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The Aesthetics of Precision: Environmental Management and Technique in the Architecture of Enclosure, 1946-1986 Alexandra Quantrill Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy under the Executive Committee of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Columbia University 2017 © 2017 Alexandra Quantrill All rights reserved Abstract The Aesthetics of Precision: Environmental Management and Technique in the Architecture of Enclosure, 1946-1986 Alexandra Quantrill This dissertation explores the paradox of precision in postwar architecture, when dissonant aesthetic desires and concerns regarding environmental regulation forced a reconciliation of material techniques with theoretical accuracy. The modern ideal of exactitude was frequently at odds with the divergent processes of building research, engineering, manufacturing, and environmental management. Suspended within the strata of newly developed curtain walls was a suddenly critical technical and architectural problem: how to achieve the kind of modulated environment implied by the highly regulated lines and taut materiality of the glazed envelope. Unlike outwardly legible structural systems, typically celebrated as modernism’s heroic force, techniques of enclosure defined modern interior atmospheres. Precision was key to demarcating the interior environment, and architects relied upon the burgeoning building products industry for research on the most advanced techniques in glazing, component assembly, solar control, sealants, air-conditioning systems, and weathering protection. The dissertation is structured as four case studies of enclosure details from buildings accommodating diplomacy, industrial production, risk management, and global financial operations: the United Nations Secretariat building (1952), two factory buildings for the Cummins Engine Company (1966 and 1975), the headquarters of insurance broker Willis, Faber & Dumas (1975), and the headquarters of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (1986). While the research centers on fragments of much larger building projects, the analysis of particular enclosures unfolds to address the spatial reverberations of progressive societal shifts over the period, from internationalized conceptions of architecture and statecraft following the Second World War, through western corporate growth and global expansion during the 1960s and 1970s, to the emergence of a neoliberal economic regime inflecting the formation of corporate space during the 1970s and 1980s. The details scrutinized here delineate interiors that operate as microcosms mirroring global social and economic circumstances. Table of Contents List of Figures ii Introduction: Building Fragments: Technology in Architecture and Architecture in Technology 1 Chapter 1: A World Contained: The United Nations Secretariat, Technical Research, and the Curtain Wall, 1946-1953 26 1.1 Envelope as Experiment 36 1.2 Technical Error: An Exercise in Precision Redefined 44 1.3 The Institutionalization of Building Research 56 1.4 “Climate à la Carte” 63 1.5 Fragmentation and the New World Order 70 Chapter 2: An Environment for Industry: The Cummins Engine Company and the Commercial-Philanthropic Sphere, 1963-1975 78 2.1 Cummins Darlington: an Instrument of International Expansion 81 2.2 An Exported Prototype 93 2.3 Cummins Walesboro: Materialized Transparency 99 2.4 The Corporation, c. 1970s 103 2.5 Industry, Labor, and Environment 113 2.6 Smallness and Bigness, Microcosms and Megamarkets 120 Chapter 3: Nothing but Glass, Glue, and Conditioned Air: Precision and Emptiness at the Willis Faber & Dumas Headquarters, 1971-1975 139 3.1 Glass, Glue, Thin Skin, and Deep Space 147 3.2 Prototypes, Constraints, and Obstacles 155 3.3 Energy, Production, and a Critical Path 163 3.4 Outside Awareness 168 3.5 “The Case for Air-Conditioning” 172 3.6 Bubbles of Productivity 181 Chapter 4: The Value of Enclosure: Environmental Performance and Commercial Viability at the HSBC Headquarters, 1979-1986 196 4.1 Quantifying Performance 211 4.2 Precision Contrived: From the Lab to the Field 220 4.3 Between the Window and the Screen 228 4.4 “Seeing the Rocks on the Hills” 237 4.5 Productivity and Environmental Management 245 4.6 Value and Image at the Bank 254 Conclusion: Enclosure in an Environment of Uncertainty 262 Bibliography 269 Figures 289 i List of Figures Introduction: Building Fragments: Technology in Architecture and Architecture in Technology Fig. 0.1: “Measure,” Architectural Forum (Nov. 1948), cover. Fig. 0.2: “Enclosure: the building shell has become a filter between exterior and interior environments rather than a simple barrier.” “Measure,” Architectural Forum (Nov. 1948), 134-135. Chapter 1: A World Contained: The United Nations Secretariat and the Invention of the Curtain Wall, 1946-1953 Fig. 1.1. General Bronze advertisement. Progressive Architecture (June 1950), 19. Fig. 1.2. “U.S.A. la conception technique du secrétariat de l’O.N.U. à New-York,” Techniques et architecture 10, 3-4 (1951), 49. Fig. 1.3. “U.S.A. la conception technique du secrétariat de l’O.N.U. à New-York,” Techniques et architecture 10, 3-4 (1951), 50. Fig. 1.4. Rendering of United Nations Permanent Headquarters by Hugh Ferris. View looking South, toward the main entrance of the General Assembly Hall. In the background is the 40-story Secretariat building. 18 September, 1947. United Nations, Flushing Meadows, New York. Photo # 36640. United Nations Archives: http://www.unmultimedia.org/s/photo/detail/366/0036640.html. Fig. 1.5. Diagram showing natural light penetrating depth of office space in Secretariat building. “Resume of Remarks Made by the Director of Planning,” Second Meeting of the Ad Hoc Committee on the United Nations Headquarters, Sept, 26, 1947, p.7. Max Abramovitz Architectural Records and Papers Collection. Drawings and Archives, Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University, New York, NY. Series V, United Nations. United Nations: Meeting Minutes, 1947-1948. Box15, Folder 5. Fig. 1.6. Diagram of corner construction for Secretariat building. Paul Pippin, A Design Assignment: Preliminary Design Study Models for the Façade of the United Nations Secretariat Building, N.Y.C (Bethel, CT: Routledge Books, 1996), 6. Fig. 1.7. Secretariat facade corner, in Arthur Drexler, “Post-war Architecture,” in Built in USA: Post-war Architecture, edited by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Arthur Drexler (New York: Museum of Modern Art, Distributed by Simon & Schuster, 1952), 24. Fig. 1.8. Study model 1. Paul Pippin, A Design Assignment: Preliminary Design Study Models for the Façade of the United Nations Secretariat Building, N.Y.C. (Bethel, CT: Routledge Books, 1996), 23. ii Fig. 1.9. Study model 4. Paul Pippin, A Design Assignment: Preliminary Design Study Models for the Façade of the United Nations Secretariat Building, N.Y.C. (Bethel, CT: Routledge Books, 1996), 29. Fig. 1.10. Study model 8. Paul Pippin, A Design Assignment: Preliminary Design Study Models for the Façade of the United Nations Secretariat Building, N.Y.C. (Bethel, CT: Routledge Books, 1996), 37. Fig. 1.11. Study model 13. Paul Pippin, A Design Assignment: Preliminary Design Study Models for the Façade of the United Nations Secretariat Building, N.Y.C. (Bethel, CT: Routledge Books, 1996), 47. Fig. 1.12. Study model 15. Paul Pippin, A Design Assignment: Preliminary Design Study Models for the Façade of the United Nations Secretariat Building, N.Y.C. (Bethel, CT: Routledge Books, 1996), 51. Fig. 1.13. Façade detail model. A. Paul Pippin, A Design Assignment: Preliminary Design Study Models for the Façade of the United Nations Secretariat Building, N.Y.C. (Bethel, CT: Routledge Books, 1996), 59. Fig. 1.14. Façade detail model B, the basis for the full-scale mockup. Paul Pippin, A Design Assignment: Preliminary Design Study Models for the Façade of the United Nations Secretariat Building, N.Y.C. (Bethel, CT: Routledge Books, 1996), 61. Fig. 1.15. Secretariat west facade. “The Secretariat, a Campanile, a Cliff of Glass, a Great Debate,” The Magazine of Building (Architectural Forum) (Nov. 1950), 93. Fig. 1.16. Plan section of mullion detail. Drawing Sheet A-113, “Typical Window Details,” dated Sept. 27, 1948, United Nations Archives. Fig. 1.17. Elevation and section showing window and spandrel composition. Drawing Sheet A-113, “Typical Window Details,” dated Sept. 27, 1948, United Nations Archives. Fig. 1.18. Section detail. Drawing Sheet A-113, “Typical Window Details,” dated Sept. 27, 1948, United Nations Archives. Fig. 1.19. Revised details of mullion supports. Drawing Sheet R-A-6, “Mullion Supports and Spandrel Details, Revision to A-113,” dated Oct. 25, 1948, United Nations Archives. Fig. 1.20. Revised section detail showing added weepholes at spandrels. Drawing Sheet RA- 6, “Mullion Supports and Spandrel Details, Revision to A-113,” dated Oct. 25, 1948, United Nations Archives. Fig. 1.21. Lou R. Crandall, George A. Fuller Company: War and Peace 1940-1947 (New York: The George A. Fuller Company, 1947): inside cover. Fig. 1.22. View down east façade, Oct. 20, 1949. United Nations Archives, S-0547-0091. iii Fig. 1.23. West façade, Oct. 20, 1949. United Nations Archives, S-0547-0091. Fig. 1.24. West façade, Nov. 21, 1949. United Nations Archives, S-0547-0091. Fig. 1.25. “Beating the Leaks in a Glass and Metal Wall Like the U.N.’s,” The Magazine of Building (Architectural Forum) 95, June 1951. Fig. 1.26. Wind pressure diagram. “Beating the Leaks in a Glass and Metal Wall Like the U.N.’s.” The