoever”"in"politics"and"activism,"took"a" moderate"stance"in"the"countercultural"debates"of"the"1960s"and"1970s."Politically,"his" ambitions"did"not"amount"to"much"more"than"his"BIMHmembership"and"the"1974" foundation"of"the"BVHaast"label,"although"he"did"criticize"the"chasm"between"high"and" low"art"in"his"musical"farce"Belevenissen-van-de-Heilige-Stefanus"(“Adventures"of"Saint" Stephen,”"1974).471"Throughout"his"career,"he"also"vigorously"attempted"to"avoid" teaching."When"asked"about"his"experiences"with"teaching"and"with"the"students"who"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 469"Cuypers,"interview,"2013."“Willem"heeft"mij"op"de"televisie"het"Loosdrecht"Jazz"Concours"zien"winnen." En"hij"vond"mij"een"vreselijk"akelige"bourgeois;"net,"met"een"stropdas."Volgens"mij"vond"hij"toen"wel"dat"ik" leuk"speelde."…"En"toen"herinnerde"Breuker"zich"opeens"dat"vervelende"klootzakje"op"de"televisie"en"toen" riep"’ie"van;"“Die"moet"je"vragen.”"En"toen"is"er"binnen"drie"dagen"met"een"noodoperatie"contact" opgenomen"met"mij"in"Maastricht"en"ben"ik"afgereisd"naar"Baden"Baden."En"met"Breuker"kom"ik"het" ontzettend"goed"vinden,"daar."De"grondpijlers"van"onze"verhouding"zijn"daar"gelegd,"bij"die"eerste" gesprekken.”" 470"By"the"time"of"the"performance"of"the"Zeeland-Suite,"most"of"the"involved"musicians"had"gained" international"recognition"through"winning"awards"and"scholarships."Breuker,"for"example,"won"several" prizes,"including"the"Wessel"Ilcken"Prijs"(1970),"Smør"Prijs"(1974),"the"Matthijs"Vermeulen"Prijs"(1975," from"Amsterdam"City),"a"music"critics"award"in"Germany"(1976)"and"the"first"position"in"the"polls"of"Oor" (1971),"Jazz/Press"(1976)"and"Jazzwereld-(1966,"1967,"1968,"1969,"1970,"1973);"In"1975"Van"Duynhoven" received"a"scholarship"from"the"ministry"of"CRM"to"study"in"New"York;"Van"Manen’s"Boventoon"ensemble" won"the"Wessel"Ilcken"Award"in"1974;"and"Cuypers"won"the"first"prize"in"jazz"piano"at"the"Loosdrecht" Jazz"Competition"in"1974." 471"Leo"Cuypers,"Zeeland-Suite-en-Johnny-Rep-Suite,"(BVHaast"CD"9307),"CD."Recorded"at"the"VARA"Studios," Hilversum,"19"September,"1977."Originally"released"in"1977(BVHaast"012),"LP."

169" " asked"for"piano"lessons,"Cuypers"recalls"chasing"“those"idiots”"away"from"his"doorsteps." The"aversion"against"teaching"was"common"among"improvising"musicians,"who" generally"felt"it"compromised"their"status"as"an"autonomous"artist."Implicitly,"by"being" opposed"to"teaching,"they"dismissed"the"activities"of"modern"jazz"musicians"and"the" workshops"organized"by"fellow"improvising"musicians,"whom"they"considered"of"“lower" ranking”"(as"discussed"in"Chapter"Two"on"musical"education)."" " Musically,"Cuypers"likewise"followed"a"middle"course,"navigating"between"conventional" ways"of"making"music"and"the"radicalism"propagated"by"some"of"his"contemporaries." This"is"illustrated"by"Cuypers"playing"style—a"style"often"labeled"“romantic”—in"which" he"combines"conventional,"BachHlike"sequential"melodies"with"bold"extended" techniques,"such"as"hitting"the"piano"keys"with"his"fists"and"elbows."Dutch"novelist"and" jazz"fan"Bernlef,"in"1978,"summed"up"this"eclectic"approach"to"art"as," " French"salon"music,"Mozart,"blues,"hillbilly,"Dutch"folk"songs,"opera," Michel"Legrand"and"Cole"Porter,"everything"is"transformed"into"a"highly" idiosyncratic"music—scintillating"bluff"with"demonic"hammering" undercurrents—by"a"musician"who"jokingly"calls"himself"a"“typical"CH major"composer.”"(J."Bernlef,"“Jazzpianist"Leo"Cuypers:"'Ik"vind"mezelf"net" zo'n"beunhaas"als"Liszt',”"Haagsche-Post,"January"14,"1978:"38H41)472" " With"his"style"firmly"rooted"in"jazz"and"music"theatre"and"with"his"flamboyant,"absurdist" style,"Cuypers"is"generally"associated"with"the"Dutch"improvised"music"scene,"albeit"less" frequently"than,"for"example,"than"Han"Bennink,"Willem"Breuker,"and"Misha" Mengelberg."In"1980,"journalist"Max"Pam"was"among"the"first"to"label"Cuypers’"work"as" part"of"a"uniquely"Dutch"movement"of"improvised"music."Pam,"for"example,"stated"in" Key-Notes,"an"English"written"periodical"on"Dutch"musical"life"published"between"1975" and"1987,"that"“the"coinciding"use"of"West"European"romantic"material"and"processes"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 472"“Franse"salonmuziek,"Mozart,"blues,"hillbilly,"Nederlandse"volkswijsjes,"opera,"Michel"Legrand"en"Cole" Porter,"alles"wordt"getransformeerd"tot"een"hoogste"eigen"muziek—"sprankelende"bluf"met"demonisch" hamerende"ondertonen—door"een"improviserend"musicus"die"zichzelf"spottend"een"“typische"CH komponist”"noemt.”"

170" " related"to"free"jazz"resulted"in"striking"contrasts."In"that"respect,"at"least,"Leo"Cuypers"is" truly"representative"of"the"first"generation"of"Dutch"improvising"musicians.”473"" " In"his"relationship"with"the"listener,"similarly"Cuypers"took"a"less"radical"position"within" the"spectrum"of"the"musical"avantHgarde."He"did"not"seek"the"confrontation"to"the"same" extent"as"the"ICP,"which"notoriously"subverted"the"listener’s"expectations"by"their" antagonistic,"free"improvisational"techniques."Cuypers,"asserted"“it"made"me"laugh" when"people"kept"a"straight"face"while"listening"to"that"stuff”"and"rather"tried"to"please" his"listeners"by"“giving"them"a"good"time.”474"In"this"respect"he"found"a"kindred"spirit"in" Breuker,"who"had"left"the"ICP"dissatisfied"with"the"lack"of"leadership,"which"he"felt" impeded"any"further"musical"development."In"contrast"to"the"anarchistic"ICP,"the"two" musicians"regained"leadership"in"their"ensemble,"wrote"directive"compositions"and" consequently"reHestablished"a"form"of"authority"and"order"in"their"groups."“We"even" rehearsed!”"Cuypers"cheerfully"remarked"on"the"structural"hierarchic"organization" within"the"WBK."However,"this"more"conventional,"in"the"words"of"Cuypers,"“revisionist”" approach"to"music"making"was"criticized"by"contemporaries,"who"considered"it"a" betrayal"to"their"democratic"and"socialist"beliefs."As"Bernlef"remarked"in"1978"in"a"halfH concealed"complaint:"“What"in"theory"is"called"a"collective,"is"in"reality"a"group"of" musicians"led-by"Willem"Breuker"and"Leo"Cuypers"[emphasis"added"by"author].”475" Following"this"critique,"the"band"name"of"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief"in"itself"beautifully" reflects"the"continuous"conflict"between"authoritarian"leadership"and"the"idealist" potential"of"collective"decisionHmaking." " However,"despite"this"soughtHafter"reconciliation"the"work"of"Cuypers,"Breuker,"and" their"colleagues"rather"seemed"to"alienate"the"audiences"from"what"had"always"been"the" popular"music"genre"of"jazz."The"Zeeland-Suite,"shows"how"the"ticket"sales,"as"noted" earlier,"covered"only"10"percent"of"the"expenses"made,"giving"evidence"of"a"declining" audience."This"is"asserted"by"Cuypers,"who"remembers"the"audience"of"the"Zeeland-Suite-

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 473"Pam,"“Leo"Cuypers,”"8H13."Original"text"in"English." 474"Cuypers,"interview,"2013."“Ik"moest"soms"echt"lachen"als"mensen"zich"dat"ernstig"lieten"aanleunen;”" “gezelligheid"in"de"tent"brengen.”" 475"J."Bernlef,"“Jazzpianist"Leo"Cuypers:"'Ik"vind"mezelf"net"zo'n"beunhaas"als"Liszt',”"Haagsche-Post," January"14,"1978:"38H41."“Wat"in"theorie"een"collectief"heet"is"in"de"praktijk"een"groep"musici"geleid"door" Willem"Breuker"en"Leo"Cuypers.”"

171" " as"only"a"small"group"of"regulars,"circumstances"that"were"not"unusual"in"the"practice"of" improvised"music."Although"the"number"of"spectators"increased"as"the"day"progressed," Cuypers"recalls"how"the"locals"seemed"hardly"interested"in"the"project"and"treated"the" musicians"and"film"crew"as"“volkomen"Fremdkörper”"(intruders)."That"the"suite" nonetheless"developed"into"such"a"largeHscale"event,"could"largely"be"credited"to"the" involved"cultural"institutions"and"governmental"support,"discussed"later"in"this"chapter."

Interdisplinarity&in&performance& The"suite’s"primary"merit"lay"in"its"performance."Praised"for"its"inclusivity,"it"was" constructed"in"such"a"way"that"it"transcended"boundaries"in"terms"of"location," performance"and"musical"organization."The"idea"of"such"an"allHembracing"artwork," however,"was"far"from"new"and"resonated"with"the"antiHelitist"estheticism"propagated" by"the"1960s"Fluxus"movement,"and"which"had"been"disseminated"in"the"Netherlands" through"the"works"of"Misha"Mengelberg,"Wim"T."Schippers,"and"other"conceptual"artists." The"notion"of"the"Zeeland-Suite-as"an"allHembracing,"interdisciplinary"artwork"comes" together"in"the"opening"scene"of"Hülscher’s"film."In"that"sequence,"the"camera"takes"the" viewer"into"the"Zeeland-Suite,"starting"with"an"aerial"shot"of"the"folkloristic"dance"group" Medioburgum"crossing"the"old"drawbridge"to"the"Haamstede"Castle."The"group’s" members—children,"men"and"women"alike—are"dressed"up"in"traditional"nineteenth" century"“Middelburgs"Ambacht,”"black"threeHpiece"suits"and"dresses"with"typical"white" staartmutsen"(“tail"caps”)"made"of"white"embroidery"and"covered"with"gold"and"silver" ornaments."Accompanied"by"an"accordion,"the"group"sings"the"Kleppermars"(“Rattle" March”),"a"song"composed"by"the"late"nineteenth"century"Dutch"composer,"and"writer"of" the"Zeeland"anthem,"Jan"Morks."Loud"bangs"brutally"interrupt"this"traditional" folkloristic"scene"as"Hülscher"abruptly"takes"us"to"the"final"performance"of"the"suite"at" cultural"center"the"Kuiperspoort,"where"Van"Duynhoven"hits"his"mallets"on"the"cymbals," while"the"rest"of"the"Amsterdam"troupe—wearing"flared"pants"and"bright"silk"satin" blouses—await"the"coming"events."In"this"opening"scene,"the"commonplace"relations"of" art"and"myth,"of"high"and"low"art,"and"of"participant"and"observer"are"transformed"as" Hülscher"merges"participants"and"observers,"organized"sounds,"and"street"sounds." Moreover,"by"rigorously"crosscutting"images"of"conflicting"scenes,"the"director"adds"a" layer"of"meaning"to"the"performance,"literally"creating"a"cultural"clash"between"two" worlds,"contrasting"the"young"rebellious"Amsterdam"musicians"with"the"puritan,"

172" " traditionalist"inhabitants"of"the"province"of"Zeeland."In"this"way,"merging"musical" performance"with"everyday"life,"performers"with"audience,"film"with"music,"Hülscher" not"only"added"a"new"layer"to"the"music,"but"also"turned"the"film"into"a"performance"in" itself."" " The"montage"editing"further"contributes"to"the"comical"effect"and"to"the"theatrical" aspects"of"the"performance,"which"as"noted"earlier,"are"recurrent"aspects"in"Dutch" improvised"music."Although"the"Zeeland-Suite-was"by"no"means"a"music"theatre"piece," the"visual"was"an"indispensable"part"of"the"performance."This"is"illustrated"in"the"film"by" Breuker,"who"can"be"seen"theatrically"shrugging"his"shoulders"[a"sort"of"wink"to"the" audience]"while,"with"an"outrageous"vibrato,"sobbing"his"way"through"“Bach"II.”"A"useful" example"of"the"editor’s"contribution"to"the"comical"effect"is"the"scene"of"the"concert"on" the"dike,"indisputably"one"of"the"most"remarkable"scenes"of"the"film."A"longHstretched" fragment"shows"how"local"movers,"huffing"and"puffing"in"Zeeland"dialect,"transport"the" grand"piano"and"other"heavy"equipment"onto"a"dike."Some"local,"farmerHtype"men— wearing"dusty"suits,"hands"in"their"pockets,"chewing"pipe—attentively"observe"how"the" piano"and"basses"are"carefully"tuned,"while"the"audience"sit"down"in"the"grass,"awaiting" the"coming"events."Then"Van"Duynhoven"raises"his"sticks"and"counts"off."The"band" responds"by"playing"exactly"one"chord."Then"they"wrap"up"again,"leaving"the"listeners" giggling,"puzzled"about"what"has"just"happened." " The"Zeeland-Suite-was"not"unique"in"its"close"collaboration"between"film"and"improvised" music."AmsterdamHborn"filmmaker"Johan"van"der"Keuken"(1938H2001)"is"perhaps"best" known"for"working"with"improvising"musicians,"most"notably"Breuker,"who"wrote" many"music"scores"for"his"films."Throughout"his"career,"stateHfunded"cultural" organizations"and"political"groups"commissioned"Van"der"Keuken"to"make"documentary" films,"including"two"on"jazz"musicians:"Big-Ben/-Ben-Webster-in-Europe-(1967),"an" explorational"portrait"of"Ben"Webster"during"his"Amsterdam"years,"and"Maarten-and-the- Double-Bass"(1977),"on"Dutch"bass"player"Maarten"van"Regteren"Altena."Both"movies"are" biographical"accounts,"contrasting"scenes"of"everyday"life"with"images"of"the"joy"and" excitement"of"the"music."In"terms"of"funding,"theme"and"use"of"improvised"music,"the" Zeeland-Suite-shows"shares"similarities"with"Van"Der"Keuken’s"Flat-Jungle"(1978),"a"film" commissioned"by"the"Dutch"Society"for"the"Preservation"of"the"Shallows,"an"area"

173" " stretching"from"the"Northern"Dutch"provinces"to"Germany"and"Denmark"called"the" Waddenzee."Although"with"a"goal"quite"different"from"the"Zeeland-Suite—the"movie"is" basically"a"militant"ecological"film—both"movies"are"situated"in"places"where"natural" landscapes"are"contrasted"by"heavily"industrial"settings."Despite"the"green"surroundings," all"is"made"by"human"hands,"or"has"otherwise"resulted"from"human"involvement." Consequently,"both"films"implicitly"share"their"celebration"of"human—or"is"it"Dutch?—" competence"over"nature,"or,"as"a"Dutch"saying"goes,"“God"created"the"world,"but"the" Dutch"created"the"Netherlands.”476"

Composing&improvised&music&

There"is"unquestionably"an"ongoing"presence"of"romanticist"discourse"in"improvised" music"in"which"“creativity”"and"“selfHdestruction”"are"inextricably"linked"with"one" another."This"certainly"applies"to"Cuypers’"recollection"of"the"suite’s"genesis."According" to"the"artist,"the"idea"arose"during"a"ride"after"a"concert"organized"by"the"JMZ,"during" which"programmer"Ad"van"‘t"Veer"invited"Cuypers"to"perform"at"the"next"edition"of"the" festival:"" " He"asked:"“So,"what"is"the"plan?”"I"said,"halfHstoned"and"halfHdrunk,"“Well," what"about"me"writing"a"piece"for"every"one"of"your"islands"and"calling"it" the"Zeeland"Suite?”"He"said:"“Okay,"deal.”"That"was"it."Then"they"started" organizing"everything,"I"did"not"lift"a"finger."Together"with"Ad,"who"did"all" the"preliminary"work,"I"visited"some"of"the"provincial"sites."I"spend"one" day"selecting"the"locations."Other"than"that,"I"stayed"out"of"the"whole"thing" until"the"performance."The"volcano"eruption"that"took"place"in"the" meantime—the"planning,"the"organization—it"all"went"straight"over"my" head."(Cuypers,"interview,"2013)477"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 476"For"an"analysis"of"Johan"van"der"Keuken"as"a"politically"engaged"filmmaker,"see"Patricia"Pisters,"“Form," Punch,"Caress:"Johan"van"der"Keuken’s"Global"Amsterdam,”"in"Imagining-Global-Amsterdam:-History,- Culture,-and-Geography-in-a-World-City,"ed."Marco"de"Waard"(2012),"125H41." 477"“Toen"zei"‘ie:"‘Wat"zullen"we"dan"gaan"doen?’"Toen"zei"ik,"echt"half"stoned,"half"dronken"van:"‘Nou,"dan" componeer"ik"een"liedje"voor"elk"van"jullie"eiland"en"die"noemen"we"dan"de"Zeeland"Suite”"“Dat"is"goed," afgesproken.”"Klaar."Toen"zijn"ze"verder"aan"het"organiseren"geslagen,"ik"heb"er"verder"geen"poot"aan" uitgestoken."Totdat"het"zover"was"dat"alles"doorging"en"dat"ik"een"compositieopdracht"kreeg"en"toen"ben" ik"met"Ad,"die"het"voorwerk"heeft"gedaan,"een"paar"punten"die"hij"kende"in"de"provincie"[gaan"bekijken]." [Toen]"ben"ik"een"dag"locaties"gaan."Voor"de"rest"heb"ik"me"er"niet"meer"mee"bemoeid"tot"aan"de"opnamen." "

174" " Likewise,"the"composer"describes"the"writing"process"in"the"charged"romanticist" language"of"the"“suffering”"artist:"“I"had"run"out"of"time"because"of"a"devastating"lung" condition"that"kept"me"on"the"verge"of"death"for"three"months."When"I"finally" recovered…."I"retreated"to"the"castle"my"sister"lived"in"at"the"time"and"wrote"the"music" in"two"weeks.”478"Cuypers"did"not"write"a"full"score,"but"rather"composed"the"different" themes"using"three"tape"recorders,"adding"layer"onto"layer"in"a"sort"of"trialHandHerrorH method,"a"process"described"by"Cuypers"as"“hearing"something,"playing"it,"recording"it" and"listen"whether"it"sounds"well.”479"Afterwards,"he"dictated"the"music"to"the" musicians,"who,"either"at"his"place"or"during"a"rehearsal"wrote"their"parts"down."" " The"Zeeland-Suite"is"in"many"ways"reflective"of"Cuypers’"moderate"stance"as"discussed"in" the"previous"paragraph,"as"the"largely"prearranged"piece"in"terms"of"form,"lineHup"and" solos,"left"little"space"for"radical"experiments."Basically,"the"work"is"built"around"ten" short,"straightforward"themes,"each"of"the"themes"connected"to"the"next"by"means"of" improvisation."Cuypers"wrote"the"suite"for"a"more"or"less"fixed"ensemble"that,"in"its"full" size,"consisted"of"three"horns"and"a"rhythm"section"with"a"piano,"drums,"and"two"double" basses."Although"the"lineHup"of"two"basses"seems"reminiscent"of"Ornette"Coleman’s" double"quartet"on"Free-Jazz-(1960),"Cuypers"denies"any"link"between"the"two."Instead," claiming"he"just"invited"the"“nicest"cats”"to"play"with,"the"lineHup"pragmatically"followed" from"the"availability"of"his"musical"friends."Except"for"Harry"Miller,"whom"Cuypers" asked"for"his"“dream"band”"in"the"year"he"won"the"Wessel"Ilcken"Prijs,"most"musicians" regularly"played"together"with"the"WBK"and"the"Theo"Loevendie"Consort."Cuypers’" Ellingtonian"approach—writing"around"the"specific"style"and"skills"of"his"individual" musicians—is"reflected"in"the"somewhat"cursory,"ironic"titles,"suggesting"either"the" playing"style"or"the"main"soloist"featured:"“Impromptu,”"“Something"Else,”"”Joplin,”"‘Two" Bass"Shit,”"“Bach"II,”"“Bach"I,”"“No"Plooi"at"all"Blues,”"Bob’s"Lick,”"“Memoires,”"and" “Calypsooi.”"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" En"wat"er"in"de"tussentijd"aan"organisatorische"vulkaan"heeft"plaatsgevonden"is"volkomen"langs"mij"heen" gegaan.”" 478"Cuypers,"interview,"2013." 479"Although"Cuypers"never"wrote"a"score"for"the"suite,"the"composer’s"claims"that"a"full"score"was"written" at"a"later"stage,"as"a"result"of"the"Provincial"Government"of"Zeeland,"demanding"hard"copy"evidence"to" justify"the"expenses"made."To"satisfy"their"wishes,"Cuypers"paid"someone"to"rework"the"Suite"into"a"full" score"that"was"“handHwritten"and"neatly"organized"in"staves.”"Leo"Cuypers,"interview"by"author," September"19,"2013."

17"5" More"than"just"adding"a"humorous"layer"to"the"listener’s"expectations,"the"titles"are" indicative"of"the"selfHmockery"and"irony"often"associated"with"Dutch"improvised"music." “Calypsooi,”"for"example,"is"a"bilingual"wordplay,"merging"the"musical"genre"Calypso" with"the"Dutch"word"“zooi”"(“mess”)."Likewise"“Two"Bass"Shit”"is"a"wordplay,"bringing" to"mind"John"Lewis"and"Dizzy"Gillespie’s"‘Two"Bass"Hit”"that"appeared"on"the"1958"jazz" album,"Milestones."Musically,"however,"these"songs"are"hardly"reminiscent"of"the"genre" referred"to,"except"perhaps"for"the"clave"rhythm"in"“Calypsooi”"and"the"swingHfeel"in" “Two"bass"shit.”"Consequently,"rather"than"specifically"commenting"on"these"musical" traditions,"the"negative"connotation"of"“zooi”"and"“shit”"appears"to"be"reflective"of" Cuypers’"tendency"to"subvert"the"conception"of"art"as"elitist"and"serious"form"of"art." However,"his"somewhat"provocative,"blunt"style"also"indicates"that"this"tendency"should" not"be"taken"too"seriously."The"reading"of"the"titles"as"a"purely"rhetorical"device,"to" create"a"comical"effect"rather"than"referring"to"sounding"symbols"or"to"make"a"political" statement,"is"affirmed"by"Cuypers,"who,"in"retrospect,"dismisses"altogether"the" suggestion"that"the"themes"were"in"any"way"related"to"other"musical"works:"“My"god,"no." I"had"been"composing"for"a"long"time,"so"I"didn’t"need…Sure,"I"was"inspired"by"people," but"not"for"this"occasion."No,"they"were"just"my"own"pieces.”480" " The"work"integrates"idioms"from"the"field"of"traditional"folk"music"and"classical"music,"a" crossHgenre"compositional"technique"that,"again,"fitted"in"with"the"styles"associated"with" the"notion"of"Dutch"improvised"music."For"example,"Cuypers"fused"the"classical"idioms" of"etudeHstyle"pieces"such"as"“Impromptu,”"“Bach"I”"and"“Bach"2”"with"the"jazz"idioms"of" the"likewise"directive"titles"of"“Joplin”"and"“No"plooi"at"all"blues.”"“Bach"I”"and"“Bach"II”" are,"as"the"titles"suggest,"written"in"a"manner"reminiscent"of"Bach’s"suites"and"sonatas" for"unaccompanied"violin"or"cello,"in"which"the"division"of"a"single"line"into"distinct" registers"suggests"counterpoint."Similarly,"the"first"theme,"“Impromptu,”"has"an"etudeH like"character,"existing"primarily"of"a"short"unison"line"in"FHminor"played"by"two"alto" saxophones"and"drums."Sixteen"beats"on"the"cymbals"set"up"the"theme,"suggesting"a" dotted"quarter"note"tempo"of"approximately"MM"78"(LP"version),"which"is"continued" throughout"the"theme."Counted"in"a"6/8"meter,"the"unison"line"starts"with"an"eight" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 480"Cuypers,"interview,"2013."“Mijn"god,"nee."Ik"componeerde"al"heel"lang"eigen"stukken,"dus"ik"had" helemaal"geen…ik"zal"best"geïnspireerd"zijn"door"mensen,"maar"niet"voor"die"gelegenheid."Helemaal"niet," het"waren"gewoon"mijn"eigen"stukken.”"

176" " upbeat,"followed"by"a"melodic"unison"line"consisting"exclusively"of"straight"eighth"notes" and"rests,"and"ending"with"an"ad"lib"rhythmic"pattern,"played"on"a"C"in"octaves."The" melodic"line"is"repeated"three"times,"ending"each"time"in"a"different"length"riff,"which" appears"to"be"the"only"free"part"of"the"short"piece."Splitting"the"melodic"line"and"the"riff" in"6/8"bars,"the"song"can"be"structured"in"20+5,"20+6"and"20+4." " However,"despite"these"obvious"stylistic"references"to"the"Western"classical"repertoire," the"musical"organization"of"the"suite"remains"largely"structured"within"the"conventions" of"the"jazz"idiom,"using"blues"scales,"a"bluesHform"in"“No"plooi"at"all"blues,”"and" conventional"jazz"instruments."The"second"theme,"“Something"Else,”"for"example,"is"a" fast"piece"(approximately"MM"200)"in"EHmajor"in"a"3/4"meter"played"in"swing"eights," written"for"the"complete"band"and"featuring"the"trombone."The"song"is"played" predominantly"in"a"3/4"meter"and"conventionally"structured"into"an"intro,"followed"by"a" repeated"eighteenHbar"theme,"trombone"solo"with"backgrounds,"ending"with"the" repeated"theme."As"an"introduction,"the"piano"plays"a"fixed"phrase"that"can"be" subdivided"into"two"times"an"eightHbeat"motive,"three"times"a"fiveHbeat"motive"and"eight" times"a"threeHbeat"motive,"the"last"preparing"the"3/4"time"of"the"rest"of"the"intro"and"the" theme."After"this"phrase"is"repeated"twice,"the"piano"plays"four"times"a"fourHbar"phrase" in"3/4,"after"which"the"two"basses"join"in."The"full"band"starts"playing"at"the"theme," which"is"played"in"unison"by"the"horns"and"is"used"as"a"background"under"the"trombone" solo."Cuypers"accompanies"the"solo"straightforwardly,"alternating"between"the"keys"of" EHmajor"and"F#Hminor."In"the"first"chorus"he"changes"the"chords"every"three"beats,"in" the"second"chorus"every"six"beats,"while"turning"the"3/4"into"a"6/8"feel."On"the"LP"there" appears"to"be"a"misunderstanding"on"the"length"of"the"solo"form,"as"the"horns"play"a" sixteenHbar"background,"while"Cuypers’"shift"between"the"3/4"and"6/8"feel"is"not"always" consistent."After"the"solo,"the"saxophones"play"the"theme,"while"the"trombone"continues" his"solo."The"last"theme"is"played"in"unison"by"all"the"horns"and"ends"harmonized"on"an" Emaj9."Altogether,"leaving"aside"the"slightly"odd"eighteenHbarHphrasing,"this" straightforward"piece"sits"comfortably"in"the"tradition"of"jazz"playing." " Following"his"attempts"to"reach"bigger"audiences,"critics—typically"jazz"fans"promoting" the"ideal"of"artistic"autonomy,"independent"of"the"market’s"demands—accused"Cuypers" for"acting"primarily"for"commercial"profits."Although"he"wrote"the"suite"as"an"integral"

177" " piece"with"a"fixed"order,"it"was"pragmatically"reworked"to"match"different"occasions,"i.e." an"outdoor"performance,"full"evening"concert,"studio"recording,"or"a"film.481"The" musicians"performed"the"suite"integrally"at"the"festival’s"final"concert"at"the" Kuiperspoort"in"Middelburg"and"during"a"weeklong"tour"throughout"the"country"in" January"1978"(see"Appendix"I"and"II)."The"group"also"recorded"the"themes"as"separate" songs"on"a"12Hinch"LP"(BVHaast"012,"1977)."Initially,"the"musicians"intended"to"bring" out"a"live"album"of"the"Kuiperspoort"concert,"but"this"idea"had"to"be"dropped"because"of" technical"failures."According"to"Cuypers"something"had"gone"wrong"with"the" microphone"in"Van"Duynhoven’s"floor"tom"and"in"Van"Manen’s"trombone,"causing"an" irreparable"noise.482"In"the"studio"version,"recorded"on"19"September"1977"at"the"VARA" studio"in"Hilversum,"the"themes"were"recorded"separately"as"short"songs,"lasting" between"two"and"five"minutes."This"was,"in"the"words"of"Cuypers,"because"“we" considered"short"songs"would"be"better"for"the"radio.”483"Critics"saw"evidence"of"what" seemed"a"thoughtless"exploitation"of"the"Zeeland-Suite"in"those"reworkings,"labeling"it" “serious"selfHpromotion.”"Journalist"Rinus"van"der"Heijden,"for"example,"saw"the" recording"as"a"potential"“commercial"milk"cow.”"However,"showing"his"awareness"of"the" term’s"negative"connotation"and"realizing"how"it"could"jeopardize"the"image"of"the" autonomous"artist,"Van"der"Heijden"hastened"to"add,"“this"doesn’t"in"the"least"devalue" the"Zeeland-Suite-as"such.”484" " Altogether,"the"suite’s"musical"organization"was"hardly"as"“renewing”"as"it"is"sometimes" represented,"or"as"programmers"as"Van"‘t"Veer"aspired"it"to"be,"especially"when"one" realizes"that"the"features"that"are"most"distinct—the"collaboration"with"the"folklore" group,"the"theatrical"aspects"(the"dressing"up)"—were"not"included"as"part"of"Cuypers’" initial"plan."In"contrary,"except"for"the"selection"of"the"locations"and"writing"the"themes," Cuypers"remained"strikingly"absent"in"decisionHmaking"processes,"albeit"esthetical"or" organizational."This"seemingly"indifferent"stance"to"the"whole"project"is"affirmed"by" Cuypers,"who,"reflecting"on"the"rather"unambitious"unison"lines"of"his"themes," """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 481"On"the"LP,"the"songs"appear"in"the"intended"order,"with"“Bach"II"and"Bach"I”"merged"into"one"track." 482"Cuypers,"interview,"2013." 483"Cuypers,"interview,"2013."“Omdat"we"toen"ook"dachten"‘een"kort"stukje,"dat"is"dan"weer"prettiger"om"af" te"draaien"als"we"op"de"radio"moeten"spelen.’”"" 484"Rinus"van"der"Heijden,"“Zeeland"Suite"in"Triplo,”"JazzPress-48"(1978):"10H11."“een"stevige"brok"selfH promotie”;"“commercieel"melkkalfje”;"“Waarmee"overigens"de"waarde"van"de"Zeeland-Suite-als"zodanig" niet"veroordeeld"is.”"

178" " commented"that"“I"really"didn’t"feel"like"putting"a"lot"of"effort"in"it,”"adding"that,"for"the" rest"of"the"project,"“you"could"ask"me"anything,"it"was"all"fine"by"me.”485"The"suite"then" not"only"took"shape"as"a"result"of"artistic"views"that"were"firmly"embedded"in"the" aesthetical"notions"of"the"time,"it"also—if"not,"predominantly—followed"from"more" pragmatic"and"spurHofHtheHmoment"decisionHmaking"processes."

Funding&the&Zeeland+Suite& Indeed,"the"Zeeland-Suite-would"not"have"taken"place"in"the"way"it"did,"if"it"had"taken" place"at"all,"without"the"financial"aid"of"local,"provincial"and"national"authorities." Altogether,"an"estimated"90%"of"the"total"budget"came"from"public"funding"and" sponsors,"the"other"10%"from"ticket"sales."The"budget,"spent"on"the"premiere" performance,"the"film,"concerts,"included"the"use"of"boats,"buses,"a"locomotive,"and"even" a"helicopter—rented"for"the"occasion"from"the"royal"Dutch"airlines"KLM."Besides"the" Ministry"of"Cultuur,-Recreatie-en-Maatschappelijk-Werk-(Culture,"Recreation"and"Social" Service,"or"CRM),"which"commissioned"the"composition,"numerous"local"and"provincial" authorities"sponsored"the"project."The"government"also"contributed"indirectly"to"the" performance"and"the"production"of"the"film"by"the"support"of"a"variety"of"institutions." The"Dutch"Royal"Navy,"for"example,"supplied"the"film"crew"with"a"boat"to"film"the"scene" on"the"Madeleine"boat"from"the"water."Other"institutions"involved"were"the"Loodswezen" (“Pilotage”)"of"Vlissingen,"the"Deltadienst,"the"Dutch"pipeline"company"NPM"and" Staatsbosbeheer-Veere"(the"“Forestry"Commision”"of"the"city"of"Veere)."As"a"coH production"between"the"Dutch"NOS"and"German"ZDF"broadcasting"services,"which," according"to"Cuypers,"also"paid"for"several"dinners"during"their"stay"in"Zeeland,"the" whole"production"even"involved"public"funding"of"the"countries’"eastern"neighbors."This" way,"though"direct"and"indirect"funding,"the"government"enabled"the"suite"to"develop" into"what"is"arguably"the"most"ambitious"and"largeHscale"subsidized"performance"in" Dutch"jazz." " As"outspoken"promoters"of"contemporary"art,"the"FNM"and"its"coordinating"association" Jeugd-en-Muziek-Zeeland-(Youth"and"Music"Zeeland,"JMZ)"played"a"crucial"role"in"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 485"Cuypers,"interview,"2013."“vooral"moesten"doen"waar"ze"zin"in"hadden;"Ik"had"helemaal"geen"zin"om" daar"verder"werk"van"te"maken;"Je"kon"mij"alles"vragen,"ik"vond"het"allemaal"even"goed.”"

179" " realization"of"the"suite.486"The"JMZ"was"founded"in"1962"as"a"local"department"of-Jeugd" en"Muziek"Nederland"(Youth"and"Music"the"Netherlands,"JM),"an"organization"that"had" at"it"is"goal"the"promotion"of"arts,"music"in"particular,"among"the"young"across"the" country.487"This"policy"fitted"in"with"the"government’s"principle"of"cultuurspreiding," which"in"this"case"meant"that"Zeeland,"as"well"as"other"less"urbanized"areas,"was"just"as" entitled"to"a"rich"concert"life,"as"were"The"Hague,"Rotterdam"and"Amsterdam."However," whereas"most"departments"focused"on"classical"music,"JMZ,"together"with"the" Amsterdam"department,"promoted"more"contemporary"music"genres."" " ZeelandHborn"Ad"van"‘t"Veer"(1941),"both"programmer"of"the"festival"and"JMZ"manager," played"a"decisive"role"in"the"organizations’"radical"course,"which"focused"primarily"on" groundHbreaking"artists"such"as"GreekHborn"composer"Iannis"Xenakis"and"Dutch" improvising"musicians."Starting"with"newHyear"eve"concerts"and"outdoorHconcerts"in"the" summer—an"idea"that"was"born"of"a"lack"of"suitable"concert"venues—Ad"van"‘t"Veer" from"1969"aimed"at"organizing"eclectic"and"interdisciplinary"program"that"included" different"musical"genres,"jazz"and"contemporary"composed"music"in"particular,"and" film.488"To"stimulate"the"musicians"and"audience"to"meet"in"a"loose,"informal"setting,"the" festival"in"1971"moved"the"majority"of"its"activities"from"the"concert"hall"to"the"street." Van"‘t"Veer,"who"considered"improvised"music"specially"fit"for"this"purpose,"regularly" invited"the"AmsterdamHbased"improvising"musicians"to"create"performances"that"were" easily"accessible"to"all"layers"of"society."In"1974,"for"example,"Breuker—who"was"friends" with"Van"‘t"Veer—wrote"pieces"for"Lange"Jan,"the"carillon"of"Middelburg,"while"Cuypers" played"at"that"year’s"New"Year"concert."Local"authorities"were"actively"involved"in"the" production"of"the"suite."Gerrit"Schoenmakers,"who"was"both"the"local"alderman"for"the" arts"and"JMZHchairman,"personally"helped"carry"the"piano"onto"the"dike"for"the"oneHnote" concert.489"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 486"The"festival"was"one"of"the"cultural"activities"organized"by"JMZ."Originating"in"contemporary"music" concerts,"the"festival"developed"into"an"annual"threeHweek"summer"festival"that"was"organized"between" 1969"until"1983." 487"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland,"“Jaarverslag"1982”"(Middelburg:"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland,"1983)."“De" vereniging"heeft"ten"doel"binnen"haar"werkgebied"kennis"van"en"liefde"voor"de"kunsten"in"het"algemeen" en"de"muziek"in"het"bijzonder"te"bevorderen"en"aan"te"moedigen.”" 488"Ad"van"‘t"Veer,"interview"by"author,"June"23,"2014." 489"Aad"van"der"Veen,"“Ad"van"’t"Veer"en"de"Middelburgse"avantHgarde:"‘Je"eigen"muziek"doordrukken,"dat" is"iets"typisch"Nederlands’,”"Haagse-Courant,"1978."

180" " Cuypers"came"up"with"the"idea"of"an"outdoor"“conceptual"art"performance”"that"covered" all"of"the"province’s"peninsular"islands,"an"idea"that"fitted"in"with"the"JMZ’s"principles." Van"‘t"Veer"successfully"took"care"of"both"the"organization"and"funding"of"the"suite."He" also"selected"the"locations,"set"out"the"fundHraising"strategies,"and"came"up"with"the"idea" of"filming"the"event."Altogether,"the"production"needed"far"more"extensive"advance" planning"than"the"“three"minutes”"Cuypers"remembers"it"took"from"the"moment"of"the" idea"to"the"start"of"execution.490"As"a"result"of"Van"‘t"Veer’s"efforts,"ministry"of"CRM" granted"Cuypers"with"an"amount"between"five"thousand"and"twentyHfive"thousand" guilders"for"writing"the"composition,"while"the"musicians"each"received"approximately" one"thousand"guilders"each."The"total"production"costs—including"the"film—were" estimated"around"two"hundred"thousand"guilders,"a"staggering"amount"of"money," especially"compared"to"the"total"festival"budget"of"approximately"seventyHfour"thousand" guilders.491"That"year’s"festival"brochure"noted"nine"institutions"that"supported"the" festival"and,"indirectly,"the"production"of"the"suite:"the"ministry"of"CRM;"the"National" Arts"Council;"the"province"of"Zeeland;"JMZ;"the"Cultural"Council"of"Zeeland;"the" association"for"Cultuurspreiding"Zeeland;"the"city"of"Middelburg;"the"Cultural"Council" Middelburg;"and"the"Prins"Bernard"Fund.”492"In"addition"to"the"premiere"performance" and"the"film"production,"the"generous"funding"enabled"a"further"dissemination"of"the" suite,"concert"tour,"and"a"recording."Altogether,"the"funding"and"the"high"level"of" organization"puts"a"different"perspective"on"the"notion"of"Dutch"improvising"musicians" as"radical"rebels,"rather"suggesting"a"more"nuanced"view"as"proposed"in"earlier"chapters." " To"succeed"in"raising"governmental"funding,"Van"‘t"Veer"adjusted"the"Zeeland-Suite-plans" in"such"a"way"as"to"meet"the"requirements"of"the"funding"institutions."This"is"affirmed" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 490"Leo"Cuypers,"email"correspondence"with"author,"July"17,"2013."“De"tijdspanne"waarin"het"idee" ‘Zeelandsuite’"geboren"werd"en"de"beslissing"viel"dat"dit"door"moest"gaan"bedroeg"3"minuten!”" 491"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland,"“Festival"Nieuwe"Muziek”"(Middelburg:"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland,"1977),"2." Rudy"Koopmans"estimated"the"total"costs"for"the"Zeeland-Suite-around"25.000."However,"in"an"interview" Cuypers"stated"that"these"25.000"guilders"were"meant"for"the"composition"alone,"estimating"the"total" costs—including"the"filming,"and"the"indirect"expenses"made"by"the"involved"governmental" organizations—around"200.000"guilders."The"festival"budget"of"1977"is"not"exactly"known"and" consequently"based"on"the"figures"of"other"editions."In"1980"and"1981"the"budget"amounted"to"50.000" guilders,"followed"in"1983"by"a"budget"of"145.000"guilders."Both"in"1980"and"1981,"the"festival"received" 45.000"guilders"through"subsidies"added"with"5.000"guilders"through"ticket"sales."The"total"spending"of" Zeeland"on"culture,"sports"and"recreation"in"1977"was"34"million"guilders,"that"national"spending"on"the" performing"arts"was"160"million"guilders." 492"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland,"“Festival"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland,”"(Middelburg:"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland," 1977),"2."“zwijggeld.”"

181" " by"Cuypers,"who"recollects"how,"under"the"pretext"of"“provincial"promotion”"—and"thus" provincial"funding—Van"‘t"Veer"added"a"historical"locomotive"and"a"folklore"group"to" the"initial"plans."Likewise,"Van"‘t"Veer"recalled"in"1978"how"they"asked"the"provincial" authorities"to"provide"funding"to"rent"a"helicopter,"because"“we"[Jeugd"en"Muziek]"saw" an"opportunity"to"promote"the"Zeeland"on"national"television.”493"This—again— compromises"the"notion"that"the"production"of"the"suite"was"motivated"primarily"by" artistic"ideas,"a"notion"that"is"asserted"by"Cuypers"himself,"who"remembers"the"idea"of" the"folklore"group"as"“pushed"through"at"the"last"moment,"to"make"it"all"a"bit"more" representative"for"the"Zeeland"officials,”"adding"that,"“[i]t"was"not"at"all"my"intention"to" integrate"my"work"with"Zeeland"folklore,"to"say"the"least.”494"Thus,"considering"the" extent"to"which"Cuypers"is"credited"as"a"composer"of"the"suite,"his"actual"role"in"the" execution"of"the"project,"from"the"idea"to"the"performance"and"the"film,"seems"modest." In"1978,"the"importance"of"the"JMZ"on"the"production"of"the"suite"was"confirmed."That" year,"the"Amsterdam"Foundation"of"the"Arts"awarded"the"Zeeland-Suite-with"the" Matthijs"Vermeulen"Award"for"best"Dutch"composition.495"Much"revealingly,"the"winner" of"that"year"lists"not"only"Leo"Cuypers,"but"also"the"JMZ."

Luctor+et+Emergo& During"the"1970s,"musicians,"producers,"and"media"increasingly"used"national"and" regional"narratives"in"the"creation,"funding,"representation,"and"understanding"of" improvised"music."While"before,"the"Jazz-Behind-the-DikesHseries"(Philips,"1955H1957)" and"other"Dutch"jazz"productions"had"been"visually"and"textually"packaged"as"Dutch,"all" the"while"musically"remaining"closely"related"to"American"models"of"jazz,"the"works"of" the"Instant"Composers"Pool"(ICP),"the"Willem"Breuker"Kollektief"(WBK),"and"other" collectives"became"increasingly"recognized"as"“distinctively"Dutch.”"The"open"and" flexible"structure"of"these"groups"further"facilitated,"in"the"words"of"the"aforementioned" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 493"A.J."Snel,"“Jeugd"en"Muziek:"‘Ze"moeten"weer"zo"broodnodig’,”"Provinciale-Zeeuwse-Courant"(June"17," 1978):"21."In"this"article,"Ad"van"’t"Veer"explains"how"the"provincial"authorities"were"reluctant"in"funding" a"helicopter"for"publicity"purposes,"because"it"reasoned"that,"in"the"words"of"Van"‘t"Veer"“Zeeland"has" enough"tourists"already.”" 494"Cuypers,"interview,"2013."“Ja,"dat"is"er"volgens"mij"op"het"laatst"ingestampt,"om"het"bij"de"Zeeuwse" notabelen"wat"representatiever"te"maken."Het"was"ook"helemáál"niet"mijn"plan"om"me"op"wat"voor" manier"dan"ook"te"integreren"met"de"Zeeuwse"folklore.”"" 495"The"Matthijs"Vermeulen"Award"was"Dutch"a"composition"prize"named"after"Dutch"composer"Matthijs" Vermeulen"(1888H1967)"that"was"awarded"annually"between"1972"and"2004"by"the"Amsterdam" Foundation"for"the"Arts."In"March"2009,"the"Netherlands"Foundation"for"Stage"Arts"reHinstalled"the"award"

182" " Atkins,"“a"rediscovery,"redefinition,"or"renewed"appreciation"of"local"traditions,"which" then"were"marshaled"to"broaden"and"transform"the"music’s"expressive"capacities.”496" Unlike"the"occasional"Dutch"song"title"or"the"recordHseries"that"appeared"in"the"decades" before,"the"Netherlands,"both"as"a"socioHpolitical"entity"and"as"a"set"of"narratives,"began" to"intersect"with"jazz"in"such"a"way"that"it"began"to"effect"the"musical"performance." Consequently,"in"line"with"what"George"Lewis"has"called"the"“European"emancipation,”" the"seemingly"independent"and"eclectic"musical"performances"of"Breuker,"Bennink," Mengelberg"and"others"started"to"merge"into"a"distinct"socioHcultural"scene,"a"local" musical"community"that"was"unquestionably"shaped"by"processes"of"political"validation." " For"jazz"journalist"and"sociologist"Rudy"Koopmans,"who"deeply"invested"in"the"idea"of" improvised"music"as"a"politically"charged"and"distinctively"Dutch"form"of"art,"the"JMZ" came"to"serve"as"“one"of"the"most"distinctive"pillars"of"the"Dutch"music"world.”"In"an" extensive"1982"article"on"the"JMZ,"he"praised"the"institution"for"promoting"“three" defining"aspects”"of"what"he"simply"refers"to"as"“Dutch"music:”"1)"outdoor"streetHmusic" projects;"2)"the"merge"of"composition"and"improvisation"within"the"music;"and"3)"the" crossing"of"disciplinary"boundaries,"combining"music"with"theatre,"visual"arts,"and" film.497"The"JMZ’s"radical"course"becomes"all"the"more"remarkable,"when"one"realizes" Zeeland’s"great"geographical"distance—from"a"Dutch"perspective—to"the"country’s" center"of"countercultural"activity,"Amsterdam."While"the"different"course"of"the" Amsterdam"department"paired"with"the"notion"of"the"city"as"one"of"the"main"urban" centers"of"countercultural"activity,"it"seemed"hardly"reconcilable"with"the"empty,"and" orthodox"Christian"province"of"Zeeland." " In"an"attempt"gain"insight"into"the"construction"an"experience"of"a"regional"identity—to" provide"theoretical"grounding"for"the"commercial"practice"of"soHcalled"place"branding— a"2009"survey"asked"inhabitants"of"Zeeland"which"associations"they"felt"were"important" for"the"province’s"identification."When"asked"to"select"a"symbol"to"represent"Zeeland," nearly"a"third"of"the"residents"(30"percent)"chose"the"Deltaworks,"followed"by"the"motto" “Luctor"et"emergo”"(18"percent),"“mussels”"(11"percent),"and"the"“dialect"of"Zeeland”"(9" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 496"Atkins,"Jazz-Planet,"xx." 497"Rudy"Koopmans,"“Youth"and"Music"Zealand:"Stimulus"to"Inventiveness,”"Key-Notes:-Musical-Life-in-the- Netherlands-15"(1982):"30H35."

183" " percent)."This"meant"that,"according"to"the"survey,"“almost"50"percent"selected"a"symbol" that"bears"a"connection"with"a"struggle"against"the"sea,"which"has"shaped"Zeeland"in"its" present"state.”"The"survey"further"concluded"that"“(b)ased"on"the"criteria"that"were" applied,"namely"symbols,"heroes"and"rituals,"the"respondents"indicate"that"Zeeland’s" culture"is"primarily"based"on"“the"battle"against"the"sea,”"“the"province’s"rich"heritage"as" a"seaHtrading"and"ruling"religion,”"and"its"fishery"and"agricultural"sectors.”498" " Zeeland,"more"than"any"other"province"in"the"Netherlands,"is"literally"and" metaphorically"speaking"shaped"by"its"battle"against"the"sea."The"province—one"of" eleven"in"1977—is"situated"geographically"in"the"southwest"corner"of"the"Netherlands," south"of"the"city"of"Rotterdam"and"north"of"Antwerp"in"Belgium."499"In"1977,"the"entire" province"of"Zeeland"had"a"population"of"340"thousand,"of"whom"37"thousand"lived"in" the"provincial"capital,"Middelburg."Consisting"primarily"of"peninsulas,"the"whole" province—some"dunes"excluded—is"below"sea"level,"making"it,"in"the"words"of"the" aforementioned"Koopmans,"“the"Netherlands"par"excellence.”500"In"the"night"of"31" January,"the"residents"were"dramatically"reminded"of"this"vulnerable"position,"when" large"parts"of"the"province"flooded"as"a"result"of"a"dramatic"coming"together"of"heavy" northwestern"storms"and"spring"tide."More"than"eighteen"hundred"people"drowned," another"hundred"thousand"had"to"be"evacuated,"over"ten"thousand"animals"died," approximately"fortyHfive"hundred"buildings"were"destroyed"and"many"more"were"left" damaged."This"soHcalled"Watersnoodramp"(flood"disaster),"the"first"in"the"Netherlands"to" be"extensively"documented"in"photos"and"drawings,"deeply"impacted"the"Dutch"citizens" and"became"part"of"the"shared"collective"memory"in"the"Netherlands"as"canonized"in" Dutch"history"books." " As"two"important"cultural"symbols"“Luctor"et"emergo”"and"“the"Deltaworks,”"are"helpful" in"understanding"how"Zeeland,"except"for"the"suite’s"title,"did—and"did"not—shape" Cuypers’"ideas."Moreover,"on"a"more"general"basis,"studying"the"suite"demonstrates"how"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 498"Robert"Govers"and"Frank"M."Go,"Place-Branding:-Glocal,-Virtual-and-Physical-Identities,-Constructed,- Imagened-and-Experienced"(Hampshire:"Palgrave"Macmillan,"2009),"114." 499"On"1"January"1986,"a"twelfth"province"was"established"by"the"name"of"Flevoland,"a"province"in"the" center"of"the"country"consisting"of"a"set"of"artificial"islands." 500"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland,"“Festival"Nieuwe"Muziek”"(Middelburg:"Jeugd"en"Muziek"Zeeland,"1977),"2." Original"text"in"English."

184" " musical"performance"has"the"capacity"to"interact"with"local"and"national"narratives"on" different"levels"of"musical"performance"and"explains"why"certain"performances"invite" critics"and"audiences"to"understand"improvised"music"in"terms"of"national"identity."The" province’s"motto"“Luctor"et"emergo”"appears"on"the"Zeeland’s"coat"of"arms"(figure"1)" and"although"it"originated"in"the"uprising"against"the"Spanish"King"Philips"II"in"1587,"it" has"come"to"represent"the"struggle"against"the,"at"times,"challenging"conditions"in"the" province."In"response"to"the"1953"flooding"disaster,"the"government"began"with"the" construction"of"the"Delta"Works"in"1958,"a"series"of"dikes,"dams,"sluices,"locks,"levees" and"storm"surge"barriers"to"protect"the"province’s"various"peninsulas"and"islands"and" their"reclaimed"land"from"the"North"Sea."The"project"started"with"the"building"of"a"flood" barrier"in"the"river"IJssel"and"was"finally"completed"in"1997"with"the"construction"of"a" storm"surge"barrier."At"the"time"of"filming"in"1977,"facing"the"consequences"of"the"1953" flooding"disaster—represented"in"the"suite"by"the"working"island,"the"dikes"and"the" excavators—reconstruction"seemed"Zeeland’s"modus-operandi."One"year"before,"the" construction"began"of"the"Oosterscheldekering,"the"largest"and"most"ambitious"of"the" thirteen"Delta"Works."It"started"with"the"construction"of"the"Philipsdam,"a"dam"closing" the"Oosterschelde,"between"Grevelingendam"and"St."Philipsland."Considering"Van"‘t" Veer’s"attempts"to"use"the"Zeeland-Suite"as"a"promotional"device"for"the"province"of" Zeeland,"it"comes"as"no"surprise"that"the"Philipsdam"received"a"prominent"place"in"the" performance." " Both"in"terms"of"performance"and"representation,"the"Zeeland-Suite-connects"to"the" regional"Zeeland"narratives"as"represented"by"the"cultural"symbols"of-“Luctor"et"emergo”" and"the"Deltaworks.-In"the"performance"references"to"the"province’s"cultural"identity" appear"in"the"textual,"the"aural,"and,"above"all,"in"the"visual."Textually,"there"is"an" obvious"link"with"the"province"through"the"suite's"title."However,"the"individual"song" titles"lack"any"obvious"coherence"or"reference"to"the"overlying"ZeelandHtheme."When" asked"in"a"2013"interview"about"the"apparent"lack"of"coherence"between"the"titles," Cuypers"stated"that"these," "" had"nothing"the"do"with"the"assignment"for"the"Zeeland-Suite."They" occurred"by"way"of"association"more"than…no,"really,"miles"apart"from" Zeeland."I"didn’t"care."No"false"attempts"like"“Voor"Vlissingen”"[“To"

185" " Vlissingen”]"or"“Vergezichten”"[“Panoramic"Views”]."No,"it’s"just"the" association."Like"the"piece"for"Bob…it"was"Bob’s"turn,"so"it"was"called" “Bob’s"lick.”"And"“Bach,”"well,"I"just"thought"is"sounded"a"bit"like"Bach," especially"the"beginning"of"the"tunes,"so"these"were"called"“Bach"I”"and" “Bach"II.”"I"didn’t"even"try"to…with"shitty"titles"such"as"“Het"Verre"Veere”" [“FarHaway"Veere”].501"" " The"remarks"are"consistent"with"Cuypers’"remarks"in"1977,"when"asked"whether"his" music"was"meant"to"represent"the"1953"flooding"disaster"or"another"Zeeland"event:"" " At"first"hearing"there"is"hardly"any"link."My"work"is"part"of"an"ageHold" tradition."The"composer"has"to"take"the"assignment"or"the"patron"into" consideration."Other"than"that,"you"are"completely"free,"just"like" Beethoven"was"free"to"compose."The"title"is"more"important"for"the" sponsors"than"for"the"composer."(Cuypers,"interview,"2013)502"" " The"intertwining"between"the"performance"and"national"narratives"becomes"most" apparent"in"the"visual."In"the"film,"it"can"be"seen"how"references"are"made"to"the"battle" against"the"elements,"when,-for"instance,"Breuker"and"Driessen,"in"their"attempt"to"read" from"sheet"music,"are"nearly"washed"away"by"the"rain"and"the"wind."They"are"literally" struggling"with"the"elements,"as"they"are"hardly"able"to"continue"playing."Similarly,"in" the"final"scene"of"the"film,"Breuker"and"Driessen"can"be"seen"pretending"to"drown,"while" walking"into"the"North"Sea"and"scooping"seawater"with"their"instruments."This"effect" was"recreated"during"live"performance"as"the"duo,"according"to"a"review"by"the" Provinciale-Zeeuwse-Courant"of"2"July"1977,"dipped"their"alto"saxophones"in"water"and" splashed"it"while"playing." """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 501"“Oh,"volkomen"los"gezongen"van"de"opdracht"van"die"Zeeland-Suite."Meer"op"de"associaties"die"de" muziek"bij"me"opriep"dan...nee,"dat"is"volkomen"los"van"Zeeland."Dat"maakte"me"niets"uit."Ook"geen"valse" pogingen"van"‘Voor"Vlissingen’"of"‘Vergezichten.’"Nee,"gewoon,"de"associatie"die"het"stuk"bij"me"opriep." Dus"dat"stuk"voor"Bob..."was"aan"de"beurt,"dat"heette"‘Bob’s"Lick’."En"dat"‘Bach,’"ja,"dat"vond"ik"een"beetje" op"Bach"lijken,"die"stukjes,"in"het"begin"vooral."Dus"dat"heette"“Bach"I,”"“Bach"II.”"Ik"heb"zelfs"geen"poging" gedaan"om"de"boel"te...met"lullige"titels"van"‘Het"verre"Veere’.”" 502"Menno"Schenke,"“Muzikale"tocht"door"Zeeland,”"Algemeen-Dagblad,"June"29,"1977."“Op"‘t"eerste"gehoor" is"er"weinig"verband."Ik"werk"in"een"eeuwenlange"traditie."De"componist"moet"herinneren"aan"de" opdracht"of"zijn"opdrachtgever."Je"bent"verder"helemaal"vrij,"net"zoals"Beethoven"vrij"was"bij"het"schrijven" van"zijn"composities."De"titel"is"belangrijker"voor"de"sponsors"dan"voor"de"componist.”"

186" " Apart"from"local"narratives,"the"suite"also"reveals"how"national"narratives"are"told"in" musical"performance."This"is"best"illustrated"by"the"Lederhosen-and"Tyrolean"hats"worn" by"Gorter"and"Van"Manen."Unquestionably,"the"spectators"would"have"understood"this" “spontaneous"dressing"up”"as"a"mockery"of"German"culture,"evoking"sentiments"of" national"rivalry"felt"against"“the"Germans”"as"a"result"of"the"Dutch’"traumatic"loss"of"the" 1974"football"World"Cup"final." " Nevertheless,"as"the"connection"to"notions"of"Dutch"identity"is"obvious"in"form"and"in" the"visual"and"the"textual,"it"is"less"apparent,"if"existent"at"all,"on"a"musicoHstructural" level."Although"Cuypers"quotes"Dutch"childrens"songs"in"his"improvisation,"the"musical" form"remains"rather"conventionally"organized,"as"exemplified"by"the"CHmajor"blues" form"of"“No"Plooi"at"All"Blues,”"the"triedHandHtrue"theme"with"improvised"solos"over" backgrounds."Even"the"ensemble"of"horns"accompanied"by"a"rhythm"section,"albeit"with" two"double"basses,"remains"strongly"imbedded"in"existing"models"of"jazz"performance" and"thus"American"models"of"playing"music."Therefore,"although"improvised"music"is" often"represented"as"typically"Dutch,"musical"analysis"of"the"Zeeland-Suite-demonstrates" that"this"sense"of"a"distinctively"Dutch"identity"became"predominantly"manifest"in"the" realm"of"the"visual"and"in"its"performance,"so"in"its"form,"rather"than"in"its"musical" content."This"gives"way"to"the"idea"that"processes"of"musical"renewal"within"improvised" music"were"not"as"distinctively"Dutch,"or"as"vernieuwend-(innovative)"as"commentators" would"have"it."In"other"words,"the"Zeeland-Suite"is"far"more"conventional"in"conception" and"in"musical"style"than"it"is"sometimes"represented."Nevertheless,"In"many"ways,"it"is" irrelevant"that"the"piece"cannot"be"identified"sonically"as"Dutch,"it"is"more"about"the"way" in"which"the"music"is"framed,"its"context"and"how"we"are"invited"to"read"the"material." Ultimately,"this"multifaceted"analysis"of"the"Zeeland-Suite—including"an"investigation"of" its"making"of,"performance,"reception,"and"the"politics"behind"its"organization—shows" that"cultural"identity"is"constructed"and"imagined"through"its"performance." "

187" " " Figure"1"Coat"of"arms"of"Zeeland"and"Zeeland"Suite"poster" " In"addition"to"these"performative"representations"of"regional"and"cultural"identity,"the" reception"of"the"suite"shows"how"media"played"a"crucial"role"in"reinforcing"the"idea"of" improvised"music"as"distinctively"Dutch."The"“Luctor"et"emergo”-motto"proved"a" particularly"helpful"metaphor"to"signify"the"suite’s"“Dutchness.”"Koopmans,"for"example," explicitly"linked"the"initiatives"of"JMZ"with"the"Zeeland’s"cultural"identity"by"stating"that" “the"motto"of"Zealand"[sic]"is,"indeed,"quite"literally"speaking"also"the"motto"of"Youth" and"Music"Zealand,”"as"the"“little"club"has"always"risen"above"its"difficulties.503"Likewise," Max"Pam"writes"of"Cuypers’"“floating"notes”"and"deliberately"seeks"the"connection"with" the"motto,"noting"that," " [t]he"execution"of"the"project"was"beset"by"a"set"of"practical"obstacles"like" transporting"a"grand"piano"to"the"beach"over"a"chain"of"dunes." Surmounting"these"obstacles"became"an"essential"element"of"the"suite" itself"and"ensured"quite"a"degree"of"suspense"among"the" spectators/listeners."(Pam, “Leo Cuypers,” 8)" " Perhaps"the"most"revealing"example"of"playing"with"the"Zeeland"motive,"however,"is"the" advertising"poster"for"the"suite."Based"on"Zeeland’s"coat"of"arms"(see"figure"1),"the"lion’s"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 503"Koopmans,"“Youth"and"Music"Zealand,”"30H35."Original"text"in"English."

188" " head"is"replaced"by"that"of"the"composer,"who"coincidentally"happens"to"carry"the"name" of—pun"intended—Leo."

SpinHoffs& Although"the"Zeeland-Suite"was"not"performed"after"1979,"the"production"had"several" spinHoffs,"among"which"the"Zeelandsuiteproject"in"September"1987,"a"cycle"of"exhibitions" of"a"wide"range"of"arts"throughout"the"country."For"this"occasion,"gallery"owner"Roby" Bellemans"invited"different"artists"to"produce"works"inspired"by"the"Zeeland-Suite."As" the"cycle"took"place"simultaneously,"it"was"impossible"to"be"present"at"the"all"the" locations.-Cuypers"also"gave"a"concert"together"with"the"Zeeland"composer"Dies"Le" Duc.504"Further,"Cuypers"performed"the"suite-in"August"1988"with"the"amateur"brass" band"St."Juttemis"at"jazz"club"Porgy-en-Bess-in"Terneuzen."A"more"recent"project" indirectly"linked"to"the"Zeeland-Suite,"was"the"album"Delta-Suite-(Zefir,"2009)"by"the" Clazz"Ensemble."Like"the"suite,"the"inspiration"of"the"series"of"compositions"lay"in"the" province"of"Zeeland,"resulting"in"compositions"with"titles"such"as"“Luctor"et"emergo”" and"“Delta"Dance.”505"During"the"International"Jazzfestival"in"May"2010"the" compositions"were"also"performed"on"different"locations."In"addition,"Hülscher’s"film" was"screened"regularly"on"television,"jazz"and"film"festivals"until"1983"(see"table"2)," after"which"its"exposure"declined."Yet,"as"revealing"and"interesting"as"it"is"as"a"socioH cultural"event,"and"despite"all"the"financial"input,"the"suite"as"a"musical"performance" seems"to"have"caused"just"a"slight"ripple"in"the"Dutch"jazz"scene." " On"September"5,"2014"the"Zeeland-Suite-Revisited"premiered,"which,"similar"to"its"1977" name"giver,"took"place"in"different"outdoor"settings"throughout"the"province"of"Zeeland" and"which"was"performed"by"some"of"the"most"prominent"young"Dutch"improvisers" currently"active"in"the"Netherlands:"Joris"Posthumus,"as;"Mete"Erker,"ts,"ss;"Joris"Roelofs," cl,"bcl;"Anton"Goudsmit,"git;"Frans"van"der"Hoeven,"b;"Pascal"Vermeer,"dr;"and"Jeroen"van" Vliet,"pi,"comp."With"a"presumably"smaller"budget"than"in"1977"but"with"the"current" technologies,"the"performance"was"registered"on"film"and"audio"and"followed"by"a"tour" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 504"“Ronflonflon"avec"Jacques"Plafond,”"accessed"November"28,"2014," http://weblogs.vpro.nl/ronflonflon/2009/11/17/afleveringH154H16HseptemberH1987/" 505"The"album"Delta-Suite-contains"compositions"by"Dick"de"Graaf"(“Babel"Suite”"part"IHVII),"Dies"Le"Duc" (“Luctor"et"Emergo”"part"IHIV,"“Ode,”"“Stuiter,”"“WalkHHara,”"“Trage"Regen,”"“Darink,”"“Gemoerde"Poel”)" and"Douwe"Eisenga"(“Delta"Dance”).""

189" " throughout"the"country."The"film"was"largely"modeled"after"Hülscher’s,"including"the" performance,"travel,"audience"and"set"up,"and"shot"from"different"angles"H"the"helicopter" now"replaced"by"a"drone."The"idea"came"from"Willem"Kniknie,"the"director"of" MuziekPodium"Zeeland"who"had"replaced"Ad"van"‘t"Veer"in"2006."For"the"event,"he" invited"Buma"Boy"Edgar"Award"winner"Jeroen"van"Vliet"to"write"eight"compositions" loosely"inspired"by"the"province"of"Zeeland."Interestingly,"of"those"compositions"only" one"(“Joplin”)"makes"references"to"one"of"Cuyper’s"original"compositions."Altogether," while"in"terms"of"organization,"funding"and"form,"the"2014"performance"showed" similarities"to"the"1977"performance,"the"musical"aspects"differ"significantly,"raising" issues"of"the"definition"of"a"musical"work,"authenticity"and"authorship."By"changing"its" original"instrumental"lineHup,"the"compositions"and"the"performers,"the"Zeeland-Suite- Revisited"underlines"the"idea"that"the"Zeeland-Suite’s"primary"value"lies"in"its"overall" concept"rather"than"its"artistic"content."

Conclusion& In"this"chapter,"I"have"highlighted"the"role"of"improvised"music"within"a"national"and" local"context,"to"examine"its"potential"to"negotiate"cultural"values"and"in"a"broader" sense,"how"a"musical"performance"invites"the"audience"to"think"of"the"performance"in" terms"of"national"identity."Through"the"analysis"of"one"of"the"richest"performances"in" Dutch"improvised"music"in"terms"of"musical"style,"cultural"symbolism"and"national" representation,"I"conclude"that"1970s"improvised"music"is"one"of"the"most"potent," complex"and"formative"stage"for"contesting,"asserting"and"reHassessing"cultural" identities." " Largely"depending"on"the"newly"established"public"funding"systems"for"jazz"and" improvised"music"and"musically"fitting"in"with"“improvised"music,”"Cuypers’"work-is"a" musical"outcome"emblematic"of"major"socioHcultural"changes"in"Dutch"improvised" music,"albeit"an"extravagant"one"in"terms"of"scale"and"funding."Moreover,"it"is"a" fascinating"example"of"the"use"of"national"and"regional"narratives"within"improvised" music"that"invites"audiences"to"think"of"the"performance"in"terms"of"national"identity." Musicians,"producers"and"media"gratefully"used"the"very"explicit"link"with"Zeeland"as" either"creative"material,"funding"argument,"representational"tool,"in"the"process"

190" " implicitly"or"explicitly"contributing"to"the"recontextualizing"(or"what"some"may" consider"the"appropriation)"of"jazz"as"a"Dutch"and"thus"nonHAmerican"art"form."" " The"Zeeland-Suite"case"study"has"highlighted"three"particular"contexts"that"proved" crucial"in"the"establishment"of"improvised"music"as"a"distinctively"Dutch"jazz"practice:"1)" the"sociopolitical,"2)"the"musical"performance"and"3)"the"representational."Within"the" broader,"socioHcultural"context,"it"demonstrates"how"improvised"music"was"shaped"by" the"emergence"of"a"social"welfare"state"and"its"coinciding"cultural"policy"that,"motivated" by"the"underlying"principle"of"cultuurspreiding,"provided"the"financial"and" infrastructural"conditions"for"further"musical"development."The"suite"also-reveals"how," by"conforming"the"performance"to"the"funding"institution’s"agenda—in"this"case"music" as"a"promotional"tool"for"the"province"of"Zeeland—stateHfunding"stimulated"a"further" exploration"of"national"narratives"in"jazz,"albeit"primarily"in"the"reams"of"the"textual"and" the"visual."As"such,"it"illustrates"how"public"funding"not"only"provided"the"necessary" financial"means"but"also"played"an"active,"transformative"role"in"the"establishment"of" improvised"music."" " Moreover,"the"suite-reveals"how"the"seemingly"spontaneous"actions"of"the"improvising" musicians"disagreed"with"the"strategic"maneuvers"that"lay"at"the"heart"of"these" performances."Recalling"the"point"made"in"Chapter"Four,"that"Dutch"improvised"music" was"the"most"perfectly"organized"of"all"jazz"practices,"uncovers"an"even"more" fundamental"one."While"governmental"funding"stimulated,"even"shaped"the"exploration" and"establishment"of"national"and"local"narratives"within"improvised"music,"the" political"implications"of"improvised"music"carry"out"opposing"sentiments"of"resentment" against"these"same"authorities."Seen"from"a"broader"perspective,"this"seems"to"fit"well" into"the"generation’s"ambivalent"stance"towards"the"authorities."This"is"underlined"by" musicologist"Richard"Taruskin"(2010),"who,"in"his"analysis"of"contemporary"composer" Louis"Andriessen,"observes"how"the"“indulgent"treatment"Andriessen"had"received"(and" accepted)"from"the"state"his"music"ostensibly"challenges"has"cast"his"musicopolitical" agenda"in"an"equivocal"light.”"The"rhetorical"question"asked"by"Taruskin,"then,"seems"

191" " appropriate"for"the"work"of"improvising"musicians:"“Is"it"genuine"activism,"or"is"just" another"show"of"radical"chic?”506" " Within"the"context"of"musical"performance,"the"suite"very"explicitly"illustrates"the" intertwining"of"jazz"with"national"narratives,"which"play"out"on"the"textual,"the"aural" and"the"visual."However,"while"references"to"national"narratives"appear"by"means"of" titles,"quotes,"and"cross"genre"collaboration,"they"are"most"evident"in"the"visual,"by" positioning"the"suite"within"settings"that"represent"Zeeland’s"historical,"industrial"and" geographical"particularities."This"growing"interconnectedness"is"developed"further" through"textual"representations,"in"which"media"deploy"national"narratives"to" emphasize"local"particularities"of,"and"consequently"contribute"to,"the"notion"of" improvised"music"as"a"distinctively"Dutch"jazz"practice."The"spinHoffs—most"notably" Zeeland-Suite-Revisited—demonstrates"three"things:"1)"the"growing"awareness"of" musicians"and"organizers"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"as"a"tradition,"as"something"they" can"relate"to,"2)"the"increasing"desire"to"connect"with"this"tradition,"3)"more"specifically," the"Zeeland-Suite-continues"to"serve"as"an"inspirational"model"for"current"musicians"and" organizers." " The"suite"also"demonstrates"how"policymakers,"musicians"and"journalists,"both"in" performance"and"in"its"textual"representation,"use"national"narratives"in"the" construction"of"musical"performance"as"meaningful,"creative"objects."In"the"suite’s"case," ideas"of"national"identity"are"reflected"in"the"use"of"regional"narratives"of"Zeeland,"as"a" geographical"location"where"the"land"is"permanently"challenged"by"the"sea,"and"through" its"motto"“Luctor"et"emergo”,"representing"the"inhabitants’"struggle"to"survive"in"the" harsh"Zeeland"climate."In"return,"the"suite"demonstrates"how"the"study"of"musical" performance"can"contribute"to"the"understanding"of"how"narratives"of"national"culture" are"told."In"this"way,"the"suite"demonstrates"how"studying"improvised"music"within"its" regional"socioHcultural"context"not"only"contributes"to"the"understanding"of"musical" change,"but"also"provides"insights"into"the"construction"of"national"and"regional" narratives."

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 506"Richard"Taruskin,"Music"in"the"Late"Twentieth"Century:"The"Oxford"History"of"Western"Music"(Oxford:" Oxford"University"Press,"2010),"398."

192" " Conclusion&

" " " " Amsterdam,"14H5H1975" " Hey"Jo,"you"old"geezer," …"I"have"to"get"this"off"my"chest."I"think"you’re"a"stupid"prick"for— again—not"having"programmed"our"subcultural"shitHmusic"at"your" archaic"freak"festival."…" " "Your"friend," Willem"Breuker507" " " In"this"thesis,"I"have"examined"ways"in"which"the"American"sociocultural"practice"of"jazz" became"part"of"Dutch"culture,"both"social"and"musically,"and"how"different"members"of" the"cultural"field"(musicians,"educators,"policyHmakers,"and"critics)"have"contributed"to" the"construction"of"Dutch"identity"in"jazz,"also"known"as"Dutch"improvised"music."By" investigating"the"meaning"of"and"politics"behind"“Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music,”"I" have"demonstrated"that"the"ways"in"we"understand"music"are"deeply"imbedded"in"local," cultural"discourse."These"debates"takes"place"in"a"wide"variety"of"areas,"including"the" everyday"life"within"the"jazz"community"(richtingenstrijd),"the"field"of"education" (workshops"versus"conservatories),"culture"politics"(cultuurspreiding),"the"field"of" criticism"(Jazzwereld,"Down-Beat),"and"on"a"performative"and"musicHstructural"level"(the" Zeeland-Suite)."To"get"insight"the"globalization"of"jazz,"and"processes"of"meaningHmaking" and"identityHformation"through"music,"it"is"therefore"important"to"engage"with"the" people"and"institutions"that"articulate"and"represent"certain"cultural"values."

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 507"Willem"Breuker"to"Jo"Elsendoorn,"who"was"press"director"and"music"programmer"of"the"Holland" Festival"from"1951"to"1977,"Amsterdam,"14"May"1975,"in"Wim"van"Eyle,"Jazz-&-Geïmproviseerde-Muziek," 25."“Hé"Jo,"ouwe"neukert"…"Het"moet"mij"even"van"het"hart,"dat"ik"je"wel"een"enorme"lul"vind,"dat"je"onze" kutHsubcultultuurHshitHmuziek"dit"jaar"weer"niet"hebt"geprogrammeerd"in"je"overjarige"freak"festival."…"Je" vriend,"Willem"Breuker.”"

193" " (R)evolution&& I"propose"a"more"nuanced"reading"of"the"notion"of"improvising"musicians"as"radical"and" revolutionary"rebels."While"improvising"musicians"are"largely—and"rightfully"so— credited"for"creating"an"infrastructure"for"jazz"funding"and"performance"in"the" Netherlands,"the"chapter"on"jazz"education"demonstrates"how"modern"jazz"musicians" also"contributed"to"the"further"establishment"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"most"notably" through"the"institutionalization"of"jazz"education"at"conservatories."While"the"loose"and" open"practice"of"workshops"throughout"the"years"developed"into"the"main"platform"for" teaching"the"more"experimental"forms"of"musicHmaking,"jazz"at"the"conservatory"has" become"an"indispensable"trajectory"for"the"contemporary"professional"jazz"musician."In" fact,"virtually"every"Dutch"jazz"musician"who"entered"the"profession"after"the"midH 1980s"enrolled"in"one"of"the"nation’s"jazz"departments."Moreover,"while"events"such"as" the"Notenkrakersactie,"and"the"performance"of"Breuker’s"“Litany"for"the"14th"of"June," 1966”,"and"the"“takeHover”"of"the"SJN"(see"Chapter"Three)"are"usually"explained"in"terms" of"revolution—not"in"the"least"place"by"musicians"themselves—this"type"of"explanation" can"also"be"understood"as"part"of"the"1960s"rhetoric,"and"consequently"as"a"way"of" distinguishing"themselves"within"the"cultural"debate."This"suggests"that,"while"the" studies"of"Adlington"and"Whitehead,"for"example,"together"with"most"journalistic" writing"tend"to"focus"on"the"experimental"and"the"revolutionary,"a"study"of"the"avantH garde’s"interaction"with"the"more"conservative"voices"in"music"can"give"new"insight"into" musical"change."Indeed,"a"model"that"includes"both"the"revolutionary"as"well"as"the" evolutionary"provides"ways"of"understanding"the"activities"of"the"“avantHgarde”" musicians"themselves"in"a"more"nuanced"way." " The"debates"on"education"lost"its"sharp"edge"at"the"end"of"the"1980s,"coinciding"with"the" emergence"of"a"generation"of"musicians"who"graduated"from"the"freshly"established"jazz" departments"at"the"conservatories."Musicians"such"as"trumpeter"Eric"Vloeimans," deliberately"sought"to"bridge"the"divide"between"jazz"and"improvised"music." Consequently,"today,"as"the"initial"modern"jazz"and"improvising"musicians"are"making" way"for"younger"musicians,"the"implications"of"“jazz”"and"“improvised"music”"are" shifting"from"social"categoriesHHrepresenting"a"certain"set"of"political,"aesthetical"and" musical"viewsHHto"stylistic"ones,"which"represent"different"principles"of"musicHmaking." Seen"in"this"light,"the"Jazz"Orchestra"of"the"Concertgebouw-versus"Performing-Arts-Fund-

194" " NL"case"demonstrates"how"this"richtingenstrijd,-as"a"historically"and"geographically" located"discourse,"continues"to"play"a"role"as"an"ideologicallyHloaded"narrational"device" that"is"part"of"a"discursive"frame"of"reference"against"which"individual"musicians"and" groups"are"values"and"positioned."Therefore,"the-richtingenstrijd-narrative"can"be" considered,"in"the"words"of"Tony"Whyton,"as"“a"valuable"tool"for"both"constructing"and" deconstructing"the"jazz"tradition,"demonstrating"how"narratives"police"iconic" representation"to"reinforce"dominant"ideologies.”508"Moreover,"as"I"have"shown"in"my" analysis"of"the"richtingenstrijd-narrative,"or"the"esthetical"and"sociopolitical"divide" between"the"established"modern"jazz"and"improvised"music,"these"debates"not"only" shaped"the"further"institutionalization"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"but"also"created"a"local" frame"of"reference"against"which"Dutch"jazz"continues"to"be"judged"and"valued."Seen"in" this"way"“jazz”"and"“improvised"music”"have"developed"from"social"categories"into" musical"genres."

Ensemble&culture& In"this"thesis"I"have"also"tried"to"show"reasons"for"including"jazz"into"the"Western"art" musicHdominated"historiography"of"postHwar"changes"in"Dutch"concert"life."Jazz"and" improvised"music"(by"means"of"improvisation,"and"its"musical"organisation)"contributed" actively"to"the"development"of"an"extensive"infrastructure"of"institutions"and"the"creation" of"(governmental)"recognition"of"music"practices"other"than"the"dominant"Western"art" tradition."Under"the"umbrella"of"jazz"and"improvised"music,"Dutch"musicians"succeeded" in"transforming"the"cultural"landscape."Musically,"by"introducing"jazz"idioms"into"the" repertoire"of"a"variety"of"Dutch"artists;"culturally,"by"contributing"to"the"acceptance"of" experimental"and"contemporary"art"forms;"and"politically,"by"fighting"themselves"into" the"systems"of"public"funding"and"formal"education." Initiatives"from"the"cultural"field,"in"return,"directed"the"musical"and"organisational" development"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands."Musicians"such"as"Misha" Mengelberg,"Willem"Breuker,"and"Willem"van"Manen"collaborated"with"other" contemporary"artists"in"an"attempt"to"improve"the"position"of"the"arts."They"not"only" offered"a"musical"alternative"to"the"symphony"orchestras"in"the"form"of"mediumHsized" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 508"Tony"Whyton,"Jazz-Icons:-Heroes,-Myths-and-the-Jazz-Tradition-(Cambridge:"Cambridge"University"Press," 2010),"152."

195" " ensembles—resulting"in"what"became"known"as"the"Dutch"ensemble"culture—but"also" demanded"governmental"recognition"in"the"form"of"funding"and"subsidies."Motivated"by" the"desire"for"renewal"and"radical"sociocultural"change,"these"musicians"showed"great" skills"in"terms"of"selfHorganization,"initially"as"part"of"the"contemporary"music"union" BEVEM,"and"later"by"jazzHspecific"initiatives"such"as"the"SJIN,"BIM"and"the"Bimhuis," added"with"the"initiation"of"independent"labels"of"ICP"and"BVHaast,"among"others." " The"increased"interest"in"preHcomposed"material"within"Dutch"improvised"music" ensembles,"however,"also"demonstrates"how"the"translation"of"socioHpolitical"ideologies" into"musical"ideas"of"collective"decisionHmaking"and"playing"free"of"preconception"in" larger"musical"groups"to"a"certain"extent"failed."This"is"exemplified"by"the"ICP,"which"over" the"years"developed"into"a"more"or"less"fixed"group"of"musicians"who"played"repertoireH based"projects,"such"as"the"Herbie"Nichols/Thelonious"Monk"Project"in"1986."While" conducted"improvisation"is"still"part"of"their"performances"to"this"day,"free"improvisation" is"now"reserved"for"exclusively"smaller"settings,"most"notably"the"BenninkHMengelberg" duo."Although"artistic"life"in"the"Netherlands"was"defined"by"a"growing" interconnectedness,"both"socially"and"musically,"between"different"genres,"it"has"not" resulted"into"the"desired"eclectic"music"practice."As"both"Rubinoff"and"cultural"historian" Roel"Pots"have"observed,"Dutch"musical"life"has"become"fragmented,"more"or"less" isolating"early"music"and"contemporary"music"into"their"own"networks,"venues,"concert" series"and"festivals.509"Likewise,"the"field"of"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands" nowadays"has"its"own"educational"programs,"venues"(Bimhuis),"festivals"(North"Sea"Jazz" Festival)"and"institutions"(Dutch"Jazz"Archive)."

The&politics&of&Dutch&jazz,&the&politics&of&provocation&

Media"are"a"valuable"source"of"studying"the"implicit"value"systems"that"inform"musical" practices"as"shown"in"the"chapters"on"the"reception"of"Dutch"jazz"from"a"Dutch"and"an" American"perspective"(in"respectively"Chapter"Four"and"Five)"demonstrate"how"written." Functioning"as"an"important"platform"to"discuss,"disseminate"and"reflect"on"cultural" change,"jazz"magazines"in"the"1960s"and"1970s"played"a"formative"role,"not"only"in" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 509"Rubinoff,""Cracking"the"Dutch"Early"Music"Movement,”"19"and"Pots,"Cultuur,"koningen-en-democraten," 557H8."

196" " defining"the"history"of"Dutch"jazz"but"also"in"shaping"its"significance"in"Dutch"cultural" life."In"line"with"an"increasing"interest"in"jazz"outside"the"United"States,"Dutch" journalists"during"the"1970s"occasionally"attempted"to"rethink"jazz"in"terms"of"a"specific" Dutch"identity."However,"as"the"study"of"the"reception"of"nonHAmerican"jazz"in"Down- Beat"has"shown,"the"American"jazz"narrative"remained"dominant"in"the"understanding" of"jazz."The"study"of"the"interconnectedness"between"jazz"and"written"media" demonstrates"how"the"mediatization"of"jazz"both"conditions"and"generates"shared"value" systems"and"consequently"contributes"to"the"identification"of"musical"communities."" " Improvising"musicians"were"the"first"jazz"musicians"in"the"Netherlands"to"actively"use" the"media"to"promote"their"work"and"to"realize"their"own"sociocultural"agenda’s."They" challenged"existing"boundaries"in"terms"of"discipline,"genre"and"musical"organization," while"at"the"same"time"using"media"and"politics"to"establish"their"music"as"a"distinctive" art"form."Responding"creatively"to"changes"in"the"Dutch"socioHpolitical"landscape" enacted"in"music,"language"and"behavior,"the"improvising"musicians"the"created"an" image"of"an"egalitarian"social"order,"cosmopolitan"yet"firmly"rooted"in"a"Dutch"tradition." This"dynamic"style,"consonant"with"improvising"musicians’"ideologies"of"“collectivity”"as" an"ideal"pattern"of"aesthetic"and"social"organization,"allowed"improvising"musicians"to" play"a"role"in"the"stereotypic"reproduction"of"Dutch"values"during"a"period"of"pervasive" economic"political"change."Their"deliberate,"but"by"no"means"consistent,"rejection"of"the" label"“jazz”"demonstrated"the"improving"musicians’"awareness"of"the"social"connotations" of"classification"(i.e.,"jazz"as"light"entertainment)"and"showed"their"ability"to"make"use"of" these"terms."Furthermore,"it"articulated"the"artists’"desire"to"identify"with"the"present"and" the"things"to"come."In"this"context,"the"improvising"musicians’"deliberate"rejection"of" American"models"of"jazz"should"be"understood"first"and"foremost"as"a"political"act,"as"a" way"of"creating"an"identity"of"their"own." " The"playful"but"deliberate"politics"behind"“Dutch"improvised"music”"and"the"clever"use" of"media"is"perhaps"best"explained"through"a"1975"letter"by"Breuker"to"Holland" Festival’s"music"programmer"Jo"Elsendoorn,"in"which"he"complained"of"(again)"not" having"been"programmed"at"that"year’s"festival."In"the"letter,"Breuker"presents"his"own" work"provocatively"as"“subcultural"shitHmusic,”"deliberately"playing"with"the"image"of" his"music"(low"art)"and"of"the"festival"(high"art)."Apart"from"twisting"the"facts—between"

197" " 1966"and"1981—Breuker"was"involved"as"a"musician"and"composer"in"at"least"five" Holland"Festival"productions"he"was"not"afraid"to"use"provocation"as"a"tactic"to"gain" more"recognition"for"his"work.510"Indeed,"Breuker"not"only"sent"the"provocative"letter"to" Elsendoorn,"who"was"actually"a"good"friend"of"him,"but"also"to"daily"newspapers," causing"somewhat"of"a"stir."It"was"a"successful"tactic;"the"Holland"Festival"only"two" years"later"programmed"De-Knop,"an"adaptation"of"a"oneHact"play"by"author"Harry" Mulish,"written"by"Breuker"together"with"alto"violinist,"author,"and"director"Lodewijk"de" Boer."The"event"not"only"raises"the"question"of"the"power"of"provocation,"but"the"fact" that"it"proved"successful"is"much"revealing"about"the"time"and"place"in"which"it"took" place."A"casual"survey"among"friends"and"colleagues"active"in"the"cultural"field"(policyH makers,"musicians,"festival"organizers,"and"alike)"quickly"learns"that"this"type"of" offensive"rhetoric"towards"programmers"and"policyHmakers"nowadays"would"not"be" appreciated,"let"alone"rewarded"with"funding"or"a"concert." " Altogether,"then,"this"thesis"demonstrates"the"intricate"liaisons"between"the"arts,"media" representation"and"politics,"and"the"emergence"of"the"idea—at"least—of"a"jazz"that"was" distinctively"Dutch."By"doing"so,"I"aim"to"reconsider"and"adjust"the"notion"of"Dutch"jazz" in"a"field"of"historiography"that"has"been"dominated"by"anecdotal"writing."In"a"broad" sense,"then,"I"suggest"a"way"of"viewing"jazz"as"part"of"a"local"(music)"culture"that"is"not" only"informed"by"international"developments"within"the"practice"of"jazz,"but"which"also" interacts"with"the"local"socioHpolitical"infrastructures"and"the"discussions"organized" around"them."

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 510"Notwithstanding"his"complaint"to"Holland"Festival"director"Elsendoorn,"his"“subcultural"shitHmusic”" had"become"more"accepted"and"programmed"than"was"wise"for"him"to"admit."These"productions"included" a"guest"performance"with"Boy’s"Big"Band"(1966);"the"participation"in"and"adaption"of"Louis"Andriessen’s" Spektakel"(1970);"the"performance"of"Breuker’s"composition"Inserzione"by"a"brass"band"from"Beek"en" Donk,"conducted"by"Heinz"Friesen"(1971);"the"premiere"of"Kaïn-en-Abel,"a"music"theatre"piece" commissioned"by"the"Holland"Festival"written"by"Breuker"together"with"Lodewijk"de"Boer"(1972);"the" performance"of"De"Boer"and"Breuker’s"music"theatre"piece"De-Knop,"(1977);"a"program"with"Maarten"Bon" and"Reinbert"de"Leeuw"on"piano"and"Willem"Breuker"on"tenor"saxophone,"which"included"works"by"Louis" Andriessen"(Séries;-Ittrospezione-III),"Cornelis"Schuyt"(Trois-Pièces-pour-deux-pianos),"Olivier"Messiaen" (Visions-de-l’Amen),"Bon"(Boréal,-versie-voor-twee-piano’s)"and"Breuker"(Aah-Jonge-Eéj)"(1981)."

198" " Sources&

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199" " Biddle,"Ian"and"Vanessa"Knights,"“Introduction:"National"Popular"Musics:"Betwixt"and" Beyond"the"Local"and"Global,”"in"Music,-National-Identity-and-the-Politics-of-Location:- Between-the-Global-and-the-Local,"ed."Ian"Biddle"and"Vanessa"Knights"(Aldershot"etc.:" Ashgate,"2007),"1H18." Bohlman,"Philip."“Of"Yekkes"and"Chamber"Music"in"Israel:"Ethnomusicological"Meaning" in"Western"Music"History,”"Ethnomusicology-and-Modern-Music-History"(1991),"254H 267." Bouman,"Eva."Workshops:-Opkomst-en-ontwikkeling"(Zeist:"Stichting"Trezoor,"1978)." Burke,"Peter."What-is-Cultural-History?-(Cambridge"etc.:"Polity,"2008"[2004])." Buzelin,"François"and"Jean"Buzelin,"Willem-Breuker:-Maker-van-mensenmuziek,"trans." Marco"Nakken"(Zutphen:"Walberg"Pers,"1994)." Carr,"Ian."Music-Outside:-Contemporary-Jazz-in-Britain"(London:"Latimer"New" Dimensions,"1973"[2008])." Cook,"Susan"C."“Jazz"as"Deliverance:"The"Reception"and"Institution"of"American"Jazz" during"the"Weimar"Republic,”"American-Music"7/1"(1989),"30H47.- Cook,"Nicholas."“Making"Music"Together,"Or"Improvisation"and"its"Others,”"Jazz-Research- Journal"1/"1"(2004),"5H26." ———"."Beyond-the-Score:-Music-as-Performance-(Oxford:"Oxford"University"Press,"2014)." De"Bruyn,"Frans"and"Jaap"Romeyn,"ed.,"“Vandaag"5:"Nieuw"werk"van"Nederlandse"en" Vlaamse"schrijvers,”"in"Literair-Akkoord:-Een-Keuze-uit-de-Bijdragen-Verschenen-in-de- ZuidHen-Noordnederlandse-Letterkundige-Tijdschriften-van-het-Jaar-1956,"ed."Pierre"H." Dubois,"Hubert"van"Herreweghen,"Karel"Jonckheere"and"Garmt"Stuiveling"(Utrecht:" Bruna,"1958)." De"Jonge,"Coen."Belevenissen-in-de-Bebop:-Rein-de-Graaf,-jazzpianist"(Groningen:"Passage," 1997).- De"Joode,"Ton."Jazz-onder-het-mes"(Amsterdam:"Ten"Brink,"1962)." De"Vaal,"Hans.-Jazz:-Van-oerwoudrhythme-tot-Hollywoodsymphonie-(Amsterdam:"Jacob" van"Kampen,"1948)." De"Valk,"Jeroen."“Jazzopleidingen,”"in"Jazzjaarboek-5,"ed."Erik"van"den"Berg"and"Frank" van"Dixhoorn"(Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep,"1987):"89H99." ———"."“De"roots"van"Rudi"Brink,”"in"Jazzjaarboek-6,"ed."Erik"van"den"Berg"and"Frank"van" Dixhoorn"(Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep,"1987):"103H10."

200" " DeVeaux,"Scott."“Constructing"the"Jazz"Tradition:"Jazz"Historiography,”"Black-American- Literature-Forum"25/3"(1991),"525H560." ———"."The-Birth-of-Bebop:-A-Social-and-Musical-History"(Berkeley:"University"of" California"Press,"1997)." Feld,"Steven."Jazz-Cosmopolitanism-in-Accra:-Five-Musical-Years-in-Ghana-(Durham,"NC:" Duke"University"Press,"2012)." Frith,"Simon."“Music"and"Identity,”"in"Questions-of-Cultural-Identity,"ed."Stuart"Hall"and" Paul"Du"Gay"(London"etc.:"Sage,"1996),"108H127." Gabbard,"Krin,"ed.,"Jazz-among-the-Discourses-(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press," 1995a)." ———","ed.,"Representing-Jazz-(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"1995b)." Gebhardt,"Nicholas,"ed.,"“Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"special"issue,"Jazz- Research-Journal"5.1/5.2"(2011)." Geldens,"Alex."“Het"Bimhuis"in"de"21e"eeuw:"Oriëntatie"op"het"nieuwe"Bimhuis"aan"de" Oostelijke"Handelskade,”"(master’s"thesis,"University"of"Amsterdam,"2000)." Gennari,"John."Blowin’-Hot-and-Cool:-Jazz-and-its-Critics-(Chicago/London:"University"of" Chicago"Press,"2006)." Gilbert,"Will"G."[Willem"Henri"Adriaan"Steensel"van"der"Aa]"and"Constantin" Poustochkine,"Jazzmuziek.-Inleiding-tot-de-volksmuziek-der-NoordHAmerikaansche- negers-(Den"Haag:"Kruseman,"1939)." Gout,"Cor."En-dan-nu-de-polonaise:-Muziek-in-Den-Haag-en-Scheveningen"(Den"Haag:" Trespassers"W,"2008)." Govers,"Robert"and"Frank"M."Go,"Place-Branding:-Glocal,-Virtual-and-Physical-Identities,- Constructed,-Imagened-and-Experienced-(Hampshire:"Palgrave"Macmillan,"2009),"64." Guridy,"Frank"André."Forging-Diaspora:-AfroHCubans-and-African-Americans-in-a-World-of- Empire-and-Jim-Crow"(Chapel"Hill:"University"of"North"Carolina"Press,"2010)." Hall,"Stuart."“Cultural"Identity"and"Diaspora,”"in"Identity:-Community,-Culture,-Differences,- ed.-Jonathan"Rutherford"(London:"Lawrence"and"Wishart,"1990):"222H37." ———"."“Introduction:"Who"Needs"‘Identity’?”"in"Questions-of-Cultural-Identity,"ed."Stuart" Hall"and"Paul"Du"Gay"(London"etc.:"Sage,"1996),"1H17." Heerkens,"Adriaan."Jazz:-Het-wezen-en-de-geschiedenis"(Baarn:"Bosch"en"Keuning,"1955)." Heining,"Duncan."Trad-Dads,-Dirty-Boppers-and-Free-Fusioneers:-British-Jazz,-1960H1975" (Sheffield:"Equinox,"2012)."

201" " Hobsbawm,"Eric"J."[Francis"Newton],"The-Jazz-Scene,"rev."ed."(1959,"London:"Weidenfeld" and"Nicolson,"1989)." Hoogervorst,"Sannie."“Kwaliteit"of"spreiding:"Orkesten"en"overheid"1900H1990,”"In"Waar- bemoei-je-je-mee.-75-jaar-belangenstrijd-van-de-vereniging-Het-Concertgebouworkest,"ed." Johan"Giskes"et"al."(Zutphen:"Walburg"Pers,"1991):"172H94." Hurley,"Andrew"Wright."The-Return-of-Jazz:-JoachimHErnst-Berendt-and-West-German- Cultural-Change"(2009;"repr."New"York/Oxford:"Berghahn"Books,"2011)."" Jackson,"Jeffrey"H."Making-Jazz-French:-Music-and-Modern-Life-in-Interwar-Paris-(Durham," NC:"Duke"University"Press,"2003)." Jones"[Amiri"Baraka],"LeRoi."Blues-People:-Negro-Music-in-White-America"(New"York:" William"Morrow,"1963)." ———"."“Jazz"and"the"white"critic,”"in"Black-Music"(New"York:"William"Morrow,"1968):"11H 20." Jordan,"Matthew"F."Le-Jazz:-Jazz-and-French-Cultural-Identity-(Urbana,"University"of" Illinois"Press,"2010)." Kaaij,"Jorg"and"Juan"Martinez,"ed.,"10-Jaar-Jazz-Orchestra-of-the-Concertgebouw-1999H 2009:-“Een-heel-behoorlijk-orkest”"(Amsterdam:"Stichting"Jazz"Orchestra"of"the" Concertgebouw,"2009)." Kauffeld"[Greta"de"RooHKloet],"Greetje"and"Ingo"Schiweck,"Was-für-Tage-…-Die-Memoiren- (Düsseldorf:"MaveriX,"2006)." Kennedy,"James"and"Simone"KennedyHDoornbos,"Nieuw-Babylon-in-aanbouw:-Nederland- in-de-jaren-zestig-[Building"New"Babylon:"Cultural"Change"in"the"Netherlands"during" the"1960s]"(Amsterdam"etc.:"Boom,"1995)." Kleijwegt,"David."Opgegaan-in-de-lucht:-Paul-Karting;-Herinneringen-aan-jazz-in- Rotterdam-1960H1970-/-Gone-in-the-Air:-Paul-Karting:-Memories-of-Jazz-in-Rotterdam- 1960H1970"(Delft:"Eburon,"2006).- Kleinhout,"Henk.-Swing-is-the-thing:-Hengelo-en-de-jazz-1920H1960"(Hengelo:"Smit"van" 1876,"2008)." Knulst,"Wim."Jazz-anno-1970"(Amsterdam:"Boekmanstichting,"1972)." Koopman,"Piet."Jazzkroniek-van-de-Zaanstreek-1925H2000"(Krommenie:"Stichting"Elitèr," 2004).- Koopmans,"Rudy."Jazz:-Improvisatie-en-organisatie-van-een-groeiende-minderheid" (Amsterdam:"SUA,"1977)."

202" " ———"."Over-muziek-en-politiek:-Een-essay"(IJmuiden:"Vermande"Zonen,"1977)." ———"."“Youth"and"Music"Zealand:"Stimulus"to"Inventiveness,”"Key-Notes:-Musical-Life-in- the-Netherlands"15"(1982):"31H35." Körner,"Friedrich."“Letter"from"Friedrich"Körner,”"Journal-of-the-American-Musicology- Society"12H3"(1969),"531H532." Kusters,"Paul"and"Titus"Schulz,"ed.,"Pierre-Courbois:-Révocation"(Utrecht:"Van"Gruting," 2010)." Kuyper,"Ruud,"ed.,"Over-jazz"(Amsterdam:"De"Arbeiderspers,"1967)." Leerssen,"Joep."National-Thought-in-Europe:-A-Cultural-History"(Amsterdam:"Amsterdam" University"Press,"2006)." Lewis,"George"E."A-Power-Stronger-than-Itself:-The-AACM-and-American-Experimental- Music"(Chicago:"Chicago"Press,"2008."" ———"."“Gittin’"to"know"Y’all:"Improvised"Music,"Interculturalism"and"the"Racial" Imagination,”"Critical-Studies-in-Improvisation/Études-critiques-en-improvisation,"Vol."1," No."1"(2004)."Available"at"www.criticalimprov.com/article/view/6,"by"permission"of" the"author." ———"."“Experimental"Music"in"Black"and"White:"The"AACM"in"New"York"1970"to"1985,”" Current-Musicology-71H73"(2002):"100H57." Looker,"B."Point-from-which-Creation-Begins:-The-Black-Artists’-Group-of-St.-Louis"(St." Louis,"MO:"Missouri"Historical"Society"press,"2004)." Los,"J."“Alan"Laurillard:"‘Ik"vind"vernieuwing"in"de"muziek"belangrijk’,”"accessed" February"17,"2015,"http://www.draaiomjeoren.com/interviews/laurillard.html" McKay,"George."Circular-Breathing:-The-Cultural-Politics-of-Jazz-in-Britain"(Durham,"NC:" Duke"University"Press,"2006)." Meijer,"Ischa."“‘Ik"maak"muziek"voor"iedereen,"maar"waarom"vindt"iedereen"het"zo" afgrijselijk?’,”"Haagse-Post"(October"13,"1973):"68H77." Mentink,"Cees."Leidse-jazzgeschiedenis-van-1899-tot-2009"(Leiden:"Stichting"Leidse"Jazz" Geschiedenis,"2008)." Mijs,"Ton"and"Kevin"Whitehead,"Instant-Composers-Pool-Orchestra:-You-have-to-See-It" (Rotterdam:"Mijs"Cartografie"and"Vormgeving,"2011)." Ministerie"van"Onderwijs,"Cultuur"en"Wetenschappen,"Cultuurbeleid-in-Nederland"(Den" Haag:"Sdu,"2002)."

203" " Monson,"Ingrid"T."Saying-Something:-Jazz-Improvisation-and-Interaction-(Chicago:" University"of"Chicago"Press,"1996)." ———"."Freedom-Sounds:-Civil-Rights-Call-out-to-Jazz-and-Africa-(Oxford:"Oxford"University" Press,"2007)." Moore,"Hilary."Inside-British-Jazz:-Crossing-Borders-of-Race,-Nation-and-Class-(Aldershot:" Ashgate,"2007)." Mulder,"Jan"J."Jazz-op-schrift:-Een-bibliografie-van-Nederlandstalige-jazzliteratuur;-Deel-1;- Boeken-en-bladen;-Herziene-en-vermeerdere-editie"(Almere:"Names"and"Numbers," 2010).- Muller,"Anneke."Blue-Burton:-Herinneringen-aan-een-Nederlandse-jazzHzangeres-1933H 1989"(Schoorl:"Conserve,"1999)." Murray,"Albert."“The"Function"of"the"Heroic"Image,”"in"the-Jazz-Cadenze-of-American- Culture,"ed."Robert"G."O’Meally"(New"York:"Columbia"University"Press),"569H579." Nicholson,"Stuart."Is-Jazz-Dead?:-(or-has-it-Moved-to-a-New-Address)"(New"York"etc.:" Routledge,"2005)." O'Flynn,"John."“National"Identity"and"Music"in"Transition:"Issues"of"Authenticity"in"a" Global"Setting,”"in"Music,-National-Identity-and-the-Politics-of-Location:-Between-the- Global-and-the-Local,"ed."Ian"Biddle"and"Vanessa"Knights"(Aldershot:"Ashgate,"2007)," 19H38." Openneer,"Herman."Kid-Dynamite:-De-legende-leeft"(Amsterdam:"Jan"Mets,"1995)." Oudejans,"Tobias."“De"structuur"en"werking"van"de"markt"voor"jazz"en"geïmproviseerde" muziek"in"Nederland,”"(master’s"thesis,"University"of"Amsterdam,"1987)." Pam,"Max."“Leo"Cuypers:"Lone"Wolf"of"the"Improvised"Music"Scene,”"Key-Notes:-Musical- Life-in-the-Netherlands"11"(1980):"8H13." Peters,"Peter."“De"Notenkrakers"en"de"politiek:"Geëmancipeerde"arbeiders"en" dissonanten,”"in"Mens-En-Melodie"49"11/12"(1994):"610H617." Piekut,"Benjamin."“ActorHNetworks"in"Music"History:"Clarifications"and"Critiques,”" TwentiethHCentury-Music-11/2"(2014):"191H215." Pisters,"Patricia."“Form,"Punch,"Caress:"Johan"van"der"Keuken’s"Global"Amsterdam,”"in" Imagining-Global-Amsterdam:-History,-Culture,-and-Geography-in-a-World-City,"ed." Marco"de"Waard"(2012),"125H41." Pots,-Roel."Cultuur,-koningen-en-democraten:-Overheid-en-cultuur-in-Nederland"(Nijmegen:" SUN,"2000)."

204" " Radano,"Ronald"M."New-Musical-Figurations:-Anthony-Braxton's-Cultural-Critique" (Chicago:"University"of"Chicago"Press,"1993)." Righart,"Hans."De-eindeloze-jaren-zestig:-Geschiedenis-van-een-generatieconflict- (Amsterdam:"Amsterdam"University"Press,"1995)." Rosenberg,"Stochelo,"Leo"Reimers"and"Harry"Klunder,"Stochelo-Rosenberg:-Part-1" (Almere:"Cento,"2005).- Rubinoff,"K.R."“Cracking"the"Dutch"Early"Music"Movement:"The"Repercussions"of"the" 1969"Notenkrakersactie,”"TwentiethHCentury-Music"6/1"(2011),"3H22." Rusch,"Loes."“Jazzpracticum:"Over"de"institutionalisering"van"jazzonderwijs"in" Nederland,”"(master’s"thesis,"University"of"Amsterdam,"2007)." ———"."“Common"Ground:"1970s"Improvised"Music"as"Part"of"a"CrossHGenre"Dutch" Ensemble"Culture,”"in"“Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"ed."Nicholas" Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research-Journal"5.1/5.2"(2011):"123H141." Samama,"Leo"and"Hylke"van"Lingen,-Nederlandse-muziek-in-de-20Hste-eeuw:-Voorspel-tot- een-nieuwe-dag"(Amsterdam:"Amsterdam"University"Press;"Salomé,"2006)." Schönberger,"Elmer,"ed.,"Ssst!:-Nieuwe-ensembles-voor-nieuwe-muziek"(Amsterdam:" International"Theatre"and"Film"Books,"1996)." Schrama,"Cees."It-don't-mean-a-thing:-Leven-met-jazz"(Baarn:"Tirion,"2007).- Schulte,"Han.""Leo"Cuypers:"'Je"moet"je"jatten"goed"onder"controle"hebben’,""Jazz/Press" 28"(1976):"5." Schuiling,"Floris."Animate-Structures:-The-Compositions-and-Improvisations-of-the-Instant- Composers-Pool-Orchestra."PhD"Diss.,"University"of"Cambridge,"2015." Seigel,"Micol."Uneven-Encounters:-Making-Race-and-Nation-in-Brazil-and-the-United-States- (Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"2010)." Shipton,"Alyn."A-New-History-of-Jazz"(London"and"New"York:"Continuum,"2007"[2001])." Small,"Christopher.-Musicking:-The-Meanings-of-Performing-and-Listening-(Hanover,"NH:" Wesleyan"University"Press,"1998)." Smith,"Terry."“Introduction:"The"Contemporaneity"Question,”"in"Antinomies-of-Art-and- Culture:-Modernity,-Postmodernity,-Contemporaneity,"ed."Terry"Smith,"Okwui"Enwezor" and"Nancy"Condee"(Duke"University"Press,"2009),"1H22." Stanbridge,"Alan."“Burns,"Baby,"Burns:"Jazz"History"as"a"Contested"Cultural"Site,”"Jazz- Research-Journal"1/"1"(2004):"82H100." Szwed,"J.F."Space-is-the-Place:-The-Life-and-Times-of-Sun-Ra"(Edinburgh:"Payback,"1997)."

205" " Tapscott,"H."and"S.L."Isoardi,"Songs-of-the-Unsung:-the-Musical-and-Social-Journey-of- Horace-Tapscott-(Durham,"NC:"Duke"University"Press,"2001)." Taruskin,"Richard."Music-in-the-Late-Twentieth-Century:-The-Oxford-History-of-Western- Music"(Oxford:"Oxford"University"Press,"2010)." Ten"Kate,"Rolf,"ed.,"Zes-over-jazz:-Kaleidoscoop-van-een-deels-miskende,-deels-overschatte- muze"(Zaandijk:"Heynis,"1958)." Tucker,"Mark.“Musicology"and"the"New"Jazz"Studies,”"Journal-of-the-American- Musicological-Society"51/1"(1998):"131H148." Van"Breda,"Arie."‘100-Jaar’-jazz-in-Den-Haag:-Het-New-Orleans-van-de-lage-landen"(Den" Haag:"'De"Nieuwe"Haagsche,'"2000)." Van"Breukelen,"Peter."‘Happy-Man’-Benjamin-Herman:-A-Photo-Essay"(Rotterdam:" Veenman,"2008)." Van"de"KarHVervooren,"Hennie."Breda-Jazz-Festival-1971H2010.-40-x-een-beleving" (Rotterdam:"Trichis"Publ.,"2010)." Van"de"Leur,"Walter."“Improvisatoren"versus"clichéHmachines:"Analyse"Jazzwereld-1965H 1973,”"Jazz-Bulletin-82"(March"2012):"30H37." ———"."“‘Pure"Jazz’"and"‘Charlatanry:’"A"History"of"De-Jazzwereld"Magazine,"1931H1940,”" Current-Research-in-Jazz"4"(2012),"accessed"October"16,"2014,"http://www.crjH online.org/- ———"."Jazz-behind-the-dikes:-Vijfentachtig-jaar-schrijven-over-jazz-in-Nederland" (Amsterdam:"Vossiuspers"UvA,"2009)." Van"den"Berg,"Erik."Han-Bennink:-De-wereld-als-trommel"(Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap," 2009)." ———"."“Briefcase"Bop"and"Gloss"Paint:"Spectacular"Jazz"Debuts;"Heated"Discussions"in" the"Era"of"a"New"Conservatism,”"Keynotes-24,"1987,"45H54." Van"der"Elsken,"Ed."Jazz"(Amsterdam:"De"Bezige"Bij,"1959)." Van"der"Heijden,"Rinus."“Zeeland"Suite"in"triplo,"Jazz/Press-48"(1978):"10H11." ———","et"al."ed.,"Jazz-in-Tilburg:-Honderd-jaar-avontuurlijke-muziek"(Tilburg:"privately" printed,"2010).- Van"Eyle,"Wim,"ed.,"Jazz-en-geïmproviseerde-muziek:-Handboek-voor-de-Nederlandse- jazzwereld"(Utrecht/Antwerpen:"Het"Spectrum,"1978)." Van"Leeuwen,"Frans."“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"1),”"Jazz/Press"47"(1978a):"16H18." ———"."“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"2),”"Jazz/Press"49"(1978b):"12H14."

206" " ———"."“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"3),”"Jazz/Press"51"(1978c):"21H24." ———"."“De"fluit"en"de"duit"(deel"4"H"slot),”"Jazz/Press"53/54"(1978d):"32H34." Van"Melick,"Ben"Han-Bennink:-Cover-Art-for-ICP-and-other-Labels,"trans."Guus"Blezer- (Rimburg:"Huis"Clos,"2008).- Van"Slooten,"Johanneke."“Muziekpolitiek"of"politieke"muziek?"Tien"jaar"de"Volharding,”" Haagse-Post,"18"September"1982,"44H9." Vuijsje,"Bert."De-nieuwe-jazz:-Twintig-interviews"(Baarn:"Bosch"en"Keuning,"1978)." ———"."Jazzportretten:-Van-Ben-Webster-tot-Wynton-Marsalis"(Amsterdam:"Van"Gennep," 1983)."" Vuijsje,"Bert"and"Rita"Reys,"Rita-Reys:-Lady-Jazz"(Amsterdam:"Thomas"Rap,"2004)." Wall,"Tim"and"Simon"Barber,"“The"Collective"Organization"of"Contemporary"Jazz" Musicians"in"the"UK,”"in"“Jazz"Collectives:"History,"Theory,"Practice,”"ed."Nicholas" Gebhardt,"special"issue,"Jazz-Research-Journal"5.1/5.2"(2011):"89H112." Wall,"Tim."“David"Murray:"The"Making"of"a"Progressive"Jazz"Musician,”"Jazz-Research- Journal-1/2"(2007):"173H203." Waterman,"Christopher"A."“Jùjú"history:"Toward"a"Theory"of"Sociomusical"Practice,”"in" Ethnomusicology-and-Modern-Music-History,"ed."Steven"Blum,"Philip"V."Bohlman"and" Daniel"M."Neumann"(Urbana,"University"of"Illinois"Press,"1991):"49H67." Weber,"Max."The-Rational-and-Social-Foundations-of-Music,"trans."Don"Martindale," Johannes"Riedel,"Gertrude"Neuwirth"([Carbondale]:"Southern"Illinois"University"Press," 1958)." Wickes,"J."Innovations-in-British-Jazz:-Volume-One,-1960H1980-(Chelmsford:"Soundworld," 1999)." Whitehead,"Kevin."New-Dutch-Swing"(New"York:"Billboard"Books,"1998)." Whyton,"Tony."Jazz-Icons:-Heroes,-Myths-and-the-Jazz-Tradition-(Cambridge:"Cambridge" University"Press,"2010)." ———"."“Europe"and"the"New"Jazz"Studies,”"in"Eurojazzland:-Jazz-and-European-Sources,- Dynamics,-and-Contexts,-ed."Luca"Cerchiari,"Laurant"Cugny"and"Franz"Kerschbaumer" (Boston:"Northeastern"University"Press,"2012),"366H380." Wolters,"Rein."Onverbloemd!:-90-jaar-Annie-de-Reuver"(Hoorn:"Gruppo"Creativo,"2007)." Wouters,"Kees"C.A.T.M."Ongewenschte-muziek:-De-bestrijding-van-jazz-en-moderne- amusementsmuziek-in-Duitsland-en-Nederland,-1920H1945"(Den"Haag:"sdu,"1999)."

207" " Discography& Jazz-at-the-Kurhaus,"Nedley"Elstak,"tp;"Hans"van"Assenderp,"tb;"Tony"Vos,"as;"Jos"van" Heuverzwijn,"ts;"André"Blok,"ts;"Toon"van"vliet,"ts;"Frans"Elsen,"p;"Rob"Pauwels,"g;" Hank"Wood,"b;"Tonny"Nüsser,"dr."Recorded"live"at"the"Rembrandt"Theater,"Eindhoven," May"21,"1953."Omega"33101,"33102,"2"LPs"(10"inch)."[The"results"of"a"later"session,"so" not"the"Kurhaus"session,"in"Eindhoven"was"recorded"in"Eindhoven"and"released"on" two"10"inch"LP’s.]" Jazz-From-Holland,"Diamonds;"Dutch"All"Stars;"Rob"Madna;"Rob"Pronk."Recorded"January" 7,"1955;"February"28,"1956,"Columbia"HP"106,"LP." Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes,"Stido"Alstrøm"Trio;"Rob"Madna"Trio,"Rita"Reys"Combo;"Tony"Vos" Kwartet."Recorded"January"14,"17"and"23,"1955;"Philips"P"10078"R,"LP"(10"inch)." Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes-No.-2,"Frans"Elsen"Quartet;"Wessel"Ilcken"Combo;"Rob"Madna"Trio;" Herman"Schoonderwalt"Septet;"Tony"Vos"Quartet."Recorded"July"13,"1955;"August"16," 22,"25"and"31,"1955,"Philips"B"08000"L,"LP." Jazz-Behind-the-Dikes-No.-3,"Stido"Alstrøm"Sextet;"Frans"Elsen"Quintet;"Wessel"Ilcken"All" Stars;"Pim"Jacobs"Three;"Rob"Madna"Trio;"Tony"Vos"Quartet."Recorded"October"29," 1956;"November"2,"1956;"December"12,"1956;"January"30,"1957;"February"3,"1957." Philips"B"08004"L,"LP." Jazz-Class,-Dutch"Swing"College"Band,"Philips"P"08045"L,"1960,"LP.511" Dixie-Gone-Dutch,"Dutch"Swing"College"Band,"Philips"PHS"600H010,"1962,"LP." Leo"Cuypers,"Zeeland-Suite-en-Johnny-Rep-Suite,"BVHaast"CD"9307,"compact"disc." Recorded"at"the"VARA"Studios,"Hilversum,"19"September,"1977."Originally"released"in" 1977("BVHaast"012)." Lionel"Hampton"and"his"Rhythm’s"Hampton-Goes-Europe,"Fontana"858064"FPY,"1957,"33" 1/3"inch."

Newspapers512- Algemeen-Handelsblad- Billboard- """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 511"LP’s"are"12"inch,"unless"stated"otherwise." 512"I"consulted"most"newspaper"papers"online,"through"the"online"research"portal"Delpher" (www.delpher.nl),"a"joint"project"of"the"Royal"Library"in"the"Netherlands"and"the"university"libraries"of" Amsterdam,"Groningen,"Leiden"and"Utrecht,"which"gives"access"to"a"wide"range"of"historic"books," newspapers,"magazines"and"radio"scripts"from"the"Netherlands."

208" " De-Nieuwe-Linie- De-Telegraaf- De-Tijd/Maasbode- De-Volkskrant" De-Waarheid- Friese-Koerier- Haagse-Courant- Het-Parool- Het-Vrije-Volk- Leeuwarder-Courant- Limburgs-Dagblad- Nieuwsblad-van-het-Noorden- Nieuwe-Rotterdamse-Courant- Provinciale-Zeeuwse-Courant- Twents-Dagblad"

Magazines- Down-Beat- Doctor-Jazz- De-Jazzwereld- Groene-Amsterdammer- Haagse-Post- Jazz/Press- Jazzwereld- Jazz-Bulletin- Jazz-Journal- Jazz-Hot- Jazz-Nu- Jazz-Magazine- MuziekExpress- Muziekkrant-Oor- Philharmonic- Rhythme-

209" " True-Notes- Tuney-Tunes-[Popfoto]- Vrij-Nederland-

Film&and&television- Jazz-and-Poetry,"directed"by"Louis"van"Gasteren"(1964)"16"mm,"14"min."[The"American" poet"Ted"Joans"reads"his"poem"“Jazz"is"My"Religion,”"accompanied"by"Piet"Kuiters,"pi;" and"Herman"Schoonderwalt,"as;"Ruud"Jacobs,"b;"and"Cees"See,"dr.]" Zeeland-Suite,"directed"by"Hans"Hülscher,"(NOS/ZDF,"1977),"Videocassette"(VHS),"49" min." Misha-Enzovoort,-directed"by"Cherry"Duyns"(NTR,"2013),"DVD,"66"min.- Afijn,"directed"by"Jellie"Dekker"(DATA"Records,"2006),"DVD,"77"min.- Kid-Dynamite,-directed"by"Hans"Hylkema"(NPS,"2001),"DVD,"75"min." Geschiedenis-Van-De-Nederlandse-Jazz,-directed"by"Jan"Kelder"(NOS,"1993)." Jazz,"directed"by"Ken"Burns"(Florentine"Films,"2001)." Domein-van-de-Vrijheid,"directed"by"A."’sHGravesande"and"S."Verster"(NPS,"1996).""

Interviews-

Boudewijn"Leeuwenberg" 20"February"2012" Amsterdam" Herman"Openneer" " 21"March"2012" Amsterdam" Ruud"van"Dijk"" " 28"March"2012" Amsterdam" Bert"Vuijsje" " 16"April"2012" Amsterdam" Han"Bennink" " 12"March"2014"" De"Rijp" Leo"Cuypers" " 19"September"2013" Maastricht" Ad"van"’t"Veer" " 23"June"2014" Middelburg- Willem"van"Manen" " 29"September"2014" Amsterdam" Pieter"Boersma" " 27"August"2014" Amsterdam" " "

210" " Appendix&I:&Concert&Program&Zeeland&Suite&

Zeeland+Suite:&Concert&program&(source:&Jeugd&en&Muziek)&& 28&June&1977& " 10:00" Haamstede"Castle"in"BurghHHaamstede" In"collaboration"with"the"Dutch"Folklore"Group"Medioburgum"from" Middelburg" 13:00" Artificial"island"of"Philipsdam" Depart"from"the"Grevelingendam"with"boats"of"Rijkswaterstaat" (Department"of"Waterways"and"Public"Works)" 19:30" Rijksweg"St."Annaland" 29&June&1977& " 8:30" ’t"Slibhaventje"in"Hoedekenskerke" 14:00" Tour"from"ZeeuwsHVlaanderen"to"Verdronken-Land-van-Saefthinge" 19:30" RoundHtrip"boat"Madeleine"on"the"Westerschelde" 30&June&1977& " 10:00" St."Lievens"Monster"Toren"in"Zierikzee" 15:00" Industrial"estate"Borssele" 19:30" Wester"Beach"Domburg" 1&July&1977& " 9:30" Fort"Rammekens"in"Ritthem" 21:00" Performance"of"the"integral"suite"during"a"final"concert"in"Cultural"Centre" Kuiperspoort"in"Middelburg" "

211" " Appendix&II:&Touring&Schedule&Zeeland+Suite+

Zeeland+Suite:&performances,&broadcasts&and&film&screenings& Date& Event& 28H06H1977" ThreeHday"premiere"throughout"the"province"of"Zeeland" 01H07H1977" Premiere"of"the"suite"performed"as"a"whole,"in"Middelburg" 03H10H1977" Radio"Broadcasting,"Hilversum"IV" 01H01H1978" Concert,"Vestzaktheater"in"Vlissingen,"16.00" 02H01H1978" Concert,"Den"Dullaert,"Hulst,"16.00" 03H01H1978" Concert,"Kuiperspoorttheater,"20.30"" 04H01H1978" Concert,"Sunship"Jazzbunker"in"Rotterdam,"22.00" 05H01H1978" Concert,"Studio"of"the"Stadsschouwburg,"Tilburg,"20.30" 06H01H1978" Concert,"Statenzaal,"Dordrecht,"20.15" 07H01H1978" Concert,"Theater"de"Waag,"as"part"of"SmørHjazz,"Delft,"20.30" 08H01H1978" Concert,"De"Kroeg,"Amsterdam,"15.00" 09H01H1978" Concert,"O42,"Nijmegen" 10H01H1978" Concert,"Provadya,"Alkmaar,"20.00" 10H01H1978" Television"Broadcast"NOS,"Nederland"1,"22.10"(?)"" 12H01H1978" Concert,"‘t"Hoogt,"Utrecht" 13H01H1978" Concert,"Concertgebouw,"Hengelo,"20.00" 14H01H1978" Concert,"Bimhuis,"Amsterdam,"21.00" 23H11H1978" Video"viewing,"Nederlandse"Muziekweek"1978,"Groningen" 03H10H1978" Television"Broadcast,"ZDF,"Germany"2,"22.45" 11H10H1979" Concert,"Bimhuis,"Amsterdam,"21.00" 14H07H1981" Television"Broadcast,"NOS,"Nederland"1,"21.55" 09H09H1983" Video"viewing"in"Theatercafé"De"Schouwburg"Jazzfestival"Rotterdam,"Rotterdam"

212" " Summary&

“Our"subcultural"shitHmusic”:"Dutch"Jazz,"Representation,"and"Cultural" Politics" " This"research"is"part"of"the"international"HERAHfunded"Rhythm"Changes"research" project,"which"examines"the"inherited"traditions"and"practices"of"European"jazz"cultures."" This"thesis"examines"how"Dutch"musicians,"policy"makers,"audiences"and"journalists"in" the"1960s"and"1970s"contributed"to"the"development"of"what"became"known"as"a" distinctively"Dutch"sound"in"jazz:"Nederlandse-(aktuele)-geïmproviseerde-muziek."It" critically"engages"with"the"construction"of"Dutch"narratives"in"jazz"and"its"interplay"with" local"political"debates."Through"a"closeHexamination"of"historically"and"geographically" situated"jazz"narratives"and"by"exposing"their"underlying"ideologies,"I"argue"that" musical"change"is"not"only"directed"by"initiatives"within"the"musical"field,"but"shaped"by" broader"sets"of"cultural"discourse."Moreover,"by"engaging"with"the"local"roots"of"Dutch" jazz"and"improvised"music,"I"propose"that"Dutch"jazz"musicians"in"the"1960s"and"1970s" not"only"responded"to,"but"also"actively"contributed"to"processes"of"socioHcultural" upheaval"and"change."Altogether,"I"suggest"a"way"of"viewing"jazz"as"part"of"a"local" (music)"culture"that"is"not"only"informed"by"international"developments"within"the" practice"of"jazz,"but"which"also"interacts"with"the"local"socioHpolitical"infrastructures" and"the"discussions"organized"around"them."By"doing"so,"I"aim"to"reconsider"and"adjust" the"notion"of"Dutch"jazz"in"a"field"of"historiography"that"has"been"dominated"by" anecdotal"writing."In"a"broad"sense,"then,"I"explore"the"unique"relationship"between" meaningHmaking"in"music"and"national"cultural"politics,"investigating"ways"in"which"this" relationship"articulates"cultural"values."" " I"approach"the"notion"of"Dutch"jazz"from"a"variety"of"angles—as"a"community,"a"musical" tradition,"a"cultural"trope"or"narrative"and"as"a"geographical"(political)"space." Consequently,"the"book"is"thematically"subdivided"into"chapters"that"cover"different" fields"in"which"musical"meaningHmaking"takes"place:"community,"education,"policyH making,"representation"and"musical"performance."" "

213" " The"first"section"engages"with"the"development"of"postHwar"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"as" an"institutionalized"community"of"jazz"professionals."Through"systematic"research"in" periodicals,"close"reading"of"performances"and"by"means"of"oral-history,"I"reveal"the" ideologies"behind"the"emerging"discourses"of"jazz"as"a"subHcultural"art"music"and"the" notion"of"aktuele"geïmproviseerde-muziek"as"a"distinctive"Dutch"sound."Most" contemporary"writing"on"Dutch"jazz"concentrates"on"the"life"and"works"of"avantHgarde" improvising"musicians,"such"as"Misha"Mengelberg,"Han"Bennink,"and"Willem"Breuker," who"sought"news"ways"of"developing"the"jazz"idiom,"most"notably"through"an"eclectic" practice"of"collective"improvisation."As"I"show"in"this"chapter,"however,"the"opposing" views"and"conflicts"between"this"emerging"group"of"AmsterdamHbased"improvising" musicians"and"the"established"group"of"modern"jazz"musicians"deeply"impacted"the" further"development"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."Indeed,"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"from"the" late"1960s"began"to"develop"its"own"narrative,"as"told"by"musicians,"audiences," journalists,"producers,"programmers,"and"educators"and"supported"by"venues," magazines,"conservatories"and"other"institutions."In"this"chapter"I"focus"on"the" construction"of"this"narrative"by"examining"the"soHcalled"richtingenstrijd,"or"the"debates" between"members"of"the"Dutch"jazz"community."I"argue"that"these"debates"not"only" shaped"the"further"organization"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands,"but,"as"a"simplified"view"on" the"past"that"represents"conflicting"ideologies,"continue"to"act"as"a"local"frame"of" reference"through"which"individual"musicians,"bands"and"performances"are"positioned" and"valued." " In"Chapter"Two,"I"further"investigate"how"the"richtingenstrijdHnarrative"and"other"Dutch" debates"shaped"the"further"organization"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."I"focus"specifically" on"jazz"education"in"the"Netherlands,"as"an"area"exemplary"for"the"increasingly" professionalized"and"institutionalized"jazz"activities."Through"a"close"examination"of" different"forms"of"musical"education"(jam"sessions,"school"concerts,"workshops,"jazz" programs"as"taught"at"the"conservatories,"I"propose"that"the"rather"segmented" organization"of"jazz"education"in"the"Netherlands"reflected"the"conflicts"and"debates" within"the"Dutch"jazz"community"and"articulated"specific"cultural"values."For"example," while"the"informal"and"flexible"organization"of"workshops"fitted"in"with"ideas"of"jazz"as" a"creative"process"of"renewal"and"change,"the"formal"jazz"programs"taught"at" conservatories"followed"from"notions"of"jazz"as"a"musical"tradition"and"art"as"a"craft"of"

214" " which"the"basics"can"be"taught."Moreover,"with"its"emphasis"on"technical"skills,"tradition" and"craftsmanship,"this"notion"of"jazz"closely"connected"with"the"nineteenthHcentury" musical"traditionalist"views"on"art"as"propagated"by"the"classical"music"programs." Finally,"I"argue"that"a"close"scrutiny"of"the"underlying"ideologies"of"different"forms"of" musical"education"reveals"a"more"complicated"and"nuanced"image"of"stereotypes"in"jazz," such"as"“the"radical"improvising"musician”"and"the"“conservative,"traditionalist"jazz" musician.”" " In"Chapter"Three,"I"examine"the"intertwining"between"cultural"policyHmaking"and"the" performance"of"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands"and"study"how"improvised" musicians"used"collective"musicHmaking"to"mediate"their"esthetical"and"socioHpolitical" agendas."It"deals"successively"with"the"changing"position"of"the"government"towards"the" arts"as"reflected"by"changes"in"policyHmaking;"the"role"of"improvising"musicians"in"these" debates;"and"the"effects"of"changes"in"cultural"policyHmaking"on"the"further" development"of"jazz"in"the"Netherlands."This"section"gives"special"attention"to"the" worldHrenowned"Dutch"system"of"art"subsidies,"moreover"since"this"system"is"currently" being"jeopardized"by"severe"cuts"in"governmental"funding"and—perhaps"even"more" crucial—the"stigmatization"of"the"arts"as"an,"in"the"words"of"the"populist"politician"Geert" Wilders,"“linkse"hobby”"(leftist"hobby)."The"topic"of"subsidy"for"the"arts"and"culture"in" the"Netherlands"is"more"relevant"than"ever"as"the"Dutch"government"in"2013"and"2014" implemented"a"200"million"euro"cuts"on"funding"of"the"arts,"over"a"fifth"of"the"900" million"euro"annual"budget"of"the"previous"years."The"cuts"have"begun"to"affect"both"the" cultural"infrastructure—for"example"Music"Centrum"the"Netherlands"was"forced"to" close"as"of"January"1,"2013,"festivals"and"venues"receive"increasingly"less"funding."By" studying"the"interrelation"between"political"and"cultural"change,"I"expose"the"cultural" politics"behind"jazz"and"improvised"music"in"the"Netherlands." " In"chapters"Four"and"Five,"I"engage"with"the"role"of"media"representation"in"the" construction"of"Dutch"jazz"narratives,"i.e."the"notion"of"improvised"music"as"a"distinctive" Dutch"sound."I"explore"the"role"of"Dutch"jazz"critics"in"the"development"of"postwar"jazz" in"the"Netherlands,"and"more"specifically,"to"their"role"in"Dutch"jazz’s"shift"away"from" American"models"of"playing"jazz."Who"were"these"mediators"and"promoters"of"jazz"and" what"arguments"did"they"use"to"validate"and"legitimize"their"observations?"How"did"

215" " critics"position"jazz"against"the"backdrop"of"the"fragmentation"into"different"jazz"scenes," the"professionalization"and"institutionalization"of"jazz"practices,"the"emancipation"from" American"jazz"practices,"and"the"declining"audiences"as"a"consequence"of"changes" within"teenage"culture?"To"answer"these"questions,"I"critically"engage"with"the"writings" of"some"of"the"leading"Dutch"jazz"critics"of"the"1960s"and"1970s"(Rudy"Koopmans,"Bert" Vuijsje,"Michiel"de"Ruyter,"Ruud"Kuyper,"among"others)"and"examine"their"work"in" connection"with"their"esthetical"and"political"beliefs."After"introducing"some"of"these" leading"jazz"journalists,"I"show"how"critics"during"the"1970s"attempted,"for"the"first"time," to"canonize"jazz"in"the"Netherlands"into"a"singular"narrative,"stressing"economic"and" political"change"as"crucial"factors"to"what"they"considered"the"jazz"revolution"of"the" 1960s."Inventing"new"critical"tropes"and"creating"new"terminology,"these"critics" underlined"the"music’s"particularities"rather"than"similarities"in"relation"to"the" dominant"American"narrative"and"consequently"reinforced"the"idea"of"improvised" music"as"a"distinctively"Dutch"jazz"practice." " Chapter"Five"engages"with"the"understanding"of"nonHAmerican"jazz"practices"and"the" global"spread"of"jazz"from"an"American"mainstream"perspective,"by"studying"the" mediation"of"Dutch"and"European"jazz"in"the"American"jazz"magazine"Down-Beat."I" expose"underlying"ideologies"and"implications"of"the"American"jazz"narrative,"by" exploring"the"role"and"function"of"some"of"the"key"actors"through"which"the"story"of" European"jazz"is"told;"correspondents,"American"musicians"visiting"and"migrating" Europe,"European"musicians,"and"European"audiences."Notwithstanding"Down-Beat’s- announced"international"focus,"the"magazine"primarily"concentrated"on"the"promotion" of"American"jazz"practices,"while"reinforcing"stereotyped"notions"of"jazz"as"a"maleH dominated,"essentially"African"American"music"practice."This"type"of"stereotypeH imposed"storytelling,"together"with"a"general"resistance"against"explaining"jazz"in" national"sounds,"partly"explains"why"little"references"are"found"on"more"specific" characteristics"in"local"sounds"and"audiences"in"Europe."It"demonstrates"how,"for" example,"when"Down-Beat"journalist"Michael"Zwerin"criticizes"Dutch"pianist"Misha" Mengelberg"for"playing"“too"intellectual”"and"overHoccupied"with"“harmonic,"thematic" and"formalistic"aspects,”"he"both"draws"from"and"reinforces"the"idiom"of"stereotyped" imagery"that"is"inextricably"bound"up"with"the"American"jazz"narrative,"in"this"case"of" the"“intellectual,"white"European.”""

216" " " Altogether,"Chapters"Four"and"Five"demonstrate"how"journalists"played"a"formative"role," not"only"in"defining"the"history"of"Dutch"jazz"but"also"in"shaping"its"significance"in"Dutch" and"American"cultural"life."The"study"of"the"interconnectedness"between"jazz"and" written"media"demonstrates"how"the"mediatization"of"jazz"both"conditions"and" generates"shared"value"systems"and"consequently"contributes"to"the"identification"of" musical"communities."Moreover,"it"demonstrate"how"written"media"are"a"valuable" source"of"studying"the"implicit"value"systems"that"inform"musical"practices,"as"they" function"as"an"important"platform"to"discuss,"disseminate"and"reflect"on"cultural"change." " For"a"thorough"understanding"of"the"complexities"of"Dutch"jazz"and"improvised"music,"it" is"crucial"to"explore"how"the"establishment"of"a"structural"public"funding"system"and"the" emergence"of"Dutch"improvised"music"began"to"interact"during"the"1970s."In"the"last" chapter,"I"further"investigate"the"impact"of"subsidies"on"musical"performance"and" examine"how"governmental"support"affected"the"understanding"of"Dutch"improvised" music"as"a"distinctively"Dutch"music."I"do"this"by"means"of"a"multiHfaceted"analysis"and" close"reading"of"the"Zeeland-Suite-(1977),"one"of"the"richest"performances"in"Dutch" improvised"music"in"terms"of"musical"style,"cultural"symbolism"and"national" representations."By"deconstructing"and"close"reading"the"suite’s"production," performance"and"representation,"I"argue"that"the"renewed"funding"system"deeply" impacted"both"the"production"and"the"representation"of"improvised"music"in"the" Netherlands."Further,"by"studying"the"musical"performance"in"connection"to"cultural" symbols"that"have"come"to"represent"the"regional"cultural"identity"of"Zeeland"(the" province’s"motto"“Luctor"et"emergo”,-the"Deltaworks"et"al),"the"suite"shows"how" studying"music"as"a"carrier"of"cultural"meaning"contributes"to"the"understanding"of" issues"of"cultural"identity."Ultimately"then,"this"chapter"demonstrates"the"intricate" liaison"between"the"arts,"media"(representation)"and"politics,"and"the"emergence"of"the" idea—at"least—of"a"jazz"that"was"distinctively"Dutch."" " "

217" " Samenvatting&(Summary&in&Dutch)&

“Onze"kutHsubcultuurHshitHmuziek”:"Nederlandse"jazz,"representatie"en" cultuurpolitiek" " Dit"onderzoek"vormt"een"onderdeel"van"Rhythm"Changes,"een"internationaal" onderzoeksproject"gefinancierd"vanuit"het"HERA"Joint"Research"Programme"dat" onderzoekt"hoe"nationale"culturen"hebben"bijgedragen"aan"de"ontwikkeling"van"de"jazz" in"Europa."Dit"proefschrift"richt"zich"op"de"manier"waarop"Nederlandse"musici," beleidsmakers,"journalisten"en"publiek"tijdens"de"jaren"zestig"en"zeventig"van"de" twintigste"eeuw"een"bijdrage"hebben"geleverd"aan"de"ontwikkeling"van"het"idee"van"een" typisch"Nederlandse"jazz,"ook"wel"bekend"als"“Nederlandse"(aktuele)"geïmproviseerde" muziek”."In"deze"periode"kwam"er"een"groep"musici"op"in"Nederland"(o.a."Misha" Mengelberg,"Han"Bennink,"Willem"Breuker"en"Leo"Cuypers),"die"hun"muziek"niet"langer" modelleerden"naar"Amerikaanse"jazz,"maar"die"het"jazz"idioom"gebruikten"in"hun" zoektocht"naar"een"eigen"muzikale"en"culturele"identiteit."Een"deconstructie"van"het" Nederlandse"jazz"narratief"vanuit"een"historische"en"geografische"context"geeft"inzicht" in"de"ideologieën"die"aan"de"Nederlandse"geïmproviseerde"muziek"ten"grondslag"en"laat" zien"dat"muzikale"veranderingen"binnen"de"jazz"niet"alleen"het"gevolg"zijn"van" initiatieven"vanuit"het"muzikale"veld,"maar"het"resultaat"zijn"van"bredere" maatschappelijke"ontwikkelingen."De"ontwikkeling"van"Nederlandse"geïmproviseerde" muziek"is"echter"niet"slechts"een"reactie"op"cultuurpolitieke"veranderingen,"maar" Nederlandse"jazzmusici"tijdens"de"jaren"zestig"en"zeventig"van"de"twintigste"eeuw" leverden"hier"ook"een"actieve"bijdrage"aan."Samengevat"stelt"dit"onderzoek"voor"om"de" betekenis"van"jazz"niet"alleen"te"begrijpen"vanuit"de"internationale"muzikale"context"van" (Amerikaanse)"jazz,"maar"ook"als"een"culturele"praktijk"die"betekenis"krijgt"binnen—en" daarmee"inzicht"geeft"in—de"nationale"cultuurpolitieke"context." " Het"begrip"Nederlandse"jazz"en"geïmproviseerde"muziek"wordt"vanuit"verschillende" perspectieven"benaderd;"als"een"gemeenschap,"een"muzikale"traditie,"een"cultureel" narratief"en"als"een"geografischHpolitieke"space."Overeenkomstig"deze"perspectieven"is" dit"proefschrift"thematisch"onderverdeeld"in"verschillende"velden"waarbinnen"jazz"

218" " betekenis"krijgt:"community,"onderwijs,"beleid,"representatie"en"muzikale"performance." Het"eerste"hoofdstuk"richt"zich"op"de"institutionalisering"en"professionalisering"van"de" jazzgemeenschap"in"naoorlogs"Nederland."Systematisch"onderzoek"in"jazzperiodieken," interviews"en"een"close-reading-van"jazz"uitvoeringen"laten"zien"hoe"er"vanaf"de"late" jaren"zestig"van"de"twintigste"eeuw"een"eigen"jazz"narratief"ontstaat,"zoals"vormgegeven" door"musici,"publiek,"journalisten,"producenten,"programmeurs"en"docenten."Het"jazz" discours"wordt"in"deze"periode"in"toenemende"mate"gedomineerd"door"de"notie"van" jazz"als"een"subculturele"kunstmuziek"en"het"idee"van"aktuele-geïmproviseerde-muziek" als"een"typisch"Nederlandse"jazzvariant."De"Nederlandse"jazzjournalistiek"concentreert" zich"goeddeels"op"het"werk"van"de"zogeheten"jazz"avantHgarde,"zoals"in"Nederland" gerepresenteerd"door"musici"als"Misha"Mengelberg,"Han"Bennink"en"Willem"Breuker." Kenmerkend"voor"deze"nieuwe"generatie"was"het"streven"naar"een"radicale" vernieuwing-van"het"jazz"idioom"middels"een"eclectische"en"interdisciplinaire"praktijk" van"collectieve"improvisatie."Het"werk"van"deze"improviserende"musici"stond"echter" niet"op"zichzelf,"maar"kreeg"vorm"en"betekenis"door"discussies"met"gevestigde"orde"van" de"Nederlandse"jazz"zoals"vertegenwoordigd"door"moderne"jazz"musici."Deze" zogenaamde"richtingenstrijd"had"niet"alleen"muzikale"gevolgen,"maar"beïnvloedde"de" verdere"politieke"en"sociale"organisatie"van"muziek"in"Nederland."Bovendien"vormt"de" richtingenstrijd,"als"een"gesimplificeerde"lezing"van"gebeurtenissen"uit"het"verleden,"een" plaatselijk"referentiekader"waarbinnen"individuele"musici,"bands"en"uitvoeringen" worden"gepositioneerd"en"geëvalueerd." " De"invloed"van"het"jazz"discours"op"de"verdere"organisatie"van"jazz"in"Nederland"wordt" in"hoofdstuk"twee"verder"uitgewerkt"aan"de"hand"van"een"kritische"beschouwing"van" verschillende"vormen"van"jazzonderwijs"(jam"sessies,"schoolconcerten,"workshops," jazzopleidingen"aan"conservatoria)."De"gefragmenteerde"organisatie"van"het" jazzonderwijs"in"Nederland"vormt"een"afspiegeling"van"het"muzikale"discours:"de" informele"en"flexibele"organisatie"van"workshops"sluiten"aan"bij"de"notie"van"jazz"als" een"creatief"proces"van"radicale"vernieuwing"en"individuele"expressie"terwijl"de"formele" jazz"programma’s"zoals"aangeboden"aan"conservatoria"onlosmakelijk"verbonden"zijn" met"het"idee"van"jazz"als"een"traditie"en"als"een"vakmanschap"waarvan"de"beginselen" zijn"te"leren."Met"de"nadruk"op"technische"vaardigheden,"traditie"en"vakmanschap" sloten"de"eerste"jazzopleidingen"bovendien"aan"bij"de"negentiendeHeeuwse"

219" " traditionalistische"opvattingen"zoals"destijds"gepropageerd"door"klassieke" muziekopleidingen"aan"de"conservatoria."Middels"een"deconstructie"van"de"ideologieën" die"ten"grondslag"liggen"aan"de"verschillende"vormen"van"jazzonderwijs"laat"dit" hoofdstuk"zien"hoe"de"institutionalisering"van"jazz"aan"jazzopleidingen"bijdroeg"aan"een" verdere"stereotypering"en"tweedeling"binnen"het"Nederlandse"jazz"discours"(de" “radicale"improviserende"musicus”"versus"de"conservatieve,"traditionalistische"jazz" musicus”),"een"stereotypering"die"overigens"geen"recht"doet"aan"de"complexiteit"en" nuance"van"de"dagelijkse"realiteit." " Hoofdstuk"drie"richt"zich"op"de"groeiende"verstrengeling"van"cultuurbeleid"en" geïmproviseerde"muziek"in"Nederland"en"op"de"manieren"waarop"esthetische"en" politieke"opvattingen"tot"uitdrukking"komen"in"het"creatieve"proces."De"interactie" tussen"beleid"en"muziek"worden"achtereenvolgens"besproken:"de"veranderende" houding"van"de"overheid"ten"opzichte"van"de"kunsten"zoals"weerspiegeld"in"een" gewijzigde"cultuurbeleid;"de"rol"van"improviserende"musici"in"het"debat"over" cultuurbeleid;"en"de"gevolgen"van"veranderingen"in"het"cultuurbeleid"voor"de" ontwikkeling"van"jazz"in"Nederland."Er"is"bijzondere"aandacht"voor"het"Nederlandse" subsidiebestel,"temeer"aangezien"dit"momenteel"wordt"bedreigd"door"drastische" bezuinigingen"en—wellicht"nog"schadelijker—door"de"stigmatisering"van"de"kunsten" als,"in"de"woorden"van"de"populistische"politicus"Geert"Wilders,"een"“linkse"hobby.”"In" 2013"en"2014"bezuinigde"de"Nederlandse"overheid"200"miljoen"op"de"kunsten,"meer" dan"een"vijfde"van"de"900"miljoen"euro"van"het"budget"voor"de"kunsten"van"de" voorgaande"jaren."Deze"bezuinigingen"hebben"de"culturele"infrastructuur"structureel" afgebroken,"zoals"onder"meer"blijkt"uit"de"afnemende"financiële"steun"voor"festivals"en" podia"en"de"opheffing"van"Muziek"Centrum"Nederland"in"januari"2013."De"in"dit" hoofdstuk"besproken"wisselwerking"tussen"politieke"en"culturele"ontwikkelingen"en"de" retoriek"die"hieruit"is"ontstaan"leveren"een"bijdrage"aan"de"continuerende"discussie" over"cultuur,"cultuurbehoud"en"de"mogelijke"gevolgen"van"overheidssteun"voor"de" kunsten." " In"hoofdstuk"vier"en"vijf"wordt"gekeken"naar"de"manier"waarop"respectievelijk"de" Nederlandse"en"de"internationale"media"een"rol"speelden"in"de"constructie"van"het" Nederlandse"jazz"narratief"en"het"idee"van"geïmproviseerde"muziek"als"typisch"

220" " Nederlands."Nederlandse"jazz"journalisten"leverden"als"jazz"promotors"een"actieve" bijdrage"aan"ontwikkeling"van"de"naoorlogse"jazz,"in"het"bijzonder"in"de"verbreding"van" het"idee"van"jazz"als"een"Amerikaanse"muziekpraktijk"naar"een"Nederlands"geluid"in" jazz."Wie"waren"deze"journalisten"en"jazz"promotors"en"met"welke"argumenten" legitimeerden"zij"hun"observaties"en"opvattingen?"Hoe"verhielden"zij"zich"ten"opzichte" van"de"professionalisering"en"institutionalisering"van"de"Nederlandse"jazz"en"diens" emancipatie"ten"opzichte"van"de"Nederlandse"jazz?"Teneinde"een"antwoord"te"geven"op" deze"vragen"geeft"dit"hoofdstuk"een"studie"van"de"esthetische"en"politieke"opvattingen" die"ten"grondslag"liggen"aan"het"werk"van"een"aantal"toonaangevende"jazzjournalisten" in"de"jaren"zestig"en"zeventig"van"de"twintigste"eeuw"(o.a."Rudy"Koopmans,"Bert"Vuijsje," Michiel"de"Ruyter"en"Ruud"Kuyper)."Deze"journalisten"speelden"een"cruciale"rol"in"de" canonisering"van"Nederlandse"jazz"en"de"constructie"van"het"Nederlandse"jazz"narratief." Passend"binnen"de"retoriek"van"die"tijd"werden"de"veranderingen"binnen"jazz"uitgelegd" in"termen"van"revolutie,"waarbij"economische"en"politieke"factoren"een"cruciale"rol" speelden."Ook"belichtten"zij"in"de"bespreking"van"het"werk"van"de"Nederlandse" improviserende"musici"steeds"vaker"de"verschillen"in"plaats"van"de"overeenkomsten" met"de"dominerende"Amerikaanse"jazz."Door"deze"interpretatie"bekrachtigde"zij"het" idee"van"geïmproviseerde"muziek"als"een"typisch"Nederlandse"muziekpraktijk," geëmancipeerd"van"de"Amerikaanse"jazz." " Hoofdstuk"vijf"bespreekt"de"globalisering"van"Amerikaanse"jazz"en"de"worteling"van"jazz" in"nietHAmerikaanse"culturen"aan"de"hand"van"een"analyse"van"Down-Beat,"een" Amerikaans"tijdschrift"dat"de"Amerikaanse"mainstream"jazz"discours"vertegenwoordigt." Het"verkent"de"rol"en"functie"van"actors"die"een"cruciale"rol"spelen"in"de"vertelling"van" het"verhaal"van"de"Europese"jazz"(correspondenten,"Amerikaanse"jazz"musici"op" tournee"en"woonachtig"in"Europa,"Europese"musici"en"Europees"publiek)"en"geeft" daarmee"inzicht"in"de"ideologieën"die"ten"grondslag"liggen"aan"het"dominante" Amerikaanse"jazzverhaal."Alhoewel"Down-Beat"zich"profileerde"als"een"internationaal" georiënteerd"tijdschrift,"concentreerde"het"zich"primair"op"de"promotie"van" Amerikaanse"musici"en"bekrachtigde"daarmee"het"stereotype"idee"van"jazz"als"een"door" mannen"gedomineerde,"zwartHAmerikaanse"muziekpraktijk."NietHAmerikaanse"musici" en"publiek"worden"nauwelijks"besproken"en"er"zijn"weinig"referenties"naar"de" bloeiende"nietHAmerikaanse"jazzpraktijken"of"naar"de"verzelfstandiging"hiervan."Europa,"

221" " in"deze"interpretatie,"fungeert"in"de"eerste"plaats"als"een"geïdealiseerde"plek"waar" Amerikaanse"musici"kunnen"spelen,"leven"en"geld"verdienen."Wanneer"Down-Beat- journalist"Michael"Zwerin"bijvoorbeeld"het"werk"van"de"Nederlandse"pianist"Misha" Mengelberg"afdoet"als"“te"intellectueel”"en"gepreoccupeerd"met"“harmonische," thematische"en"formalistische"aspecten,”"gebruikt"en"bevestigt"hij"stereotypen"die" onlosmakelijk"verbonden"zijn"met"het"Amerikaanse"jazzverhaal,"in"dit"geval"het" stereotype"van"de"“serieuze,"intellectuele"Europeaan.”" " Door"de"Nederlandse"jazz"te"analyseren"vanuit"het"perspectief"van"de"Nederlandse"en" Amerikaanse"jazzjournalistiek,"geven"hoofdstuk"vier"en"vijf"inzicht"in"de"rol"die" geschreven"representaties"van"muziek"spelen"in"het"definiëren"van"het"muzikale" verleden"en"de"manier"waarop"jazz"wordt"begrepen"binnen"een"bredere"culturele" context."De"studie"naar"de"wisselwerking"tussen"jazz"en"geschreven"media"laat" bovendien"zien"hoe"het"schrijven"over"jazz"bijdraagt"aan"de"constructie"van" gemeenschappelijke"waardensystemen"en"de"identificatie"van"verschillende" jazzgemeenschappen."De"studie"van"media—als"een"belangrijk"platform"voor"de" discussie,"verspreiding"en"reflectie"op"culturele"ontwikkelingen—vormen"aldus"een" waardevolle"bron"voor"het"onderzoek"naar"de"impliciete"waardensystemen"die" betekenis"geven"aan"muziekpraktijken." " Het"laatste"hoofdstuk"omvat"een"studie"naar"de"invloed"van"structurele"subsidiering"van" de"kunsten"op"(de"representatie"van)"muzikale"uitvoeringen"en"op"de"ontwikkeling"van" de"notie"van"geïmproviseerde"muziek"als"een"typisch"Nederlandse"muziek."Dit"wordt" onderzocht"aan"de"hand"van"een"meerzijdige"analyse"en"closeHreading"van"de"Zeeland- Suite"(1977),"een"van"de"meest"roemruchte"uitvoeringen"in"de"geschiedenis"van"de" Nederlandse"geïmproviseerde"muziek"en"mede"interessant"vanwege"het"gebruik"van" culturele"symboliek"en"nationale"representaties"in"zowel"uitvoering"als"receptie."Een" deconstructie"van"de"productie,"uitvoering"en"representatie"van"de"suite"laat"zien"hoe" vernieuwingen"in"het"subsidiebestel"invloed"had"op"zowel"muzikale"als"organisatorische" ontwikkelingen"binnen"de"Nederlandse"geïmproviseerde"muziek."Verder"onderzoek" naar"de"suite"in"relatie"tot"culturele"symbolen"die"de"regionale"culturele"identiteit"van" Zeeland"vertegenwoordigen"(o.a."“Luctor"et"emergo”"en"de"Deltawerken)"laat"bovendien" zien"hoe"muziek"als"een"drager"van"culturele"betekenissen"inzicht"geeft"in"de"constructie"

222" " van"culturele"identiteiten."Als"zodanig"geeft"dit"hoofdstuk"inzicht"in"de"verwevenheid" van"de"kunsten,"media"representatie"en"politiek"en"de"ontwikkeling"van"het"idee"van"een" Nederlandse"identiteit"in"jazz." "

223" "