International Journal for Innovation Education and Research

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INNOVATION EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

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Volume- 4 Number- 5

May Edition International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-5, 2016 About the Journal

Name: International Journal for Innovation Education and Research

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Edition: May 2016

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Editorial

Dear authors, reviewers, and readers

It has been a month since I was given the privilege to serve as the Chief Editor of the International Journal for Innovation Education and Research (IJIER). It is a great pleasure for me to shoulder this duty and to welcome you to THE VOL-4, ISSUE-5 of IJIER which is scheduled to be published on 31st May 2016.

International Journal for Innovation Education and Research (IJIER) is an open access, peer-reviewed and refereed multidisciplinary journal which is published by the International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher (IERFP). IJIER aims to promote academic interchange and attempts to sustain a closer cooperation among academics, researchers, policy makers and practitioners from a wide range of disciplines, which contribute to state of the art in science, education, and humanities. It provides a forum for the exchange of information in the fields mentioned above by welcoming original research papers, survey papers, and work-in-progress reports on promising developments, case studies, and best practice papers. The journal will continue to publish high-quality papers and will also ensure that the published papers achieve broad international credibility. The Chief Editor, appointed by the Associate Editors and the Editorial Board, is in charge for every task for publication and other editorial issues related to the Journal. All submitted manuscripts are first screensed by the editorial board. Those papers judged by the editors to be of insufficient general interest or otherwise inappropriate are rejected promptly without external review. Those papers that seem most likely to meet our editorial criteria are sent to experts for formal review, typically to one reviewer, but sometimes more if special advice is needed. The chief editor and the editors then make a decision based on the reviewers' advice. We wish to encourage more contributions from the scientific community to ensure a continued success of the journal. We also welcome comments and suggestions that could improve the quality of the journal.

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Thanks, Dr Eleni Griva Ass. Professor of Applied Linguistics Department of Primary Education University of Western Macedonia- Greece Email: [email protected]

Paper ID Title Page 536 STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF MENTAL DISORDERS IN CENTRAL HOSPITAL, 1-10 WARRI TOOL FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING SERVICE Authors: OGHIAGBEPAN A. DANIEL 537 FACTORS IMPACTING THE IMPLEMENTATION GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING 11-25 SERVICES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE OHANGWENA REGION OF NAMIBIA Authors: EMILIA MBONGO, Andrew Möwes, Charles Chata 538 A Critical Analysis of Anti-Islamisation and Anti-immigration Discourse The 26-53 Case of the English Defence League and Britain First Authors: Noha Kader 539 Higher Education Quality Assurance System in New Zealand and Its Implications for 54-67 China Authors: Guang Shi 540 ANALYSIS OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF SHADOW BANKING SYSTEM TO THE 68-84 ECONOMIC GROWTH OF WAEMU COUNTRIES THE CASE OF SENEGAL Authors: Mamadou Mbaye 541 Exploration of Mode of Software Service Outsourcing Talents Training Based on 85-91 School-Enterprise Cooperation and Engineering Education Authors: Chuang-Wei Wang, Ke-Ming Tang 542 Not All Are Created Equal An Analysis of the Environmental Programs/Departments 92-108 in U.S. Institutions of Higher Education From 1900 Until March 2014 Authors: Aldemaro Romero, Michael Nate 543 Cognitive Study of XHY via Conceptual Integration Theory in English Teaching 109-124 Authors: Jia Wen 544 Effect of Schema Based Instructions on Senior High School Students’ Vocabulary 125-129 Learning Strategies Authors: Lin Cui 545 The Dichotomy of Servant Leadership and Its practicality on the African Continent 130-145 Authors: Peter Mutua Mutia, SOLOMON MUTHAMIA 546 From Clinical Practice to Nursing Education Using Old Skills in a New Way 146-150 Authors: Kaitrin Parris, Jacqueline Ann Moss 547 The Effect of Simulation based Training on Medical Students’ Perceptions, 151-165 Knowledge, and Skill at Baseline and 6 month Follow up Authors: Cameron Garth Shultz, James M Cooke, Keri L Denay, Mikel Llanes, Philip Zazove, Scott A Kelley 549 Implementing Short-Format Podcasts for Preview on Mathematics Self-efficacy and 166-182 Mathematical Achievement in Undergraduate Mathematics Authors: Minsu Kim 548 Research on Evaluation of the Under-achievers in College English Learning 183-188 Authors: Zhang Jing

STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF MENTAL DISORDERS IN CENTRAL HOSPITAL, WARRI: A TOOL FOR GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING SERVICE

OGHIAGBEPAN A. DANIEL Mail Dept. Of educational psychology College of education, warri delta state Nigeria

Abstract This paper clinically analysizes the cases of mental disorder in Warri and its ‘environs as recorded in the central hospital Warri and its environs. A population of 159 recorded cases including adult males, females and children were used for the study. Two research hypothesis and three research question were formulated and the instruments of data collection were interview and observation. The result shows that there is an increase in the prevalence of mental disorders in Warri and its environs with women experiencing more mental disorders than men. Similarly, same types of mental disorder are more prevalent than others in Warri and its environs. Strategies such as a holistic approach by mental health professionals, government adequate intervention in mental health care are recommended as improvement strategies in the mental health care delivery system in Nigeria.

Keywords: Mental disorder, prevalence, psychiatrist, psychiatric nurses, psychologists, counsellors, treatment, improvement strategies.

Introduction The human race has been pre-occupied with explaining and controlling problematic behaviour over the ages. This problematic behaviour have been termed as abnormal behaviour which is being studied and managed by mental health professionals. In the field of psychology, the concept of mental health falls within the realm of clinical psychology which is a specialized field of psychology that studies the ethiology, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment models of abnormal behaviour. Thus, the clinical psychologist, the psychiatrist, psychiatric nurse, psychotherapist, counsellors and social worker, constitute what. Is now known as mental health professionals. They complement each other in providing help to those suffering from mental illness (disorders) in societies. Most students of psychology are mostly captivated by topics in abnormal psychology as they learn firsthand on behavioural issues affecting them, their relatives and friends. (Collins, 2007) stated that “students are eager to learn why some people including (university) college young people would develop

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 1 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 symptoms of mental illness. They showed interest in the different types of pathology and how treatment by counselors and other mental health professional could bring improvement and sometimes failed. He concluded that occasionally, a whole class would visit a local mental hospital and spend a week-end interacting with the patients and staff, learning firsthand about the struggles of people who were mentally ill. Mental disorders have a long history worldwide, beginning from its earlier recognition in the 6th century B.C in Egypt with references to senile dementia, melancholia and hysteria (Collins, 2007), to its present state of classification. Causes and symptoms of mental disorders have been identified over the years and efforts to understand and control these abnormal behaviour have always been derived from the prevailing theories and models of behaviour at the time (Barlow and Durand, 1995 cited in Ademola (2002). Thus mental disorder have been diagnosed and treated through the supernatural models (belief in demons witchcrafts, evil spirits, moon and stars etc) as the causes of mental disorder), to biological-medical models (psychological and behavioural and scientific approaches to the understanding of mental disorders). Collins, (2007) asserts that treatment, approaches to mental disorders have changed overtime with the development of psycho pharmaceutical drugs, psychological and behaviour therapies of mental disorders is best understood from pre-colonial traditional health care system to the scientific health care system (Asabor, 2006). He also asserts that the scientific approach to the care for the mentally ill had its first light in 1950 through psychiatry and psychiatric nursing, with an added impetus in 1954 with the establishment of the Aro mental hospital Abeokuta by Professor T.A. Lambo. Interest on mental disorder in Nigeria is also influenced from family members, friends, relatives and organizations that have either experienced or are experiencing one form of disorder or another. What is mental disorder? There has been varying definitions on mental disorder, this paper however adopts that of (Widiger and Trull, 1991) cited in (coon, 2000) who defined mental disorder as a significant impairment in the psychological functioning of a person. This implies that there is a measure of alteration or distortion in the mental and physical operations of the person suffering from a mental disorder (Okoro and Ikekhua, 2008). It is important to mention here that a number of terms are often used as synonyms for psychological disorder and they include abnormal behaviour, abnormality, mental disorder and mental illness (Barlow and Durrand, 1995 cited in Ademola (2002). This paper however discusses the term mental disorder. Mental disorders are not the same and researches have proved that mental illnesses are of different type and different severity (Asabor, 2006). Several types of mental disorders have been identified and classified into different categories. One of the widely recognized and acceptable scientific classification, is the diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM) of the American psychiatric Association, which is in its fourth edition otherwise called DSM-IV (APA, 1994). The DSM-IV publication classifies and categories mental disorders into five domains known as axes (Collins, 2007). It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss in details the categories of these mental disorders, but the researchers’ presents an overview of some them of occurring in Warri and its environs and environs as recorded cases as shown below. It is from within these recorded cases that the researchers choose eight for clinical analysis in the Central Hospital, Warri and its environs.

Types of Mental Disorder Cases in Central Hospital Warri and its Environs. (1) Agitated depression (2) Schizophrenia (3) Mania (4). Affective Disorder (5) Bipolar affective disorder (6) Organic Brain Syndrome (7) Puerperal psychoses (8) Depression (9) Anxiety (10) Suicidal Attempt (11) Epilepsy (12) Relapsed psychoses (13) Acute psychoses (14) Fibril Psychoses (15) Childhood disorders (16) Drug Abuse disorder (17) Dementia

However, the researcher would like to explain some of these briefly: 1. Schizophrenia: This is a serious mental disorder characterized by loss of contact with reality (psychosis), hallucinations, delusions (false beliefs) abnormal thinking, and disrupted work and social functioning (Townsend, 2002 Chapman, 2005, Igharosa and Uruejoma, 2013). From this definition, it is obvious that schizophrenia is the illness with symptoms corresponding most closely to the popular conception of madness. For the purpose of this paper, the researcher propose that schizophrenia is a group of related serious mental disorders, characterized with evidence of split mind (for example, impairment of willing, feeling and awareness abilities to mention a few), and evidence of loss of contact with reality. 2. Mania: This is a mental illness characterized by excessive physical activity and feelings of extreme elation that are grossly out of proportion to any positive event. This definition gives a picture of what may be referred to as psychological scale”, this is an abstract device by which an individual state of mood can be measured by observing the ‘look’ and activity of the individual (Olumuyisva and Akin, 2005; Adreason, Nancy, Donald and Black, 2006 and Bhatia, 2010). 3. Depression: This is another pole of mood disorder, the other one is mania. Depression is an important psychiatric illness, characterized by prolonged state of sadness with accompanying features of dejection and loss of value for living. An episode of depression typically last between 6 and 9 months with mild degree in the beginning and at the ending of the episode. Some cases can last up to two years. Episodes of depression can recur for several times during life. Although the causes

(aetiology) of depression is not fully understood; the following factors are associated with the cause: genetic factor, endocrine factor, infection, surgery and accident, bereavement, electrolyte imbalance and personality type (Asabor, 2006, Odebunmi. 2008 and Osadolor. 2008). 4. Epilepsy: It is a paroxysmal (sudden attack) and transitory (reoccurrence) disturbance of brain function causing characteristic abnormal electrical discharge which result in the disturbance of movement, feeling or consciousness. It is commoner in infancy, childhood and adolescence. It is caused by the following: hereditary, brain trauma or injury especially during childbirth, cerebral tumor, infection i.e. meningitis, syphilis etc; metabolic disturbance for example Hypoglycaemia, brain disease like cerebral arteriosclerosis, sudden withdrawal of certain drugs like anti convulsants, the cause could be unknown (idiopathic). The epileptic personality is aggressive, impulsive, moody, egocentric, self righteous and may be extremely religious. There are five (5) types of epilepsy namely: Grand mal major epilepsy, petil mal or minor epilepsy, Temporal lobe or psychomotor seizures, focal or Jacksonia epilepsy and status epilepticus (Igharosa and Uruejoma, 2013:103).

Research Questions and Hypothesis The researcher proposed five research question/hypotheses to guide us in the research.

Research Hypothesis 1. There is an increase in-the prevalence rate of mental disorders in Warri and its environs on a yearly basis. 2. Men are likely to suffer more from mental disorders than women in the environment.

Research Questions 3. Are some types of mental disorder more common than others in the environment? 4. Do children also suffer from mental disorders in the Warri and its environs environment? 5. What are the treatment approaches available in treating mental disorders in Warri and its environs and its environs?

The Problem There tend to be limited information and empirical data on mental disorders in Nigeria and Warri and its environs in particular. This dearth of information could be influenced by the traditional and religious beliefs of the people in the area in providing information about the mentally ill by relatives or loved ones for fear of being stigmatized or labeled. This enables them to hoard such vital information from researchers, except when the patient in taking to the hospital. This research is therefore clinically based in Warri and its environs to determine the prevalence rate of mental disorders in Warri and its environs and its environs, me types of mental disorder occurring in Warri and its environs, the most prevailing types and the treatment options available at the central hospital Warri and its environs. The researchers acknowledges the fact that family, members and friends do resort to traditional healing homes as well as seek spiritual healing for the mentally ill, therefore another problem of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 4 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 research is to generate empirically based data from the central hospital Warri and its environs, which is the only government hospital with a psychiatric until that handles mental disorders in area. The research covers a four year period, 2010-2013.

Methodology The research is a descriptive survey, which clinically analyses the type of mental disorders in Warri and its environs. The descriptive survey helps to answer the research questions and hypothesis without testing them statistically. The researcher stated his mission to the hospital unit and was granted interview and access to information. The instruments for data collection are case history, observation and interviews from the psychiatric unit of the Central Hospital Warri and its environs within the period of study 2010-2013. The data contains types of mental disorders, number of Adult males, female and children. The data also contains number of admitted cases during the period under review as well as treatment models. The population for the study involved recorded sample size of 226 patients, 33 observed patients and three interviewed staff which consists of 1 medical doctor (psychiatrist) and 2 psychiatric nurses (matrons).

The interview questions, include the following: 1. How many psychiatric doctors and Purses do you have in the psychiatric unit of the hospital? 2. Do you think the number is adequate when compared to the number of cases handled by the unit? 3. Can you give an estimate of the number of cases handled by this unit on a daily or weekly basis? 4. What are the different types of mental disorders the unit handles? 5. Is there other governmental hospital around Warri and its environs that handles mental disorder cases? 6. Do you think the number of cases you handle in this hospital is a true representation of the number of mental, disorder cases occurring in Warri and its environs and its environs? Give reasons. 7. How do you gather information about your patients? 8. What methods of diagnosis do you use to diagnose your patients? 9. Are there other group of mental health professionals in tile hospital? 10. What are the treatment models you offer in the hospital? Their responses were recorded.

Data Presentation/Analysis 1 2011 2012 2013 2010 S/n Types of Disorders Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Total 1. Agitated 3 10 1 5 1 2 2 1 24 depression 2. Schizophrenia - 3 5 2 5 2 5 3 25

3. Mania 6 C 5 8 10 5 6 12 64 10 2 4. Affective disorder - 4 2 3 4 5 3 1 21

5. Bipolar disorder - - 3 C 6 3 12 8 35 2 1 6. Organic Brain 3 1 1 1 2 2 5 2 17 disorder 7. Depression 4 8 2 6 3 5 2 10 10

Total 16 C 18 C 31 24 35 36 22

36 2 27 1 Grand total 52 45 55 71 226 C2 C1 Source: Psychiatric Unit of Central Hospital, Warri and its environs-Delta State, Nigeria

Result The researchers investigated even types of disorder occurring in Warri and its environs from 2010-2013 and choose the (first three highest disorders and gender to answer our research hypothesis. From the data presentation in the table above, the result shows that in 2010 a total of 16 males and 36 females suffered from various form of mental disorder with mania being the most prevalent with 6 males and 10 females and 2 children followed by agitated depression with 3 males and 10 females, next was organic brain disorder with 3 males and 1 female and mild depression with 4 males and 8 females. In 2011, a total of 46 persons suffered from mental disorders with mania prevailing more with 5 males and 8 females, affective disorder with 2 males and 3 females, Bipolar disorder with 3 males, 2 females and 1 child followed by schizophrenia with 5 males and 2 females. The year 2012 recorded a total of 55 persons with mental disorders. Again mania had the highest rate of 10 males and 5 females, Bipolar 6 males and 3 females. Schizophrenia had 5 males and 2 females; affective disorder had 4 males and 5 females; organic Brain disorder had 2 males and 2 females and finally mild depression 3 males and 3 females. In 2013, 71 persons suffered from mental disorders and bipolar disorders prevailed more with 12 males and 8 females, followed by mania with 6 males and 12 females; Schizophrenia had 5 males and 3 females; others include: Organic brain disorder with 5 males and 12 females; mild depression with 2 males and 10 females and the last Agitated depression had 2 males and 1 female. Similarly, the result shows mania disorder occurred 64 times in four years of representing 28.32% of the disorder in Warri and its environs. Bipolar disorder occurred 35 times representing 15.4% and Schizophrenia occurred 25times representing 11.06%; others include: mild depression occurred 40 times representing 17.70%; Agitated depression occurred 24 times representing 10.62%; affective disorder occurred 21 times representing 9.29% and finally, Organic Brain disorder occurred 17 times representing 7.52% using the percentage computation of: No. of occurrence x 100 e.g. 64 x 100 = 28.32% Total No. of occurrence 226 Findings/Discussion From my research result, it was found that all the mental disorder cases investigated by the researcher, exists in Warri and its environs and its environs as the researcher was able to interact with some nurses and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 6 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 doctors there. Similarly, the result indicate a progressive annual increase in mental disorders in Warri and its environs and its environs as the researcher recorded 52 cases in 2010,45 cases in 2011,55 cases in 2012 and 71 cases in 2013. This finding thus confirms the researchers’ first hypothesis that there is a steady increase in the prevalence rate of mental disorders in Warri and its environs and its environs. However, the rate of increase is low. From the data analysis the researcher found that between 2010-2013 a total of 100 males suffered from mental disorder while a total of 123 females suffered from disorder in Warri and its environs and its environs. This however, does not, confirm the researcher’s hypothesis that men are likely to suffer more mental disorder than women, as it was only in 5 that men prevailed more. The researcher thus rejects the hypothesis from the research findings. To answer first research question, the result indicates that mania, bipolar and schizophienic disorders in that’ order, are more common or prevalent in Warri and its environs than other disorders indicated in the result 28.3%, 15.49% and 11.06% respectively. The findings of the second research question is of no significant value as only 3 children were recorded to suffer from mental disorder during the period. 2 children suffered from mania in 2010 and another 1 suffered from Bipolar disorder in 2011. From item 10 in my interview, respondents say they use chemotherapy, psychotherapy and Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT), occupational therapy and rehabilitation therapy as treatment models for their patients. This answers my third research question. ‘From these findings, the researcher was able to confirm one hypothesis and reject the second. Similarly, all my research questions were confirmed however with a very insignificant value of my second research question. The method of data collection and analysis could have influenced the findings of the research; the researcher therefore suggests further research to improve on this study.

The responses to some of the interview questions reveal the following: (a). There is only one qualified and trained psychiatric doctor and seven trained psychiatric nurses in the unit in Central Hospital Warri. (b). The number is very inadequate when compared to the number of cases handled by the unit. (c). There is no other governmental hospital handling mental disorder cases in Warri and its environs. (d). Most cases of mental disorders in Warri and its environs and environs are not reported in the hospital for fear of stigmatization and labeling. (e). Information on mental disorders are gotten from family members mostly who are used to collaborate those received from clients. (f). Interview and observation are the methods of diagnosis employed in the unit of Central Hospital, Warri. (g). Apart from psychiatrist and nurses, there are no other mental health professionals like clinical psychologists, social workers, counsellors, to mention hut a few in the hospital apart from auxiliary staffs. The findings thus informed my recommendation for improved mental health care in the area, and Nigeria in general.

Recommended Strategies for Improving Mental Disorder in Warri and its Environs of Delta State The, concept of mental health cannot be handled from a single approach, but a multi-dimensional strategy is required to proffer solution. This calls for a concerted effort from all mental health professionals and stakeholders to render their professional expertise in providing quality mental, health care for mental disorder patients. To achieve this, the researcher is recommending the following strategies. • The government as custodian of health care delivery system in Nigeria, should give priority attention to mental health care both at the local, state and federal levels by providing more mental health care centres and expanding existing ones like that of the Central Hospital Warri and its environs. Adequate equipments and infrastructures should be provided and maintained. • In addition, with the increasing rate of mental disorder in our society, government should employ adequate personnel from mental health professionals including psychiatrists, psychiatric nurses, clinical psychologists, counselors, social workers to render professional services to the mentally ill in our society. This is a holistic approach to mental health delivery in Nigeria. • Mental health professionals should endeavour to deliver quality services, in this aspect of our health care delivery system and thus uphold the ethics of their various professions. This will help to compliment government efforts as service providers. • Another strategy to improving mental health in Nigeria is for mental health professionals to be involved in vigorous research on mental disorders in Nigeria. Various research methods should be adopted in achieving this exercise. • Professionals should pool resources together to embark on vigorous campaign in collaboration with relevant government agencies in educating the citizenry on the need to provide information about the condition of their mental health and the dangers of hoarding such information. They need to be enlightened on the benefits of visiting the hospitals when mental illness arises instead of relying on traditional and spiritual help alone. This can be achieved through seminars and workshops involving local community leaders. • The drug subsidy policy for the mentally ill is already in place, but need to be monitored to avoid abuse as corruption has been identified as one of the bane of the Nigerian society. • A multi-dimensional treatment approach should be vigorously pursued where both drug therapy and psycho-social therapies will be employed in treating the mentally ill. This treatment should not be seen as the exclusive preserve of any one professional. • Knowledge of modern drugs chiorpromazine, theoridiazine, trifloperaxine etc as used in the central Hospital Warri and its environs should be advanced so that every professional should be knowledgeable about current and modern and modern treatment approaches in mental health care. • Rehabilitation therapy which according to Asabor, 2006 is the most important aspect of treatment of a patient but has not been given enough consideration in Nigeria. Government and mental health professionals should explore this therapy to the fullness to improve our mental health care system. • There is a widespread stigma against admitting that one has a mental disorder, and many people who could benefit from treatment do not get it (Collins, 2007). Government should establish a

commission on mental health to deal with such stigma and focus on the idea that mental disorders are real illnesses from which people can recover. • Mental health professionals do often ignore spiritual intervention, but they are very important to people who believe in God and his power to heal. Collins, 2007, posited that some evidence suggests that people with severe mental disorders who have a strong religious faith and who attend religious services are active recipients to spiritual support. They have a greater belief that their problems can be controlled and cured and can therefore be empowered to co-operate with mental health care professionals in adhering to treatment models. The researcher thus recommend, spiritual intervention should be encouraged as an improvement strategy.

Parents and teachers who handle the mentally retarded need counselling in their management of these children. Some of the following counselling services can be rendered: identification of the mentally retarded, guidance in self-help and socialization skills, occupational service, placement service and counselling service to parents and patients. Parents, relatives often are unable to come to grip with the situation of their parents, relatives, children, colleagues, husbands and wives. They see the situation as a calamity and a tragedy. They continue to hope the patient will improve. Some seek unorthodox means to get the patient well through spiritual consultations with traditional medicine, churches, mosques to affect a cure. By the time the patient is referred to the relevant government agencies specialists like psychiatrists, psychologists, counsellors, the patient is totally traumatized emotionally. (Oriaflo, 2005).

Conclusion Mental disorders have become a global concern as the prevalence rate of the general population of schizophrenia has been put at 0-2%. Empirical research is needed to determine the growth rate in Nigeria. To this end, if becomes imperative for all stakeholders including government agencies, mental health professionals, psychiatrists, psychologists, counselling parents and the general public to poor resources together and embark on enlightenment campaign to disable the mind of the unsuspecting public about the myth of mental disorder. Mental health professionals should focus research on various types and sub-types of mental disorders their etiology, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment models as a means of contributing to mental health care delivery system. To lessen the incidence of mental disorders, we must reduce problems in such areas as organic factors, stress and exploitation of various kinds and increase resources in such areas as coping skills, self-esteem and support groups in achieving mental health care delivery system in Nigeria and Warri in particular.

References Ademola, A. (2002). Basic Psychiatric Nursing, 1st Edition, Ile-Ife: Baseg Nigeria Enterprise. Adreason, M.D., Nancy, C., Donald, W. and Black, M.D. (2006). Introductory Textbook of Psychiatry, 4th Ed., Artngton: America Psychiatric Inc., 1000 Wilson Boulevard. American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed), Washington, D.C.

Asabor, P.R. (2005). Introductory Psychiatry and Mental Health, Benin City: True Love Ventures Publishers. Asabor, P.R. (2006). Introductory. Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2nd Edition (Revised and Expanded), Benin-City: True Love Ventures Publishers. Barlow, D.H & Durandi, V.M. (1995). Abnormal Psychology: An Interactive Approach, Pacific Grow Bricks/Cole Publishing Company. Bhatia, M.S. (2010). Short Textbook of Psychiatry, 6th Ed., New Delhi, India: CBS Publishers and Distributors PVT. Ltd. Chapman, J.C. (2005). Psychiatric Complications of Anabolic Steroid Abuse, 2nd edition, London: Hall, R.C. Company. Collins. G.R. (2007). Christian Counselling. A Comprehend Guide, Thomas Nelson Publishers. Coon, D. (2000). Essentials of Psychology. Application and Exploration, New York: Wardsworth. Igharosa, P.E. & Uruejoma, V.P. (2013). Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing, Benin City: Ngema Internathnal Services. Edo-State-Nigeria. Odebunmi, A. (2008). Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention and Management, 1st Edition, Nigeria Limited. Okoro, F.O. & Ikekhua, A.I.O (2008). An Introducing Clinical Psychology, Ughelli: Eregha Publishers. Olurnuyiwa, J.O. & Akin, A.K. (2005). Patient Management Problems in Psychiatry, London: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone Ediburgh. Oraifo. C.O. (2005). “Introduction to Mental Retardation”, In Omiegbe, O. and Omumu, F.C. (Ed.) Elements of Special Education, Agbor: Krisbec Publications. Osadolor, I.O. (2008). Psychiatry and Psychiatric Nursing at a Glance: Revised edition, Benin-City: True Love Ventures Publishers. Edo State-Nigeria. Townsend, M.C. (2002). Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing, 3rd edition, New York: F.A. Davis Company. Uselu Periscope Magazine (2009). Psychiatric Hospital, Uselu, Benin City: Nigeria, 6: 20-23.

FACTORS IMPACTING THE IMPLEMENTATION GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING SERVICES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE OHANGWENA REGION OF NAMIBIA

EMILIA MBONGO Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture Oshikoto Region, Namibia Tel: 264-0811287321 E-mail:[email protected]

Andrew Möwes Faculty of Education, University of Namibia Windhoek, Namibia Tel: 264-0812615557 E-mail:[email protected]

Charles Chata Faculty of Education, University of Namibia Windhoek, Namibia Tel: 264-0813014020 E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The study aimed to establish teacher counsellors’ views on the factors impacting the implementation of guidance and counselling services in the Ohangwena region of Namibia. The study was quantitative in nature and used a non-experimental design that involved a survey. The population of the study comprised of teacher counsellors in all senior secondary schools in Ohangwena region. Data were collected using questionnaires which were administered to a sample of twenty-six (26) teacher counsellors. Teacher counsellors were purposively sampled. The data was analysed by use of descriptive statistics using The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Based on the findings of this study teacher counsellors viewed inadequate training, high teaching loads and time constraints, lack of support given to teacher counsellors and lack of resources and facilities as key factors impacting the successful implementation of school guidance and counselling. It was thus recommended that the training of teacher counsellors in school guidance and counselling be improved, reduced work load for teacher counsellors, better resources and facilities for guidance and counselling, and for teacher counsellors to be supported in order for guidance and counselling to be successfully implemented in schools.

Keywords: Teacher counsellor; School counselling; Guidance; Counselling

1. Introduction There are a growing number of social problems which affect the lives of young people. Competitiveness, bullying, social exclusion, racism, teenage pregnancy, family crises, sibling rivalry, school underachievement, abuse, peer pressure and substance abuse are but a few of the problems that school going children face every day (Bor, Ebner-Landy, Gill and Blade, 2002). The situation in Namibia is further worsened by the HIV and AIDS pandemic, which has left many children orphaned and vulnerable. Many school going children are affected by HIV/AIDS because their parents and relatives suffer from it. All these problems affect children in a negative way, and as a result their academic endeavours are negatively affected. The need for guidance and counselling in schools has become imperative in order to promote the well-being of learners. It is therefore important that school guidance and counselling services are fully functional and available to all learners in all schools to help alleviate the problems that they face. When schools are mainly concerned with delivering an academic curriculum, other aspects of the schools’ role, such as providing personal and social education, tend to be overlooked (Hornby, Hall & Hall, 2003). In addition to intellectual challenges, students encounter personal/social, educational and career challenges that needs to be addressed. School guidance and counselling (SGC) dates a long way back in the world. In the United States of America, where it is thought to have originated, SGC is well established and can be traced back to 1898 (Bor et al. 2002). It has since expanded to other countries in the world. Over the past few years, there has been a significant growth of interest in the field of SGC in Namibia. In 1994, the Ministry of Education and Culture introduced guidance and counselling services to all schools in the country. This was followed by the appointment of school counsellors, called Regional School Counsellors (RSCs), in the then seven educational regions in Namibia. Additional RSCs have since been appointed, with some regions having up to four RSCs. As it became impossible for RSCs to attend to all the learners in their regions, it was decided that some teachers at schools be thoroughly trained in the different counselling skills and were tasked to attend to learners at their respective schools. The RSCs have since then trained teachers in basic counselling skills in all schools in Namibia. Currently, each school in Namibia has at least two teachers trained in basic counselling skills by the RSCs. Counselling Support Groups (CSG) – made up of teacher counsellors – have been established in all primary and secondary schools in Namibia (Chata, 2002). The responsibilities of the CSG, as stated by the Ministry of Education (2005) include: supporting and counselling learners with emotional, behavioural and disciplinary problems; establishing liaison between teachers and learners if problems arise; assisting the school management in dealing with severe cases of misconduct by learners and teachers; and referring learners to other experts and/ people who can help learners in need. According to (Chirese, 2006; DeLuccia-Reinstei, 2009; Egbochukwu, 2008; Eyo,Johua & Esuong, 2009; Fourie, 2010; Gora, Swatzky & Hague, 1992; Maluwa-Banda, 1998; Myrick, 2003; NESE,2007/2009; Vergnani, Frank, Haihambo Ya-Otto & Mushaandja, 2010 and Wamocho, Karagu & Nwoye, 2008) ), there are many factors that hinder effective delivery of guidance and counselling in schools. These include lack of formal training in counselling, lack of time for guidance and counselling, lack of support given to teacher counsellors and lack of resources. It is against this background that this study sought to

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 12 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 undertake an analysis of the challenges facing the implementation of guidance and counselling in secondary schools.

2. METHOD

2.1 Research design The study followed a quantitative approach to research. A non-experimental design that involved a survey was used in the study. A survey research determines and reports the way things are (Gay, et al. 2009). Since the study sought to obtain information about SGC from the teacher counsellors’ perspective, the survey method was deemed appropriate to the study.

2.1.1 Population and sample The research targeted all the teacher counsellors in secondary schools in Ohangwena region. There were at least two teacher counsellors at each of the ten senior secondary schools in the Ohangwena Region, which resulted in 26 participants. The purposive sampling procedure was deemed appropriate, were the total population sampling method was used. Total population sampling is a type of purposive sampling technique where you choose to examine the entire population that have a particular set of characteristics (Lund Research, 2012).

2.1.2 Instrumentation Data were collected using questionnaires. A questionnaire is a written set of questions, usually with a choice of answers, devised for a survey or statistical study (Soanes & Stevenson, 2006). Questionnaires were seen as more objective and appropriate for this study.

2.1.3 Data analysis The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), which is an application that provides statistical analysis of data, was used to analyse the bulk of the teacher counsellors’ responses. Data analysis was carried out using simple percentages. Reporting of the data took the form of frequency tables.

3. RESULTS The main question of the study was to find out teacher counsellors’ views on the factors impacting the successful implementation of guidance and counselling services in secondary schools in Ohangwena region of Namibia. The factors identified were: inadequate training of teacher counsellors in guidance and counselling, high teaching load and time constraints, lack of support given to teacher counsellors and inadequate resources and facilities. The results are presented below.

Training in Guidance and Counselling: There were eight statements in the section on training in counselling. The results are summarized in Table

1. Considering the trend of all the responses it seems as if the teacher counsellors agreed more with statements 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, whereas more teacher counsellors disagreed more with statement 2.

Table 1: Teacher counsellors’ views regarding training in school guidance and Counselling

EXTENT OF AGREEMENT OR STATEMENT DISAGREEMENT WITH STATEMENT Disagree Agree No response

f % f % f % 1. As a teacher counsellor, you feel incompetent 12 46.2 14 53.8 0 0 due to lack of training. 2. The in-service training that Regional School 15 57.7 10 38.5 1 3.8 Counsellors (RSCs) provide is not sufficient in preparing you to become a teacher counsellor that provides effective guidance and counselling to learners. 3. As a teacher counsellor, you are very 7 26.9 19 73.1 0 0 comfortable practising counselling. 4. As a teacher counsellor, you are very 5 19.2 20 76.9 1 3.8 comfortable teaching guidance (Life Skills). 5. Regular in-service training keep Teacher 5 19.2 21 80.8 0 0 Counsellors educated and well informed. 6. You have mastered the skill of counselling and 12 46.2 13 50.0 1 3.8 feel confident counselling learners. 7. Lack of training negatively affects the 3 11.5 23 88.5 0 0 identification of learners’ problems. 8. Periods allocated for guidance (Life Skills) in 4 15.4 21 80.8 1 3.8 the school are not utilised optimally because of inadequately trained teachers.

A Perusal of Table 1 reveals that 88.5% of the teacher counsellors agreed that a lack of training affects the identification of learner’s problems negatively. Of the teacher counsellors 80.8% agreed that regular in-service training keep teacher-counsellors educated and well informed and that the periods allocated for Life Skills were not optimally utilized because of inadequately trained teachers.

In addition to this, 76.9% of the teacher counsellors felt they were comfortable teaching guidance and counselling (Life Skills), while 73.1% of the teacher counsellors felt that they were comfortable practicing counselling. Furthermore 57.7% of the teacher counsellor’s disagreed that the in-service

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 14 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 training that Regional School Counsellors (RSCs) provide is not sufficient in preparing whereas 53.8% of the teacher counsellors felt incompetent due to a lack of training.

Teaching Loads and Time Constraints: In this section there were six statements. The results are summarized in table 2. It appeared that the majority of teacher counsellors agreed more with statements 10, 12 and 14, as opposed to statements 9 and 11, where the majority disagreed more. An equal number of teacher counsellors agreed and disagreed with statement 13.

Table 2: Teacher counsellors’ views on the teaching loads and time constraints EXTENT OF AGREEMENT OR STATEMENT DISAGREEMENT WITH STATEMENT

Disagree Agree No Response

f % f % f % 9. Teacher Counsellors have enough time to 23 88.5 3 11.5 0 0 devote to guidance and counselling. 10. You are stressed because of your teaching 6 23.1 20 76.9 0 0 load combined with counselling load. 11. Provision has been made at your school to 20 76.9 6 19.2 0 0 have a less teaching load to enable teacher counsellors to have time for guidance and counselling. 12. In order for guidance and counselling to be 0 0 26 100 0 0 successful in schools teacher counsellors should be relieved from their other duties. 13. Teacher counsellors should not be involved 13 50.0 13 50.0 0 0 in other extra-mural activities at the school.

14. The heavy teaching load means you cannot 3 11.5 23 88.5 0 0 devote enough time to guidance and counselling.

It is worth noting from table 2 that all teacher counsellors (100%) agreed that for School guidance and counselling to be successful, teacher counsellors should be relieved from other duties. Of the teacher counsellors 88.5% disagreed that teacher counsellors have enough time to devote to guidance and counselling while the same percentage felt that heavy teaching loads leaves them with little time to devote to guidance and counselling. In addition,76.9% of teacher counsellors felt stressed because

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 15 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 of their teaching load combined with the guidance and counselling load and that no provision has been made at schools to allow teacher counsellors to have a smaller teaching load to have enough time for guidance and counselling. Fifty percent of the teacher counsellors agreed and disagreed that they should not be involved in extra-mural activities at their schools.

Lack of Support: There were ten statements in this section. Teacher counsellor’s responses are summarized in table 3. Teacher counsellors seemed to agree more with statements 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, and 24, whereas they disagreed with more with statements 21 and 23.

Table 3: Teacher counsellors’ views on the support they receive EXTENT OF AGREEMENT OR STATEMENT DISAGREEMENT WITH STATEMENT

Disagree Agree No Response

f % f % f % 15. Your principal encourages you and motivates 7 26.9 19 73.1 0 0 you in your work in providing counselling and counselling to learners. 16. Whenever you have difficulty with a learner, 7 26.9 19 73.1 0 0 the school as a whole support you and do not just let you handle the case on your own.

17. The head/s of department/s thinks it is very 3 11.5 23 88.5 0 0 important for teacher counsellors to provide guidance and counselling to learners.

18. The principal takes his responsibility of 8 30.8 18 69.2 0 0 overseeing the implementation of guidance and counselling in the school very seriously.

19. The other teachers do not really understand 13 50 13 50 0 0 and appreciate what guidance and counselling entails and hardly supports teacher counsellors.

20. The community does not understand 7 26.9 19 73.1 0 0 counselling and sometimes see teacher counsellors as people who just want to find out other people’s secrets. 21. The Inspector of Education shows interest in 18 69.2 7 26.9 1 3.8 guidance and counselling issues whenever he/she visits the school. 22. The Regional School Counsellors are quick 11 42.3 14 53.8 1 3.8 to respond and render help when one asks for their help. 23. The Regional School Counsellors are in 19 73.1 5 19.2 2 7.7 constant contact with the school and regularly visit the teacher counsellors. 24. As a teacher counsellor, you are motivated to 12 46.2 14 53.8 0 0 do your work as you do not feel isolated and do not lack support.

An analysis of table 3 shows that 88.5% of the teacher counsellors agreed that that Heads of Departments at schools indicated that it was very important for teacher counsellors to provide guidance and counselling to learners. Of the teacher counsellors 73.1% agreed that they got encouragement from principals in providing guidance and counselling to learners, claimed that when they had difficulties with learners, the school as a whole supported them and did not just let them handle problems on their own and that the communities did not understand counselling and sometimes saw teacher counsellors as people who were just interested in finding out other people’s secrets, while an equal number of the teacher counsellors disagreed that Regional School Counsellors were quick to respond and render help when asked for help. Only 69.2% of the teacher counsellors felt that principals took their responsibilities of overseeing the implementation of guidance and counselling in schools very seriously, while the same number of school counsellors disagreed that Inspectors of Education showed interest in guidance and counselling issues when they visited schools. More than half of the teacher counsellors agreed that teachers did not understand and appreciate what guidance and counselling entailed and hardly supported them; that Regional School Counsellors were quick to respond and render help when asked for help and that teacher counsellors felt motivated to do their work as they did not feel isolated and did not lack support.

RESOURCES AND FACILITIES: There were six statements in this section. The responses are summarized in table 4. Teacher counsellors agreed more with statements 26, 27, 28, and 29. More teacher counsellors seemed to disagree more with statements 25 and 30.

Table 4: Teacher counsellors’ views on resources and facilities

EXTENT OF AGREEMENT OR STATEMENT DISAGREEMENT WITH STATEMENT Disagree Agree No Response f % f % f % 25. There is a room specifically 21 80.8 5 19.2 0 0 allocated for guidance and counselling at the school, where counselling can take place in privacy. 26. The lack of facilities at your 6 23.1 20 76.9 0 0 school affects your delivery of counselling and guidance services to learners. 27. Counselling should take place in a 0 0 26 100 0 0 place where there will be no disruptions and the learner is assured that no one will hear their conversation. 28. Without a private office where 4 15.4 22 84.6 0 0 counselling can take place in privacy, counselling will not be successful and delivery of guidance will be ineffective. 29. The lack of materials in the area 2 7.7 24 92.3 0 0 of guidance at my school affects the delivery of guidance to learners. 30. Learners have access to books, 16 61.5 10 38.5 0 0 pamphlets and handouts that could guide them towards planning for their careers. Judging from table 4 it is worth noting that all the teacher counsellors (100%) agreed that counselling should take place in a place where there will be no disruptions and that the learner is assured that no one will hear the conversation, while 92.3% of the teacher counsellors indicated that the lack of materials in

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 18 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 the area of guidance at their schools affected the delivery of guidance to schools. In addition, 84.6% of the teacher counsellors agreed that without a private office where counselling can take place in privacy, counselling will not be successful and the delivery of guidance will be ineffective. On the other hand, 80.8% of the teacher counsellors disagreed that there is a room specifically allocated for guidance and counselling at the school, where counselling can take place in privacy. Furthermore 76.9% of the teacher counsellors seemed to believe that the lack of facilities at their schools affected their delivery of counselling services to learners while 61.5% of the teacher counsellors disagreed that a lot of learners had access to books, pamphlets and handouts that could guide them towards planning for their careers.

4. DISCUSSION

In this section, the research findings are discussed and interpreted and recommendations are made.

Teacher counsellors’ views on training in guidance and counselling The findings of this study provided evidence that the majority of the teacher counsellors viewed their training in guidance and counselling as inadequate. The results show that more than half of the teacher counsellors indicated that they felt incompetent due to the lack of training in guidance and counselling. A study by Gora, Swatzky and Hague (1992) on school counsellors’ perceptions of their effectiveness, identified inadequate training to handle certain problems as one of the major barriers that counsellors identified as preventing them from adequately meeting the needs of their students. Teacher counsellors in Namibia are generally teachers who were trained and majored in the subjects which they taught. Even though most teachers have done courses in guidance and counselling during their training, these courses might not be enough, as they are mostly introductory courses and merely goes beyond raising awareness.

The negative effects of the lack of training means that teacher counsellors would have difficulties in fulfilling their roles as teacher counsellors at schools, which include supporting and counselling learners with emotional, behavioural and disciplinary problems, establishing liaison between teachers and learners if problems arise, and assisting school managements in dealing with severe cases of misconduct of learners and teachers. This is an impossible and unrealistic burden on these untrained teacher counsellors. The Ministry of Education should thus ensure that persons fulfilling the role of teacher counsellors at schools are adequately and formally trained. Intensifying the guidance and counselling courses at teacher training institutions might improve the situation so that teacher counsellors would not rely so much on the informal training given by the RSCs. The in-service training given by RSCs would then be used to update teacher counsellors on new developments in the field and serve as enrichment programmes. The majority of the teacher counsellors expressed their belief that regular in-service training keeps teacher counsellors educated and well informed. This finding is supported by DeLussia-Reinstei (2009), who stated that regular training keeps school counsellors educated and well informed. Furthermore, Vergnani et al. (2010) indicated that teacher counsellors found the in-service training provided by RSCs helpful and felt that they benefited from it. In-service training aims to give knowledge, skills and attitudes

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 19 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 which will help teacher counsellors be more successful and effective in providing guidance and counselling to learners Half of the teacher counsellors indicated that they had mastered the skills of counselling and felt confident counselling learners. This finding is contrary to research findings by Maluwa-Banda who found that counsellors in Malawian schools were often inadequately prepared for the services they had to offer. This finding is also contrary to what teacher counsellors said in an earlier statement, that they felt in-competent due to lack of training. Training in guidance and counselling would go hand in hand with the teacher counsellors’ mastery of counselling skills. It is however possible that these teacher counsellors have honed their counselling skills through the in-service training provided by the RSCs, and or through practise. The challenge here would be in making sure that the teacher counsellors were providing counselling efficiently. Almost all of the teacher counsellors were in agreement that lack of training negatively affected the identification of learners’ difficulties. This finding is consistent with a study by Gora, Sawatzky and Hague (1992), on the school counsellors’ perceptions of their effectiveness, who identified inadequate training to handle certain problems as one of the major barriers that counsellors identified as preventing them from adequately meeting the needs of students. Identifying a learner with difficulties is the first step in helping such a learner. This could mean that since teacher counsellors would not know how to identify that learners will not receive the support they need to cope with their difficulties. The results further showed that most of the respondents stated that Life Skills lessons were not optimally utilised because of inadequately trained Life Skills teachers. This finding is supported by the National External Schools Evaluation (NESE) reports of 2007 and 2008 reports that stated that the teaching of Life Skills as a subject remained poor in most secondary schools in Namibia. This means that inadequate training in guidance (Life Skills) was one of the reasons why the teaching of Life Skills was poor in many secondary schools. Extensive training of teacher counsellors in Life Skills would also mean improved teaching of the subject in schools. Efforts should thus be made to give teacher counsellors in-service training in Life Skills. Furthermore, institutions of higher learning should look at introducing Life Skills as a major subject in their curriculum.

5.2.2 Discussion of results relating to teaching loads and time constraints. The findings of the study revealed that teacher counsellors did not have enough time to devote to guidance and counselling. Nearly all the teacher counsellors disagreed that they had enough time to devote to guidance and counselling. This finding is in line with findings by Maluwa-Banda (1998) who established that as full-time classroom teachers, school counsellors have little time to provide adequate guidance and counselling to students. This view is further supported by Wamocho, et al. (2008), who argued that guidance and counselling seemed to be squeezed into the existing academic timetable structure, so that it does not interfere with teacher counsellors’ and teachers’ teaching time. This implies a limited time for teacher counsellors to engage with learners in providing them with guidance and counselling. It is fortunate that Life Skills as a subject is provided for within the academic timetable structure, however, the provision of individual guidance and counselling is not fitted in, and it is up to the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 20 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 teacher counsellors to find time for seeing learners. Furthermore, the majority of the teacher counsellors agreed to being stressed because of their teaching load combined with the guidance and counselling load. This finding is supported by Maluwa-Banda (1998) who noted that a large and seemingly impossible caseload causes increased stress for the school counsellor. In line with the above, Fourie (2010) pointed out that teacher counsellors are ordinary teachers with full teaching loads who do the guidance, counselling and support of learners over and above their normal teaching without any incentives. This means that teacher counsellors find their teaching load combined with their counselling load stressful. In any working environment, stress has the potential of having a detrimental effect on the performance and well-being of those affected. Teacher counsellors are no exception, and efforts should be made to reduce their loads to make sure that they have enough time to provide effective guidance and counselling to learners. The results also indicated that no provision has been made at the majority of schools to have less teaching loads to enable teacher counsellors to have enough time to devote to guidance and counselling. As Fourie (2010) stated, teacher counsellors are ordinary teachers with full teaching loads who do the counselling and support of learners over and above their teaching loads. This means that teacher counsellors would struggle to fulfil all their responsibilities of providing guidance and counselling to learners. The school managements should give teacher counsellors few teaching periods to enable them to have adequate time to provide effective guidance and counselling to learners. With regard to the view whether teacher counsellors should be involved in extra-mural activities at schools, half of the teacher counsellors agreed, while the remaining half disagreed with this view. There are cases where the teacher counsellor is also given other responsibilities at the school, such as sports coaching. This adds more responsibilities to an already almost impossible load of teaching and counselling. With too many responsibilities, teacher counsellors risk having their work fall behind, which will give them more pressure to complete all the work. It should thus follow that teacher counsellors should be relieved from other duties in the school, so that they could fully concentrate on providing guidance and counselling to learners.

Lack of support given to teacher counsellors The findings of this study indicate that the majority of the teacher counsellors received support, encouragement and motivation from school principals and heads of departments and teachers in providing guidance and counselling to learners. Both principals and heads of departments play an important role in the implementation of guidance and counselling as they are entrusted with the overall implementation and monitoring of all programmes at schools. They thus have a big role in making sure that SGC programmes are running in schools. For school managers to be able to monitor and see to it that the programme is implemented, they need to know what the guidance and counselling programme entails, what needs to be done and how it needs to be done. Further analysis of the results revealed that the majority of teacher counsellors believed that other teachers did not understand and appreciate what guidance and counselling entailed. As a result, they

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 21 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 hardly supported teacher counsellors. Teachers’ support is important as they help identify learners who need special attention more effectively and efficiently, follow up with advisees regarding academic progress, grade reports, discipline referrals, special concerns and general information (Myrick, 2003). This result implies that teacher counsellors are left to provide guidance and counselling, including identifying learners with difficulties, and other concerns, with very little support from fellow teachers. This would of course make the teacher counsellors’ job difficult as the teachers’ role in the implementation of the guidance and counselling programme is vital. In addition to these roles, it is important for teacher counsellors to work together with teachers. Through working together, a sense of shared responsibility and support is achieved. The data further revealed that slightly more than half of the teacher counsellors indicated that RSCs were quick to respond and help when teacher counsellors asked for help. These findings indicate that RSCs mostly went to schools or only supported teacher counsellors on request from schools. The reason for this could be the high number of schools in the region, compared to the number of RSCs in the region. Ohangwena Region with nearly 250 schools has only three RSCs. This would definitely make it difficult for RSCs to reach most schools, so they would rather concentrate on responding to requests from schools.

Resources and facilities The findings of the study revealed that the majority of the teacher counsellors indicated that there were no rooms specifically allocated for guidance and counselling at their schools. This finding is similar to what Egbochukwu (2008) found in his study on guidance and counselling in schools. He reported that there was a poor supply of guidance and counselling facilities and this influenced the efficiency of the delivery of quality guidance and counselling services in schools. Because teacher counsellors do not have private offices with basic guidance and counselling facilities, it is difficult for them to carry out their duties effectively. This implies that provision of adequate guidance and counselling facilities will influence the effective delivery of quality guidance and counselling services to learners. Therefore, the provision of rooms for guidance and counselling needs to be improved. For guidance and counselling services to be successfully implemented in schools, proper facilities needs to in place. All teacher counsellors agree that counselling should take place in a place where there are no disruptions, and learners can be assured that no one will hear their conversations. In American schools, where school guidance and counselling is effective, schools have adequate resources, equipment and space (Lehr and Sumarah, 2002 in Chirese, 2006). In addition, they have appropriate space within the school settings to adequately provide confidential counselling and consulting services for learners, teachers and parents. Learners need to be assured that what they are discussing with the teacher counsellors is not overheard by anyone. In addition, the physical set up of the room is also important. The aim is to have a place where learners feel safe, are assured of confidentiality and a relaxing space. Furthermore, more teacher counsellors believe that without a private office where counselling can take place in privacy, counselling will not be successful and delivery of guidance will be ineffective. In line

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 22 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 with this finding are Wamocho et. al (2008), who noted that a conducive physical setting is vital in the successful implementation of school guidance and counselling programme. During counselling, learners should be able to discuss their issues freely, without any fear of being overheard. There should thus be appropriate space within the school setting to adequately provide confidential counselling and consulting services for learners. One could thus conclude that physical settings are very important for the successful implementation of guidance and counselling programmes in schools. Further analysis of the results shows that an overwhelming majority of teacher counsellors agreed that the lack of materials in the area of guidance and counselling at their schools affects the delivery of guidance and counselling to learners. Limited quality teaching materials in the area of guidance affects teacher counsellors’ teaching of the subject. In addition, learners have to rely on the information given by teacher counsellors as there are no added materials for self-study. Materials such as computers for computer assisted career guidance programmes, career choice exploration materials, self-development materials, test taking skills packages and booklets that help learners cope with developmental needs are all very important for the success of SGC (Lehr and Sumarah, 2002, cited in Chirese, 2006). Almost two thirds of the teacher counsellors indicated that a lot of learners do not have access to books, pamphlets and hand outs that could guide them in planning their careers. This is in agreement with Lehr and Sumarah (as cited in Chirese, 2006) who indicated that materials such as computers for computer assisted career guidance programmes, career choice exploration materials, self-development materials, test taking skills packages and booklets that help learners cope with developmental needs are all important for SGC services to be effective. The lack of such materials in the schools obviously hinders the implementation of guidance and counselling in schools. It should thus follow that provision of adequate materials for both teacher counsellors and learners should be improved so that guidance and counselling services in schools are successful.

5. CONCLUSION Based on the findings of this study which have been discussed above, the following conclusions are made: . Teacher counsellors were inadequately trained in school guidance and counselling. They depend on the training provided by the RSCs for counselling skills. There is a need for formal training of teacher counsellors. . Teacher counsellors were burdened with too much work, that of teaching and providing guidance and counselling. . The support of Inspectors of Education, school principals and Heads of departments is of paramount importance in the implementation of SGC. They however lacked knowledge about the programme to allow proper implementation and monitoring. . The study revealed that the teaching of Life Skills remains very poor in secondary schools. . The study also revealed that very few schools have rooms specifically allocated for guidance and counselling. The provision of adequate guidance and counselling facilities influences the effective delivery of quality guidance and counselling services to learners.

. This study established that the current number of RSCs in the region makes it difficult for them to reach out and fully support teacher counsellors because of the size of the region.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made: • Institutions of higher learning should offer qualifications in school guidance and counselling. This would ensure that all teacher counsellors in schools have received formal training in school guidance and training. • It is recommended that the region appoint specific teachers, specifically for guidance and counselling at each school. • Inspectors of Education, principals and head s of departments should all be sensitised in school guidance and counselling so that they can understand and appreciate the value of the guidance and counselling services in schools. Principals and HoDs would then be able to see to it that guidance and counselling programmes are implemented and for them to be able to monitor and render support to teacher counsellors. • The researcher recommends that Life Skills be made a promotional subject, so as to increase the chances of teachers and learners taking it seriously. • It is recommended that teacher counsellor should have an office, located in a place where privacy is possible. The office should have shelves or cabinets where learners’ records and • It is thus recommended that the Ohangwena Region should appoint more RSCs, preferably, one RSC in each circuit. • The following issues need to be considered in future research in the area of school guidance and counselling: This study was done in only one region. There is a need for conducting such a research at national level. In addition, there is need for studies to be carried out to establish the effectiveness of guidance and counselling in secondary schools.

References Bor, R., Ebner-Landy, J., Gill, S. and Brace, C. (2002). Counselling in schools. London: SAGE Publications. Chirese, R. (2006). An assessment of the effectiveness of school guidance and counselling services in zimbabwean secondary schools. Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy dissertation. Cape Town: University of South Africa. Chata, C. C. (2000). The role of Guidance and Counselling in the secondary schools of the Caprivi region as perceived by teachers and teacher-counsellors. Master Thesis: University of Namibia. DeLuccia-Reinstei, R. (2009). What are the main causes of burnout stress for school counsellors? Available from: http://www.ehow.com/facts_5565034_main-burnout-stress-school-counselors.html#ixzz0qoawwsdN (accessed 13 June 2011). Egbochukwu, E. O. (2008). Assessment of the quality of guidance and counselling services

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A Critical Analysis of Anti-Islamisation and Anti-immigration Discourse: The Case of the English Defence League and Britain First

Noha Abdel Kader PhD student Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract This paper examines the discursive strategies employed by two of the far-right movements in the UK, specifically in the English Defence League (EDL) and Britain First, when dealing with immigration and what they term as the “Islamisation of Britain”. The paper will demonstrate how these movements frame their arguments by employing strategies of positive-self and negative-other representation. The analysis will rely on the Discourse Historical Approach (DHA) as a framework for examining the mission statements of both movements in relation to three discursive strategies, namely nomination, predication and argumentation. The analysis will reveal how both movements put themselves forward as defenders of British society and basic liberal values, while negatively portraying “the other” either as a threat to such values or as a burden on Britain’s resources.

Keywords: English Defense League, Britain First, Islamisation, Discourse Historical approach, mission statements, discursive strategies.

1. Introduction The Discourse Historical Approach considers the historical context of a problem and advocates the integration of available knowledge about the historical sources and the background of the social and political fields in which discursive “events” are embedded (Wodak, 2001:65). The discursive construction of immigrants and the issue of the “Islamisation of Britain” will be examined within the mission statements of the British right-wing movements Britain First and the EDL using the DHA (Reisigl & Wodak 2001; Reisigl & Wodak 2009; Wodak 2001). The principal objective of this paper is to lay bare the ideological aims of Britain First and the EDL in the context of their discourse, which, as the DHA will show, relies on the positive representation of “the self” and the negative representation of “the other”. In addition, the DHA will reveal how the nature of the arguments employed by such movements is interdiscursive, emphasising nationalism and identity, while serving to represent immigrants and the Muslim population as “the other”. Brophy et al. (1999) identify a range of conceptual positions that prevail in right-wing1 discourses, the most important of which are racist, homophobic, fascist, and social Darwinist ideologies. They also point

1 Cameron (2001:15) refers to “discourses” in the plural form when he maintains that “reality is “discursively constructed”, made and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 26 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 out that far-right groups aim for respectability by emphasising identity over more explicit inflammatory terms, establishing historical linkages through their use of such ideologies, and explain the transformations that this terminology has undergone in recent years.

The historical dimension in this paper will be examined in two ways, first by historically contextualising the afore-mentioned mission statements as part of right-wing discourses on immigration and the “Islamisation of Britain”. Second, the intertextual and interdiscursive relationship between utterances, texts, genres and discourses will be investigated, i.e., the history of terms and concepts that are used by right-wing movements (Reisigl & Wodak 2009:90).

2. The EDL and Britain First: An historical overview The past decade has witnessed the emergence of an increasingly sophisticated anti-Islamic and anti-immigrant social movement in post-industrial democracies ranging from the USA to Australia and across Western Europe. Explanations of “radical right-wing populism” emerged in the 1990s as scholars of the far right in Western Europe gradually noticed that labels like “fascist”, “neo-fascist” or even necessarily “extremist”, were no longer appropriate designations for new political movements. Not only were “contemporary” parties on the far-right actively distancing themselves from the infamy of fascism and Nazism, they strategically harnessed popular anxieties by advancing populist rhetoric and platforms. These new right-wing populist parties were committed to democratic institutions and ideals, but they disdained political elites and exploited the public’s increasing distrust of mainstream political parties and hostility toward immigrants and non- natives.

Opposition toward immigrants is so embedded within the radical populist right that some scholars see the term “anti-immigration groups” as a more appropriate designation. In the last decade, this notable antagonism towards immigration has been intensified and focused on Muslim immigrants, with the “Muslim question” placing Islam front and center in anti-immigrant platforms and transcending the immigration debate more generally (Pupcenoks & Mccabe 2013: 172). In case of the present paper, the portrayal of immigrants and the “Islamisation of Britain” will be explored within the mission statements of two British right-wing movements, namely the EDL and Britain First.

The EDL was formerly a group known as the “United Peoples of Luton” (UPL) and now presents itself as a social movement promising to defend the English working class from the threats of both the elite-led policies of multiculturalism and the Islamisation of Britain (ibid:175). As for Britain first, it is described as a far-right British nationalist movement comprised of former members of the British National Party (Liang 2007). Both movements claim to defend Britain against policies of multiculturalism and the Islamisation of Britain.

remade as people talk about things using “the discourses” they have access to”. This definition considers discourse as a means of constructing a single version of reality and, will, thus be used throughout the paper.

Hall et al. (1992:298) point out that recently certain biological notions of race have been replaced by cultural definitions that draw on discourses of national belonging and national identity. This suggests that the DHA provides a useful framework for investigating right-wing discourses possibly embedded within a context advocating identity and nationalism, as the DHA assimilates knowledge about “historical sources and the background of the social and political ﬁelds within which discursive events are embedded” (Richardson & Wodak 2009: 255).

3. Data: Mission statements In the world of business, mission statements abound on the walls and halls of the world's leading organizations. They are these appealing phrases and slogans that consist of general statements, claims and conclusions. This type of genre usually stresses values, positive beliefs and guideline principles of the corporation’s belief system and ideology. Very little evidence exists, however, which proves their true value. In fact, most previous studies, have tended to focus almost exclusively on their content (Kissler 1991; Swales 1990). The power of mission statements, nonetheless, derives from the fact that such a genre may be considered a carrier of culture and ideology (Swales& Rogers 1995). In addition, Swales & Rogers note that even though mission statements are institutional, in the hands of powerful luminaries they could become individual, and hence move away from the systems of genres that get things done and fall more under the category of non-routine (ibid:225). As a result, mission statements could become part of the “the recursive processes that produce and reproduce everyday social and institutional customs (Giddens 1979).

In the case of the present paper, the EDL and Britain’s First mission statement could be seen to have a discursive dimension so that even though its discourse emphasises the defense British liberal values, its real aim may be to position Muslims and immigrants as “the other” within the British society. In addition the discursive dimension of the mission statements could be argued as a means to legitimise what could be considered racist practices against immigrants and the Muslim population in Britain where legitimisation is understood as the “widespread acknowledgement of the legitimacy of explanations and justifications of how things are done” (Fairclough 2003: 219).

Racism can be defined as a “complex, multifaceted system which is (re)produced by social practices of dominant groups including their discourses and by shared social representations” (Moscovici 1981: 16). Such social representations, as Van Der Valk (2003:13) explains, “permeate these practices with meaning and thus serve to legitimise social inequality and the daily organisation of dominance”. The author also adds that new racist practices are now legitimised on the basis of the so-called “principal otherness”, so that presumed biological–genetic differences are replaced by differences between cultures, nations or religions (ibid).

De-legitimisation, on the other hand is “the essential counterpart” strategy that serves to detract legitimacy from “the other” by presenting them negatively (Chilton 2004:46). Within the DHA’s framework, these are macro-strategies that utterers use to manage their interests (ibid:78). With this dichotomy, the analysis is

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 28 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 expected to reveal how both movements use strategies of positive-self construction seeking to achieve legitimisation, while discursively delegitimising “the other”, i.e., immigrants and Muslims through negative presentation.

4. Theoretical and Methodological framework: The DHA is a multidisciplinary approach that seeks to “integrate as many as of the genres of discourse referring to a particular issue as possible, as well as the historical dimension of that issue” (Van Leeuwen & Wodak 1999:91). Four dimensions are central to the discourse: 1) historical method; 2) the content of the data; 3) the discursive strategies employed; 4) the linguistic realisations of these contents and strategies (see table 1 below for examples of linguistic srtategies) . All four levels will be covered in the analysis.

The DHA approach is designed for critical analysis and, hence, provides a means for a social critique of texts exhibiting patterns of dominance and inequality (ibid). Its intention then is to clarify the subject under investigation and the analyst’s own position with an aim to explain why certain interpretations of discursive events seem more valid than others (Reisigl &Wodak 2009: 88). In this regard, for the purposes of the present research, the analyst’s position is to problematise the mission statements of Britain First and the EDL to demonstrate the presence of a latent discursive dimension. There is precedent for using the DHA for such a purpose, such as research concentrating on parliamentary discourse (e.g., Der Valk 2003; Wodak & Van Dijk 2000) or political speeches (e.g., Graham et al. 2004). The subject of the present paper will be the groups’ respective mission statements, the analysis of which will show that the discourse used in such statements while emphasising nationalism and the defense of secular values, arguably has its real aim to establish the Muslim population and immigrants and as “the other” within English society. The analysis of that discourse will reveal the discriminatory, anti-immigration sentiment embedded within a context of vows to undertake the defense of Britain’s identity and liberal values.

Reisigl and Wodak ( 2001:93-95) point out five types of discursive strategies2, involved in the positive self- and negative other-presentation. These are: 1) nomination; 2) predication; 3) argumentation; 4) perspectivisation; 5) intensification/mitigation. Due to space restrictions, this research is confined to only three of the strategies, most salient as they occurred most frequently in my analysis, namely nomination, predication and argumentation. Nomination strategies look at how social actors, objects, phenomena and events are named and referred to linguistically; predication examines which characteristics and features are attributed to the actors, objects and phenomena.

Argumentation, on the other hand, is a process used to justify claims of truth and often relies on topoi, i.e., argument schemes, used to connect the premise of an argument to its conclusion. In addition, the analysis will also consider the contextualising of utterances in relation to other discourses, historical contexts and

2 Strategy refers to “a more or less intentional plan of practices (including discourse practices) adopted to achieve a particular social, political, psychological or linguistic aim” (Reisigl & Wodak, 2001: 44).

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 29 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 events, by investigating elements of intertextuality and interdiscursivity as part of the historical facet that is essential to the DHA (ibid:90)

Table 1. Strategies and linguistic devices employed in the DHA Strategy Objectives Devices Nomination discursive construction of • Membership categorization devices, social actors, deictics, anthroponyms, etc. objects/phenomena/ • tropes such as metaphors, metonymies and events and processes/ synecdoches (pars pro toto, totum pro parte) actions • verbs and nouns used to denote processes and actions, etc. Predication discursive qualification of • stereotypical, evaluative attributions of social actors, objects, negative or positive traits (e.g. in the form of phenomena, events/ adjectives, appositions, prepositional processes and actions phrases, relative clauses, conjunctional (more or less positively or clauses, infinitive clauses and participial negatively) clauses or groups) • explicit predicates or predicative nouns/adjectives/pronouns • collocations • explicit comparisons, similes, metaphors and other rhetorical figures (including metonymies, hyperboles, litotes, euphemisms) •allusions, evocations, and presuppositions/implicatures, etc. Argumentation justification and • topoi (formal or more content-related) questioning of claims of • fallacies truth and normative rightness Prescreptivization positioning speaker’s or • deictics writer’s point of view and • direct, indirect or free indirect speech expressing involvement or • quotation marks, discourse markers/ distance particles • metaphors • animating prosody, etc. Intensification/ modifying (intensifying or • diminutives or augmentatives mitigation mitigating) the illocutionary • (modal) particles, tag questions, force and thus the subjunctive, hesitations, vague expressions, epistemic or deontic status etc. of utterances • hyperboles, litotes • indirect speech acts (e.g. question instead of assertion) • verbs of saying, feeling, thinking, etc.

5. Analysis

5.1 Nomination and predication:

Strategies of self- and other-presentation are among those utilised in actor and participant representation (see Van Leeuwen 1996). Ethnic minority actors, for example, can be included or excluded; named or unnamed; negatively or positively portrayed; depicted in homogeneous categories or subdivided and differentiated in speciﬁc groups (ibid). The same holds for the description of in-group actors and participants. The analysis of nomination and predication is thus expected to reveal how variations in actor descriptions, and specifically variation for in-groups and out-groups, may reveal dimensions of the opinions of the speakers or writers in relation to the topic in question.

Starting with the EDL’s mission statement, there are five main social actors that are discursively addressed: 1) “The EDL”; 2) “Islam”; 3) “policy makers/ decision makers/law-enforcement personnel”; 4) “Radicals”; 5) “Muslims/ Muslim community/Muslim Population /British Muslims”. The nomination strategies of social actors include “collectivising” such as with “Muslims”, (Van Leeuwen, 1996:49) using combinations of “Muslim community/population” as clear in the examples below:

1- Radical Islam keeps British Muslims fearful and Isolated… 2- … Intolerance and barbarity that are thriving among certain sections of the Muslim population in Britain…

The use of collectivised terms is intended to imply that all Muslims are the same and belong to a homogenous group (Baker et al., 2013:123). Thus, the strategy of collectivisation could be said to facilitate the creation of generalisations about the designated group.

The mission statements also contains deictic expressions such as “we”, “our” and “they”. Deixis can prompt the perceptual relation of uttered indexical expressions to various situational features (Chilton, 2004:56). The first person plural “we”, for example, can be used to make the perceivers conceptualise group identity as insiders, whereas “they” would designate an outsider (ibid). The pronouns “we” and “our” in this case refer to the “EDL” and “the British”, while “they” or “their” alternates between “Muslims” and “decision/policy-makers” as in the following examples:

1- Although these actions were certainly those of a minority, we believe that they reflect other forms of religiously inspired intolerance… 2- We believe that the opponents of radical Islam have a strong hold on British Muslims. 3- British Muslims should be able to safely demand reform of their religion…It is important that they completely reject the views of those who believe that Islam should be taken in tis “original” t7th century form…

4- …Decision makers are held responsible for their policy- making choices, choices that affect the harmony and security of the nation.

These last, the “decision/policy-makers” or the people responsible for authorising laws, are a one of the types of “other” referred to using terms in discourse analysis called “actionyms”. Actionyms is a category similar to what Van Leeuwen (1996:54) terms as “functionalisation”, referring to social actors by “an activity, in terms of something they do, for instance an occupation or role”. Actionyms can be used in discourse to qualify the role that these actors play as “other”, especially if negatively applied, such as condescendingly to Muslims and immigrants vis-à-vis British citizens as discussed below in terms of predication strategies.

The predication strategies are revealed through attestations of mainly positive traits using participle clauses, which are used to construct the EDL as a movement that protects human rights, promotes democracy and presents a balanced picture of Islam in contrast to what is depicted by the “policy-makers”. The EDL’s role is also seen as having an international dimension as it is depicted as “resisting” what is termed a “global Jihad”, i.e., the global demand for the application of Sharia.

The “they” or the “other group” are qualified in the predicates in negative terms. Policy-makers, to start with, are blamed for making decisions that are meant to serve their own rather than the public’s interests, as well as weakening British culture and values. “Policy-makers” are also negatively qualified as condescending to the Muslim population for fear of being accused of racism.

The “other group” attribution also includes “radicals” and “Muslims” or “British Muslims”, who are negatively evaluated and qualified through undesirable adjectives such as “fearful” and “isolated”. “Muslims” are also linked to negative predicate nouns such as “intolerance”, “barbarity”, “homophobia”, and “antisemitism”. Similarly, “radicals” are attributed a significantly detrimental role since they are said to dominate the Muslim mentality and thus damage Muslim institutions in Britain by causing British Muslims to adopt extreme and hardline views. This process further results in the inability to seclude the radicals.

Moving to the predicate qualification of objects and phenomena, “Sharia law” and “Islam” are negatively described and in stark contrast to Western liberal values through the use of predicative adjectives such as “undemocratic”, predicative nouns such as “a threat to our democracy” and explicit predicates, like “seeks to dominate all non-believers”. British values, on the other hand, are compared to Muslim traditions, the former being liberal but deprived of the right to exist, whereas the latter are described as anti-democratic, yet imposed on the British society. The phenomenon of “Islamisation” is depicted as a process, suggesting a consistent and deliberate insinuation into the British society predicated through the metaphorical “creeping Islamisation of our country”, meaning that Islam is sneaking into British life. In another example, Betz explains (1994: 76) the introduction of Halal meat products into British markets as qualified

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 32 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 through a predicative noun, “an intrusion of the religious into secular society”, a furtive imposition on Britain as far-right movements usually campaign against the introduction of halal meat into European markets.

As for Britain First, the principal social actors that are discursively constructed include: “Britain First”, “Britain”, “Christianity”, “Islam”, “asylum seekers”, “migrants”, “lift-wing policies”, “our people”, “British citizens”, “Christians”, “left-wing policies”. Britain First, is associated with the deictic “we”, the possessive “our” and the reflective “us”. The group that is identified as “they”, on the other hand, includes “foreigners”, “asylum-seekers” and “immigrants”, who are referred to using actionyms, as clear in the examples below:

1- Britian First movement is not just a normal political group, we are a patriotic resistance and “frontline” for our long suffering people. 2- We want our people to come first, before foreigners, asylum seekers or migrants and we are overtly proud of this stance.

As Van Leeuwen (1996:55) notes, using actionyms emphasises the assigned role at the expense of identity. In the case at hand, what is given precedence is not who these people are, but the fact that they come from a different country. As for “the British, they are collectivized as “our people” or British citizens. The collectivisation representing the British as one homogenous group has the opposite effect of the use of the same strategy with Muslims mentioned earlier. The use of this strategy regarding the “Muslims” essentially paves the way for extending negative qualities to the whole group. In this case, signifying the British as a uniform group enables the EDL to claim to speak on behalf of all British citizens of different ages and backgrounds, thus validating its practices on a popular basis. As Van Der Valk (2003:337) points out, in right-wing discourses, legitimacy is asserted on the grounds of claiming to represent the interests of the whole population.

As for predication, it could be suggested that Britain First attains a positive quality predicates like a “patriotic political party”, or a “street defense organisation”, meaning that its concern is the defence of British citizens, history, and traditions. Britain itself is constructed as needful of defence by using adjectives and predicative adjectives like ‘small” and a “densely populated country” and through a prepositional clause “with barely enough space and resources” to sustain large numbers of immigrants.

“Christianity” and “Christians” on the other hand, are pictured as under threat and facing persecution by extreme ideologies. Moreover, Betz & Meret (2009:328) suggest that some right-wing movements assert Christian values and Christian culture in speeches, party programmes and election pamphlets maintaining that Europe will only be able to face the challenge posed by the advance of Islam if it “defends its Christian humanist values and norms”. “Islam”, on the other hand, is negatively represented through the adjective “militant” and is said to be responsible for oppressing human rights. In addition, the effect of Islam on

British citizens is described through explicit predicates rendering the latter as second class or a minority and as “desperately” in need of employment because of increased immigration. As for “asylum-seekers”, “migrants” and “foreigners”, these are qualified as appearing at the expense of British citizens.

Another social actor “left-wing liberal policies” - a metonymic toponym signifying left-wing politicians - is similarly predicated as being responsible for relegating British citizens to a second class. As the analysis clarifies, such politicians are delegitimised by their depiction in a negative role, i.e., encouraging laws and policies in favour of immigrants at the expense of British citizens. Van Der Valk (2003:337) argues that in right-wing discourses “the Left is systematically delegitimized” and is constantly “represented as only motivated on ideological grounds”.

As for the most prominent phenomena discursively constructed, “immigration” and “unemployment” are the biggest actors. Immigration going out of control is constructed as acting as an instrument that places undue burdens on the country’s resources, thus causing many social problems, including unemployment.

As clear from the above, it appears that both movements seek to construct inside and outside groups thorough deixis, and to achieve positive presentation of the “self” and negative presentation of the “other” through relying on various nomination and predication strategies. Such strategies could also be relevant elements of the text’s argumentation structure as will be demonstrated below.

5.2 Argumentation It could be suggested that anti-immigration discourse relies to a great extent on the use of topoi (see, for example; Gabrielatos & Baker 2008; Khosravi Nik 2010; Van Dijk 2000; Wodak and Van Dijk 2000). Topos is an old rhetorical notion referring to “content related warrants which connect premises with conclusions” (Wodak 2001:75). Thus topoi are a type of “stereotypical” arguments based on socially shared opinions generally implying “common sense reasoning schemes” for the sake of persuasion (Van Dijk 2000), where persuasion is defined as “the means of intentionally influencing a person so that she or he adopts, fixes or changes her or his ways of perception, attitudes and views” (Reisigl & Wodak 2009:69). There are a number of topoi that occur frequently in discourse about immigration (see Reisigl & Wodak 2001; Reisigl & Wodak 2009 for a full list of topoi) in the mission statements, the most of which are the topoi of: history; usefulness; threat; authority; responsibility; burdening; and numbers. Table (1) and Table (2) below contain a number of claims as well as the topoi that function to justify such claims. The paraphrasing of the topoi in the table follows that of Reisigl & Wodak (2001: 75-80).

Table 2. Claims and Topoi of the EDL Claims Topoi Claim one: The EDL is founded to struggle Topos of history: Because history teaches that specific actions against Islamic intolerance of Western have specific consequences, one should perform or omit a cultures because history warns us against specific action comparable with the historical example leaving these matters unattended to. referred to. e.g. The world is a dangerous place to live in; not because of the people who are …” Albert Einstein, refugee from Nazi Germany Claim two: Militant Islam is a growing threat, Topos of advantage/usefulness: subtype “pro bono publico” and therefore the EDL, which serves the (to the advantage of all): if an action under a specific relevant interests of British people, will work to point of view will be useful, then one should perform it. combat it. e.g. The EDL will continue to work to protect the inalienable rights of all people… Claim Three: Dangerous and divisive radical Topos of threat (topos of threat of radicalism): Islamic views are prevailing among the Muslim population and Muslim organisations. If there are specific dangers and threats, one should do something against them.

e.g. resentment is already beginning to grow, and could create dangerous divisions…

e.g. Sharia law makes a fundamental distinction between Muslims and non- Muslims… Claim four: Sharia is incompatible with the Topos of authority: principles of democracy and hence it cannot be accommodated within liberal western X is right or X has to be done or X has to be omitted because norms. A (= an authority) says that it is right or that is has to be done or that it has to be omitted.

e.g. The European Court of Human Rights has declared that ‘sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy” Claim five: decision- makers misinform the Topos of responsibility: because a state or a group of persons public to serve their own interest, and hence is responsible for the emergence of specific problems, it or they should be held accountable for this. they should act in order to find solutions of these problems.

e.g. The British political and media establishment have, for a long time, been presenting a very sanitised…view of Islam, shaped by the needs of policy-makers.

Claim six: Law –enforcement personnel Topoi of justice: if persons/actions/situations are equal in hesitate before applying the rules in relation specific respects, they should be treated/ dealt with in the to immigrants for fear of being accused of same way. racism, which is against the simple rules of justice. e.g. Law-enforcement personnel must be able to enforce the rule of law thoroughly without prejudice or fear.

Table 3.Claims and Topoi of Britain First Claims Topoi Claim one: Britain First will serve the Topos of usefulness/advantage :subtype “pro bono publico ” interests of British citizens, combat militant (to the advantage of all): see table three. Islam and advance British traditions. e.g. -Britain First is a patriotic political party… e.g. Britain First has a proven track record of opposing Islamic militants… e.g. We want British history, traditions and to be respected… Claim two: left-wing policies are responsible Topos of responsibility: see table (three above) for advancing the interests of immigrants at e.g. We will not stand back and watch as our people are the expense of British citizens. made second class citizens by left-wing-liberal… Claim three: Christianity is under attack, and Topos of Threat: see table three. Christians face discrimination. e.g. Christianity in Britain is under ferocious assault: many Christians now face discrimination and persecution Claim four: Militant Islam is growing rapidly Topos of threat: and leading to the suppression of human e.g. The rapid growth of militant Islam is leading to the rights. suppression of women,...

Claim five: increased immigration is placing Topos of burdening or weighing down: loads on the country’s resources. If a person, an institution or a “country” is burdened by specific problems, one should act in order to diminish these burdens. e.g. - Immigration is spiralling out of control placing … -Britain is a small, overcrowded, densely … Claim six: A large number of British citizens Topos of numbers: if the numbers prove a specific topos, a are unemployed because of increased specific action should be performed/not be carried out. immigration. e.g. We have millions of British citizens born here who…

As clear from both the tables above, the movements in question utilise the topos of usefulness to persuade the public of the credibility of their actions, i.e., combating militant Islam and also, in Britain first’s case, controlling immigration. To justify their establishment and give credence to their actions, both movements exploit the topos of threat that represents radical Islam as a growing force in Britain that requires fighting back. The EDL further uses the topos of history by citing an example related to the devastating actions of the Nazi regime in World War II to warn about similar precarious consequences from failing to combat extreme ideologies in the present time. This use of topoi generally links to tradition, whereby lessons of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 36 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 earlier times are revived around new issues, based in custom or originating in authoritative sources (Van Der Valk 2003:319). To provide additional validity to its claims about the threat of Islam, the EDL uses the topos of authority, a specific form of legitimisation related to “authorization”, citing the European Court of Human rights that categorises Sharia as “incompatible” with democracy. This is a specific form of “legitimisation by reference to authority” (Van Leeuwen & Wodak, 1999:104).

In addition, Britain First further employs the topoi of burdening, since immigrants are viewed as a burden on the country’s resources, and that of numbers to justify why certain measures should be taken to curb immigration. In addition, both movements make use of the topos of responsibility, which constructs decision-makers as not properly doing their job by siding with foreigners and immigrants at the expense of British citizens. The use of this topos is significant in that it renders political authority inactive. Thus, these movements may legitimise their existence by promising to undertake responsibilities and constructing a positive self-image in contrast with those who otherwise neglect them.

5.3 Intertextuality and interdiscursivity Richardson &Wodak (2009a:255) note that the DHA attempts to contextualise utterances in relation to discourses in social and institutional contexts, as well as socio-political and historical events. Thus, the DHA approaches the intertextual and interdiscursive relationship between utterances, texts, genres and discourses, i.e., the history and intertextual references of terms and concepts that are used (ibid).

Fairclough defines intertextuality as “the property texts have of being full of snatches of other texts, which may be explicitly demarcated or merged in, and which the text may assimilate, contradict, ironically echo, and so forth” ( Fairclough, 1992: 84). Fairclough further notes that intertextuality examines variation in representational processes at different levels of text production leading to the circulation of different discourses (Fairclough, 1995:61). Analysis in an intertextual framework is, thus, is not carried out merely at the linguistic level, but also on the discourse practice level where an analyst examines “the traces of the discourse practice” in a given text (ibid).

Fairclough (1992:85) further distinguishes between two types of intertextuality: manifest intertextuality and constitutive intertextuality. Manifest intertextuality means a text contains other texts explicitly incorporated by means such as quotation marks. Constitutive intertextuality or interdiscursivity, on the other hand, designates texts that can be composed of diverse elements such as discourse types, register, style, etc. (ibid: 104).

Intertextuality means that texts are linked to other texts, both in the past and in the present, which is established in different ways: through explicit reference to a topic or main actor, through references to the same event; by allusions or evocations; or by the transfer of arguments from one text to another (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009:90). If an element is taken out of a specific context, we observe the process of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 37 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 de-contextualization; if the respective element is then inserted into a new context, we witness the process of recontextualization (ibid).

The EDL’s mission statement starts with a clear example of manifest intertextuality where Albert Einstein, identified as a refugee from Nazi Germany, is quoted explaining that the world will remain a dangerous place as long as people refrain from doing something about it. The historical incident of the atrocities of Nazi Germany during World War II could be considered as part of the historical topos (see table 1 above), and thus rhetorically might be intended as persuasion. The attempt to persuade the public of its validity is further asserted through following the quotation with a question, which the EDL assumes people ask with regards to the reason why this movement exists and “what is it all about?” The reader therefore is led to establish a link between the current events and the historical ones and come to the conclusion that the EDL is a movement with patriotic objectives to combat religious extremism that might have similar horrific consequences if left undealt with.

Nonetheless, the choice of this quotation could be considered significant in the context of far-right discourses on Islam and Muslim in Europe. Betz and Meret (2009:320) note that depicting Islam as a totalitarian ideology has become central to right-wing parties and movements in making their case against Western Europe’s Muslim community. They argue that some “have gone so far as to compare Islam to Nazism”, and they also cite examples of European party leaders who compare the Quran (Muslim holy book) to Hitler’s Mein Kampf (ibid).

Another example of intertextuality in the EDL’s mission statement is in its use of the term “apartheid” to designate Sharia’s distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims. This is borrowing a term that came into usage in the 1930s and signified the political policy under which citizens in South Africa were subject to segregation on the basis of race (Falola 2002). The use of “apartheid” in this context represents a case of “recontextualisation” since, as explained above, the term is taken from its original context and inserted into a new one. The term here acquires new meaning, which is segregation on the basis of religion, and is employed to indicate the extreme doctrine practiced under Sharia law compared to the tolerance that the EDL argues should prevail in British society.

On the other hand the movement’s logo 3 (figure 1 below), pictures the cross, a basic symbol of Christianity, and the motto: In hoc signo vinces, meaning “in this sign you will conquer”. This classical Latin slogan was used by Constantine the Great in a battle that marked what is considered a pivotal event in the history of Christianity (see Fisk 2002). Using religious symbols as well as referring to religious incidents is an example of interdiscursivity since it involves intermixing two different types of discourse, religious and political. It has been noted that one of the developments in relation to far-right discourses has been the growing relevance of Christian motifs and themes in the narratives set forth by a substantial

3 Richardson and Wodak (2009b:49) also speak of visual Topoi, with the possibility of images or symbols offering “visual arguments”, i.e., to “advance and defend standpoints”. Accordingly, the logo could be taken as part of the topos of advantage as it highlights Christine motifs to convince readers that it stands for and protects Christian values and traditions as a means of combating the growing threat of radical Islam.

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 38 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 number of European extreme-right parties (Zuquete 2008:324). Pupcenoks & McCabe (2013:174) explain this phenomenon on the grounds that parties on the far right who are said to fuel anti-Islamic sentiment in their discourses call for “a renewal of Europe’s Christian roots” as a means of combatting what they believe as the spread of radical Islam in Europe.

Figure (1)

Similarly, Britain First also makes reference to Christianity, depicting it as a religion under ferocious attack and thus reiterating what could be considered a familiar theme used in right wing discourses as mentioned above. There is also an example of intertextuality represented by its use of the slogan “British jobs for British workers”. Richardson and Wodak (2009a:246) describe such slogans as part of nativist job rhetoric, which could be traced back to anti-Semitic, nationalistic, and fascist ideologies from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This implies that the slogan has been taken out of its original context and has been “recontextualised” to apply to a different group of outsiders. As such, the British worker referenced in such a slogan could be defined on an ethnic basis as “white, and only white…” (ibid).

6. Conclusion: The present paper sought to explicate the discourses employed by some far-right movements, namely the EDL and Britain First in their mission statements on the issue of immigration and what is termed “the Islamisation of Britain”. The analysis was produced by using the DHA to investigate discursive strategies of nomination and predication as well as argumentation.

The DHA approach revealed that the discourse used by both movements appears to be organised by a global strategy of positive self- and negative other-presentation. One discovery is the that negative presentation of the other does not merely involve immigrants and the Muslim population in Britain, but also includes their supposed allies, such as “decision makers” or politicians who advocate leftist policies deemed harmful to the interests of British citizens.

The analysis also revealed several linguistic categories that contribute to the strategy of negative other-presentation such as the use of deixis to establish two distinct groups, with the “us-group” including the EDL, Britain First and the British people, and the “them-group” comprising immigrants, the Muslim population and leftist policy makers. The “other” group was either represented in terms of a staggering load

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 39 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 like “immigrants”, collectivised and negatively qualified as a threat to the integrity of the British society like “Muslims” or in conflict with British interests as is the case with “policymakers”.

The DHA also allowed investigating argumentation, which demonstrated that both movements resorted to different topoi to justify and legitimise what could be considered discriminatory acts against “the other”. This legitimisation was established using the topos of usefulness to establish grounds for existence as part of a larger quest that aims at protecting liberal values from totalitarian aspirations of radical Islam, serving the interests of the British citizens, and promoting British culture and traditions. Topoi employed to negatively derogate and, hence, deligitimise the other include the topos of threat to describe the growing radical Islam as a hazard, and the topoi of burden and numbers to designate immigrants as another danger that threatens to drain the resources of Britain.

In addition, the analysis of the discursive strategies clarified that the strategies of the EDL and Britain First also diverge. The EDL seems fixated on problematising the Muslim population through different discursive strategies, while Britain First creates a nexus between immigration and radical Islam. According to Liang (2007:21), in the last decade, opposition to immigration has been intensified and focused on Muslim immigrants, with the “Muslim question” placing Islam front and center in anti-immigrant platforms and transcending the immigration debate more generally.

The analysis also considered intertextual and interdiscursive relations, linking some utterances that occur in the mission statements to historical contexts. It appeared that the use of some slogans, terms and quotations have been recontextualised into current political rhetoric, while carrying historical context-dependent connotations.

To conclude, the discursive strategies proposed by the Discourse Historical Approach can provide a fruitful framework for the analysis of discourse on immigration and the ‘anti-Islamisation of Britain’. Though this paper analyses a limited sample of extracts, it could be taken to demonstrate how the discourse of some far-right movements in Britain can be considered ideological, discriminatory and anti-immigrant, through relying on different strategies of positive – self and negative- other representation to achieve their aims.

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Appendix Appendix 1. Table (1) Nomination and predication strategies used by the EDL Strategy linguistic devices Nomination strategies ▫ Social actors - Party name (synecdoches): The English Defense League (EDL) – Deictics: we, our, they. - Actionyms: policymakers/ decision makers,/law-enforcement personnel. - Negative ideologonyms: Radicals - Collectives: Muslims, Muslim community, Muslim Population /British Muslims. ▫ Objects/phenomena/events: -Ideological anthroponym Sharia Law; Halal meat -Metonymies: Muslim tradition; British Culture -Verb denoting process Islamisation.

Predication Strategies □ Social actors: Evaluative attributions of negative or positive traits: 1) The EDL: - Predicative adjective: A human rights organisation

-Participial clauses Protecting and promoting human rights; promoting democracy; ensuring that the public get a balanced picture of Islam; contributing to the global struggle against Islamic intolerance of Western cultures…etc.

2) Policy-makers, decision makers etc. : Participle clauses: presenting a view of Islam shaped by their needs rather than the needs of the public. Infinitive clauses To undermine our culture and impose non-English cultures.

3) Radicals: - Explicit Predicates dominate Muslim organisations remain key figures in British mosques are increasing their influence

4) Muslims, Muslim community…etc.: Adjectives: Fearful- isolated Nouns: Intolerance- Barbarity-- homophobia- antisemitism.

▫ objects/phenomena/events: 1) Sharia law: Adjective undemocratic Predicative adjectives: an alternative to our existing legal…systems. undemocratic alternative to our cherished way of life Predicative nouns: a threat to our democracy the demand for Sharia is global Explicit predicate: makes a fundamental distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims Participle clause being adopted, and enforced, in our society Metaphor: Creeping into our lives.

2) Islam: Participle clause: taken in its “original” seventh century form;

Predicative adjectives political and social ideology Explicit predicates seeks to dominate all non-believers imposes a harsh legal system runs counter to democracy Relative clause that rejects democracy and human rights explicit comparison the antithesis of Western democracy.

3) Muslim tradition, foreign cultures/non-English cultures: - Explicit dissimilation (e.g. xenonyms) Non-English cultures -Infinitive clause to impose non-English cultures -Participle expected to respect -Explicit predicate promote anti-democratic ideas refuse to accept the authority of the nation.

4) British culture/values: -Adjective: Liberal, cherished -Participle clause: Has the right to exist and prosper

5) Halal meat: Predicative nouns Stealthy incursion.

7) Islamisation: -Metaphor: the creeping Islamisation of our country

Table 2. The nomination and predication strategies used by Britain First Strategy Linguistic devices Nomination strategies ▫ Social actors: - Party name (synecdoches): Britain First

-Toponyms used as metonymies: Britain -Religionyms: Christianity, Islam. -Deictics and phoric expressions: we, our, us, they. -Actionyms: asylum seekers, migrants -De-toponymic anthroponyms Foreigners -Collectives, including metonymic toponyms: Our people, British citizens, Christians, Lift-wing liberal policies ▫ phenomena: -Nouns denoting Phenomena immigration, unemployment - Negative ideologonyms Militant Islam

Predication strategies ▫ Social actors: Evaluative attributions of negative or positive traits :

1)Britain First: -Adjectives e.g. Patriotic, political -Predicative adjectives patriotic resistance, pro-British -Predicative nouns street defence organisation, ; British resistance -Explicit predicates opposes and fights injustices; love our people; will defend them; seeks to demonstrate on behalf of the people; want British history; traditions and to be respected.

2) Britain: -Adjectives e.g. Small; overcrowded, Predicative adjectives e.g. densely population island Prepositional phrase e.g. with barely enough space and resources.

3) Christianity: -Prepositional phrase e.g. under ferocious assault -Predicative nouns the bedrock and foundation of our national life.

4) Islam: -Adjective: Militant - Explicit predicate leads to the suppression of women, freedom of speech and racist attacks.

5) Asylum seekers, migrants, Foreigners: - Explicit predicate come first before our people.

4) Our people, British citizens: - Explicit predicates are made second class desperately need employment became a minority in our own country.

5) Christians: -Explicit predicates face discrimination and persecution.

6) Lift-wing policies: -Explicit predicates make our people second class citizens.

▫ Phenomena: 1) Immigration: -Participial clause spiralling out of control placing unsustainable demands upon this country’s resources, 2) Unemployment: Participial clause caused by out-of control immigration

Appendix 2 1) The EDL’s mission statement The world is a dangerous place to live in; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don”t do anything about it. – Albert Einstein, refugee from Nazi Germany People have been asking what the EDL is all about, what does it want to achieve, how will it achieve those things? Well now the English Defence League has a Mission Statement…… (1) HUMAN RIGHTS: Protecting And Promoting Human Rights The English Defence League (EDL) is a human rights organisation that was founded in the wake of the shocking actions of a small group of Muslim extremists who, at a homecoming parade in Luton, openly mocked the sacrifices of our service personnel without any fear of censure. Although these actions were certainly those of a minority, we believe that they reflect other forms of religiously-inspired intolerance and barbarity that are thriving amongst certain sections of the Muslim population in Britain: including, but not limited to, the denigration and oppression of women, the molestation of young children, the committing of so-called honour killings, homophobia, anti-Semitism, and continued support for those responsible for terrorist atrocities. Whilst we must always protect against the unjust assumption that all Muslims are complicit in or somehow responsible for these crimes, we must not be afraid to speak freely about these issues. This is why the EDL will continue to work to protect the inalienable rights of all people to protest against radical Islam’s encroachment into the lives of non-Muslims. We also recognise that Muslims themselves are frequently the main victims of some Islamic traditions and practices. The Government should protect the human rights of individual British Muslims. It should ensure that they can openly criticise Islamic orthodoxy, challenge Islamic leaders without fear of retribution, receive full equality before the law (including equal rights for Muslim women), and leave Islam if they see fit, without fear of censure. British Muslims should be able to safely demand reform of their religion, in order to make it more relevant to the needs of the modern world and more respectful of other groups in society. It is important that they completely reject the views of those who believe that Islam should be taken in its “original”, 7th century form, because these interpretations are the antithesis of Western democracy. The onus should be on British Muslims to overcome the problems that blight their religion and achieve nothing short of an Islamic reformation. In line with this, we should do all that we can to empower those who are willing to take this path. We must also ensure that they do not fear reprisals from those who, in line with these 7th century interpretations, would force sharia law upon them. The EDL calls upon the Government to repeal legislation that prevents effective freedom of speech, for freedom of speech is essential if the human rights abuses that sometimes manifest themselves around Islam are to be stopped. We believe that the proponents of radical Islam have a stranglehold on British Muslims. These radicals dominate Muslim organisations, remain key figures in British mosques, and are steadily increasing their influence. Radical Islam keeps British Muslims fearful and isolated, especially the women

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 47 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 that it encases in the Burqa. It misrepresents their views, stifles freedom of expression, and indoctrinates their children, whilst continually doing a discredit to those who do wish to peacefully co-exist with their fellow Britons.

(2) DEMOCRACY AND THE RULE OF LAW: Promoting Democracy And The Rule Of Law By Opposing Sharia The European Court of Human Rights has declared that ‘sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy”. Despite this, there are still those who are more than willing to accommodate sharia norms, and who believe that sharia can operate in partnership with our existing traditions and customs. In reality, sharia cannot operate fully as anything other than a complete alternative to our existing legal, political, and social systems. It is a revolution that this country does not want, and one that it must resist. Sharia is most definitely a threat to our democracy. The operation of Islamic courts, the often unreasonable demand that Islam is given more respect than it is due, and the stealthy incursion of halal meat into the food industry, all demonstrate that sharia is already creeping into our lives. Resentment is already beginning to grow, and could create dangerous divisions if nothing is done. The primacy of British courts must be maintained and defended, fair criticism of religious and political ideologies must be permitted, and consumers must be provided with the information necessary to avoid halal produce should they wish. Restaurants and fast food chains that do offer halal options should offer non-halal alternatives as well, in order to show respect for other people’s religions, customs, and possible concerns about animal welfare issues (surrounding ritual slaughter). No one should be made to consume halal produce unwittingly, so it must always be labeled – in supermarkets, in restaurants, in schools, and in hospitals – wherever it is available. Free choice in these matters is, after all, a fundamental human right for everybody, not just the Muslim community. Sharia law makes a fundamental distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims, and the EDL will never allow this sort of iniquitous apartheid to take root in our country. The EDL will therefore oppose sharia appeasement in all its forms, and will actively work to eradicate the sharia-compliant behaviours that are already being adopted, and enforced, in our society.

(3) PUBLIC EDUCATION: Ensuring That The Public Get A Balanced Picture Of Islam A central part of the EDL’s mission is public education. The British political and media establishment have, for a long time, been presenting a very sanitised and therefore inaccurate view of Islam, shaped by the needs of policy-makers rather than the needs of the public. This has acted as a barrier to informed policy-making and made finding the solution to real problems impossible. In pursuing this self-defeating and destructive policy, the Government has effectively been acting as the propaganda arm of the Muslim Brotherhood. Whether or not is aware of the predicament that it has put itself in, it has so far failed to honestly admit its failures. We are committed to a campaign of public education to ensure that all aspects of Islam that impact on our society can debated in an open and honest way. Demonisation of Muslims, or of Islam’s critics, adds

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 48 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 nothing to the debate. We believe that only by looking at all the facts can society be most effectively and humanly governed. If there are aspects of Muslim tradition that encourage the activities of Islamic radicals and criminals then these need to be properly addressed without fear of accusations of racism, xenophobia, or the even the disingenuous term “Islamophobia”. The public must be provided with a more realistic and less sanitised view of Islam that allows it to ensure that decision-makers are held to account for their policy-making choices, choices that affect the harmony and security of the nation. The EDL promotes the understanding of Islam and the implications for non-Muslims forced to live alongside it. Islam is not just a religious system, but a political and social ideology that seeks to dominate all non-believers and impose a harsh legal system that rejects democratic accountability and human rights. It runs counter to all that we hold dear within our British liberal democracy, and it must be prepared to change, to conform to secular, liberal ideals and laws, and to contribute to social harmony, rather than causing divisions.

(4) RESPECTING TRADITION: Promoting The Traditions And Culture Of England While At The Same Time Being Open To Embrace The Best That Other Cultures Can Offer The EDL believes that English Culture has the right to exist and prosper in England. We recognise that culture is not static, that over time changes take place naturally, and that other cultures make contributions that make our shared culture stronger and more vibrant. However, this does not give license to policy-makers to deliberately undermine our culture and impose non-English cultures on the English people in their own land. If people migrate to this country then they should be expected to respect our culture, its laws, and its traditions, and not expect their own cultures to be promoted by agencies of the state. The best of their cultures will be absorbed naturally and we will all be united by the enhanced culture that results. The onus should always be on foreign cultures to adapt and integrate. If said cultures promote anti-democratic ideas and refuse to accept the authority of our nation’s laws, then the host nation should not be bowing to these ideas in the name of ”cultural sensitivity”. Law enforcement personnel must be able to enforce the rule of law thoroughly without prejudice or fear. Everyone, after all, is supposed to be equal in the eyes of the law. The EDL is therefore keen to draw its support from people of all races, all faiths, all political persuasions, and all lifestyle choices. Under its umbrella, all people in England, whatever their background, or origin, can stand united in a desire to stop the imposition of the rules of Islam on non-believers. In order to ensure the continuity of our culture and its institutions, the EDL stands opposed to the creeping Islamisation of our country, because intimately related to the spread of Islamic religion is the political desire to implement an undemocratic alternative to our cherished way of life: the sharia. Our armed forces stand up and risk their lives every day in order to protect our culture and democratic way of life. They are also reflective of England’s diversity, and are a shining example of what a people can achieve when united together. The EDL is therefore committed to opposing any and all abuse that our men and women in uniform are subjected to, and will campaign for legal remedies to ensure that those working within these important institutions are not exposed to abuse or aggression from within our country.

(5) INTERNATIONAL OUTLOOK: Working In Solidarity With Others Around The World The EDL is keen to join with others who share our values, wherever they are in the world, and from whatever cultural background they derive. We believe that the demand for sharia is global and therefore needs to be tackled at a global as well as national level, so that this demand will never be succumbed to. The EDL will therefore have an international outlook to enhance and strengthen our domestic efforts, whilst at the same time contributing to the global struggle against Islamic intolerance of Western cultures, customs, religions, politics, and laws. The time for tolerating intolerance has come to an end: it is time for the whole world to unite against a truly Global Jihad.

2) Britain’s First Mission statement Britain First is a patriotic political party and street defence organisation that opposes and fights the many injustices that are routinely inflicted on the British people.

Our policies are pro-British, our approach is no-nonsense and our principles are not open to compromise.

We love our people, our nation, our heritage and culture and will defend them at all times and no matter what odds we face.

The Britain First movement is not just a normal political group, we are a patriotic resistance and “frontline” for our long suffering people.

We require only the most stern, dedicated, loyal, steadfast and incorruptible men and women to help us build a future for our nation.

We want a Britain that is strong, proud, free, sovereign and independent, in which our people live in a healthy, moral and ethical society.

We want our people to come first, before foreigners, asylum seekers or migrants and we are overtly proud of this stance.

We will not stand back and watch as our people are made second class citizens by leftwing-liberal policies and political correctness.

We want British history, traditions and to be respected, promoted and taught to our young folk who deserve a decent future.

We want to eradicate corruption in our democracy, to end the ongoing expenses scandal and restore principles and decency to politics in general.

Christianity in Britain is under ferocious assault: many Christians now face discrimination and persecution because of their beliefs in many areas such as employment, business, and adoption.

We will restore Christianity as the bedrock and foundation of our national life as it has been for the last one thousand years.

We want British jobs for British workers and will make sure that our workers come first.

Immigration is spiralling out of control placing unsustainable demands upon this country’s resources, with health care, housing and the environment are all being seriously damaged by these unbearable and unfair burdens. Britain is a small, overcrowded, densely population island with barely enough space and resources for our own people.

We have millions of British citizens born here who are unemployed and desperately need employment, so for these reasons we will slam shut the door to any further immigration.

The rapid growth of militant Islam is leading to the suppression of women, freedom of speech and racist attacks.

Britain First has a proven track record of opposing Islamic militants and hate preachers and this fightback will continue.

Britain First seeks to lobby, cajole, expose, demonstrate and organise on behalf of our beleaguered people.

We will make Britain a beautiful country once again where you can leave your door unlocked and your children can play in the streets.

Do you share our vision of a Britain that is restored to our own people and where we come first, where our politicians stand up for us, where we will not become a minority in our own country?

Do you share our vision of Britain where pensioners don”t freeze in winter, where billions of our money doesn”t get sent abroad in foreign aid, where crime is stamped out, where British history and discipline is taught in schools, where sexual degeneracy is not the norm but the exception, where jobs go to British workers and where the United Kingdom is united and strong? If you share our vision of Britain, then now is the time to join the true British resistance!

Higher Education Quality Assurance System in New Zealand and Its Implications for China

SHI Guang School of Foreign Languages and Cultures, Nanjing Normal University, 122 Ninghai Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210097, People’s Republic of China

Abstract With the popularization of higher education, its quality assurance and enhancement have gained top priority in the work of governments and higher education institutions across the world. In order to meet the needs of society for the booming economy and globalization, The New Zealand government has taken effective measures to develop and improve its higher education quality assurance system to maintain its international reputation. This paper first introduces the background of New Zealand higher education quality assurance system, and then examines the structure, function and operation of its internal and external quality assurance systems. Based on a comparative analysis of the quality assurance systems in New Zealand and China, useful recommendations such as diversified standards and multi-engagement, etc., are given, which aims to contribute to the progress of the quality assurance system of Chinese higher education.

Key words: New Zealand; Higher education; Quality assurance, Implications

1. Introduction The New Zealand government has always focused on improving the higher education system in a more flexible and strategic way in terms of outputs, efficiency and student achievement. Nonetheless, as is known to all, it is the guaranteed quality that can fundamentally ensure satisfying outcomes of the higher education system. Consequently, the government highly expects that over the coming decades, the higher education system will continue to improve the quality and relevance between higher education and research in the face of growing international competition for talents (New Zealand Ministry of Education, 2014), which means that its quality assurance system is important and worth valuing. The quality assurance system in China, however, is not as advanced as that in New Zealand. Over the last sixty years, China has undergone dramatic social, political and economic challenges in developing the educational system. The reform and opening-up policy since 1978 and the entry into WTO have not completely improved the operation and practice of the higher education in China to an international level. With the expansion of students enrolled in higher education institutions, concerns remain about the conflict between limited educational resources and the quality of education they receive. The Chinese government has realized the problem and admitted the importance of higher education to both individuals and the further development of the society, economy and culture. Relevant measures have been taken to maintain and improve the internationalization of its higher education, such as the two pivotal government programs- Project 985 for developing world-class universities and Project 211 for developing 100 first-class universities. It should be noted, however, that such measures do not fundamentally maintain

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 54 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-XX, 2016 and increase the quality of higher institutions. The improvement of the current quality assurance system in China should be listed on the government’s agenda. This paper focuses on the development of higher education in New Zealand and in particular, the development and implementation of the quality assurance system. It elaborates on how the New Zealand authorities develop and improve the quality assurance system effectively and efficiently to help higher institutions meet their missions and goals, and in the long term, to foster the individuals’ careers and make contributions to the community and society. A comparative analysis of the strengths of the New Zealand model and the weaknesses of the Chinese system will be conducted to provide some implications for Chinese higher education.

2. An Overview of New Zealand Higher Education Quality Assurance System The issue of higher education quality is not new in New Zealand. With the expansion of higher education worldwide, to meet the demands of the knowledge-based economy, governments across the world have focused on the quality of their education provision and knowledge production in order to ensure rewards of their investments in education. Furthermore, influenced by the theory of Neoliberalism during the 1980s, the political, economic and social reform highlighted the need for significant changes to the education sector in order to raise comparability in educational programs and the skill and education levels to compete effectively in an international marketplace. Consequently, the education reform was undertaken by the government and the Education Act 1989 was enacted to adapt to such demands. According to the Act, New Zealand’s TEIs (tertiary education institutions) operated with substantial institutional autonomy. It passed the decision-making power from the central government to TEIs, letting them control their own resources and future plan. Higher education providers were required to manage their education quality themselves in accordance with the requirements of the 1989 Education Act. At the same time, the independence and self-assessment of higher education providers were emphasized by the reform policy. As a result, though the government remained the main funder of the higher education in New Zealand, the Ministry of Education was decentralized to a government department responsible for developing the policy framework for tertiary education and advising Ministers on the tertiary education strategy (TES). The major external quality assurance agency, the New Zealand Qualification Authority (NZQA) was established to ensure the quality of higher education. Since then, the current quality assurance system of higher education in New Zealand has taken shape. With the expansion of the autonomy of higher education providers and the implementation of market-oriented reform policies, NZQA, which was originally designed to assess the quality of all the universities, polytechnics and private tertiary education institutions, played a role in non-university providers. According to the Education Act, it was the New Zealand Vice-Chancellors’ Committee (NZVCC), now operating as Universities New Zealand (Universities NZ) that took total responsibility for the quality of universities. In 1993, the NZVCC delegated its quality assurance of universities to one of its standing committees, the Committee on University Academic Programs (CUAP) for the assignment of program approval. CUAP is in charge of setting up and applying qualification and regulation approval, accreditation and program moderation procedures across universities. Another NZVCC delegation was the New Zealand Universities Academic Audit Unit (NZUAAU), an independent body providing periodic monitoring of each university’s quality assurance system with a quality audit approach. NZUAAU has been known as the Academic Quality Agency for New Zealand Universities (AQA) since 2013. The education reform, however, began to reveal its faults in the late 1990s. As was pointed out in a report

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 55 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 Month 2016 given by the Association of University Staff (AUS) to the Tertiary Education Committee (TEC), the tertiary education policy and the operating system at that time led to the blind expansion of tertiary education. Such an expansion was a serious waste to a country with a small population and limited resources. At the same time, the quality experienced a downward trend, which would do harm to the reputation of the tertiary education in New Zealand both domestically and globally and hinder the development of the public tertiary education. The increase of the number of students also contributed to the lack of educational resources, which further had a bad influence on the scientific research of tertiary education providers and the global fame of the tertiary education in New Zealand. What’s worse, the country suffered from brain drain as an increasing number of students studied abroad and high-level talents chose to settle down overseas. Consequently, policy makers began to take new measures to meet challenges the tertiary education faced. In 1998, the government published a white paper Tertiary Education in New Zealand: Policy Directions for the 21st Century. It emphasized the enhancement of the quality assurance of tertiary education and the macro-management of the government over the public tertiary education by effectively combining the internal supervision mechanism with the external quality assurance mechanism. The white paper also noticed the establishment of the Quality Assurance Authority of New Zealand (QAANZ), which would be responsible for the accreditation and the monitoring of external quality assurance agencies (Australian Universities Quality Agency 2006). The conception and the proposal regarding the establishment of QAANZ, however, deadlocked over the election in 1999 and as a result, ignored by the new government. Then in 2002, the New Zealand Education and Science Committee, now called the Ministry of Education (MoE), enacted the Tertiary Education (Reform) Bill in order to improve the quality assurance system of tertiary education in New Zealand. A new crown entity, the Tertiary Education Committee (TEC) was established to operate the government’s funding mechanisms and give effect to government strategy. The Bill also stipulated that NZQA was the major agency in terms of the external quality assurance system of tertiary education. It became an authority to ensure that tertiary institutions should comply with policies and criteria in relation to registration, accreditation, course approval and other quality-related requirements. It could also monitor and audit providers against quality standards. Besides, it clearly pointed out that NZVCC was responsible for the quality of universities. It is worth mentioning that in 1992, NZQA developed one of the first qualifications frameworks in the world-the National Qualifications Framework (NQF), now called the New Zealand Qualifications Framework (NZQF) under section 253 of the Education Act 1989. The current NZQF, replacing NQF in 2010, identifies ten levels for the registration of the unit standards-based system of national qualifications, which are categorized by fields of study and levels of student achievement. It covers from senior secondary education (level 1) to doctoral study at a university (level 10) (New Zealand Ministry of Education 2006). NZQF provides a standardized parameter for the recognition of qualifications. It eliminates the discrepancies and inconsistencies between separate education and training systems, linking the prior learning with the skills necessary for a particular career. The higher education institutions, including universities and ITPs are linked to NZQF. Currently, the quality assurance system of higher education in New Zealand consists of two parts: internal and external assurance systems. Both higher education institutions and agencies are involved in the quality assessment and improvement issue, each of which performs its own functions to ensure a high-level quality (Utuka 2012: 18).

3. Internal Quality Assurance System of Higher Education in New Zealand The internal quality managements of universities and polytechnics are different in that their engagements differ partly from each other. Regardless of this difference, they are well-organized and fruitful.

3.1 Internal Quality Management of Universities Though higher education institutions are still centralized in New Zealand, they share a high degree of autonomy. Under Section 160 of the Education Act 1989, institutions are given much independence and freedom to make academic, operational and management decisions to efficiently use national resources. Under section 161 of the Act, the Parliament has the power to enact laws to preserve and enhance the academic freedom and autonomy of institutions. That includes the freedom of the enrollment of new students, regulating the subject matter of courses taught at the institution, appointing its own staff through its chief executive, etc. The Act also stipulates that higher education institutions are independent legal entities and have the power to change their own structures of management after consulting with the Minister of Education. The board, representing the interest of its staff, students and community, is responsible for the overall management of school transactions. The focus of the work of the board is to formulate school rules, set the school mission and long-term projection under the approval of the Minister. It should also submit the school operation report annually to the Minister and accept the audit and review of panels delegated by the Minister. According to Section 94, the board shall comprise no more than 7 and more than 3 parent representatives. It also includes student representatives and staff representatives.

3.2 Internal Quality Management of Polytechnics Polytechnics, or institutes of technology (ITPs) are also New Zealand government-owned higher education providers. They deliver technical, vocational and professional education and promote research, particularly applied and technological research that aids development. Many ITPs offer degrees and are involved in research activities. Now there are 18 ITPs spreading across the country. Similar to universities, the council of a polytechnic is responsible for the internal quality management. It is responsible for the macro-management of the whole college. Members of a council compromise senior experts from every industry, commissioners delegated by the Minister, full-time teacher representatives, excellent student representatives, etc. According to the Education Act 1989, it is the principal, rather than the council that directly takes responsibility of the teaching and staff management. A faculty is under the responsibility of the dean, and every faculty has its own council to deal with issues about teaching evaluation. Correspondingly, a department is under the responsibility of the head of the department, responsible for teaching, staff and financial issues. It is the three-level system-institute, faculty and department-that works to guarantee the education quality of a polytechnic.

3.3 Components of the Internal Quality System The internal quality assurance work is undertaken by higher institutions themselves. In spite of the multiplicity of higher institutions in New Zealand, self-assessment is arguably the most powerful means for a higher institution to understand and improve its educational performance. It directs towards coherent goals about decision-making and operational practices. No matter how higher institutions conduct their self-assessment, the process should be comprehensive, authentic, transparent, robust, and focused on: 1) needs assessment-the extent to which higher institutions systematically determine and address the needs of learners, employers and the wider community; 2) processes and practices-the processes and practices that help to achieve outcomes, e.g., the primary

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 57 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 Month 2016 importance of good teaching or the role of effective learner support services; 3) learner achievement-the impact of educational provision on learner progress and achievement; 4) outcomes-what is being achieved and the value of that for learners, employers and the wider community; 5) using what is learned-self-assessment should result in evidence-based conclusions and decision-making that will feed into strategic and business planning, leading to positive change; and 6) actual improvement-the extent to which improvements are relevant and worthwhile. Though the concrete approaches and procedures to self-assessment can vary and be tailored to suit individual institutions, the focuses of self-assessment are still the quality and value of educational outcomes and the typical stages of a self-assessment include (New Zealand Qualifications Authority 2009): Step 1: planning-the higher institution should select an appropriate focus that systematically covers all aspects of the institution. The area(s) of focus should be of sufficient relevance or importance to learner outcomes to warrant the effort involved. It is also required that institutions take a strategic view to make explicit the educational outcomes they are trying to achieve. Step 2: gathering data-There are many different approaches to evaluation, but quantitative and qualitative data is mostly used to better understand the performance of an institution. As a result, the data for self-assessment can take many forms including enrolments, learner completion and achievement. Higher institutions also use enquiries, ranging from a good conversation in the staff room to meeting with local employers, to gather evidence relevant to the outcomes of the institution. In order to draw reasonable conclusions, data gathered should be valid, reliable, complete, sufficient and up-to-date. Step 3: analyzing and interpreting the information-This step is essential to establish the level of achievement of educational outcomes. By asking questions like what are the probable reasons for this result and what evidence is there to support them, a picture will be created about what is happening and why. It will then enable decisions to be made about whether more information might be needed, whether it is possible to find that, and what needs to be done to make improvements. Step 4: making decisions-By this stage, higher institutions can consider what actions they might want to improve performance. The decisions should be justifiable and evidence-based. Step 5: reporting and action-The self-assessment process, its findings and the actions taken as a result should be documented and reported to senior managers, councils, boards or owners. The documentation is an important part of the internal management and acts as evidence for any subsequent external evaluation and review, as it proves that the higher institution is using self-assessment successfully in its internal quality assurance to make improvements. Step 6: monitoring improvements-A plan is needed to implement the improving actions. In order to make sure that the decisions are practical and effective, monitoring is necessary to see whether the actions lead to improved educational outcomes.

4. External Quality Assurance System of Higher Education in New Zealand The two legislative quality assurance authorities are NZVCC and NZQA. Two bodies of NZVCC oversee the quality assurance of universities-CUAP and NZUAAU (AQA). NZQA is responsible for quality assurance for non-university TEOs. With respect to higher education, NZQA’s own AAA is responsible for the quality assurance of wānanga. Two delegations, ITPQ and CEAC are responsible for the quality assurance of ITPs and CoEs respectively.

4.1 External Quality Assurance System of Universities The external quality assurance system of universities is led by NZVCC with its delegations CUAP and NZUAAU. NZVCC represents the interests of the eight public universities in New Zealand. According to the Education Act 1989, NZVCC is the statutory body with primary responsibility for quality assurance matters in the university sector. The government also built in the Education Amendment Act 1990, a requirement for NZQA to consult with NZVCC before establishing policies with regard to universities. NZVCC has two main delegations: CUAP (Committee on University Academic Programs) and NZUAAU (New Zealand Universities Academic Audit Unit ). With the demand for competitiveness and employability in people’s careers, the quality of courses offered in universities is of great importance, as a result of which, academic performance should also be of high quality. NZVCC noted this trend and has delegated its quality assurance powers to one of its standing committees-CUAP. CUAP considers academic matters within the university sector regarding program approval, accreditation and moderation procedures, which ensures that the quality of program development is consonant with high academic standards and mindful of the country’s interests. CUAP is comprised of a representative from each university, a Chair and Deputy Chair appointed by NZVCC, and a student representative. The Education Act 1989 authorizes NZVCC, through CUAP, to determine approval and accreditation for new qualifications and to withdraw approval where there are reasonable grounds. At first, universities should submit proposals to the committee about the introduction of a new academic qualification or a new subject or a new conjoint program. The proposal can also cover changes in the qualification, course or program. All proposals are to be submitted electronically via the CUAP online system. Then CUAP will assess and scrutinize these proposals to make decisions: unconditional approval, deferred decision, conditional approval or declining the proposal. All successful proposals should be assessed by Graduating Year Review (GYR) to ensure that the proposals can be carried out finally (Universities New Zealand 2015). NZUAAU, now known as AQA, was established in 1993 by NZVCC to carry out audits of the processes in universities which underpin academic quality. The governing board of NZUAAU is appointed by NZVCC, but it is operationally independent of NZVCC. The mission of NZUAAU is to contribute to high quality New Zealand university education by engaging as a leader and advocating in the development of universities based on high quality internationally acceptable, academic practices; and providing quality assurance and quality enhancement services which assist universities in facilitating excellent student experience and learning outcomes. One of the responsibilities of the unit is to consider and review the universities’ mechanisms for monitoring and enhancing the ongoing academic quality of academic programs which are necessary for achieving their original goals, and to comment on the extent to which procedures in place can reflect good practice in maintaining quality. NZUAAU has operated four academic audit cycles since 1995 and now Cycle 5 has commenced in the second half of 2013. Each cycle has a theme and previous cycles have focused on whole-of-institution (Cycle 1: 1995-1998); research, the teaching-research link and postgraduate support (Cycle 2: 2000-2001); teaching and learning (Cycle 3: 2002-2007) and whole-of-institution (Cycle 4: 2008-2012). Cycle 5 audits focus on teaching and learning and student support, including postgraduate study. Audits are always managed around a framework which invited the institution to reflect on its strengths, challenges, areas for enhancement and areas of good practice. The academic audit procedure can be outlined as follows:

A self-review by the university. This reflects that universities are autonomous institutions and that academic audit is intended to respect universities’ own, individual objectives. The self-review provides the audit panel with the essential information about their quality, and also leads to improvements in academic processes irrespective of NZUAAU’s audit. Preparation and submission to NZUAAU a Self-review Portfolio. The Portfolio includes the self-review report. Meanwhile, students of the university are invited to submit to NZUAAU an independent student report on the audit topics. Consideration of the Portfolio by an independent external audit panel, appointed by NZUAAU. Auditors will think about what further information is needed and assessed in the site visit. The Panel undertakes a site visit with forms of interviews with staff, students and stakeholders. The purpose is to further testing the claims in the self-review report. An audit report is completed, quality-checked by the NZUAAU Board, checked for accuracy by the university and, after approval by the NZUAAU Board, is made public.

4.2 External Quality Assurance System of Polytechnics The external quality assurance system of polytechnics is led by NZQA with the help of NZQF. NZQA is a crown entity as defined by the Crown Entities Act 2004, and is empowered by Section 256A of the Education Act 1989. It is responsible for the quality assurance of non-university tertiary training providers, and develop, register and support NZQF. NZQA is headed by a Board, which is appointed by the Minster of Education. It is an unprofitable agency but will charge fees equal to the cost of quality assurance. NZQA requires registration, approval and accreditation to ensure that polytechnics in New Zealand provide quality education for students to meet the national and international standards. Registration-it is a requirement for any tertiary education provider wishing to receive government funding, offer approved courses, or offer qualifications available for student loans and allowances. It means that the education institution is able to provide high quality education and training in a stable and safe studying environment. However, higher education institutions do not need to be registered because they are established under the Education Act 1989. Approval-it is mainly for courses. The course approval of NZQA means that the course complies with the quality standards. The approval process mainly focuses on whether the structure, objective, content, evaluation of the course are scientific, effective and efficient enough. Accreditation-the accreditation of the institution means that it can provide approved, high-quality courses, or can deliver credits according to levels on NZQF. In addition, NZQA conducts periodic external evaluations and reviews, providing an independent judgment of the educational performance and capability in the self-assessment of polytechnics. Both self-assessment and external evaluation are requirements of program approval and accreditation for all non-university institutions.

5. Comparing the Quality Assurance Systems in New Zealand and China It has been widely recognized that the quality assurance system of higher education in New Zealand is one of the most advanced among developed countries. Though closely linked to the national conditions, it is still worth valuing and useful experience can be drawn on to enhance the quality assurance system of higher education in China.

5.1 Strengths of the New Zealand System With the development of international political, economic and cultural exchanges, there has been an urgent need for versatile, qualified, and talented people across the world. In order to offer high quality education and training for both domestic and international learners, and to maintain the global reputation of its higher education, the New Zealand government has taken relative measures to develop the quality assurance system of higher education. The combination of internal and external quality assurance is not only a reflection of the respect for the autonomy of higher institutions, but also a guarantee that the institutions themselves can pay much attention to self-assessment and ensure the effectiveness and advancement of their internal quality assurance under the review of external quality assurance agencies (Cha 2006: 28).

5.1.1 Combination of Internal and External Quality Assurance It is required that both the higher institutions themselves and the external agencies should ensure the quality of higher education. Such a system seems complex and high-cost but will surely spur institutions to maintain and enhance their education quality under national laws, policies, and standards. One of the most important characteristics of higher education institutions in New Zealand is that they are highly independent and autonomous. The external quality assurance system is based on the internal self-assessment to ensure that the external review is fair, justified and open enough. Meanwhile, the self-assessment involves a considerable staff as well as students, so there is a high awareness of quality assurance within the institutions. As a result, the staff will devote themselves to the continuous improvement of their teaching or serving performance. There is no doubt that the internal self-assessment is always regarded as the most valuable part of the whole quality assurance system (Liu 2009: 125).

5.1 2 Multi-engagement in the Quality Assurance Process As the higher education system is complicated, the interests of individuals, the government and the society are all related to the outcomes of the higher education sector. As a result, in the quality assurance system of higher education in New Zealand, not only the institutions themselves, but also the government and the society are involved in the assessment and review of quality assurance. For universities, NZVCC, as well as its two delegations CUAP and NZUAAU, is responsible for their quality; for non-university higher education institutions, NZQA is responsible for their quality. Though the boards of NZVCC and NZQA are appointed by the Minister of Education, they are independent agencies and are recognized by the government to be authoritative. Thus, under the leadership of the Minister of Education, NZVCC and NZQA act as ‘intermediaries’ in quality assurance. Besides, members of audit panels including experts and academics from various industries are involved to ensure that the education and training offered can meet the demands of market.

5.1.3 Relevant Legislation on Quality Assurance Governments around the world have paid much attention to the quality assurance for the recent expansion of higher education. Nevertheless, the direct involvement of the government in quality assurance will damage the independence and autonomy of higher institutions, and may make the process bureaucratic. Consequently, the government of New Zealand plays an indirect role in the quality assurance system, and enacts laws and regulations to manage the whole system. The Education Act 1989 and its successive amendment acts stipulate the objective, structure, agencies and procedure etc., of the quality assurance system, and the statutory roles of NZVCC and NZQA in the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 61 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 Month 2016 process of quality assurance. Relevant documentation includes Tertiary Education Strategy 2014-2019 and Tertiary Education in New Zealand: Policy Directions for the 21st Century. Authorities like NZVCC and NZQA have also published documents or handbooks to define explicitly the framework of academic audits, the process of external evaluation and review, and the suggested self-assessment procedures etc.

5.1.4 Highly International Standards of Quality Assurance The trend of education export and exchange requires that the education and qualifications offered by New Zealand institutions be recognized by other governments, and that the quality assurance agency conduct international cooperation to improve its own education quality. The guidelines of the quality assurance in New Zealand are related to the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area and based on the UNESCO-OECD Guidelines. In 2007, New Zealand was involved in Lisbon Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications Concerning Higher Education, one of the best qualification evaluation systems in the world. This means that the higher education in New Zealand is of high quality, and that the qualifications of New Zealand’s higher institutions can be recognized worldwide. Nowadays, education has been an industry in New Zealand and NZQA has also functioned to ensure the quality of export education. NZQA ensures that the providers achieve equivalence between their domestic and off-shore operations in relation to outcomes, student experience and standards of delivery. The students’ expectations must be met regardless of delivery mode or whether or not the delivery is off-shore.

5.2 Weaknesses of the Chinese System The higher education system in China has undergone reform since the 1990s. It ensures the basic quality of higher education, though China still suffers from problems like limited education resources, imperfect legal system and little awareness of quality assurance. In 1985, Higher Engineering Education Evaluation started up as a trial. In 1990, “Draft Regulation of Higher Education Institution Evaluation” was issued by the then State Ministry Commission, which was the first regulation on higher education evaluation. Since then, China has done better in assuring the quality of higher education. It is worth mentioning that the establishments of China Academic Degrees and Graduate Education Development Center (CDGDC) in 2003 and the Higher Education Evaluation Center (HEEC) of the Ministry of Education mark a new stage for the development of a systematic and professional quality assurance system of higher education in China. However, with the popularization of higher education and the development of the market economy, problems still exist in the current system (Guo & Tian 2011: 25).

5.2.1 Single Quality Assurance Engagement The regulatory and management responsibilities are shouldered by one central organization, i.e., the Ministry of Education (MoE), which is also allowed to monitor and audit the quality of higher education institutions. Though a non-governmental organization, the National Evaluation Institute for Degree Granting Education (NEIDGE) was founded in 1994 to pioneer in the procedure of external assessment, reservations were expressed by higher education institutions and the public concerning the viability of the third-party institution. However, with the development of market economy, non-governmental colleges and universities have been set up to provide a diverse range of higher education professional trainings. International education providers, including sino-foreign cooperative schools have also sprung up in China, especially in the developed coastal regions. As a result, the single role of MoE in assuring quality

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 62 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-XX, 2016 cannot meet the new demands from various stakeholders. Instead, it will further reduce the fairness, objectivity and openness of quality evaluation. Meanwhile, acting as the single agency conducting the work of quality assurance of more than 2000 institutions in China, MoE lacks time and adequate facilities to function effectively and efficiently. It is hard to guarantee that the conclusions are scientific enough.

5.2.2 Ineffective Internal Quality Assurance The internal self-evaluation is widely recognized as the most effective component of quality assurance because it is only the awareness and improvement of institutions themselves that will enhance the quality ultimately. In China, however, though self-assessment is formally included in the quality assurance process, internal evaluation is subject to external evaluation because many powers are centralized to MoE, such as choosing the theme of evaluation, and designing and preparing for the evaluation activities. As a result, the self-assessment of higher institutions is mainly under the orders from higher authorities. Thus, the individualism and unique characteristics of various higher institutions will be neglected and good practices like innovation in management system will not be valued and encouraged by the public (Qian 2011: 60). Too much emphasis on the external quality assurance makes higher institutions lack the internal motivation to assess themselves and fundamentally improve the quality of courses or service they offer. In the long term, there will be little advancement in higher education quality.

5.2.3 Limited Quality Assurance Standards With regard to the contents of quality assurance in China, key concerns are still related to the quality of teaching, major infrastructure facilities like instructional equipment, libraries and laboratories, and the qualification of teachers. However, such ‘software’ as intellectual capital, innovation capital and motivation is rarely valued by current higher education institutions and the government. Besides, little has been considered about students’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, which are basic goals of higher education in the West. Actually, nowadays an increasing number of people in China have had access to higher education and there has been a great demand for better quality. Universities act as a provider of qualified and talented people to meet the demand of the highly competitive labor market. As a result, such ‘soft power’ as communication skills and creativity will have an indirect but profound impact on the contributions one person can make to his/her employer or the community, which means that academic performance is not the only standard to evaluate an institution’s education quality. Good academic performance is certainly important and will certainly increase the employment rate of graduates, but people who have nothing impressive but high grades will be isolated by the society in the long run.

5.2.4 Inappropriate Financial Investment Similar to New Zealand, the Chinese government remains the greatest fund provider for higher education institutions. However, in order to ensure that each student has access to education resources, the amount of funds is related to the enrollment number of students. This will offer people with more opportunities to receive higher education as all the institutions are trying to admit more students for more educational funds. The disproportional increase of students enrolled, and educational resources which are still in short supply to institutions in those less- or under-developed inland provinces and regions, will hurt the quality of these higher education institutions as some of them lack the capacity, both in terms of educational

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 63 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 Month 2016 facilities and teaching staff, to ensure that every student can get high quality education facilitating their future careers or at least deserving the tuition fees.

6. Implications for Chinese Higher Education Quality Assurance System The quality assurance system of higher education in China nowadays has developed for a demand to satisfy the competitiveness from the labor market and an increasing awareness to maintain the internationalization of Chinese higher education. However, as indicated above, Chinese quality assurance system still suffers from problems and challenges that directly or indirectly hurt the quality of higher education offered. Actually, it is high time to think about what quality of higher education means, how it can be assessed and evaluated and who should be involved in the whole process. It does not mean that China should duplicate the New Zealand model without any adaptation. Rather, China ought to draw lessons from the good practices of New Zealand, and make relevant changes according to the current Chinese conditions.

6.1 Diversifying the Standards and Guidelines of Quality Assurance Higher education achievement does not stand alone. It will further assist the community people as well as individuals to fulfill their potentials. The government of New Zealand has always focused on the education outcomes economically and socially. It is expected that higher education will contribute to growth through labor productivity, effective public services, and provides opportunities for all. As for social outcomes, it is hoped that the knowledge and skills acquired by higher education will promote social cohesion and democratic values and support all New Zealanders from all backgrounds to live in a prosperous, safe, and equal society (Ministry of Education 2014). As a result, the quality of higher education cannot be restricted to teaching or academic performance, which is quite common in China now. It is recognized that one of the goals of education in China is to cultivate well-rounded qualified talents in terms of moral, intellectual, physical, aesthetics and labor development. It further means that the quality evaluation standards should be diverse enough to expand to those ‘soft power’ such as innovation skills, critical-thinking skills and problem-solving skills. Policy makers should realize that the roles of higher education institutions are not limited to fostering how many people with high degrees, but are also to enable graduates with corresponding qualifications to make contributions to the community, to cooperate and collaborate with teams, and to live a better-off, healthier and happier life. Therefore, to higher education institutions, especially institutes of technology and polytechnics, standards regarding quality assurance should not only consider academic and research performance, but also put emphasis on students’ application skills and emotional intellectuality.

6. 2 Authorizing Third-party Engagement in the External Quality Assurance In New Zealand, it is the independent agencies that are responsible for the external quality of higher education institutions. Though they are still funded by the government, the Education Act has stipulated their independence clearly, which means that the government cannot have direct influence on the planning, implementation, analysis and reporting of quality assurance. While in China, though relevant agencies, CDGDC and HEEC, have been established to undertake the task of evaluating and appraising the academic degrees and graduate education, and evaluating the teaching quality of higher education institutions, they are directly governed by MoE. Consequently, in order to ensure that the conclusions of quality assurance are fair, justified and open to the public, it is high time to establish and authorize a nationally-independent and autonomous agency under relevant laws and regulations (Wu, Chen & Wang

2014: 26). Meanwhile, social unit or organizations should be encouraged to monitor and audit the higher education authority. For instance, in the UK, The World University Rankings are powered by the news agency Thomson Reuters to judge world class universities across all of their core missions-teaching, research, knowledge transfer and international outlook. Its data and indicators help governments around the world to analyze the relationship between the excellent performance of higher institutions and policies in a critical way. It is not recommended that Chinese news agencies must undertake such comprehensive research and there is still doubt about the credibility of such evaluations, but it has been clear that the social involvement, which is conducted by professional academics and indicators, can also provide further, detailed information for both the government to adapt its policies, and higher institutions to improve their quality. Besides, it can also increase public awareness and spur higher institutions to ensure their education quality of their own free will.

6.3 Undertaking Effective Internal Quality Assurance The quality assurance system should be as much institution-driven as agency-driven, which means that internal quality assurance procedures are an important element of quality assurance. Actually, internal quality assurance can not only provide the external agencies with information about the institutions, but also stimulate higher institutions to check whether their teaching outcomes are consistent with their education missions and goals, together with the demand of the labor market. What the government should do is to make sure that institutions should initiate the quality assurance process and that each institution should develop its documented quality management system about the goals, approaches, procedures, etc., of quality assurance. Meanwhile, self-assessment should be given top priority and be conducted without any pressure from the external environment. It should not just serve as a source of information for the external panels, but should act more as a spur to institutions to take responsibility for their quality improvement.

6.4 Encouraging More Student Evaluation It is noteworthy that the Self-review Portfolio is submitted to NZUAAU together with independent student report on the audit topics. The board of a university or the council of a polytechnic also includes student representatives. Besides, the external audit panels will interview students during site reviews. Such measures in New Zealand show full respect to education receivers, who are payers and will be influenced by the quality of education lifelong. In other words, quality assurance is not solely to serve the needs of the university administration but also about satisfying the needs of the students and communities. Though academics and experts can give rather scientific conclusions that the quality assessment and review, students’ opinions and suggestions should be taken into consideration as they are part of ‘stakeholders’. Some institutions’ student evaluation is limited to rating professors’ performance at the end of the semester (OECD 2003). This is clearly not sufficient and higher education institutions should emphasize on the roles of students in managing its quality. Changes can take place like involving student representatives in the self-review unit and inviting more students to anonymously evaluate his/her own education experience during the process of self-assessment.

6.5 Developing Higher Education Management Information System The making of policy and reform is based on an effective and efficient management information system,

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 65 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 Month 2016 and the higher education quality assurance is no exception. The data and feedback, such as enrollment quotas, employment rate and alumni feedback, can serve as a reference for policy-makers and decision-makers to review the existing rules and make any changes if necessary. There is an urgent need for MoE to improve and develop the Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS). It can set standards for institutions to logging data and maintain the characteristics of different kinds of intuitions by adapting the standards in particular aspects (Wu, Chen & Wang 2014: 31). Meanwhile, such features of the data collected as relevant, timely, accurate, understandable and cost-effective should be considered to make sure that HEMIS can not only work highly effectively and efficiently, but also reduce financial burden on the government to collect data. All the statistics and analysis should be open to the public and shared by higher education institutions to help the external monitoring as well as the internal quality management.

6.6 Linking the Allocation of Appropriation with the Quality As indicated above, the allocation of financial support from the government is currently related to the enrollment number of students, which draws the institutions’ attention of quality assurance to the expansion of student admittance. There is no doubt that investment according to the enrollment number will ensure that students can have access to more education resources, but there is less evidence that higher education institutions will use most of the financial support to maintain and increase its education quality. As a result, a link between the allocation of appropriation and the quality of institutions can stimulate institutions to put emphasis on the improvement of their education quality. Funds should favor institutions with higher education quality and significant, community-contributing projects and programs to stimulate healthy competitiveness among higher education institutions. This will also encourage institutions to assess and monitor the education quality purposefully, effectively and initiatively, and raise the awareness of institutions to be responsible for tax payers.

Conclusions This paper examines the quality assurance system of higher education in New Zealand. It outlines the background, and elaborates on the current implementation of the system both internally and externally. Based on a comparison of the quality assurance systems in New Zealand and China, the paper provides the following suggestions for China to improve its higher education quality assurance system: diversify the standards and guidelines of quality assurance; authorize third-party engagement in the external quality assurance; undertake effective internal quality assurance; encourage more student evaluation; develop the higher education management information system; and link the allocation of appropriation with quality.

References Australian Universities Quality Agency. 2006. Enhancement of quality assurance systems in higher education in APEC member economies. http://www.teqsa.gov.au/. Cha, Z. H. 2006. On the education quality assurance system in New Zealand. Education Development Research, (23): 28-30. Guo, P. and L. J. Tian. 2011. Status quo of China's higher education quality assurance system and improvement suggestions. Higher Education in China, (12): 25-28. Liu, C. S. 2009. A comparative study of higher education external quality assurance systems in China and New Zealand. Management Review, (27): 125-126. New Zealand Ministry of Education. 2006. OECD thematic review of tertiary education: New Zealand

country background report. http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/36441052.pdf. New Zealand Ministry of Education. 2014. Tertiary education strategy 2014-2019. http://www.education.govt.nz/assets/Documents/Further-education/Tertiary-Education-Strategy.pdf New Zealand Qualifications Authority. 2009. Using evaluation to strengthen organizational self- assessment. http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/assets/Providers-and-partners/ Registration-and-accreditation/Self-assessment/evaluation-for-self-assessment.pdf. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2003. OECD review of financing and quality assurance reforms in higher education in the People's Republic of China.http://www.oecd.org/education/innovation-education/17137038.pdf. Qian, J. P. 2011. Key Issues in the Higher Education Quality Assurance System in China. Chengdu: Southwest Jiaotong University Press. Universities New Zealand. 2015. Committee on university academic programs handbook 2015. http://www.universitiesnz.ac.nz/files/all/_2015%20CUAP%20Handbook.pdf. Utuka, G. 2012. Quality assurance in higher education: A comparative analysis of provisions and practices in Ghana and New Zealand. PhD Dissertation. Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington. Wu, Y. X., Chen J. H. & N. Wang. 2014. Implications of New Zealand Education. Nanjing: Nanjing University Press.

ANALYSIS OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF SHADOW BANKING SYSTEM TO THE ECONOMIC GROWTH OF WAEMU COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF SENEGAL

M. MAMADOU MBAYE RESEARCHER AT LABORATORY OF RESEARCH ECONOMIC AND MONETARY (LAREM) FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT (FEAM) ANTA DIOP SHEIKH UNIVERSITY (ADSU) DAKAR / SENEGAL

Abstract The goal of this article is to analyze the contribution of shadow banking system to the economic growth of WAEMU countries. The study focuses on the specific case of Senegal. Shadow banking is a market of multiform capital exchanges and a socialization of investment risks. Its emergence is an indicator of economic maturity which proves the actors care about efficient allotment of financial resources and reflects a widespread change in the perception of the asymmetry linked to funding. Our theoretical as well as empirical research work enabled us to assess the impact of a virtually distant phenomenon on the growth for our still fragile developing countries. The results of the model show us that shadow banking influences positively economic growth because the elasticity of non-banking public

1 funding obtained by using a coefficient of is positive ( > 0). The elasticity reflects the behavior of the growth following a variation of up to 1% of non-banking public funding. That corroborates the existence of a strong complementary relationship between these two variables. Therefore, shadow banking is a potentiality for financing and even a key instrument for fundraising and therefore promotes economic growth.

Keywords: fundraising, shadow banking, financial system, regulation, economic growth, WAEMU

1. Introduction : Since the subprime’s crisis of 2007 / 2008, a profound change and an accented diversification of the financing canals of the economy have been done worldwide.

1 Proxy variable provided by the State Financial Operations Tables of the West African States Central Bank which regroups the financings from speculative markets, non-financial companies and informal finance.

The finance, which is classically duopoly ( direct and indirect finance ), strongly ill-treated by an excessive regulation very quickly found itself unable to boost up the growth in developed , emergent and underdeveloped countries. For the economies in construction, the financing of growth becomes then a major preoccupation. Their companies, as development incentives, undergo great difficulties to perform. The often noticed reason is the obstacle they come across to find enough funds in relationship with their production and development goals. In fact, long term adequate instruments are practically non-existent in their banking and traditional financial system. So the fundraising strategy constitutes for these States and for any company, a first-rate difficulty, but also and mainly a bet in the future. The gathering of resources which is about it, is an essential activity as well as during the time of the creation of commercial entity than for the needs of growth of these young States. The apprehension of the shadow banking system by its impact on growth in the WAEMU area is therefore of an undeniable relevance in the current context of globalization. No area can develop in financial autarchy in this planetary village with decompartmentalized economic barriers. Besides, the macroeconomic problems of developing countries and even emergent ones have been positioning for more than a decade to the foreground of relative preoccupations of the stability of international economy. Their weak incomes related to underdevelopment and the specific problems they come across in their titanic efforts to achieve emergence make of them the weak links of the system, in which economic crisis can be badly felt with such a consequence as a political, social and financial instability which can threaten the world macroeconomic balance. The world is a vast place of financial products exchanges which transcend physical barriers. This dematerialization is expressed in a continuous flow of capitals in a vicious, multi-currency and multi-form financial market characterized by an interdependence of open national economies. WAEMU is an economically depressed currency board, anchored to a foreign currency which undergoes the European community decisions dictated by the preservation of its interests. It cannot allow itself to go away from the shadow banking system. The shadow banking system emerges as a real alternative of financial resources gathering and can be defined like a financial intermediation system which gathers external entities to the traditional banking sector, but fulfills partly similar functions (Esther and Plihon, 2010). The economic literature (theoretical but mainly empirical) very lately got interested in the shadow banking system phenomenon. Despite its importance, it has not been so far about relevant empirical studies which are specific. Nevertheless, a more refined analysis allows us to realize that the topic is of interest for a certain number of writers, some of whom conceive it like the readiest form of financial innovation, whereas for others, it is about a wound that gangrenes the financial system and that is responsible for the recent economic crisis.

The study of the shadow banking negative consequences is undoubtedly the fact of neo-keynesian and pro-minskian writers. Actually, for the Keynesians, a balanced economic growth would not rely on a system totally dependent on a lever effect, because the base of such allotment of resources, essentially composed of speculative and fluctuating products, would do nothing but accentuate the financial instability. The pro-Minskians, on the same line, describe the mechanism at the origin of the financial instability. They consider that the main pushing elements are :  the rate interest increase and ;  The capital reported debt rate.

As a matter of fact, these two variables as described prevent the optimal coverage from risks making thus projects financed by speculative funds very vulnerable. The breakdowns which would result from this situation will create a brutal drainage of the market capitals, which would oblige the agent holders of assets in cash to get rid of them very quickly On the other hand, with the studies of financial innovations impact, namely those of the financial system parallel with the economy, the positive effects appear since 1980 in empirical literature with the advent of the endogenous growth theory. In fact, for Romer (1986), Lucas (1988) and Barro (1990), the economic growth explains itself by the endogenous factors such as the capital, the know-how and the progress contrary to Solow’s (1956) exogenous growth model. Generally, financial system contemporary theoreticians unanimously recognize that shadow banking is a fund provider to the actual economy: necessary resource which the classical system is quite often unable to provide from the fact that among other reasons of an excessive prudential regulation. Blanqué (2015) says that the expression « market based financing » is more indicated than «shadow banking » all the more that it actively contributes to the economy funding and to the lessening of the banking houses statements. Its relevance being then known, it is no longer up-to-date to feel guilty about it but rather organize and supervise it so as to:  rid it from the probable germs of systemic breakdown and ;  reinforce its weak links which can weaken and jam the financial machinery.

Shadow banking is then a necessity and must, as well as the traditional financial system, contribute to the emergence of a real, dynamic, strong and sustainable economy. According to Gruffat (2015), « Shadow banking contributes to develop the competition in a financial sector dominated by some big banks and that it is at the same time safe and useful for the economy funding to vary and specialize those financing, but what to avoid, as it is the case in China is to leave to the non-banks the need to fund the most exposed and the least capitalized sectors ». So as to allow it to really play this lever role, it is urgent to specify and regularize it. Ever since, the post-crisis literature has much focused on the prudential and regular aspects rather than on the existential approach of the shadow banking phenomenon.

For the authors such as Mellios (2015) and Jean J (2015), the danger also lies on an excess of zeal in the regulation which would make possible to a fragmentation of the parallel system enabling to lead to the gestation of micro-shadow beyong any control. Besides, caution is recommended about this standardization attempt to avoid a structural transformation and a migration of entities which can result in an overregulation. The relevance and the legitimacy of our study lay on the fact that it is the first of this type in the WAEMU area and that it gives a way to research and analysis on a real phenomenon for which no economy is an exception today, not even the emergent ones. Our article is not about a relative discussion to the existence of shadow banking in the sub-regional financial environment; this seems quite true, but rather than analyze its contribution to the WAEMU nations economic growth. Our hypothesis stipulates that shadow banking positively and significantly affects the WAEMU countries economic growth more than classical funding. The rest of the article is organized as follow:  Introduction ;  Model presentation ;  Global interpretation of the model results;  Conclusion.

2. Model presentation : Our goal is then to turn into econometric model the relationship between the economic growth and shadow banking. In our analysis, the economic growth represents the explained or dependent variable and shadow banking, an explicative variable. Since shadow banking is an aggregate variable, we will capture it by a proxy variable that is to say: non-banking public funding system. This proxy variable provided by the State Financial Operations Tables (SFOT) of the Central Bank of West African States regroups the funding from speculative markets, non-financial companies and informal funding. Since it is about a proxy variable, Cobb Douglas’s substitution function seems to us the most indicated to achieve prospective results. The table below gives us the initial series to launch the model.

Table 1: Funding a non-banking system (CBWAS source-Checked series) CODE KKKFP1082A0AP DESCRIPTION Non Banking System Funding UNIT OF MEASURE FCFA MAGNITUDE Milliards Billions SOURCE Ministry of Economy and Finance. SERIES TYPE Flux Flow

OBSERVATION METHOD Amount on the Period 2000 17,8 2001 -4,4 2002 -7,4 2003 -2,8 2004 43,6 2005 16,9 2006 29,65 2007 -53,6 2008 85,2 2009 -29,1 2010 29,2 2011 21,1 2012 145 2013 156,1 2014 -69,18 Source : SFOT, CBWAS 2015 The Cobb Douglas’s use necessitates the treatment of the series in order to replace the negative values by some potentials which are able to be taken into account through a logarithmic declination of our basic model. It is firstly about bringing all the negative values to zero and then proceeding to the smoothing of the series by the HP filter (Hodrick – Prescott) so as to obtain the series trend. Since then, we can take back our data with, in place of negative values, underlying values. Basic model: Cobb Douglas’s model

Elucidation of the model variables The main model variables are:

 the public banking funding (K1) ;

 the public non-bank funding (K2) ;

 the private funding (Kpriv) ;

 the rate

 the work force (L) In the equation of the model, the economic growth is obtained by (Y) which represents the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). We go from the following theoritical model :

Model launching: In this part we unfold the econometric estimations. And, from the obtained results, we will test the research hypotheses and will assess the impact level of shadow banking on the economic growth by means of the proxy variable. After the treatment of initial data, we obtain the below smoothed series which will allow to launch the model. This series is composed of chronological data covering the period from 2000 to 2014. Table 2 : Underlying values table Year GDP Kpub Kpriv Kpub bc Kpub nbc ratioplus1 Work force 2000 3331,8 426,2 2533,5 408,4 17,8 6,95 4092071 2001 3575,5 450,7 2790,4 445,6 5,070 7,19 4213183 2002 3717,6 493,2 2973,1 484,2 8,948 7,03 4347798 2003 3986,4 518,3 3063,0 505,2 13,105 6,91 4483596 2004 4242,8 571,0 3290,1 527,4 43,6 6,76 4630827 2005 4592,7 610,6 3565,0 593,7 16,9 6,84 4776363 2006 4893,6 668,1 3871,5 638,5 29,65 6,79 4921476 2007 5408,3 767,1 4270,6 734,4 32,677 6,57 5073814 2008 5994,5 806,4 4890,0 721,2 85,2 7,06 5233032 2009 6033,4 861,0 4857,7 815,9 45,106 6,64 5398218 2010 6401,8 947,4 5024,0 918,2 29,2 6,30 5569017 2011 6782,8 1052,5 5234,7 1031,4 21,1 5,97 5750213 2012 7263,8 1108,2 5562,5 963,2 145 6,02 5935546 2013 7386,7 1133,1 5733,3 977,0 156,1 6,06 6118166 2014 7741,3 1200,3 5993,4 1120,4 79,809 5,99 6316988

Source: Statistician of CREFAT, CBWAS data (smoothing filter HP)

For the worries of the series widening, we have operated a regression by using the bootstrap technique with a 35 observations replication. These observations will consent to the econometric tests and will attribute certain robustness to the prospective results. This chronological series will allow us to follow the evolution of the variables during the reserved period. Let’s make it clear that all the data are in Billions Francs CFA. We have recourse to the Ordinary least squares Method (OLS) to eliminate the coefficients of the model. The launching is done in STATA and the levels of 1 percent, 5 percent and 10 percent have been retained for the validation tests. We want to know, through the model, if the non-banking public funding which translates the shadow banking has a positive impact on the economic growth: it is the principal hypothesis of the model. Basic equation :

Formulation of hypotheses

H1 : > 0 : the non-banking public funding has a positive influence on the economic growth.

H2 : < 0 : the non-banking public funding has a negative influence on the economic growth.

In economic literature, the economic growth explicative variables are in the long run: the active economically population growth, the technology growth and the growth of the capital represented in our equation by public funding (banking public funding and non-banking public funding) and the private funding. The model developed is essentially an instrument of quantitative analysis which will give an idea on the link between the non-banking public funding and the economic growth. It will allow us to bring a contribution to know the impact level of shadow banking on the economic growth. The Tests used  Validation test of the model The estimation by the OLS is based on the following hypotheses:

H1: . This hypothesis means that the number of observations must be higher than the number of explicative variables. H2: The matrix rank of the explicative variables is equal to k (X’X is inversible)

H3: . This hypothesis postulates that the mathematic expectation of the risks is nil. The variations are then observed without any errors.

H4: . The expectation of the square remainders equals the variance, which means that the appreciator of the OLS is without any error.

H5: . This hypothesis shows that the mistakes are not self-correlated.

H6: ). The chance follows a normal law.

H7: . The errors of observation and the explicative variable are independent. Validation tests are done before the interpretation of coefficients. Table 3: results of the estimation by the ‘Ordinary least squares’ method (OLS)

Source: statistician of CREFAT With these results, we obtain by substitution the following estimated equation:

We have gone through the following tests:  Student’s Test This test allows us to see individual meaningfulness of the model coefficients. Constancy (c)

Prob= 0,031 0, 05 so the constant is meaningful

Interpretation: The constant then affects meaningfully the model. The banking public funding (LogKpub bc)

Prob=0.002 < 0, 05 so . Interpretation: the banking public funding has a meaningful influence on the economic growth. The non-banking public funding (LogKpub nbc)

Prob= 0.019 0.05

Interpretation: the non-banking public funding has a meaningful influence on the model. Ratio plus1 (Logratioplus1)

Prob=0.003 < 0.05 Interpretation: the Rate has a meaningful influence on the model Work force (Logpopactiv)

Prob= 0.010 < 0.05 so Interpretation: the active Population variable has a meaningful influence on the model.  FISHER’S TEST This test gives an idea on the meaningfulness on the model

Prob (F-Statistic) = 0, 05

Interpretation: the model is good and it is globally meaningful

Figure 1: Normality Test – Jacques Bera’s Test Source: Statistician of CREFAT

Interpretation: we accept H1 so the errors of the model do not follow a normal law.

Figure 2: Cusum’s Test Source: statistician of CREFAT According to CUSUM’s test, we notice that the model is unstable on the period 2007-2009 This instability is explained by the sub-primes crisis which resulted in a world crisis influencing negatively the Senegalese economy. This empirically confirms our assertions mentioned in the theoretical analysis.

3. Global interpretation of the model results The hypothesis according to which shadow banking obtained by the non-banking public funding would have a negative influence on the economic growth has been invalidated because we have noticed that the coefficient that affect ( ) is positive.

So, shadow banking positively impacts to the economic growth. The Student’s test has shown us that all the variables free from the model including the constant are statistically significant. Fisher’s test has confirmed the global significance of the model. Jacques Bera’s test has revealed that the errors of the model variations do not follow a normal law. CUSUM’s test has detected instability of the model from 2007 to 2009. It is a situation which explains itself by the sub-primes crisis which has become a world financial crisis. The value of the fixing coefficient (R2) is up to 0.9984. It is very close to the unit. It shows therefore that 99.84 percent the economic growth variations are explained by the variables free from the model such as the public banking funding, the non-banking public funding, the active population, the public rate /private funding.

GDP Private funding Figure 3: Evolution of explicative variables in relation with the GDP Source: statistician of CREFAT Interpretation: We remark that the GDP develops the same as the private funding. It is then a growing function of the private funding.

GDP Non-bank-public funding linear (Non-bank-public funding) Figure 4: Evolution of the GDP and the non-banking public funding in billions Source: statistician of CREFAT Interpretation: We notice that the curve representing the non-banking public funding has an irregular development because of the negative values in the initial series. After the smoothing of the data, we observe that the GNP follows the same trend as the non-banking public funding.

GDP Public funding banking Figure 5: Evolution of the GDP and the public banking funding in billions Source: statistician of CREFAT Interpretation We remark that the GDP does not follow the growing trends of the public banking funding. What confirms the hypothesis to which our banks dislike the risks and do not finance growth. They are more specialized in short –term fundings which are less constraining and easier to recover to the detriment of important investments.

4. Conclusion The empirical results of our research studies corroborate our hypothesis for which shadow banking system influences in a significant way the Senegalese economic growth. However, the use of the fundraising instrument of such an importance requires from these states which evolve in an unfinished economic environment, the implementation and the incorporation of an existing regular plan, moderate, realistic and prudential standards.

It is not about a mechanic and systematic importation of directives recommended by the Bâle committee, for, such an approach could lead us to disillusionment. To convince oneself, it is simply about analyzing

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 82 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 the relationship « level of application of prudential norms / level of our countries real economy » in WAEMU zone. We realize that the nations which are very respectful about the prudential standards application such as Guinea Bissau have a real economy which is lagging behind, compared to Ivory Coast which shows a two-digit growth.

The control of shadow banking is without doubt a great challenge for the regulator, because it has in its own some defects which are specific to it but also almost all the risks of the classical system such as the credit risk, liquidity credity, maturity risk and all the panoply of operational risks. Shadow banking through its interconnections and interpenetrations with other financial systems brings about very quickly systemic crises contrary to the classical finance whose defects can more easily be contained. When the difference shows itself, it is more visible than nature.

In terms of economic politics, our results suggest widening the perimeter of action of West African States Central Bank and integrating in its domains of competences the regulation of parallel finance. This will allow controlling the components of shadow banking as well as for the entities to the activities but also being careful about the heterogeneous products of hybrid transactions between parallel and classical Finance. Still in the same logic, the application on the fundraising transactions of an important concessional rate of refinancing would permit to avoid the financial dumpers who are not playing right as far as the competition is concerned on the mutually agreed market, in the long run, would be able to threaten the global balance of their young economies.

This measure would turn the products of shadow banking less volatile, less opaque and then less risky. Some activities such as securitization should be subject to a particular supervision in their immature economies. On the other hand, the toxic products like the resecuritization should be banished from financial practices because, as a reminder, the endorsable, divisible and transmissible speculative titles always have a high degree of involvement in the contemporary systemic crisis. These recommendations which are able to find their validation in a community level could be about specific adjustments in each state; as far as the asymmetric character of our economies is concerned, yet without going away from the macro prudential orientation of the regulation of the WAEMU zone financial system.

References P. BLANQUE, Shadow Banking. What is the parallel finance? What is its role? How to regulate it? Eyrolles Edition. 2015, P 165-167. J. C. GRUFFAT, the bank of the shadow sight states - USA, Eyrolles Edition. 2015, P 57-78. J. ESTHER and D. PLIHON, “The shadow banking system and the financial crisis”, University Paris 8, LED and Paris 13 University Sorbonne Paris City, CEPN, French notebook N° 375, 2010.

Michel. AGLIETTA, “Shadow Banking carries a risk of illiquidity collective”, University of Paris Nanterre. AGEFI. PARIS, 2014. C. MELLIOS, Shadow banking, what is the parallel finance? What is its role? How to regulate it? Eyrolles Edition, 2015, P 33 – 39. P. ROMER, Increasing Returns and Long-Run Growth. Journal of Political Economy, 1986, Vol. 94, N_5, pp. 1002-1037. LUCAS, R. (1988). On the Mechanics of Development. Journal of Monetary Economics, Vol. 22, N_1, pp. 3-42. R. J. BARRO, Government Spending in a Simple Model of Endogenous Growth. Journal of Political Economy, 1990, Vol. 98, N-5, pp. S103-S125. R. SOLOW, “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1956, Vol. 70, pp. 65-94. E. SHAW, and Mc. KINNON, Financial Aspects of Economic Development American Economic Review, 1973, Vol. 45, pp. 515-538. R. C. MERTON, Financial Innovation and the Management Regulation of Financial Institutions. Journal of Banking and Finance, 1995, Vol. 19, pp. 461-481.

Exploration of Mode of Software Service Outsourcing Talents Training Based on School-Enterprise Cooperation and Engineering Education

Chuang-Wei Wang *, Ke-Ming Tang College of Information Engineering, Yancheng Teachers University, Jiangsu, 224002, China

Abstract With the rapid development of international service outsourcing industry, the supply and demand uncoordinated problem between talent training modes and service outsourcing enterprises arises. In order to adapt to the knowledge-based economy and social development, our university has done some exploration work in IT service outsourcing talent training with some methods and measures taken, which the culture results obtained aims at providing a reference information for the high-quality IT service outsourcing personnel training and educational reform.

Keywords: School-enterprise cooperation, Engineering education, Service outsourcing, Talent training

1. Introduction In recent years, with the rapid development of international service outsourcing industry, our country looks outsourcing as a strategic measure of economic development and gives it strong support. The service outsourcing is a kind of business model that enterprises separate the fundamental, common, non-core IT business from IT-based business processes, and outsource to a professional service supplier to complete. This make enterprises focus on core business development, so as to reduce costs, improve efficiency, and enhance their core competitiveness and resilience of the external environment, which include information technology outsourcing (ITO), business process outsourcing (BPO) and knowledge process outsourcing (KPO). However, China's service outsourcing industry has been severely restricted by talents bottlenecks. Knowledge System of software outsourcing talents remarkably lagged behind, mainly because the current training model and methods of universities can’t meet the current situation for talent demand (Wen & Xin, 2015). Therefore research of university talents training mode has become an urgent task of domestic industries and academic fields. At present, IT technology development has progress quickly. The biggest contradiction between talent supply of service outsourcing and demand of IT software is IT service outsourcing talents trained in the current education system lack of practical skills, and has a big gap with an employing standard of many enterprises (Mohamad et al., 2014). If colleges and universities do not focus on training the talents adapt to the production development, trained talents will be difficult to meet the needs of business. Although some universities have already recognized the seriousness of this problem, situation still not changed

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 85 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 because of the lack of timely understanding of the needs of IT software and services outsourcing enterprises. "Model of school-enterprise cooperation and engineering education talents training (MSECEET)" came into being in the current situation (Popescu, 2015). It is a drive mode of jointly cultivating software talents of the universities and services outsourcing enterprises. Its core is the solution to contradictions between school education and enterprise employing, prompting sufficient complementarity in the advantages of universities and enterprises from industry cooperation mechanism and operation mode. The comprehensive cooperation will be really achieved, which include scientific development of software personnel training program, organization of course plans according to the production process, and the establishment of training base in order to combine professional skills training and actual job requirements, so that personnel training quality may meet the needs of enterprises. So MSECEET not only provide high-quality talent pool for the development of service outsourcing enterprises, but also bring new opportunities to the featured education of the applied undergraduate colleges, as well as the inevitable trend to training and needs of talents (Massyrova et al., 2015).

2. MSECEET in Our University The MSECEET advantage is so obvious and prominent that our government gave strong support to service outsourcing talent training plan. At this time, our college caught the opportunity and mode a deep reform on the IT service outsourcing talent training, which mainly took the following measures (Gillard et al., 2012).

2.1 Creating Training Base and Strengthening Practical Teaching Our college established a developmental concept of "cooperative education, cooperative employment, cooperative development", and took various models of school-enterprise cooperation to achieve both profitable situation, to train advanced application-oriented talents for social needs. We have built some professional internship training bases, have signed some related agreements with Microsoft in Jiangsu (Wuxi), ChinaSoft International (Wuxi), Ambow Education (Kunshan), CVICSE (Kunshan), NanDa SOFTECH (Nanjing), Haichuang Digital Media (Wuxi), and so on. Meanwhile, the different professional training bases were also established which included Software Engineering, Network Engineering, Digital Media Technology. And the talent plan applying "3 + 1" training model was implemented based on the concept of “cooperative education, co-build, co-culture" with these enterprises. The co-build professions are as follows (see Table 1).

Table 1 The co-build profession list of school-enterprise cooperation model to build Company Name Cooperative Cooperative Cooperative period profession class Microsoft in Jiangsu 2013/09 Computer Science and Class Two, (Wuxi, China) Technology Grade 2011

Microsoft in Jiangsu 2014/09 Computer Science and Class Two and Three, (Wuxi, China) Technology Grade 12 Ambow Education 2014/09 Network Engineering Class Four and Five, (Kunshan, China) Grade 12 CVICSE 2015/09 Software Engineering Class Six and Seven, (Kunshan, China) Grade 12 NanDa SOFTECH 2015/09 Computer Science and Class one and Two, (Nanjing, China) Technology Grade 13 Ambow Education 2015/09 Network Engineering Class Three and Four, (Kunshan, China) Grade 13 CVICSE 2015/09 Software Engineering Class Five andSix, (Kunshan, China) Grade 13 ChinaSoft International 2015/09 Software Engineering Class Seven and Eight, (Wuxi, China) Grade 13 Haichuang Digital Media 2015/09 Digital Media Technology Class Nine and Ten, (Wuxi, China) Grade 13

2.2 Innovative Teaching System & Creating Feature Education Since an original experimental teaching system is single, fuzzy hierarchic, and individualized culture can’t be achieved, an integrated experimental teaching system of "three-dimension, four-level" structure was established according to professional training goals, providing support for different professional talent training, where "three-dimension" means experimental innovation capacity, experimental training level and experimental course content, and the "four-level" refers to the basic training level, the higher training level, comprehensive training level and technological innovation level. Experimental innovation capacity is the main line of "four-dimensional" system. The experimental training level is a ladder to enhance students' practical ability. Experiment course content is the key to achieve the level of experimental training levels. This system is conducive to improving students' practical abilities, to cultivating students' innovative consciousness and innovative ability, and to cultivating students' independent abilities (Wen & Xin, 2015). Our college mainly rely on the quality resources such as "Jiangsu provincial international service outsourcing training base" and "Experimental Demonstration Center in Jiangsu Province" to establish "international service outsourcing talent training and project R & D base", and to further strengthen the training of talents for "professional international service outsourcing", and practice many aspects activities including software project management, software project testing, new technology training, etc. These may promote individuality employment orientation and ability, construct featured talent training modes. Our college has modified various professional teaching systems for four professions, network engineering, computer science and technology, software engineering and digital media according to their different professional training objectives. The implement of “three-dimension, four-level" of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 87 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 experimental teaching system integration from Network Engineering profession was as an example listed in Table 2. Table 2 The “three-dimension, four-level" of experimental teaching system of Network Engineering profession Practical courses or projects Training levels Training expanding Innovation & Students practice and innovation training program, Advanced entrepreneurshi Network cabling skills competitions, technology p Web-based application system project, practice of Network security and management services, network Network engineering and technical services. programming, Comprehensive Network Design of Network Graduation Professional training Planning and network engineering Project skills training, Design security, training Network network systems cabling integration training projects Enhanced Curriculum Curriculum Curriculum Curriculum Design and training design of design of design of design of Implementatio algorithms and Web routing and Network n of Web data structures program switching system application integration system Basic training Programming Routing and Web TCP / IP Algorithm foundation Switching programmin protocol design and experiment, practice, g practices, analysis and implementatio Object-oriente Practice of Linux application n; d program Computer Network of practice, TCP / IP experiment, Network Program Network protocol Algorithms Security Practices systems applications and Data integration Structures practice Experiment

2.3 Changing Teaching Mode & Deepening Teaching Reform Teaching model is directly related to student learning, training work and innovation, t also related to achievement of the ultimate goal of education and teaching. Taking into account the business demand for talents, the development of training plans was targeted students' knowledge hierarchy in professional courses teaching. According to the training goals, the training plans were optimized and adjusted in

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 88 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 limited teaching hours, avoiding touch with theoretical courses or repeated teaching, adjusting the allocated proportion of classroom teaching and practical teaching hours, and properly handling the relationship between the practice courses and the curriculum trained by corporation.

In the teaching process, a combination of teaching model of classroom teaching and teaching outside by the enterprise is applied. Classroom teaching implements strict teaching management. With the premise of ensuring the professional courses, professional courses are increasing to improve students' practical and innovative ability on their own profession. The latest professional courses are completed by experienced engineers or project managers assigned by the business. Meanwhile the professional lectures in our college also track the teaching schedule. On the one hand, so that our teachers always study for long-term with enterprises’ teachers to enhance teachers’ levels, on the other hand, our teachers may guide teachers from enterprises to ensure the teaching quality (Dordinejad & Rashvand, 2014).

"Extracurricular teaching" can guide the students’ career education to participate the professional community activities, which are managed by professional teachers, which provide weekly the forefront professional lectures, and assign tasks to be finished by students through online access to information, discussion and research and so on. The training process of students' knowledge and skills are shown in Figure 1.

Classroom teaching by Internship Classroom Enterprise in the teaching Practice in Students Classroom outside enterprise by Enterprise software factory Extracurricular teaching Learning in the community

Figure 1 training process of students' knowledge and skills.

2.4 Deepening Management Reform & Highlighting Training Features Over the years, our college has been training applied-type graduates as purpose, and keeping up with the current social needs in a professional setting. So far, we need to break the traditional training model which has long been formed. The model "multi-class, multi-practice, multi-management" is to be reflected in the training process. The appropriate teaching methods to our students are to be used. We should vigorously promote the development and use teaching material in line with the culture purposes in our school.

In addition to cooperation teaching with the corresponding professional IT enterprise, the communities are managed by various professions. The specific settings of societies are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 The specific settings of Community Community names Professions management and learning methods Network Network Engineering The associations mainly guided Association by professional teachers. The key Software Software Engineering members are composed of the Association first, second and third grade Digital Media Digital Media technology students. The third grade students Association as a technical backbone may help Application and Computer Science and the first and second students in Simulation Technology learning. Association

3. Reform Results 3.1 Stimulating Students’ Interest in Learning & Improving Their Professional Skills In recent years, personnel training mode of "school-enterprise cooperation and engineering education" is used in our college. In this way, the theory and practice is closely associated with the actual development of enterprises to greatly stimulate the students' enthusiasm and initiative. Main features have (1) the increasing number of participants every year, the degree of perfection of the project and the quality of the documentation prepared are improved significantly; (2) since cooperation with Microsoft, 113 applications successfully submitted to windows 8 App Store by the students in just 20 days; the ability of students to be approved by Microsoft technology experts in "Microsoft Imagine Cup 2013 competition in China Imagine Cap".

3.2 Improving Employment Rate of Students and Employment Level The graduates experienced the "School-Enterprise Cooperation and Engineering Education Personnel Training Mode" have showed obvious features: (1) employment: With excellent professional skills, complete project experience and qualified professionalism, 16% of participants were hired by IBM, 15% of participants were hired in INFOSYS company, 12% were hired in NandaSoft Fu Yue Technology Co., Ltd., other practitioners work in Bardon (Suzhou, China), Hongzhikeji (Suzhou, China). Their work ability and overall quality of graduates are gave a good compliment by corporate employers. (2) Awards: In the following compititions, "Jiangsu province Undergraduate Mathematical Contest in Modeling," "Chinese Students’ outsourcing Competition", and "2013 Microsoft Imagine Cup competition Imagine Cap in China," competition results come out top, which has practical guidance to educational reform in our college.

4. Conclusion MSECEET not only provides high-quality talent pool for the development of service outsourcing enterprises, but also points out the direction of development to our featured teaching, which is an

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 90 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 inevitable trend to personnel training in today's knowledge society. Meanwhile, when we learn, absorb, practice and develop the new mode of education, we should keep a clear mind to discover the problems, and learn from the advanced teaching experience abroad to improve education system for further development of service outsourcing personnel training in the school.

Conflict of Interest All authors declare no financial/commercial conflicts of interest.

References Mohamad, M., Daud, S., Harun, M. Z. M. (2014). Top leaders attributes in malaysian higher education institutions: effect on university innovation. International Journal for Innovation Education and Research. 2(3), 56-71. Wen, X.Y., Xin, K.H. (2015). An analysis of educational management based on college students innovative undertaking concept. International Journal for Innovation Education and Research. 3(11), 68-72. Massyrova, R., Tautenbaeva, A., Tussupova, A., Zhalalova, A., Bissenbayeva, Zh. (2015). Changes in the higher education system of Kazakhstan. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 185, 49-53. Dordinejad, F.G., Rashvand, M. (2014). The role of Iranian EFL teachers’ reflectivity and teaching style in the students’ achievement. Global Journal of Foreign Language Teaching. 4(1), 42-58. Popescu, F. (2015). South African globalization strategies and higher education. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 209, 411-418 Gillard, E., Saunders, S., Terblanche, J., Sukel, M. (2012). A review of four case studies in restructuring the South African higher education system. http://ahero.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module¼cshe&action¼viewtitle&id¼cshe_842.

Not All Are Created Equal: An Analysis of the Environmental Programs/Departments in U.S. Institutions of Higher Education From 1900 Until March 2014

Aldemaro Romero* and Michael Nathe Weissman School of Arts & Sciences Baruch College, City University of New York One Bernard Baruch Way, Box B 8-250 New York, NY 10010-5585 * [email protected]

Abstract Environmental academic programs in U.S. institutions of higher education have traditionally lacked definition of their nature and unifying principles. In order to ascertain how these programs are presently constituted in U.S. institutions of higher education, we surveyed 1050 environmental programs/departments between November 2013 and March of 2014. The states with the highest number of those programs/departments were New York (100), Pennsylvania (92), California (76), Ohio (56), Massachusetts (54), while those with the lowest numbers are Oklahoma, and Utah (4), Delaware (3), Arkansas, Hawaii, South Dakota, and Wyoming (2), North Dakota (1), and Idaho (0). However, when the state population is taken into account and the number of programs per 1,000,000 inhabitants is calculated, the results vary greatly for the ones that were at the top in absolute numbers but remain basically the same for those that were at the bottom in absolute number. Thus, the states with the highest number of programs/departments per 1,000,000 inhabitants are Vermont (30.364), Montana (15.160), Maine (15.056), the District of Columbia (14.957), Alaska (14.080), and Rhode Island (10.451), and at the bottom we find Idaho (0), Arkansas (0.686), Oklahoma (1.066), Texas (1.352), Florida (1.436), Utah (1.447), Hawaii (1.470), and North Dakota (1.487). The names Environmental Science and Environmental Studies are, by far, the most common ones being applied to these programs, accounting for 52.40% of the programs in our study. Environmental programs are also housed in departments of Biology/Ecology/Conservation (9.93%), Policy/Analysis/Planning (7.19%), and Geology (4.79%). Between 1900 (the year of the first program was created) and 1958, only 14 programs were established. For the period 1959-1999, there is a dramatic increase in the number of programs. There are two big "waves" in the creation of programs: one between 1965 and 1976 (with a high peak in 1970) and another starting 1988 and, probably, continuing to this date, with a peak in 1997. Representatives of the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 92 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 programs surveyed cited students and faculty demand and job market opportunities as the most common reasons behind the creation of these programs. The high diversity of names and emphases found in this study is consistent with the premise that Environmental Studies is a field where there is a lack of unifying principles and clarity of what environmental studies programs should be.

INTRODUCTION There is some uncertainty about Environmental Studies (ES) as an academic field and about how to design environmental programs for institutions of higher education (Soulé and Press 1998, Maniates and Whissel 2000). This comes from the very nature of interdisciplinary programs in the sense of disciplinary boundaries. In general, the status of ES programs (ESPs) is characterized by competing proposals, that is, to what extent it is a crossroads of disciplines or a discipline in itself. There is neither agreement as to the characterization of the domain or a basis for identification and selection of accurate and appropriate subject matter of ESPs (Bennett 1996). Traditionally, most ESPs were envisioned as an integrating concept that draws elements from many traditional disciplines, but actual integration or synthesis of that knowledge has been difficult to define and/or achieve. Thus it is not always possible to ascertain when that integration is accomplished. No consensus has been reached on whether ES is a field that can be described as an area for professional and technical preparation, interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, metadisciplinary or a discipline in itself (Newell and Green 1982, Caldwell 1983, Mattes 1994, McLaughlin 1994, Wilke 1995, Horning 1996, Schneider 1997, Jacobson and McDuff 1998). Furthermore, whether or not its teaching must include certain ethical values and what those values should be, have also been a source of discussion (Orr 1990, Kim and Dixon 1993, Hunn 1996). Others have suggested that the fundamental mission for these programs must be to teach sustainability (e.g., Filho 2002). Despite all these shortcomings, there is evidence that ESPs are increasing in number and importance among institutions of higher education (Kettl 1999, Maniates and Whissel 2000, Romero et al. 2000). Yet, there have been, to our knowledge, only six extensive, in-depth surveys of environmental programs/departments covering both graduate and undergraduates in U.S. academic institutions (Maniates and Whissel 2000, Romero et al. 2000, Romero et al. 2001, Romero and Eastwood 2002, Romero and Jones, 2003, Romero and Silveri 2006). Some past statistical analyses on their number in higher education have always been vague (e.g., Brough 1992). The major goal of this paper is to present and discuss on a periodic basis as many environmental programs in U.S. institutions of higher education as possible as a continuation of our previous work so we can assess how this field is evolving on a continuing basis (Romero et al. 2000, Romero et al. 2001, Romero and Eastwood 2002, Romero and Jones 2003). We continue to study the following characteristics: 1) geographic distribution; 2) number of programs per institution; 3) how those programs define themselves by name (e.g., environmental studies, environmental science, etc.); 4) emphases of programs by areas of knowledge (natural sciences, social sciences, humanities, interdisciplinary); 5) degree offered (B.A., B. Sc., Masters’, Ph.D.); 6) whether internships and study away/abroad opportunities were offered and if any

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 93 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 of those was required; 7) vital statistics (number of students enrolled, number of students graduated in 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, number of faculty involved in those programs and the status of those faculty, i.e., number of faculty that: a) were assigned to the environmental program/department, whether they were b) full-time, c) shared with other departments/programs, d) part-time faculty, 8) year in which the environmental program/department was created, and 9) why the program was created. For this edition, we have also made some inquiries on the operating budgets of those programs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS We define as an environmental program/department any of those that use the word environmental in their title, from the most commonly offered under the names of environmental studies, science, and engineering to the less common environmental journalism or law. We also include those that although their names do not carry the word environmental, define themselves as environmental in nature in their advertisement material. Therefore we are taking a much broder view of what an environmental-related academic program is. Much of the data presented here is taken from previous surveys by the authors (Romero et al. 2000, Romero et al. 2001, Romero and Eastwood 2002, Romero and Jones 2003, Romero and Silveri 2006). In addition to the methods described therein, we obtained the most recent information through direct contact with the administrators of the programs themselves via email and telephone. Administrators of these programs were asked to complete the entire survey. We also visited the websites of particular colleges and universities, and consulted Rodenhouse (2005). Direct responses (response rates, about 50% of the programs surveyed) were compiled. For those that did not reply to our request for information we based the data provided in this paper on their advertised information found either on-line or in their brochures. When there was no advertised information in a specific category, we assumed no changes and left the information as detailed in Romero and Jones (2003) (and reviewed since then) for the sake of parsimony. Each program was treated as an individual entry for statistical purposes even when there was more than one program for the same academic institution. To locate the programs/departments, we used online search engines such as Peterson’s guide to graduate schools and Peterson’s CollegeQuest for undergraduate programs (www.collegequest.com). We also used other sites that carry extensive lists of higher education programs in the environmental arena, such as the web page of the National Council for Science and the Environment and Second Nature. We also looked at Brillault (2000) as a source for environmental law programs. Other programs were located through their web pages by typing in the words environment or environmental and matching those with the words program and/or department in the following search engines: Google, Excite, HotBot, LookSmart, Lycos, Snap, and About.com. In order to locate programs/departments that were more recently created and for which information was not readily available in the sources cited above, we have been scrutinizing job advertisements for academic positions in The Chronicle of Higher Education and Science since September 1999.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION General: Results are compiled in Table 1. We present information on a total of 1050 programs/departments in 605 institutions of higher education. 44 (33.59%) of them were 4-year colleges, 81 (61.83%) were institutions with both undergraduate and graduate programs (“universities”), 1 (0.763%) was exclusively a law schools and 5 were classified as other (3.82%) (Figure 1). Those programs are listed alphabetically according to the name of the associated academic institution. Each institution was counted only once regardles of the total number of programs at any given institution.

Fig. 1. Programs by Institution type.

The average number of programs per institution was 1.745 with a range of 1-24. We took into consideration that The University of California system throughout its campuses had 24. The UC System has six campuses with environmental academic programs and the Berkeley campus alone has 11 programs. Also included in Table 1 is the URL address from each program from which we obtained the initial information, whether or not people from that program/department responded to our survey, the name of the person we contacted or who at least appeared as responsible for the program/department based on his/her title (program director, coordinator, chair), and the email address of that program/department that we used or at least appeared to be the one for contact/further inquiry for that program are also included.

Geographic Distribution: The second column on Table 1, identifies the location of the institution by state. The programs/departments per state are summarized in Table 2. In order to assess whether these numbers accurately represent any level of demand for these kinds of programs in the academic institutions of these states, they must be correlated to the population in those states. Using U.S. Census Bureau data (July 2005), we normalized the number of programs/departments to the population of that state and region. Regions were defined using the U.S. Census Bureau definition for states comprising six U.S. regions: Northeast, South, Midwest, West, West Coast, and Alaska and Hawaii (www.census.gov).

Table 2. Number of Environmental programs/departments per state/population Region # Programs/ Population Programs/ (Total # of State State (1 July 2005) 1,000,000 people Programs) ALASKA/ Alaska 10 710,231 14.080 HAWAII (12) Hawaii 2 1,360,301 1.470 California 76 37,253,956 2.040 WEST COAST Oregon 23 3,831,074 6.003 (123) Washington 22 6,724,540 3.273 Arizona 10 6,392,017 1.564 Colorado 24 5,029,196 4.772 Idaho 0 1,567,528 0 ROCKY Montana 15 989,415 15.160 MOUNTAINS Nevada 10 2,700,551 3.703 (73) New Mexico 8 2,059,179 3.885 Utah 4 2,763,885 1.447 Wyoming 2 563,626 3.548 Illinois 34 12,830,632 2.650 Indiana 34 6,483,802 5.244 Iowa 19 3,046,355 6.237 Kansas 5 2,853,118 1.752 Michigan 37 9,883,640 3.744 MIDWEST Minnesota 18 5,303,925 3.394 (249) Missouri 12 5,988,927 2.004 Nebraska 5 1,826,321 2.738 North Dakota 1 672,591 1.487 Ohio 56 11,536,504 4.854 South Dakota 2 814,180 2.456 Wisconsin 27 5,686,986 4.748 Alabama 9 4,779,736 1.883 Arkansas 2 2,915,918 0.686 Delaware 3 897,934 3.341 SOUTH District of Columbia 9 601,723 14.957 (263) Florida 27 18,801,310 1.436 Georgia 21 9,687,653 2.168 Kentucky 7 4,339,367 1.613

Louisiana 13 4,533,327 2.252 Maryland 20 5,773,552 3.464 Mississippi 14 2,967,297 4.718 North Carolina 24 9,535,483 2.517 Oklahoma 4 3,751,351 1.066 South Carolina 12 4,652,364 2.579 Tennessee 16 5,962,959 2.683 Texas 34 25,154,561 1.352 Virginia 30 8,001,024 3.750 West Virginia 15 1,852,994 8.095 Connecticut 20 3,574,097 5.596 Maine 20 1,328,361 15.056 Massachusetts 54 5,547,629 9.733 New Hampshire 11 1,316,470 8.356 NORTHEAST New Jersey 22 8,791,894 2.502 (351) New York 100 19,378,102 5.160 Pennsylvania 90 12,702,309 7.085 Rhode Island 11 1,052,567 10.451 Vermont 19 625,741 30.364

Table 2 shows that in absolute numbers of programs/departments with the highest number of programs/departments found in New York (100), Pennsylvania (92), California (76), Ohio (56), Massachusetts (54), while those with the lowest numbers are Oklahoma, and Utah (4), Delaware (3), Arkansas, Hawaii, South Dakota, and Wyoming (2), North Dakota (1), and Idaho (0). However, when the state population is taken into account and the number of programs per 1,000,000 inhabitants is calculated, the results vary greatly for the ones that were at the top in absolute numbers but remain basically the same for those that were at the bottom in absolute number. Thus, the states with the highest number of programs/departments per 1,000,000 inhabitants are Vermont (30.364), Montana (15.160), Maine (15.056), the District of Columbia (14.957), Alaska (14.080), and Rhode Island (10.451), and at the bottom we find Idaho (0), Arkansas (0.686), Oklahoma (1.066), Texas (1.352), Florida (1.436), Utah (1.447), Hawaii (1.470), and North Dakota (1.487) as a reflection for demand for that kind of programs in those states. Of the above, the data for the District of Columbia needs to be qualified. The reason is that we can assume that a large number of people enrolled in these types of programs in D.C. institutions are actually residents of either Maryland or Virginia who commute to the D.C. area.

Programs by name: In order to see how programs wer named and/or makketed we compiled the program/department names based on the ones for which there were three or more using a particular denomination. They were: Environmental Studies, E. Science, E. Engineering, E. Biology/Ecology/Conservation Biology, E. Health/Toxicology, E. Policy/Analysis/Planning, E. Management, E. Law, E. Chemistry, E. Education, Natural Resources/Management, E. Economics/Economics Management, E. Geology. When the name of the program was dual (e.g., Environmental Science/Studies), we used the most inclusive denomination (Environmental Studies) unless they had two clearly distinct tracks (e.g., environmental science and environmental engineering). We created a column for "others" when there were fewer than four programs carrying a particular name. The results of programs according to their name are summarized in Table 3 and represented in Fig. 2.

Table 3. Environmental Programs/Departments according to their own denomination (March 2014). Program Name Number Percentage Science 86 29.45 Studies 67 22.95 Engineering 9 3.08 Biology/Ecology/Conservation 29 9.93 Policy/Analysis/Planning 21 7.19 Health/Toxicology 6 2.05 Management (i.e., business mgt.) 12 4.11 Law 1 0.34 Chemistry 3 1.03 Geology 14 4.79 Natural Resource Management 13 4.45 Education 6 2.05 Economics 1 0.34 Others 24 8.22

Figure 2. Environmental Programs/Departments - May 2014, n=1051

The names Environmental Science and Environmental Studies are, by far, the most common acocunting for 52.40% of the programs in our study. Environmental programs are also housed in departments of Biology/Ecology/Conservation (9.93%), Policy/Analysis/Planning (7.19%), and Geology (4.79%). Although the number for "Others" seems high, the reason is the broad diversity of names given to many programs. In order to determine if there is a correlation between the name of the environmental programs and the nature of the institution, a chi-square test was performed. The null hypothesis was that the names given to environmental programs are independent of the type of academic institution in which they are found. Not surprisingly we found that the names "Environmental Studies" and "Environmental Science" are much more commonly used in college settings while more discipline-specific names such as "Environmental Engineering" are more common among universities (p.< 0.5) given that liberal are colleges rarely have engineering programs. Notice that the total number (n) reported for this statistical analysis is higher than the total number of programs mentioned for this study; more than one program reported a combination of two or more names cited here.

Area of Knowledge: In order to ascertain the particular area of knowledge (field of study) in which different programs could be placed and whether or not they have any degree of interdisciplinarity (two or more dicpliplines combined), we analyzed their course requirements. If 75% or more of the courses required were within a particular area (natural sciences vs. social sciences vs. humanities) then the program was categorized as belonging to that area of knowledge. Otherwise they were categorized as belonging to two or more areas of knowledge, but also using the 25% of courses within a particular area as the litmus test. Thus, programs that were classified as fully interdisciplinary were those that contain at least 25% from each of the above fields of knowledge. For the accounting of courses, courses that by themselves

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 99 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 were interdisciplinary in nature such as the capstone seminar were not assigned as belonging to any particular area of knowledge. The results of this analysis are summarized in Table 4 and Fig. 3.

Table 4. Programs by actual area of knowledge they emphasize. Number of Percentage Area of Knowledge Programs Natural Sciences 75 58.14 Social Sciences 7 5.43 Natural Sciences/Social Sciences 25 19.38 Humanities 1 0.78 Natural Sciences/Social Sciences/Humanities 20 15.50 Undetermined 1 0.78

Figure 3. Environmental Programs/Departments Emphases – March 2014

Of those curricula for which we could determine the area of knowledge, the vast majority of environmental programs fall within the realm of natural sciences (58.14%). There are 45 programs (34.88%) that are interdisciplinary in nature because of combining two or all three areas of knowledge, but only 20 (15.50%) are fully interdisciplinary by combining all areas of knowledge.

By degree offered: Results of are summarized in Table 5 and Fig. 4.

Table 5. Number of programs according to the degree they offer

Degrees Offered Number of Programs Bachelor in Arts 52 Bachelors in Science 103 Masters' (Arts and Sciences combined) 45 Ph.D./Doctoral 20 Law Degree 1 TOTAL 221

Figure 4. Degrees Offered – March 2014

As suspected from the high number of natural sciences-based programs, the larger proportion of undergraduate programs offered a Bachelor's in Science degree. Notice that the sum is higher than the number of programs identified for this study. The reason is that many programs offer more than one degree. Also, this figure is not complete, since we did not receive explicit information from some programs regarding the degree they offer and, thus, they were not included in this portion of the data evaluation. Internships/Study Away-Abroad Programs: Results of the survey are summarized in Table 6.

Table 6. Programs/Departments according on whether they offer/require internships and study away opportunities. Program Type Number Internships (required or not) 122 Required Internship 42 Study Away/Abroad 122

The values shown in Table 6 represent a lower number of the actual internships and study away/abroad programs offered at those institutions because a number of programs did not return our surveys. Yet, it is possible that most programs include internships opportunities and that about one third of them require an internship to be completed as part of the graduation requirements. Study away/abroad opportunities also seem to be fairly common. We could not find any single program that requires taking such opportunities as a requirement for graduation.

Demographics: Table 7 summarizes the demographics for those programs that responded to our request for information. It includes the number of students enrolled, number of graduates since 1998, number of full-time faculty involved in the program, number of faculty assigned to that program and/or department, number of faculty shared with other department/program, and number of part-time faculty working in that program/department. For this compilation, we used data only from the programs/departments that responded to our survey.

Table 7. Vital statistics of those programs/departments that responded to our survey. Data Number Number of Students 9,619 Number of 2004 graduates* 1,048 Number of 2005 graduates* 1,062 Number of 2006 graduates* 1,106 Number of 2007 graduates* 1,304 Number of 2008 graduates* 1,398 Number of 2009 graduates* 1,652 Number of 2010 graduates* 1,841 Number of 2011 graduates* 2,065 Number of 2012 graduates* 2,470 Full-time faculty 965 In Department/Program 868.25 Shared 530.8 Part-time 315

*These are possibly underestimations since the numbers depend upon the responses to interviews. Student and faculty statistics for ESPs are, by far, the most problematic to obtain. First, the data depend entirely on feedback from the person in charge of the program. Those statistics are highly variable because of the continuous flow in the number of students and faculty assigned to a program at a particular time. Finally, the interpretation of the terms "shared" faculty , "full-time" (tenure track or non-tenure

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 102 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 track), and part-time (for the program itself or for the entire institution) varies drastically among institutions. Given that half of the programs responded to our survey, we extrapolated the missing data by multiplying the reported figures (as sampling data) by a factor if two but always bearing in mind the above-referred shortcomings. It seems that the only way to obtain more accurate statistics is via phone interview where the meaning of our categories can be better explained. The number of institutions for which we have number of graduates per program information in 1998 is 335, for 1999 it is 46, for 2000 it is 43, and so on. Because of these large discrepancies in sample size, the only statistic that is somewhat interesting here is the average number of graduates per program (for which we have information) across the three years. In 1998, average number of graduates was 23.7, in 1999 it was 38.7 and in 2000 it was 33.1. Numbers decrease from 1998 to 2000 largely due to the lack of more complete data and poor survey response rates. There are not enough data to make any claims about a trend, especially since the institutions for which we have graduate information in one year may not be in the same set as that for another year. This means that any change, such as student graduation rates from a large university in 1999 not reporting their information for 2000 would skew these averages.

Year of creation: Based on the information provided by those who responded to our survey, we used the year in which the program/department was created by the institution irrespective of whether the program was initiated in effect that very same year. To see if there are historical patterns in the creation of environmental academic programs, we displayed the number of programs/departments created per year in two figures. Fig. 5 shows the number of programs/departments created between 1900 (the first year for which a program that can be described as environmental in nature, was created) and 2005. Fig. 6 shows the number of programs/departments created between 1959 and 1999. The cut-off date of 1959 was selected because before that year very few programs/departments were created and they appeared very sparingly while beginning in 1959 at least one program/department was created every year. We did not find information about programs that, after being created, may have been eliminated. Therefore this covariate trend is not accounted for here.

Figure 5. Chronological 1900-2014

Figure 6. Chronological 1959-2014

Although the data represent less than half of all the programs, patterns are clearly defined. For example, between 1900 (the year of the first program created) and 1958, only 14 programs were created. Only one year, 1944, shows more than one being created the same year. Only between 1948 and 1950 and between 1955 and 1956 we see programs being created in consecutive years. For the period 1959-1999, there is a dramatic increase in the number of programs being created. There are two big "waves" in the creation of programs: one between 1965 and 1976 (with a peak in 1970) and another starting in 1988 and, probably, continuing to this date, with a peak in 1997. Is there any explanation for this swing in the creation of programs? Fig. 7 points out two major events took place in environmental issues per year. In addition to that, we added on the top the initials of the presidents of the United States in that period and signifying whether they were Democrats (blue) or Republicans (red).

As an example of how major social interests may have spaked environmental interest and awareness, we included some events retaled to these issues that have a great deal of publicity. The first peak (1965) is after the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962). The next peak, 1968, coincides with the publication of Paul Ehrlich’s The Population Bomb. The big peak for 1970 coincides with the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (which was also the year of the enacting of the Clean Air Act and the creation of the League of Conservation Voters, and the first year celebrating Earth Day). There is a dramatic drop in programs created for 1971 (the year Greenpeace was founded) and a rebound for 1972 (the year of the enacting of the Clean Water Act, the Coastal Zone Management Act, the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and the publication of Club of Rome’s The Limits of Growth). It drops again for 1973, the year of the enacting of the Endangered Species Act, and from then on there is steady decline with a low for 1977. Until virtually 1992, the creation of new programs seem to be stabilized despite big ecological news in the media in 1978 (Love Canal), 1979 (Three-Mile Island), 1988 (Exxon Valdez), and the public uproar by the policies implemented in 1982 by Ronald Reagan's Interior Secretary James G. Watt. The latter should not be underestimated because that triggered a exponential increase in membership among environmental organizations.

Figure 7. Chronological 1959-2014 with Major Social and Political Events

However, these data may lead to false conclusions such as that the creation of the EPA convinced college and university administrators about the need of offering careers that would satisfy public sector demand for those professionals. Although that might have been the case for some institutions, the decision on commitment of faculty, staff, and financial resources is not something that usually takes place within a few months period in academic institutions given the complex governance system (i.e., multiplicity of committees with a say in such matters, approval by the board of trustees, etc.) that operates in most of them.

A much safer, parsimonious interpretation is that those were the years of rise in environmental awareness and that colleges and universities were competing for students with expectations to graduate with a degree in that area. The low plateau reached between 1977 and 1991 coincides with the country's preoccupation on other matters (Watergate, the U.S. hostages in Iran, the more conservative views in government during the Reagan administration). The resurgence observed from the early 1990's may well be explained by two factors: 1) the increased respectability of environmental careers as a source of professionals needed not only in government but also in the private sector (e.g., consulting firms, in-house environmental professionals) as well as in the increasingly professionalized non-profit organizations; and, 2) Interdisciplinary programs became more and more acceptable, particularly among Liberal Arts Colleges. To see whether or not the above hypothesis is sound, we asked, in our survey, why the environmental program was created in the institution being surveyed. Among the 95 respondents to our question as to why the institution began its environmental programs, the answers were (in number of schools)

1. Student demand/interest (54) 2. To respond to the job market demands (36) 3. Faculty interest/demand (34)1 4. Pedagogical reasons (i.e., curricular structure) (31) 5. Response to environmental concerns either local or global (12) 6. To fill a niche academically (5) 7. Accreditation in public health (3) 8. Because of the mission of the institution (3) 9. Because of an endowment (2) 10. Unique reasons: Alabama A&M University initiated its program in 1969 to attract more African Americans to the natural sciences. Dordt College in Iowa, cites that an environmental program fits with the Christian belief that humans are to care for the earth as their reason for starting the program 1985. While several respondents named need for an interdisciplinary program as a reason for up, only the University of Colorado at Denver noticed a lack of interdisciplinary skills among its with different backgrounds. It began its environmental program in 1970 to, in some sense, force the faculty to learn to relate to one another.

The student and faculty demand responses are somewhat unrevealing in that there are probably other underlying reasons why the students and faculty were demanding such programs at the times they were. We would have to actually obtain direct evidence that describes the actual underlying motivation to their demands. Nonetheless, it is important to note how many institutions responded to this demand by actually creating programs. In this case, it is clear that the students and faculty had a voice in their institutions’ curriculum process. Interestingly, most of the institutions that cited student or student and faculty demand

1 Note that those schools that responded with “student and faculty demand” were added into both the “student demand” and “faculty demand” categories.

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 106 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 as their reason for starting a program are small colleges. This perhaps demonstrates the larger student voice at such institutions than at large universities.

CONCLUSIONS The high diversity of names and emphases found in this study is consistent with the premise that environmental studies is a field lacking unifying principles and clarity of identity. Based on the information discussed above, we suspect that patterns regarding graduation requirements (e.g., number of courses) and tracks (majors, minors, cores, etc.) are ever more diverse which reflects the lack of consensus of what are/should be environmental studies as a discipline of study. We plan to continue this research each year not only maintaining current information but also improving the quantity and quality of information through phone interviews with those responsible for programs. We encourage our readers not only to forward their general comments on this article, but also to update the information we have on their environmental academic programs and their academic institutions.

Acknowledgments We thank all the faculty/administrators who responded to our request for information about their programs/departments. Their names can be found in Table 1. Molly Brandt, Phoebe B. S. Vanselow, Joel E. Creswell, Amanda Stern, and Katherine Benz worked on the 2000 version of this report; Amanda Stern and Kathryn Benz worked on the 2001 version; Hanne Eastwood worked on the 2002 version and Christina Jones worked in the 2003 version. Joshua Young provided help with the statistical analysis. Andrea Romero helped with the assembly of data.

Literature Cited Bennett, B. Y. 1996. Metaphor and Curriculum Theorizing in Environmental Studies. Temple University Graduate Board, Ph.D. Dissertation, 81 pp. Brillault, M.R. 2000. Assessment of Law Schools with Environment and Natural Resource Programs. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28(1):276-281. Brough, H. 1992. Environmental Studies: Is it Academic? World Watch Jan.-Feb.: 26-33. Caldwell, L. K. 1983. Environmental Studies: Discipline or Metadiscipline? The Environmental Professional 5: 247-259. Filho, W.L. (ed.). 2002. Teaching sustainability at universities. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Horning, J. F. 1996. Training the Next Generation. Environment. June: 28-30. Hunn, J. L. 1996. Toward a Reconstructive Education: An Environmental Studies Curriculum for the University Level. San Diego State University, Master Thesis, 185 pp. Jacobson, S. K. & M. D. McDuff. 1998. Training Idiot Savants: The Lack of Human Dimensions in Conservation Biology. Conservation Biology 12(2): 263-267. Kettl, D. F. 1999. In Pollution research, Universities Can Bridge the Critical Gap Between Science and Policy. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 26 February 1999, p. B8.

Kim, H. S. & J. P. Dixon. 1993. Subject Indicators to Present the Nature and Limit of Environmental Studies in US Graduate Schools. The Environmentalist 13(2): 137-144. Maniates, M.F. & J.C. Whissel. 2000. Environmental studies: The sky is not falling. BioScience 50(6):509-517. Mattes, K. B. 1994. How to Study the Environment? Harvard Magazine March/April 1994: 28-32. McLaughlin, Jr., C. H. 1994. Development Environmental Literacy Through Technology Education. The Technology Teacher 54(3): 30-34. Newell, W. H. & W. J. Green. 1982. Defining and Teaching Interdisciplinary Studies. Improving College and University Teaching 30(1): 23-30. Orr, D. W. 1990. Environmental Education and Ecological Literacy. The Education Digest 55(9): 49-53. Rodenhouse, M.P. (Ed). 2005. 2005 Higher Education Directory. Falls Church, Virginia: Higher Education Publications, Inc., 987 pp. Romero, A., M. Brandt, P. Vanselow, & J. Creswell. 2000. Not all are created equal: An analysis of the environmentally-related programs/departments in U.S. academic institutions until December 1999. Macalester Environmental Review (www.macalester.edu/environmentalstudies/MacEnvReview/equalarticle.htm). Romero A. & H. Eastwood. 2002. Not all are created equal: An analysis of the environmental programs/departments in U.S academic institutions until March 2002. Macalester Environmental Review (http://www.macalester.edu/environmentalstudies/MacEnvReview/equalarticle2002.htm) Romero, A. & C. Jones. 2003. Not all are created equal: An analysis of the environmental programs/departments in U.S academic institutions until March 2003. Macalester Environmental Review (http://www.macalester.edu/environmentalstudies/MacEnvReview/equalarticle2003.htm) Romero, A. & P. Silveri. 2006. Not all are created equal: an analysis of the environmental programs/departments in U.S. academic institutions from 1900 until May 2005. Journal of Integrative Biosciences 1(1):1-15. 1 February 2006. Romero A., A. Stern, & K. Benz. 2001. Not all are created equal: An analysis of the environmental programs/departments in U.S academic institutions until March 2001. Macalester Environmental Review (http://www.macalester.edu/environmentalstudies/MacEnvReview/equalarticle2001.htm) Schneider, S. H. 1997. Defining and Teaching environmental literacy. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 12(11): 457. Soulé, M. E. & D. E. Press. 1998. What is Environmental Studies? BioScience 48(5): 397-405. Wilke, R. 1995. Environmental Literacy and the College Curriculum. Colleges and Universities Have a Challenge to Meet. EPA Journal: Spring 1995: 28-30.

Cognitive Study of XHY via Conceptual Integration Theory in English Teaching

Wen Jia School of Foreign Languages China West Normal University

No.1 Shida Road, Shunqing District, Nanchong City，637002 Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China Nanchong, Sichuan, China

Abstract Based on the conceptual integration theory, this thesis makes a cognitive analysis on the meaning construction of Chinese XHY. Particularly, the author conducts case studies at length of four pieces of XHY in accordance with the categories of conceptual networks, i.e. simplex network, mirror network, single-scope network and double-scope network. Additionally, the analysis of the XHY is conducted in combination with the contextual information or the cultural entrenchment. Above all, this thesis makes a preliminary attempt to apply the conceptual integration theory to the construal of Chinese XHY in order to prove the explanatory power of the theory so that further relevant research can be conducted.

Key words: Chinese XHY, meaning construction, conceptual integration theory

1. Introduction As is acknowledged, language is closely combined with culture and can reflect culture. Different languages are noted for their unique cultural elements and traits. Reckoned as the live fossil of Chinese culture, Chinese Xiehouyu (XHY for short) is created by people in their daily life. Chinese is of concise form, vivid image and rich implication. Additionally, XHY is widely favored for its figurative employment of language and innovative play on words, i.e. the prevalent use of metaphors and puns to achieve rhetorical effects like humor, satire, etc. owing to its interwoven relations with culture, XHY has drawn attention from Chinese linguists as well as philologers. As is mentioned in the paragraph above, XHY is a language form heavily loaded with culture and it has a history of more than one thousand years. Since it has been in existence for such a long time, XHY has been widely accepted by people both in oral conversations and written works. Nevertheless, only when the Ballad Seminar was established in Peking University in the winter of 1920, did XHY start to attract attention from language researchers. In 1930s, some researches on the nature, denomination and other respects of XHY were conducted, which contributed to the foundation in the relevant field. The remaining part of the section mainly discusses the denomination, origin, definition, features and category of XHY.

1.1 Denomination of XHY Since XHY is inextricably interwoven with Chinese culture, it is uniquely characterized by a host of Chinese factors. Consequently, there seems to be no equivalent to XHY in English language. Such a fact leads to disputes upon the denomination of XHY. Different English names are proposed by different scholars for Chinese XHY, however, no consensus has been reached on a unitary address of the charming language phenomenon. Jin Huikang (2004: 455) deems that XHY can be literally construed as “rest-ending sayings or post pause expressions”. Enlightened by such a notion, some scholars interpret XHY as “example-explanation sayings”. Dating back to its earlier history, XHY used to be the game played among the learned people and was called “wisecrack”, therefore, another way of translating XHY is “Chinese wisecracks or quiz cracks”(Han Qingguo, 2002). Still some other scholars named XHY as “allegorical sayings”, however, only a portion of them are allegorical. In addition, John S. Rohsenow (1991) put forward a popular denomination of XHY, and named it “Chinese enigmatic folk similes”. Popular as the denomination by Rohsenow is, it is not appropriate in that the rhetorical techniques of XHY are not restrained to simile and that such a name cannot vividly or comprehensively reflect the unique structure and style of XHY. Based on the introduction above, it is easily seen that none of the mentioned terms can truly reveal the essence and reflect the features of Chinese XHY. In this sense, it is favorable to simply term the language phenomenon XHY, for it is deeply rooted in Chinese culture and like erhu, taiji, and toufu which are particular symbols in Chinese culture and are directly translated in accordance with its pronunciation in Chinese.

1.2 Origins of XHY As a matter of fact, no consensus has been reached on the origin of XHY so far. Nevertheless, this does not mean that the emergence of XHY cannot be traced. On the whole, several notions regarding this topic have been put forward by distinct researchers. To start with, it is generally accepted that XHY originates from Xiehoushi in Tang Dynasty. The term XHY was first employed in the famous chronicle book Jiu Tang Shu. As Rohsenow (1991) puts it, XHY has been popular in spoken language as part of the rich oral repertoire of the common Chinese people for centuries, and they play an indispensable role in communication. Besides, Zhai Hao in Qing Dynasty proposed another notion about the origin of XHY. He deemed that both homophonic and non-homophonic XHY evolved from the so-called feng ren shi ti. Another notion is that XHY should be classified into the genre of Chinese proverbs. It is believed that XHY is a special language form evolving from Chinese proverbs and XHY has been considered as one type of proverbs before they were assigned their independent names and status. Other scholars like Mao Dun claim that XHY originated from the so called “original” or “standard” XHY, which are distinguished based on whether they are extracted from idioms or sentences of poems or other well-known expressions in some classical works through concealing or leaving out one or more Chinese characters. Chen Wangdao endorses Mao Dun’s opinion and he redenominates the classification by Mao. He names the original or standard XHY “Xiehou Cangci Yu”, which are not abandoned now. Admittedly, disputes about the origin of XHY still exist. However, researchers do reach a consensus on

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 110 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 certain respect of its emergence. That is, XHY derives from the folk and is created by ordinary people who gain inspiration in their life experience. Thus, XHY can reflect Chinese belief, religion and customs well. In the meantime, it can deliver complicated notions in effective and witty ways.

1.3 Definition of XHY As is discussed above, XHY is a distinct language form that is mainly employed in China and is rather different than traditional Chinese proverbs, Chinese riddle, idioms or other Chinese Shuyu. In fact, researchers put forward various versions of definition, but they can hardly reach a consensus. This thesis adopts the definition proposed by Wen Duanzheng. According to Wen (2000: 272), XHY is defined as a kind of fixed sentence with special structure and humorous expression. The particular structure of XHY consists of two parts in the sequence of “A--B”. According to Wen, part A acts as an introductive head which is noted for its vividness and it elicits the explanation in part B. Via the combination of the two parts, humor, satire, and other rhetorical effects are achieved along with the transmission of the intended meaning.

Cognitive Classification of XHY Classification has long been treated as one of the important domains about the study of XHY. However, different scholars propose different versions of classifications. Considering the current research subject, this thesis focuses the attention on the cognitive classification of XHY. Geeraerts (1995&2003) put forward two criteria, i.e. isomorphism and motivation, to scrutinize idioms from paradigmatic and syntagmatic perspectives. Isomorphism refers to syntagmatic transparency whereby there is a correspondence between the syntactic construction and its semantic structure. Motivation refers to paradigmatic transparency in which the semantic extension that relates the original meaning of an idiom to its idiomatic meaning is observed. Based on this pattern, four types of idioms can be identified, i.e. isomorphic and motivated, isomorphic and non-motivated, non-isomorphic and motivated, and non-isomorphic and non-motivated. (Lai Huei-ling, 2008). Lai reckoned that XHY could not be classified based on this conceptual apparatus since Chinese XHY is rather distinct from the English and Dutch idioms analyzed by Geeraerts. Lai (2005) established in her article a taxonomic framework to categorize Hakka XHY into six patterns. They are partially isomorphic with sound associations (e.g. Zhu she tou bang jiu—shuang she (shuang shi) ‘having a pig’s tongue with wine—double loss’); partially isomorphic with conceptual associations (e.g. lao hu jie zhu—you jie wu huan) ‘tigers borrow pigs—never return what are borrowed’; totally isomorphic with sound associations (e.g. huo shao zhu tou—shu mian) ‘burn a pig’s head—look familiar’; totally isomorphic with conceptual associations (e.g. fen guang du ge shi tou—you chou you ying) ‘a stone in the manure pit—extremely unpleasant and stubborn; non-isomorphic with sound associations (e.g. shi er yue de jie cai—shang xin) ‘Chinese mustard in December—feeling sad’; non-isomorphic with conceptual associations (e.g. zhu bian de ya zi—mei xin gan) ‘a bamboo-weaved duck—heartless. Lai’s denomination stresses the culture model made up by nature of things and the great chain of being, which acts as the referential point of the thesis. Due to the fact that there is no consensus on the classification of XHY, the author will analyze the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 111 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 cases based on the types of conceptual integration networks instead of patterns of XHY.

2. Overview of Conceptual Integration Theory This part goes over the conceptual integration theory, on which the thesis is based. The principles of the theory will be discussed in the ensuing sections.

2.1 Conceptual Integration Theory Conceptual Integration Theory, also called Conceptual Blending Theory or Mental Binding Theory was put forward by Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner (1994/1998), which explores human information integration and involves a set of operations for combining dynamic cognitive models in a network of “mental spaces” (Fauconnier, 1994), or partitions of speakers’ referential representations. Fauconnier (1985) proposed Mental Space Theory to account for various aspects concerning meaning construction of natural language in one of his representative book Mental Spaces. A mental space contains elements of the statement or discourse and relations between them and the elements are perceived imagined or remembered by language users. Language users set up mental spaces in order to divide the information evoked by a discourse into a series of simple cognitive models. Links between mental spaces capture the relationships that exist between elements and their counterparts in the other spaces. On the basis of mental space theory, Fauconnier and Mark Turner (1995) added “blended space” to the perfect “many-space” model, which they first proposed in 1994. Fauconnier (1997) formally put forward the conception of Conceptual Blending Theory in his second work Mappings in Thought and Language. In 1998, Fauconnier and Turner gave fully detailed interpretation of the theory to explore the establishing, mapping and blending mechanisms. A detailed demonstration of the theory begins with the interpretation of the figure below. It is the basic network model in conceptual integration and describes a complete four-space blending process.

The circles in the figure above represent mental spaces. A mental space is a (relatively small) conceptual packet built up for purposes of local understanding and action. It is concerned with long-term schematic

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 112 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 knowledge called “frames”, and with long-term specific knowledge. A given mental space often recruits structure from more than one conceptual domain and is constructed whenever we think and talk. They are interconnected and can be modified as discourse unfold, and it can be used generally to model dynamic mappings in thought and language (Fauconnier, 1994; Fauconnier & Turner, 1996). It has proven to be useful for describing various sorts of semantic and pragmatic phenomena (Fauconnier & Sweetser, 1996). There are altogether four mental spaces in the figure, namely input 1, input 2, the generic space and the blend. Input spaces are constructed by the information of independent cognitive domain. Each is a partial structure corresponding to one of the two identities. The solid lines between them represent counterpart connections produced by matching (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 47). They are cross-space mappings, which are correspondences between elements in different spaces based on shared relational structure. These connections include connections between frames and roles in frames, connections of identity, transformation or representation, analogical connections, metaphoric connections, and more generally, “vital relations”. Generic space maps onto each of the input and contains what the inputs have in common ((Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 41). Whatever structure is recognized as belonging to both of the input spaces constitutes a generic space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1998: 143). That is when cross-space mappings are projected into the third, a new space, the generic space, is generated. The dotted lines between input space and generic space refer to the conceptual projection between the elements of the two spaces. Since generic space represents information shared by the entire network, it is common that the information in the generic space is not concrete. The most important mental space in the network is the blend. Structure from two input mental spaces is projected to a new space, the “blend” (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 47). The blended space contains information from each of the input mental spaces, the generic structure captured in the generic space as well as emergent structure that arises as a product of imaginative process of integration. In this figure, the square stands for the emergent structure in the blend (Fauconnier, 1997: 151). Emergent structure is not copied directly from any inputs, but generated through “composition of projections from the inputs”, “completion based on independently recruited frames and scenarios”, or “elaboration (running the blend)” (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 48).

2.2 The Process of Conceptual Integration Conceptual blending involves three processes, namely, composition, completion, and elaboration, each of which may possibly lead to the production of emergent structure (Coulson, 1997: 192), which arises in the blend that is not copied there directly from any input (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 48). Composition: blending composes elements from the input spaces, providing relations that do not exist in the separate inputs (Fauconnier & Turner, 1998: 144). That is to say, it involves ascribing a relation from one input space to an element or elements from the other input space (Coulson, 1997: 192). Fusion is one kind of composition. Counterparts may be brought into the blend as separate elements or as a fused element. (Fauconnier & Turner, 1998: 144).

Completion: completion is pattern-completion which occurs when structure projected from the inputs matching information in long-term memory (Coulson, 1997: 193). Knowledge of background frames, cognitive and culture models, allows the composite structure projected into the blend from the inputs to be viewed as part of a larger self-contained structure in the blend. The pattern in the blend triggered by the inherited structures is completed into the larger, emergent structure. (Fauconnier, 1997: 151). Elaboration: elaboration develops the blend through imaginative mental simulation according to principles and logic in the blend (Fauconnier & Turner, 1998: 144). We elaborate blends by treating them as simulations and running them imaginatively according to principles that have been established for the blend. Some of the principles for running the blend will have been brought to the blend by completion (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 48). But some new principles and logic may also arise through elaboration itself. The creative possibilities of blending stem from the open-ended nature of completion and elaboration. They recruit and develop new structure for the blend in ways that are principled but effectively unlimited. Blending operates over the entire richness of our physical and mental worlds. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 48)

2.3 Classification of Conceptual Integration Networks Basic types of Conceptual Integration Networks were classified into four by Fauconnier and Turner, and they were frame networks, one-side networks, two-side networks and single framing networks. After this initial attempt, the two linguists threw light upon the classification in the book The Way We Think—Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. The four basic types are simplex networks, mirror networks, single-scope networks and double-scope networks. Additionally, a more general model which is naturally extended from double-scope model was introduced, and it was named as multiple-scope network. The new classification is to be introduced in the following part and is taken as the analytical reference for XHY. Before the discussion of different types of Conceptual Integration Networks, it is necessary to have a profound understanding of the terms like space, domain, frame and organizing frame. A mental space contains elements and relations activated simultaneously as a single integrated unit. Often, a mental space will be organized by what we have called a conceptual frame (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 104). Mental spaces are built up dynamically in working memory (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 103). Mental spaces are built up from many sources, one of which is the “set of conceptual domains we already know about” (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 102); another is “immediate experience”. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 103) The stable and systematic relations between two cognitive domains are treated as conceptual metaphor. Mental space is equated with domain, but the construction of mental spaces depends on domain. Stable knowledge structure related to a certain domain provides information needed in the construction of a mental space. And a mental space is the representational structure of a concrete scenario constructed by a domain. (Zhang Hui, 2003: 58) Spaces have elements and there exist relations between them. When these elements and relations are

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 114 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 organized as a package that we already know about, we say that the mental space is framed and we label that organization a “frame”. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 123). Fauconnier and Turner pointed out an organizing frame for a mental space is a frame that specified the essence of the relevant activity, events, and participants. It provides a topology for the space it organizes, that is, it provides a set of organizing relations among the elements in the space. When two spaces share the same organizing frame, they share the corresponding topology and so can easily be put into correspondence. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 123) In the process of constructing integration network, the organizing frame can be modified and elaborated.

2.3.1 Simplex networks Fauconnier and Turner (2002: 120) proposed simplex network is an especially simple kind of integration network. In simplex network human cultural and biological history have provided an effective frame that applies to certain kinds of elements as values, and that frame is in one input space and some of those kinds of elements are in the other input space. The relevant part of the frame in one input is projected with its roles, and the elements are projected from the other input as values of those roles within the blend that integrates the frame and the value in the simplest way. In simplex networks, one input contains a frame with roles but no values, the other input contains unframed elements, and the inputs are matched by a Frame-to-Values connection. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 121). In the simplex networks the entirety of this kind given by Fauconnier and Turner is “the family”. We can take “Hillary is the wife of Clinton.” for example. One input contains a kinship frame, such as roles of wife, husband, father, mother and kid, etc. while the other input contains two persons: Hillary and Clinton. The role wife connects to the value Hillary and the role husband connects to the value Clinton. The blended space integrates the frame “family” and the values, and then has the meaning “Hillary is the wife of Clinton”.

2.3.2 Mirror Networks A mirror network is an integration in which all spaces—inputs, generic, and blend—share an organizing frame. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 122). The shared frame automatically provides linked roles. In a mirror network, there are no clashes between the inputs at the level of organizing frame, because the frames are the same. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 125). Conceptual integration in mirror networks routinely performs compressions of vital relations, both inner-space and outer space, keyed by the shared frame of the network. Fauconnier and Turner (2002) put forward mirror networks perform compression over the vital relations of time, space, identity, role, cause-effect, change, intentionality and representation.

2.3.3 Single-Scope Networks A single-scope networks has two input spaces with different organizing frames, one of which is projected to organize the blend. The defining property of single-scope network is that the organizing frame of its blend is an extension of the organizing frame of the one of the inputs but not the other. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 126).since the inputs have different frames, single-scope networks offer a highly visible

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 115 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 type of conceptual clash and are the prototype of highly conventional source-target metaphors. Single-scope networks give us the feeling that “one thing” is giving us insight into “another thing,” with a strong asymmetry between. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 129). The sentence “‘He digested the book.’ elicits a single-scope network” (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 131). One input contains the whole process of eating, including chewing, swallowing, digesting and absorbing. The other input contains taking up the book, reading the articles, thinking about it, understanding and even remembering the whole article. In the blend, distinct events in reading are integrated into a unit in the frame from “eating” space.

2.3.4 Double-Scope Networks A double-scope network has inputs with different (and often clashing) organizing frames as well as an organizing frame for the blend that includes parts of each of those frames and has emergent structure of its own (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 131). Therefore, both organizing frames of the two inputs make contribution to the blend and the clashes between them “offer challenges to the imagination”, and the blend can be highly innovative. The typical example of double-scope network provided by Fauconnier and Turner is same-sex marriage. One input contains the traditional scenario of marriage, as a man, a woman, love between them and a house and so on. The other input contains two people of the same sex. From the first input, selective projection takes “social recognition”, “wedding ceremonies” and “mode of taxation” and from the second input, it takes “same sex”, “absence of biologically common children”. And these concepts are contained in the blended space. And the emergent properties will “characterize this new social structure reflected by the blend”. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 134). (The theoretical basis of the thesis is cited from the graduate thesis of Wang Peng (2009) from Nan Jing Normal University.)

3. Case Studies of XHY Grounded on Conceptual Integration Theory It is argued that conceptual combination occurs in conceptual integration networks, which are networks of mental spaces structured with frames that the speaker constructs from background knowledge and contextual information (Coulson, 1997: 188). Via combining frames from different spaces, “the imaginative capacities of meaning construction are invoked to produce emergent structure (Coulson, 1997: 186)”. As is mentioned in the last chapter, there are basically four types of conceptual integration networks, i.e. simplex, mirror, single-scope, and double-scope. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2009: 119-135). The author makes a preliminary attempt in this chapter to apply conceptual integration theory, especially conceptual integration networks, to explore the process of meaning construction of XHY. Conceptual integration theory is appropriate to illustrate how people construct meanings. Now that the main points of the theory have been discussed, it is feasible to apply the penetrating notions of the theory to the analysis of XHY. Here the author takes one piece of XHY as an example to display the feasibility of the theory. Tie jiang pu li mai dou fu—ruan ying jian shi Selling bean curd in the blacksmith’s shop—using both gentle methods and force The construal of this piece of XHY relies on the background information of “blacksmith’s shop” and

“bean curd”. As is known, a blacksmith’s shop is one which makes and sells instruments made of iron, which is characterized by the nature of hardness. In daily life, people usually use “strong as iron” or “man of iron/steel” to describe physical strength or moral firmness. In contrast, bean curd is a kind of food that are white, fragile and soft. In other words, bean curd is noted for its softness. Likewise, in daily life, people usually use XHY like “dou fu jia zi—bu lao” meaning that a frame made of bean curd is not firm and “dou fu zuo qiang jiao—gen ji tai ruan” meaning that a wall constructed on bean curd collapse easily to describe the feature softness of bean curd. Grounded on the two frames, the conceptual integration operations in this XHY can be captured through a double-scope network. To be specific, two inputs are established on the basis of cognitive identity: one belongs to the space of a blacksmith’s shop, and the other belongs to the space of bean curd. In effect, the blacksmith’s products and bean curd respectively represent hardness and softness. Based on the clashing features, corresponding relations are set up between the two spaces, i.e. iron maps bean, ironworks maps bean curd, and features like hardness and durability map features like softness and fragility. Then the generic space contains products sold in distinct shops and the representatives of hardness and softness. Finally, a blended space is set up and contains the organizing frame from both the “blacksmith’s shop” space and “bean curd” space. A double-scope network has inputs with different (and often clashing) organizing frames (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 135). In this two part XHY, the organizing frame of the two inputs are respectively “blacksmith’s shop” and “bean curd”. The organizing frames of the two inputs clash in aspects like participant roles, identity, internal event structure and intentionality. The blended space includes the organizing frame and elements from both the “blacksmith’s shop” space and the “bean curd” space. In the construction of the blend, a single but prominent shift that bean curd along with ironworks is sold in the blacksmith’s shop, contributes to producing the emergent structure. The emgergent structure comes from the XHY itself and also from our common sense. In Chinese culture, when we refer to the strategies we adopt, the “ying” feature is used to describe a strategy that is tough, strong, firm or direct, while the “ruan” feature is used to describe a strategy that is gentle, soft, mild or indirect. Therefore, if a person is said to use both “ying” and “ruan” stategies to tackle problems, he or she is believed to resort to the stick and the carrot.

3.1 Cross mapping in XHY analysis As is discussed above, a mental space may be structured by a specific frame as “selling ironworks” or a more generic frame as “running a store”, or even “doing business”. We can resort to a finer a typology in a mental space, which is below the organizing frame level. For instance, the organizing frame “selling ironworks” does not elaborate on the information of the shop owner or that of the ironworks, which can be referred to in a finer typology. The different topological properties of individual spaces naturally give rise to different possibilities for matches between them (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 10). These potentials for matches between topologies or organizing frames are inclined to bring about the mapping of space, a critical component of the imaginative construction of a network.

3.2 Cross-space mapping in simplex networks “Hillary is the wife of Clinton” has been taken as the example to illustrate simplex network, which clearly states that simplex networks are in fact “role-to-value” networks. In this thesis, we first of all focus our mind one the type of XHY that can be construed through simplex network. E.g. shu tu zi de—dan xiao tui chang Born in the year of rabbit—coward with long legs Shu hao zi de—you dong jiu zuan Born in the year of rat—inclined to get in the hole wherever there is one As is easily seen, these two pieces of XHY given above are of the same type, that is, the first part of them share the identical structure. In addition, both of them are associated with a certain “sheng xiao” (twelve common animals corresponding to the twelve earthly branches used to represent the years in which a person is born). In this section, the author will elaborate on the first XHY. To start with, traditional Chinese culture contributes to the construction of input 1, i.e. the frame of “sheng xiao” or the Chinese Zodiac, which cycles every twelve years and each year is named after an animal (the year of rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog and pig). Input 2 involves only one element, i.e. the rabbit that shows up in this piece of XHY. In the simplex network, the relevant part of the frame of one input is projected with its roles, and the elements are projected from the other input as values of those roles within the blend (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 120). The following figure is used to clarify the simplex network in this particular XHY.

Generic space Animal Symbols of the Chinese Zodiac

Sheng Xiao The rabbit

Input 1 Input 2 One of the Sheng Xiao Rabbit

The blended Emergent space structure

Coward and with long

legs

Figure 3.1

As is seen, in the simplex network, the blend integrates the frame and the values in the simplest way. The frame of input 1 (sheng xiao) is compatible with that of input 2 (the rabbit), as the rabbit is one of the animal symbols of “sheng xiao”.

It is believed that a person’s character is associated with the particular “sheng xiao”, i.e. the particular year, in which he or she was born. One of the characteristics of rabbits is described in the second part of the XHY as “coward and with long legs”. When the saying is used to describe a person, it refers to the person that is timid and tends to escape in face of danger.

Generally speaking, simplex networks could hardly be treated as the single network in the meaning construction of XHY, instead, it is more often than not used together with other networks as one part of a multiple-scope network.

3.3 Cross-space mapping in mirror networks In a mirror network, inputs reflect each other. The generic and the blended space share the same frame with them. But in the blend, the common organizing frame of the network inheres in a yet richer frame that only the blend has (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 123). The following XHY all belong to the type of mirror network.

Cang lao shu he lao gua qu jie liang—shou zhe mei you, fei zhe de you

The rat in the barn asks a crow for grain—a bird on the wing has some while the rat living in the barn has none.

Ai zi kan xi—ren jia jiao hao, ta ye jiao hao A short guy goes watching a show—he applauds as others do.

The author would take the second piece of XHY as the instance to illustrate the mirror network

Generic space Watching performance and reaction to the performance

Input 1 Input 2

A short guy A person with watching a show moderate height watching a showing

The blended space A short guy applauding with all

other spectators

Emergent structure

A person does not has his own opinions and always does as others do.

Figure 3.2

As is seen, two inputs are set up in accordance with the XHY, i.e. the “short guy watching a show” and the “guy moderate with moderate height watching a show”. There are certainly similar factors in the two inputs, such as the spectator, the show, and the setting of the show, etc. Therefore, we could state that the two inputs share the same organizing frame—a person watching a show, which is also the frame for the generic space and the blended space. In fact, elements in the two inputs are similar, but they are by no means identical. Although the two inputs both describe the event that a person watches a show, input 1 involves a short guy, which implies that he cannot see what the show is like on the stage; while input 2 involves a guy with moderate height, which indicates that he can see what is going on on the stage. When the show reaches its climax, the people who can see it will normally applaud. However, the short guy who cannot watch the show himself could only follow the other people to applaud. When the XYH is used metaphorically, it refers to a person who is a copycat and could not make decisions himself.

3.4 Cross-space mapping in single-scope networks In a single-scope network the relations between the two inputs are rather similar to the conventional source-target metaphor. One input provides the organizing frame to the blend, and the framing input is

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 120 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 often called the “source”. The other input that is the focus of construal, the focus input, is often called the “target”. (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002: 127). The following are the instances of this type. Shu tian chi sheng jiang—re la la de Eating ginger on a scorching summer day—a burning feeling Ni pu sa guo he—zi shen nan bao A clay Bodhisattva fords the river—hardly able to keep oneself safe Xiu cai yu dao bing—you li shuo bu qing A scholar meets with a soldier—persuasion cannot work

The author here takes the third piece as the example to illustrate the single-scope network. We can imagine the following scenes. First, when two people have different opinions towards one issue, they probably would argue with each other and the one that holds reason would prevail in the argument and consequently, he will win; while the other who is untenable will lose the argument. This is what we call “input 1”. Additionally, we can imagine another scene: a scholar runs across a soldier on a narrow path. Generally speaking, the soldier is physically strong but intellectually inferior compared with the scholar. If both of them would like to cross the path first, it is likely the frail scholar would compromise. This is what we call “input 2”. The two inputs have distinct frames—one is of the frame of controversy, and the other is of the frame of running-across. But both of them are inferior to a higher organizing frame, i.e. “contest”, which is the generic space in this network. The construal of such a situation establishes a conceptual integration network, which involves cross-space mappings between the two inputs, such as scholar to the weak debater, the soldier to the strong debater, a blow to an effort by the strong debater, a piece of reason to the reaction of the weak debater, and passing the path to winning the argument, etc. Those factors are selectively projected to anther space—the blend. The justified debater acts as the value of the soldier, but the result of the running-across is not changed. Then the emergent structure is built up—even holding reason, frail people cannot compete with or persuade strong but reckless people. The following figure helps to understand the network better.

Generic space Contest between competitors

Debater 1 (holding reason) Scholar (weak)

Debater 2 (with less justification) Soldier (strong) Debater 1 wins Soldier prevails Debater 2 loses Scholar retreats

Input 2 Input 1

Weak debater 1

Strong debater 2 Weak debater 1 retreats Strong debater 2 prevails

Emergent Blended space structure

Weak people cannot compete with or persuade strong people even if the former holds reason

Figure 3.3 3.5 Cross-space mapping in double-scope networks The following are instances of XHY that are characterized by double-scope networks. He shang jian shu zi—mei you yong chu A monk picks up a comb—getting a useless thing

Huang shu lang gei ji bai nian—mei an hao xin The mink pays a New Year call to a cock—coming with evil intents Lao hu dai nian zhu—jia chong shan ren A tiger wears prayer beads—pretending to be a charitarian

The author takes the second piece of XHY as the instance to illustrate the double-scope network.

Doing something with Generic space certain intents

Input 1 Input 2

Mink Cock New Year Visitor Host

Predicator Prey Intent of killing Hospitable

The mink pays a New Year Blended space call to a cock with the intent of killing the host

Doing favorable things to disguise Emergent structure evil intents

Figure 3.4

From the perspective of double-scope network, this piece of XHY has two inputs, the input of mink and the input of cock. The mink is a kind of meat-eating animal, and it is characterized by its cunning feature. By contrast, the cock is relatively peaceful and not aggressive. In addition, minks sometimes feed on fowl, so it is likely that minks feed on cocks. When we associate the mink and the cock with the situation of a New Year call, several interesting cross-space mappings emerges, such as the mink to the cock, a New Year visitor to a host, a predicator to a prey and the intent of killing to hospitality, etc. In general, people pay a New Year call to their relatives or friends with good intentions. Here, the generic space involves the frame of doing something with certain intents, either good or evil. Then, the elements of the two inputs are selectively projected to organize the blend—a blend where someone pays a New Year call with evil intents. Therefore, the emergent structure is established—sometimes, people can do some favorable things to disguise their evil intentions.

Conclusion In chapter three, the author makes a preliminary attempt to study four pieces of XHY in detail through conceptual blending and conceptual integration networks. We can make the following statements grounded on the study. Firstly, the construal of Chinese XHY can be conducted by means of conceptual integration theory, the interpretation of the process of meaning construction in different conceptual networks. In other words, we can use conceptual blending/integration network to illustrate the meaning construction of Chinese XHY and probably that of other traditional Chinese proverbs. Secondly, from the cases that we analyzed in chapter three, it is found that the construal of XHY through conceptual integration depends considerably on the related background information in Chinese culture. It is sensible to claim that having a good knowledge of Chinese culture is the fundamental requirement to interpret XHY adequately. Since different have distinct mastery of background knowledge and cultural entrenchment, and that the operations of conceptual blending are innovative, meaning construction by means of conceptual blending theory is inclined to be diverse. On the whole, this thesis is only a preliminary trial of the conceptual integration theory in the construal of concrete language form. Due to the limited research level and lack of data, the current study is far from thorough. For instance, this thesis does not make classifications in terms of XHY, so further research could make some breakthrough from such perspective.

References Coulson, S. (1997) Semantics leaps: the role of frame-shifting and conceptual blending in meaning construction.San Diego: University of California. Fauconnier, Gilles. (1985) Mental spaces. Cambridge/London: MIT Press. Fauconnier & Eve Sweestser (1996) (Eds.). Spaces, worlds, and grammar. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fauconnier, G. (1997) Mappings in thought and language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G. (2003) Conceptual Integration. Journal of Foreign Languages.(2) Fauconnier, G. & M. Turner. (1994) Conceptual projection and middle spaces. San Diego: University of California. Fauconnier, G. & M. Turner. (1995) Conceptual integration and formal expression. In: Mark Johnson (Ed.), Journal of Metaphor and Symbolic Activity (3). Fauconnier, G. & M. Turner. (1998) conceptual integration networks. Cognitive Science, 22 (2). Geeraerts, Dirk. (1995) Specialization and Reinterpretation in Idioms. In: Everaert, M., et al. (Eds.), Idioms: structural and psychological perspective. Hillsdale/New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Huei-ling Lai. (2005) A taxonomic framework for two-part allegorical sayings. Paper presented at 9th International Cognitive Linguistics Conference. Huei-ling Lai (2008) Understanding and classifying two-part allegorical sayings: metonymy, metaphor and cultural constrains. Journal of Pragmatics, 40 (3) Rohsenow, J. S. (2001) A Chinese-English of xiehouyu. Tucson: University of Arizona Press

Effect of Schema-Based Instructions on Senior High School Students’ Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Lin Cui Postgraduate of China West Normal University China West Normal University Nanchong City, Sichuan Province, China Email: [email protected] Telephone number:86-15881793665

Abstract Vocabulary is the basic element in language and the containment of form, semantic and phonetic. However, most teachers and students neglect the importance of vocabulary learning. Many students only acquire a small amount of vocabulary and can not apply those words flexibly in writing or speaking. In view of this, teachers should help students to have a good command of vocabulary learning strategies. Schema theory originated from Kant's observation. Based on psychological model of a learner’s background knowledge, schema theory is used by the psychologists to explain the understanding process. It guides the students to motivate their background knowledge in the mind and ultimately to understand the current knowledge, constructed in the vocabulary teaching. Schema theory-based instructions have positive influence on students' vocabulary learning strategies.

Keywords: Schemata; Schema theory; Vocabulary learning strategy

1. Introduction Vocabulary is regarded as a crucial element for a language and it plays a significant role in language communication. It is held that vocabulary is an indispensible element in language learning, including reading, listening, and grammar and so on so forth. Schemata refer to concepts of a person about the world, which is based upon previously acquired knowledge, such as cultural knowledge and linguistic knowledge. At present, teachers spend too much time on the reading comprehension. The present paper attempts to provide some suggestions for senior high school students in vocabulary learning.

2. The importance of vocabulary teaching McMarthy (1990) points out that no matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully he masters the sounds of a second language, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in that language cannot happen in any meaningful way. Vocabulary is the eternal theme of language (Ma,2007). Therefore, vocabulary learning should be attached great importance to in the course of language learning. We can get ahead in language acquisition in this teaching way, especially at the main stage of language learning. Vocabulary is the basic element in language and the containment of form, semantic and phonetic. It is the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 125 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 principle carrier of the information. Vocabulary is very important in English learning and plays a vital role in communication. (Chen & Zhang, 2001). Students should learn vocabulary in the process of English learning. According to British linguist Wilkins （1972）, without grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. Another British linguist H. Winddowson(1983) said, “In the abundant language environment, compared with the communicative functions of grammar, vocabulary is major, but the grammar is the subordinate.” Vocabulary teaching can be put forward by some pedagogical implications. To start with, the vocabulary should be taught with students centered. Secondly, the new words should be taught by evoking students’ background knowledge. Thirdly, a proper teaching plan should be well-designed in vocabulary teaching. However, most teachers and students neglect the importance of vocabulary learning, they hold that vocabulary should be taught in an easier way. Teachers have too much work to do on how to improve students’ vocabulary competence, but they are still teaching vocabulary in the traditional way. Moreover, it is hard for students to master a certain amount of vocabulary when the teacher undertakes to teach them every word because there is no enough teaching time to teach students each word. The students need to further learning their vocabulary after class, otherwise they can’t enhance their English competence in their lifetime learning. Nevertheless, the result of learning vocabulary is not optimistic. Many students only acquire a small amount of vocabulary and can not apply those words flexibly in writing or speaking even after several years’ English learning. In view of this, to help students to have a good command of vocabulary learning strategies can be regarded as an essential part of English teaching. If language structure makes up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and the flesh. An ability to manipulate grammatical structure does not have any potential for expressing meaning unless words are used (Harmer, 2002: 153). The study of vocabulary learning strategies, as a subclass of language learning strategies, focuses on how vocabulary is acquired. It is urgent to find out the effective way of vocabulary teaching in the high school in order to help the students enhance their vocabulary level. Teachers have the responsibility to motivate students to master a few vocabulary learning strategies so that they can effectively acquire more vocabulary on their own, especially outside the class.

3. The schema theory in vocabulary teaching The schema which promotes to learn the new knowledge can activate the original knowledge system and make a connection between the old and new knowledge. When they try to learn new things, people need to connect new things with acquired cultural knowledge and linguistic knowledge. The acquisition of new things depends on the previously existing schemata, and the language inputs should be acquired in accordance with them. Schema theory originated from Kant's observation. The term "schema" was first put forward by the German psychologist I. Kant in 1781. He said that schema was made up of people's previous knowledge and he explained it as an “active developing pattern" where continuous developing and concept construction were implied. He thought that schema could help the reader to fill the detailed gap in the text by activating his previous knowledge. According to Anderson and Pearson (1984), schema is active, self-activating and self-revising. These characteristics imply that schema has a great influence on cognitive learning processing. Schema conduce us to focus, to understand, to interpret, to memory, to ratiocinate and to handle problems. Schema is an abstract set of experiences. One of the most important characters is that it becomes more substantial continuously with perceptual experience, and it is an organ in a state of living development.

4. Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Based on psychological model of a learner’s background knowledge, schema theory is used by the psychologists to explain the understanding process. It guides the students to motivate their background knowledge in the mind and ultimately to understand the current knowledge, constructed in the vocabulary teaching. Gu and Johnson's (1996) classifications of vocabulary learning strategies include the following categories: meta-cognitive regulation, guessing strategies, dictionary strategies, note-taking strategies, rehearsal (memory strategies), encoding (memory strategies) and activation. It is common to see that meta-cognitive strategies, social strategies and cognitive strategies are frequently recommended by many scholars. In the following classes, new words are presented and taught in the schema-based methods as follows:

4.1 Using relative pictures. New words can be mastered when they are accompanied by pictures which indicate their meanings more than definitions. For example, when the teacher teaches the word "altitude" in unit 3, she gave the students a picture of a high mountain. So when they wanted to describe the height of the mountain, they can associate the word "altitude" with it.

4.2 Using imagery. Imagery has proved to be more effective than mere repetition of reading passages (Steingart & Glock, 1979). When the teachers teach the new words, they can use the imagery of the words, because students can create their mental images of the meanings of words more successfully. For example, a student can mentally connect the word "winner" with his memory of winning the first prize in a race.

4.3 Using the relativity. The memorization of new words is closely related to one's previous knowledge. It is not just a single way flow of information into the brain after what is heard or seen, but an interactive process of dual-way communication in which the schematic knowledge of the learner affects the heard or seen content interactively. New words can be connected to previous words that the learners have learned. That is to say, when a learner hears or sees a new word, the memory of his brain will immediately search the related information, which involves some types of sense relationship, such as coordination (run other kinds of sports like joy, play soccer, swim, skate), synonymy ( happy–glad), or antonym (close–open).

4.4 Making classification. Classification is an effective way to facilitate recall. People according to the recall, organize words into classification naturally. In free-recall studies, subjects are given lists of words to learn and recall in any order. It is typical that words belong to each meaning category and need to recall together. For example, all animals before moving on are another category like names (Bousfield, 1953). In this way, words can be classified together in a story. The narrative chain method is a highly effective way to learn new wards. In Unit four of Book two, there is a new word, namely "garbage". When the class came to this word, the teacher could offer the word "waste" and “rubbish” which had been learnt in junior school. Garbage is a waste material, especially referring to waste from kitchen. Rubbish consists of unwanted things or waste material such as used paper, empty cans and bottles and waste food. Waste is a material that has been used and is no longer wanted. Therefore, these three words could form a "waste group". In this group, when one word appears, the other two could be easily recalled.

4.5 Presenting through language description. People always follow the concrete-to-abstract cognitive process. When teaching some abstract words, teachers use the words which their students have already known to make a description of them. In unit three, while teaching the phrase “make fun of …”, teachers could analyze the meaning of the phrases by citing an example that the students who play a joke on their fellow classmates.

4.6 Using contextual knowledge. Students may increase their vocabulary through extensive reading. When reading, they can guess the meanings of some new words by making use of contextual clues which are kept as schemata in their mind. It would be thus easier to acquire the new words than before. For example, James always falls behind others. If he had made utmost effort to study, he would have caught up with others. According to the subjunctive mood used in this sentence, we may infer that the expression “fall behind” has an opposite meaning to the phrase “catch up with”.

4.7 Drawing semantic map Drawing a semantic map is the best way to present a kind of schema, in which some necessary information is generally accepted by the relation between the new and old information in background knowledge. When drawing a semantic map for students, teacher can explain the semantic map by retrieving their existing knowledge. A semantic map is like a geographical map introduced into the class. This semantic map is also like a city map in which every key word appears in its position and you can find out and understand it by referring to this map. Some words are grouped according to content schema, formal schema and the cultural background. This requires teachers to make an explanation and plan detailed procedures in the teaching process. Therefore, well planned teaching design is needed to sort out the explanation in proper procedures. Teachers need to design the plan according to the students’ requirement so that the students can understand the new words by connecting their background knowledge and can learn the application of these new words effectively at the same time.

4.8 Applying interactive teaching methods Carrell (Carrell, 1983) suggested that teacher should apply interactive teaching methods with all kinds of activities in the classroom. It can list the words which are related with a new word in the way of brainstorming and then summarize the result. It is a vivid, direct and visual method to help the students acquire knowledge effectively. New knowledge can be understood by comparing with a framework of previous existing experience which is stored in memory. According to Bartlett (Bartlett, 1932), the memory is organized in the form of schema which constructs a mental framework for storing and retrieving information.

5. Conclusion Schema theory-based instructions have positive influence on students' vocabulary learning strategies. A word is a joint of the word network in brain. One word of one joint is linked to another word of another joint through meaning, form and sound, composing an integrated system of word network. The motivation of one joint may motivate its neighboring joint via automatic spreading. Therefore, vocabulary learning is a cognitive process, such as input, comprehension, reconstruction with previous knowledge, reinforcement and memorization. They could promote students to learn vocabulary and explore effectively cognitive strategies. The effective strategies include relating the picture, using the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 128 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 imagery, using the relativity grouping, making the classification, presenting through language description, using contextual knowledge, drawing semantic map and applying interactive teaching methods to promote vocabulary acquisition. Vocabulary strategy instruction is creative. Students can optimize their learning strategies in the multi-level teaching method. The teacher should help students to set up their background knowledge and enhance students' competence of supposition to motivate the schema which previously existed in students' mind. Students should be cultivated to learn vocabulary in context and find out the most suitable learning method to them. The schema-based instruction proves to be very useful for students to distinguish some vocabulary with similar meanings. They help the students consolidate old words, increase new words and enhance expression skills. They can memorize new vocabulary in an atmosphere of relaxed by connecting new vocabulary with their previous knowledge. Learning new vocabulary based on schema theory might help them to develop positive attitude towards and arouse their interest in learning new vocabulary and then gradually form keen interest in English learning. So vocabulary teaching is not only the key to enhance the student’s English vocabulary, but also a vital way to improve their English proficiency as a whole.

References

1. Anderson, R. C. and Pearson, P. D. A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. Review of Educational Research, 1984: 52. 2. Bartlett, E. C. (1932). A Study of Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambrige: Cambridge University Press. 3. Bousfield, W. A. the occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology, 1953: 49. 4.Carrell, P. L. Scheme Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 1983, (4):553-573 5. Gu, Y. Q. & Johnson, R. K. Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning, 1996(46): 643-679. 6. Harmer, J. The practice of English language teaching. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching Research Press, 2002: 153. 7. Mc Carthy. M, 1990, Vocabulary. Oxford: OUP. 8. Steingart, S. K. & Glock, M. D. Imagery and the recall of connected discourse. Reading Research Quarterly, 1979: 15. 9. Wilkins, D. (1972). Linguistics in Language Teaching. New York: Arnold. 10. Widdowson, H. G. (1983). Learning purpose and language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11. 陈桦, 张益芳. 中国儿童英语词汇记忆策略探究,外语学刊,2001（4）:100-106. 12. 马广惠. 英语（新课标）教材词汇分析, 中小学外语教学（中学篇）, 2007, (1).

The Dichotomy of Servant Leadership and Its practicality on the African Continent

Peter Mutua Mutia* United States International University – Africa P.O. Box, 14634 – 00800 Nairobi, Kenya Email: [email protected]

Solomon Muthamia P.O Box 62022 Nairobi Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT To many outsiders, Africa is a continent rife with famines, droughts, militia groups, and emaciated children. As far as leadership is concerned, Africa comes across as a continent whose nations are led by incompetent and arrogant, as well as economically ineffective and politically suspicious leaders who undermine their own democracies. As if to give credence to this observation, in 2012, the Mo Ibrahim Foundation failed to award its annual leadership prize, normally reserved for extraordinary performance in delivery of human rights, integrity, transparency in office and building social cohesion by an African head of state who has left power in the last three years. This leaves one wondering whether there is any chance for the emergence of a leader who truly believes and dedicates himself to the welfare of his people. A servant leader. It is important to understand the intricate details in the servant leadership theory and compare it to other leadership theories, as such an understanding helps leaders in adopting this leadership theory. This note examines the servant leadership theory, its dimensions, the behaviors of servant leaders, the strengths in the theory, criticisms against the theory, expected outcomes and goes on to compare the theory to other theories, before consequently drawing conclusions, thus setting an agenda for future research

Introduction Sendjaya and Cooper (2011) define servant leadership as holistic and multi-dimensional approach to leadership that encompasses the rational, emotional, ethical, and spiritual sides of both leaders and followers. The concept of servant leadership is dichotomous and creates a semantic dissonance at a first glance. But as Catchim (2012) argues, that dichotomy is false, and is borne out of an increasing need to create a false dichotomy between leadership and servant hood. He explains further that as the logic goes, having an organizational structure that identifies someone as "the leader" is somehow tyrannical and loaded down with exorbitant pitfalls. It can thus be concluded that truly effective people and organizations

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 130 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 use "mutual submission" and "team based models" of leadership. As Gupta, McDaniel and Herath (2005) explain, leadership remains a relatively mysterious concept despite having been studied for several decades. At one level, leadership has been understood as the relationship between a person who influences the behavior or actions of other people and those who are so influenced (Mullins, 1996). As Masango (2002) observes, Africa has a rich and diverse leadership heritage, which though similar at many levels, is notably different from one country and culture to another, as dictated mainly by the largest religions, which are: African religions, Christianity and Islam. Servant leadership is thus not alien to Africans. Unfortunately, this is largely ignored by the media, who only concentrate on leaders who focus on self-aggrandisement (Ngima, 2015). In agreement, Lekota (2011) observes that the African continent is largely in the hands of individuals who are largely focused on selfish personal gains as opposed to serving the community. According to Brubaker (2013), there are different servant leadership models, which propose different behaviors and virtues for the leader. Sendjaya, Sarros, and Santora (2008) look at a model of servant leadership that emphasizes the importance of spirituality and morality, while, Patterson (2004) approaches it from the angle of empowerment and service to the followers. However, according to Heskett (2013), servant leadership is experienced so rarely in Africa because of the trends in the leadership environment, the scarcity of human qualities required, demands that the practice places on the practitioner, and the very nature of the practice itself. That is why this paper will seek to examine servant leadership and its practicality on the African continent

The Servant Leadership Theory Achua and Lussier (2013) define servant leadership as a leadership that transcends self-interests to serve the needs of others, placing the leader in a non-focal position within a group in such a way that the organizational resources and support are provided to followers without the expectation of acknowledgement, thereby helping them grow, both professionally and personally. As Norhouse (2013) explains, servant leaders believe that they are no better than the people they lead, and is a style of leadership that focuses on leadership from the point of view of the leader and his or her behaviors, emphasizing the need of the leaders to pay attention to the concerns of their followers, empathize with them and nurture them. According to Sendjaya, Sarros and Santora (2008), servant leaders put their followers first, empower them, and help them to develop their full personal capacities and lead in ways that serves the greater good of the organization, community and society at large. Daft (2011) explains that by sharing leadership and displaying authenticity in leadership, servant leaders function as “trustees” who facilitate the development of community among organizational members. As Greenleaf (1977) explains, unlike the traditional leaders who are primarily motivated by aspirations to lead, servant leaders are motivated more by a desire to serve than to lead. As a result, the motivation of servant leaders arises from an underlying attitude of egalitarianism (Sendjaya et al., 2008). According to Greenleaf (1970), servant leadership begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve first, then a conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. Greenleaf (1970) further points out that servant leadership manifests itself in the care taken by the servant first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. He suggests that the highest test of servant leadership is whether those

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 131 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 served grow as people, become healthier, wise, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants. Greenleaf (1977) gives another test of servant leadership to be how it affects or benefits the least privileged in the society. According to Achua and Lussier (2013), the following servant leadership characteristics have been confirmed in various studies: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and building community.

Dimensions of the Servant Leadership Theory Servant leadership, first theorized four decades ago (Greenleaf, 1970), was originally described as a leadership philosophy that values service to others over self-interests. This work carried with it intuitive appeal, and subsequent popular press publications glorified the construct (Spears, 1995). Although ten dimensions of servant leadership were identified, no empirical tests of these dimensions were conducted. Consequently, servant leadership was viewed primarily as a conceptual, albeit rather elusive construct, lacking any consensual framework or empirical rigor (Bass, 2000). According to Barbuto and Wheeler (2006), the construct was rejuvenated by a clarification and scale development procedure that operationalized a testable theory of servant leadership. As Searle and Barbuto (2010) explain, this clarification and measure stimulated subsequent empirical works on servant leadership. When testing for possible gender bias characterized as agentic (masculine) and communal (feminine), Barbuto and Gifford (2010) found no significant differences among servant leaders. Consequently, Sendjaya et al (2008) identified and confirmed altruistic calling, emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping, and organizational stewardship as the five dimensions of servant leadership. These dimensions are discussed next.

Altruistic Calling Altruistic calling is defined as the fundamental conscious choice to serve others (Greenleaf, 1977). This desire to positively influence others through service is deemed central to servant leadership ideology (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). Servant leaders embrace service to followers and sacrifice self-interest for their followers’ development (Bass, 2000; Graham, 1991). Servant leaders desire positive development in individuals, organizations, communities, and societies (Liden et al., 2008). The necessity for altruism in leadership has been recognized by many scholars (Avolio & Locke, 2002; Block, 1996) as has the altruistic nature of servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977; Sendjaya et al., 2008). Leaders demonstrating a willingness to put followers’ interests ahead of their own will likely garner great trust and dedication from followers, leading to higher quality of exchanges.

Emotional Healing Barbuto and Hayden (2011) explain that emotional healing describes the ability to recognize when and how to facilitate the healing process. This includes a leader’s ability to foster spiritual recovery from hardship and trauma (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). According to Liden et al., (2008), servant leaders are highly empathetic and able to show sensitivity to others. They create an environment with their followers enabling them to voice personal and professional concerns (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). According to Barbuto and

Hayden (2011), leaders who are capable of producing emotional healing in followers are more likely to have strong relationships with them.

Wisdom Wisdom describes an ability to pick up cues from the environment and to recognize possible consequences and implications of their observations (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). Bierly et al. (2000) explains that servant leaders are observant and anticipatory across multiple contexts, enabling them to translate their knowledge into forward action. According to Barbuto and Hayden (2011), there is a great need for leaders with a strong sense of awareness coupled with an ability to apply the knowledge gained through observation. They go on to observe that leaders that are keenly aware and insightful will garner followers’ respect and trust, which is necessary to develop strong dyadic relationships.

Persuasive Mapping Persuasive mapping describes an ability to use mental models and sound reasoning to encourage lateral thinking in others (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). Servant leaders high in persuasive mapping are skilled at articulating issues and conceptualizing possibilities by sharing their train of thought. They possess the necessary knowledge to assist and support their followers effectively (Liden et al., 2008). Barbuto and Hayden (2011) argue that persuasiveness-based models are more productive than authority-based models on positive outcomes, arguing further that leaders who are capable of consistently using persuasive mapping rather than legitimization develop stronger relationships with their followers.

Organizational Stewardship According to Barbuto and Wheeler (2006), organizational stewardship refers to the extent to which leaders prepare their organization to make a positive contribution to the community and society. A servant leader demonstrates a strong sense of social responsibility and encourages organizations to implement moral and ethical actions that benefit all stakeholders (Sendjaya et al., 2008). This emphasis is accomplished by reaching out to the community through community development programs, outreach activities, and facilitating company policies that benefit the surrounding community, society, and environment (Barbuto and Hayden, 2011). Servant leaders’ ideology advocates that their organizations create value for the community (Liden et al., 2008). Those leaders capable of uniting an organization for greater purpose and community citizenship will garner the trust and respect that fosters strong dyadic relations.

Servant Leader Behaviors According to Liden et al (2008), there are seven leadership behaviors which are core to the servant leadership process. Collectively, these behaviors are the central focus of servant leadership. Individually, each behavior makes a unique contribution to the whole process. These are: Conceptualizing

According to Northouse (2013), this refers to the servant leader’s thorough understanding of the organization, its purposes, complexities, and mission, which allows the servant leader to think through multifaceted problems, to know when something is going wrong and to address problems creatively in accordance with the overall goals of the organization.

Emotional Healing This involves being sensitive to the personal concerns and well-being of others, and includes recognizing others’ problems and being willing to take the time to address them Sendjaya et al. (2008). According to Northouse (2013), servant leaders exhibit emotional healing, avail themselves to others, stand by them and provide them with support.

Putting Others First Greenleaf (1977) calls this the sine qua non of servant leadership and refers to it as the act of using actions and words that clearly demonstrate to followers that their concerns are a priority, including placing followers’ interests and success ahead of those of the leader. It may mean the leader breaking from his own tasks to assist followers with theirs.

Helping Followers Grow and Succeed This refers to knowing followers’ professional and personal goals and helping them to accomplish those aspirations Sendjaya et al (2008). Servant leaders make subordinates’ career development a priority, including mentoring followers and providing them with support (Northouse, 2013). At its core, helping followers grow and succeed is about aiding these individuals become self-actualized, and consequently reaching their fullest human potential (Achua and Lussier, 2013).

Behaving Ethically This refers to doing the right thing in the right way, which includes holding on to strong ethical standards, including being open, honest and fair with followers (Northouse, 2013). Servant leaders do not compromise their ethical principles in order to achieve success (Greenleaf, 1977).

Empowering This refers to allowing followers the freedom to be independent, make decisions on their own, and be self-sufficient. According to Northouse (2013), this is a way for leaders to share power with followers by allowing them to have control and it builds the followers’ confidence by allowing them to have control. Empowerment also builds the followers’ confidence in their own capacities to think and act on their own because they are given the freedom to handle difficult situations the way they feel is best (Sendjaya et al, 2008).

Creating Value for the Community

Servant leaders create value for the community by consciously and intentionally giving back to the community (Greenleaf, 1977), something they achieve by getting involved in local activities and encouraging followers to also volunteer for community service. According to Northouse (2013), the creating value for the community is the one true way that leaders can use to link the purposes and goals of an organization with the broader purpose of the community

Strengths In The Servant Leadership Theory Servant leadership is unique in the way it makes altruism the central component of the leadership process. According to Northouse (2013), servant leadership argues unabashedly that leaders should put followers forward, share control with followers and embrace their growth. It is the only leadership approach that frames the leadership process around the principle of caring for others. Secondly, servant leadership provides a counterintuitive and provocative approach to the use of influence or power in leadership. Nearly all other theories of leadership treat influence as a positive factor in the leadership process, but servant leadership does just the opposite, arguing that a leader should not dominate, direct or control, but share control and influence. The main goal for servant leadership is to give up control rather than seek it. In other words, servant leadership is an influence process that does not incorporate influence in the traditional way. Lastly, the followers’ readiness to receive servant leadership moderates the potential usefulness of leading from this approach (Liden, et al, 2008).

Criticisms For The Servant Leadership Theory Although servant leadership has many positive features, this approach has many limitations. First, the paradoxical nature of the title “servant leadership” creates a semantic noise that diminishes the potential of value of the approach, because the name appears contradictory, which means that servant leadership could end up being perceived as fanciful or whimsical (Northouse, 2013). On the other hand, servant leadership is perceived as implying a following, which can be easily perceived as being the opposite of leadership. Although servant leadership incorporates influence, the mechanism of how influence functions as a part of servant leadership is not fully explicated in the approach. On the other hand, Nayab (2011) points out that a major servant leadership criticism relates to its soft approach, which is unsuitable for a competitive environment. This is because as Nayab (2011) explains, the servant leader lags behind leaders following other leadership styles. He further observes that as the servant leader focuses on “serving” and “inspiring” followers, accountability or responsibility gets diluted, explaining that much of the core characteristics of servant leadership remain unsuitable on many occasions because, first, a servant leader is more often than not required to discard the characteristic of openness in order to maintain confidentiality and the integrity of the community's core values and beliefs, for legal reasons and for the protection of others (Blanchard & Hodges, 2003). Secondly, during crisis situations, servant leaders find themselves having to suspend the listening and consultative processes and being forced to issue specific orders (Nayab, 2011). Also, servant leadership thrusts on human resource development would fall flat on its face when market pressures force the organization to downsize (Sendjaya et al, 2008).

According to Blanchard and Hodges (2003), there is a raging debate among servant leadership scholars regarding the core dimensions of the theory. This is because, although servant leadership is hypothesized to include a multitude of abilities, traits and behaviors, to this day researchers are unable to reach a consensus on a common definition or theoretical framework for servant leadership (Nayab, 2011). Consequently, Northouse (2013) suggests that, until a larger body of findings is published on servant leadership, the robustness of theoretical formulations about it will remain limited. As Blanchard and Hodges (2003) observes, a large segment of the writings on servant leadership have a prescriptive overtone, that imply that good leaders “put others first”. While advocating an altruistic is commendable, it has a utopian ring because it conflicts with individual autonomy and other principles of leadership as directing, concern for production, goal setting and creating a vision (Gergen, 2006). Also, along with the “value-push” prescriptive quality, there is a moralistic nature that seems to surround servant leadership (Blanchard and Hodges, 2003). As a result, many practitioners of servant leadership are not necessarily researchers who want to conduct studies to test the validity of servant leadership (Sendjaya et al, 2008). As Achua and Lussier (2013) point out, the word “servant” implies a low status for the person serving and its use connotes negative feelings about leadership, especially for those who have traditionally thought of leaders as powerful visionaries leading the pack-the “great man” theory of leadership. Finally, it is unclear why “conceptualizing” is included as one of the servant leadership behaviors in the model of servant leadership. This is because conceptualization is a cognitive ability and researchers in servant leadership have not given enough reasons as to why it should be considered a determinant of servant leadership (Northouse, 2013). Nayab (2011) observes that the major function of leadership is to induce an employee-organization fit by aligning individual goals with organizational goals. Servant leadership gives primary importance to individual needs and aspirations and tries to make employees perform their organizational tasks through inspiration (Sendjaya et al, 2008). This method does not always work and does not effectively resolve issues related to individual-organization fit (Northouse, 2013). An analysis of servant leadership theory strengths and weaknesses reveal that this leadership approach leads to unresolved cases of individual goals and values conflicting with the organizational goals and values, and leads to organizational goals remaining unfulfilled owing to employees not giving the attention, priority or urgency such goals deserves (Nayab, 2011). Similarly, the servant leader's commitment to building community among the team members might not go down well with all team members, many of whom would have their own personal lives and wish to keep work and family life separate (Achua and Lussier, 2007).The servant leadership style works best when everyone in the organization is committed to the concept, and has certain core skills and behaviors (Northouse, 2013). According to Nayab (2011), servant leadership is not a quick fix and the real benefits of servant leadership become apparent only in the long run.

Servant Leadership Outcomes

Although servant leadership focuses on behaviors primarily, it is important to also examine potential outcomes of servant leadership. Northhouse (2013) points out that the main outcomes of servant leadership are better follower performance and growth, organizational performance and societal impact. Greenleaf (2003) explains further that, the central goal of servant leadership is healthy organizations that nurture individual growth, strengthen organizational performance and in the end, produce a positive impact on the society. Following is a detailed examination of servant leadership outcomes.

Follower performance and growth Under servant leadership, the servant leader’s behavior focuses on recognizing the followers’ contributions and helping them realize their human potential (Northouse, 2013). The expected outcome for the followers is greater self-actualization, that is, the followers realize their full capabilities when leaders nurture them and help them with their personal goals by giving them control (Sendjaya et al 2008).

Secondly, Meuser et al., (2011) explains that servant leadership has a favorable impact on the subordinate’s in-role performance, that is, the way the followers do their assigned work. Lastly, the followers become servant leaders themselves (Sendjaya et al, 2008). Greenleaf (2003) conceptualization of servant leadership hypothesizes that when followers receive caring and empowerment from ethical leaders, they in turn will likely begin treating others in this way. Servant leadership thus produces ripple effect in which servant leaders create more servant leaders.

Organizational performance In addition to affecting followers and their performance, Northouse (2013) points out that servant leadership has an influence on organizational performance. Northouse (2013) further points out that servant leadership also affects the way organizational teams function. According to Hu and Liden (2011), servant leadership enhances team effectiveness by increasing the members’ shared confidence that they could be effective as a work group.

Societal impact Although societal impact is not commonly measured in studies of servant leadership, there are examples of servant leadership’s impact on society that are highly visible. For example, the work of mother Teresa, whose years of service for the hungry, homeless and unwanted resulted in the creation of a new religious order, the missionaries of charity. This order now has more than 1 million workers in over 40 countries worldwide. Mother Teresa’s servant leadership model had an extraordinary impact on societies around the world (Meuser et al., 2011).

Comparing Servant Leadership To Other Leadership Theories

In order to understand servant leadership, it is important at this point to examine the similarities between servant leadership and other contemporary leadership models, namely transformational, authentic, and spiritual leadership.

Servant Leadership versus Transformational Leadership According to Northouse (2013), transformational leadership is “a process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the followers”. He further opines that this type of a leader is attentive to the needs and the motives of the followers and tries to help them reach their fullest potential. According to Bass and Riggio (2006), transformational leaders motivate people to “do their best’ and make their followers perform beyond expectations by moving them to transcend their own self-interest for a higher purpose or vision. According to Farling et al. (1999), servant leadership is similar to transformational leadership in that both approaches encourage leaders and followers to ‘raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality’. However, servant leaders are conceptually distinct from transformational leaders in that unlike transformational leaders, servant leaders demonstrate a natural inclination to serve marginalized people. Bass (2000) argues that transformational leaders seek to empower and elevate followers rather than keep followers weak and dependent; however the effects of that increased motivation and commitment does not necessarily beneﬁt the followers, as ‘there is nothing in the transformational leadership model that says leaders should serve followers for the good of followers’ (Graham, 1991). However, servant leadership is similar to transformational leadership in that servant leadership requires that leaders lead their followers for the followers’ own ultimate good (Burns, 1978). Secondly, servant leaders, unlike transformational leaders, set their priorities in such a way that the followers’ needs come first, then the organization’s needs and their own needs last (Graham, 1991). On the other hand, Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) observe that the role of servant leaders is to serve followers, whereas the role of transformational leaders is to inspire their followers to pursue organizational goals. Consequently, the focus of servant leadership is first and foremost on their individual follower, something which takes precedence over the organizational objectives. The rationale behind this deliberate focus on followers is well summarized by Stone et al. (2004), who asserts that “organizational goals will be achieved on a long-term basis only by ﬁrst facilitating the growth, development, and general well-being of the individuals who comprise the organization”. Unlike transformational leadership whose primary concern is “performance beyond expectations”, the sine qua non of servant leadership is the followers’ holistic moral and ethical development. In fact, from its earliest conceptualization, servant leadership has been considered a leadership approach that elevates leaders and followers both morally and ethically (Greenleaf, 1977).

Servant Leadership versus Authentic Leadership According to Gardner et al. (2005), authentic leaders are individuals who have a deep awareness of their own and others’ values/perspectives and the context in which they operate, and are positive in their outlook. Although self-awareness and self regulation are not very common in servant leadership, the perspectives in authentic leadership are similar to those in servant leadership (Avolio et al., 2004). On the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 138 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 other hand, servant leadership shares similar key characteristics with authentic leadership, in that both explicitly recognize the importance of positive moral perspective, self-awareness, self-regulation (authentic behavior), positive modeling, and a focus on follower development for a leader to function effectively (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) observe that through positive modeling, servant leaders encourage followers to demonstrate a consistency between what they say and do, are transparent about their limitations, and strongly engage in moral reasoning with their followers. In conclusion, servant leadership emphasizes a spiritual orientation, which is also an important source of motivation for spiritual leaders, something which is not strongly highlighted in the authentic leadership model (Whittington et al., 2006).

Servant Leadership versus Spiritual Leadership Blackaby and Blackaby (2001) define spiritual leadership as an emerging paradigm designed to create an intrinsically motivated, learning organization that maximizes the triple bottom line. They further observe that spiritual leadership involves motivating and inspiring workers through a hope/faith in a vision of service to key stakeholders and a corporate culture based on the values of altruistic love to produce a highly motivated, committed and productive workforce, and conclude by observing that the main purpose of spiritual leadership is to tap into the fundamental needs of both leader and follower for spiritual well-being through calling and membership; to create vision and value congruence across the individual, empowered team, and organization levels; and, ultimately, to foster higher levels of employee well-being, organizational commitment, financial performance, and social responsibility – the Triple Bottom Line. According to Fry (2003), there are points of convergence and divergence between servant leadership and spiritual leadership. Both servant leadership and spiritual leadership models appeal to virtuous leadership practices and intrinsic motivating factors to cultivate a sense of meaning, purpose, and interconnectedness in the organization. In particular, both approaches attempt to facilitate a holistic and integrated organization where individuals engage in meaningful and intrinsically motivating work (Russell and Stone, 2002). Servant leadership finds its expression through service, which at the same time becomes a source from which leaders derive the meaning and purpose of life (Fry, 2003). Fry (2003) further observes that servant leadership has three main qualities, which are vision, altruistic love and hope (faith).

Greenleaf (1977) points out that servant leaders “need to have a sense for the unknowable and be able to foresee the unforeseeable”. On the other hand, Fry (2003) observes that the values categorized under altruistic love and hope (faith), that is, trust, integrity, acceptance, humility, compassion, and perseverance, are also reflected in servant leadership. Integrity, for example, is conceptually associated with servant leadership (Wong & Page, 2003), as is trust (Joseph & Winston, 2005). Given the above similarities, one could argue that servant leadership is embedded in spiritual leadership, in that servant leadership is a manifestation of altruistic love in the action of pursuing transcendent vision and being driven to satisfy needs for calling and membership. However, it would be equally valid to argue the contrary, whereby spirituality is the motivational basis for servant leaders to engage others in authentic and profound ways that transform them to be what they are capable of becoming. Sendjaya et al. (2008) concludes that

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 139 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 although spirituality one of the many important dimensions of servant leadership, there are many other equally important dimensions such as self-sacrificial servanthood and moral values, which are not clearly articulated in the available literature on servant leadership.

Through the comparative analysis of the three different leadership models, it is clear that servant leadership incorporates a follower-oriented, service, spiritual, and moral dimensions of leadership, as is urgently needed in the current organizational context. Sendjaya et al. (2008) observes that “the strength of the servant leadership model and its many links to encouraging follower learning, growth, and autonomy, suggests that the untested theory will play a role in the future leadership of the learning organization”.

Servant Leadership versus Transactional Leadership Transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which the leader promotes compliance of his followers through both rewards and punishments (TLT, 2010). Unlike other styles of leadership, which seek to either improve organizational performance or the welfare of the followers, leaders using the transactional approach look to maintain the status quo (Washington, 2007). As Washington (2007) further observes, servant leadership and transactional leadership are distinguishable in a number of ways. First, servant leadership emphasizes activities that demonstrate concern for the followers’ well-being, while transactional leadership focuses on the routine maintenance activities of allocating resources and monitoring and directing followers in order to achieve organizational goals (Kanungo, 2001). On the other hand, unlike servant leaders who influence followers through personal development and empowerment, the transactional leaders use rewards, sanctions, and formal authority and position to induce compliance from followers (Northouse, 2013). According to Bass (2008), transactional leaders create strong expectations for employee work behaviors, along with clear indications of rewards employees will receive in exchange for meeting transactional leaders’ expectations. Thus, transactional leaders use contingent reward behavior to set up transactions with followers in order to achieve work goals (Northouse, 2013). Sendjaya et al., (2008) observes that transactional leaders work to induce compliant behavior by using rewards, sanctions and formal authority, which are all influence strategies, which contradicts the empowerment strategies emphasized by servant leaders According to Bass (2000), transactional leaders utilizing management-by-exception do not involve themselves with their followers until deviations from work standards occur. On the other hand, Ware (2011) observes that passive leaders wait until followers’ behaviors have created problems before they take corrective action against obvious deviations from performance standards, while active leaders monitor follower performance in order to anticipate deviations from standards prior to their becoming problems. Both active and passive, management-by-exception (which are common in transactional leadership) emphasize the use of tactics such as discipline, punishment, negative feedback (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), and other influence strategies that oppose the empowerment tactics embraced in servant leadership (Northouse, 2013).

Analysis And Conclusions

Analysis From the study it is clear that servant leadership gives the organization a human face, by encouraging a caring-benefactor relationship between the leaders and the followers (workers in the organization). There however, seems to be a paucity of literature on servant leadership, because majority of the available literature is based on Robert Greenleaf findings, while most of the remaining literature is on biblical or religious contexts. There is thus a need for researchers to bring a new perspective to servant leadership, different from and not based on Robert Greenleaf’s writings. On the other hand, servant leadership brings a totally different outlook to the whole issue of power and leadership. this is because, while nearly all the other leadership theories treat influence as a positive factor, servant leadership non dominance, arguing that leaders should not dominate, or control, but should share control and influence, with the main goal being to give up control rather than to seek it. Servant leadership also seems to encourage passivity and may not work in some organizations, especially those in high power distance contexts. While it is obvious that servant leadership is mainly about shifting from the old paradigms of power hoarding by the leaders, to new paradigm of power sharing, it is seems weak when compared to the other leadership styles, and may in most instances not fit with the current generations’ will to power, egocentric nature and emphasis on assertiveness on leaders. Servant leadership also seems different and a threat to those who like wielding power or those who see power in a hierarchical structure. From the available literature, one is forced to ask themselves whether being a servant leader is just about being nice for the sake of niceness. However, after looking at different literature from different researchers in different contexts, one is forced to conclude that servant leadership does indeed work.

Conclusions and Implications From the above study, it can be safely concluded that servant leadership is more a personal orientation toward life which grows from a particular worldview, with religion, especially the Judeo-Christian worldview being the main one. It is also clear that leadership is not constrained by context, but happens in every area of human interaction, including industry, education, government, politics, and routine social interactions. While in the past, servant leadership was treated like folklore in leadership forums, mainly due to a paucity of empirical research on the subject, all that has changed since the true impact of servant leadership can now be tested. While this study presents a positive picture of servant leadership, the obstacles to its implementation especially in third world countries is substantial. These challenges are not only in its implementation at the organization level, but in the research sphere. Although the concept of servant leadership research is still in the beginning, the opportunity for research is immense. This is because research and findings on servant leadership would benefit those interested in servant leadership in the third world context, especially those disenchanted with the current leadership models in Africa and the third world in general, but also those in other parts of the world who are increasingly engaged in business and other forms of cross-cultural interaction with Africa and the third

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 141 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 world in general. Future research should study other impacts of servant leadership to better quantify its impact on organizational and individual growth. Further research should test the outcomes of servant leadership, especially the propensity of followers to become servant leaders themselves. On the other hand, the key implication in all this is that servant leadership does not exist merely as a tool to use; rather, it is more of an archetype or ego ideal that daily interactions, which does not represent leadership that merely serves, but servant leadership as a whole, which has more to do with being than merely doing. It can thus be concluded that servant is all about being a servant.

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From Clinical Practice to Nursing Education: Using Old Skills in a New Way

Kaitrin Parris Instructor Acute, Chronic and Continuing Care Department University of Alabama in Birmingham United States

Jacqueline Ann Moss University of Alabama Birmingham Assistant Dean for Clinical Simulation and Technology School of Nursing | Family, Community, and Health Systems United States

Abstract Transitioning from an expert clinical nurse to a novice nurse educator can be challenging. Skills used in both positions are not always apparent. Skills that were transferable were identified using Benner’s (1984) competency themes and seven domains of an expert clinical nurse. Identifying skills that the expert clinical nurse is already comfortable with assists in the ease of transitioning to the novice nursing educator role. Realizing that the skills that the expert nurse has been using and is confident with allows for the application of these skills to the new realm of teaching. This knowledge will foster confidence and lay the foundation for a successful transition into the novice educator role. Identifying ways to assist in this transition will promote retention of new educators as well as satisfaction with the role change. Finding ways to assist the expert clinical nurse will allow for a faster progression to expert nurse educator.

The shortage of nursing faculty has opened up new opportunities and spurred the move of many in clinical practice to academia. Moving from an expert clinical nurse to a novice nurse educator can be challenging. P. J. McDonald (2010), describes her transition to academia as enormous. In her article Transitioning from Clinical Practice to Nursing Faculty: Lessons Learned, she addresses the stressors of student’s expectations to be an expert nurse and competent in teaching. One common challenge is that new nursing faculty do not know how to relate to students. Frequently they rely on an interpretation of their experience as a nursing student to guide them in their approach to faculty/student interactions. As a result, their experiences frame the way they structure relationships with students. Not successfully structuring these relationships can result in a division between faculty and students instead of them partnering toward a common goal. When this happens, both faculty and students experience unneeded stress and dissatisfaction. Just as in clinical practice nurses strive to be patient-centered, in educational practice, we must strive to be student-centered.

Many of the competencies utilized in clinical nursing are transferable to building a successful practice in nursing education. New nursing educators can apply many of the same skills used to provide care to patients to working with nursing students. Effective nurse educators can transfer their skills and experience in practice to provide the structure and support for nursing students to ensure their success.

As clinicians, we are well versed in the guiding principles used to provide patient care. As nurses, we learn to advocate, listen, communicate, comfort, assist, empower, and encourage our patients. These guiding principles can serve as guiding principles for student-faculty interaction and can also provide the foundation needed to enable students to become the next generation of care givers. Student care is essential to the retention, satisfaction, and growth of our student nurses. Utilizing their ability to care, new nurse educators can positively impact all of these areas as student guides and role models for incorporating these behaviors into practice. In Benner’s (1984) book, From Novice to Expert, she interviewed nurses and identified 31 competency themes. From these themes, seven domains were derived. In this paper, the domains of nursing as identified in Benner’s book were used as a framework for exploring how competency in clinical practice can be translated into the skills needed by the new nursing educator. The domains of nursing practice explicated by Benner and practiced by all nurses can also guide novice nurse educators to care for their students and help them achieve positive outcomes. In the following section, each Benner nursing domain is extended to explain how the same nursing skills might be applied to the nursing faculty role.

The Helping Role The expert bedside nurse is very comfortable with the role of helping patients. They become skilled at identifying which patients need more help and which are able to provide self-care. The helping role for the bedside nurse surrounds and encompasses most interactions with their patients. Faculty need to utilize these skills to demonstrate that they care about the student as an individual and their success as a nursing student. In the clinical setting, the nurse is frequently asked for help by their patient or identifies that help is needed. For educators, the same dynamic should occur. Students will ask for help or at times, the nurse educator will assess that help is needed. Both roles require excellent communication skills, both verbal and listening skills. The student, like the patient, must trust and be open to accepting help. It is throughout this helping role process that the student nurse will be most vulnerable. Care and caution regarding providing help in a positive manner will be vital to maintaining the self-esteem and empowerment of the student.

The Teaching-Coaching Function The expert bedside nurse is acutely aware that the success of the patient’s transition to home and future illness is related to their ability to understand their disease process and how to maximize their health. If a patient does not fully understand these aspects, they can decline and require more intervention. In educating new nursing, it is the ability to teach and recognize when information needs to be expanded or reinforced is a skill that the bedside nurse can bring to the teaching role. Identification of different teaching methods based on different learning styles is also applicable to both patients and students.

Nursing school is very different from other undergraduate degrees. The nursing student frequently experiences culture shock due to being evaluated and tested at every turn. The nurse educator can apply the teaching coaching domain to assist the nursing student through the journey of nursing school. One aspect of teaching-coaching is identifying what is unfamiliar or frightening for the student and attempting to make it less traumatic. This can be accomplished through explanation, preparation, support, encouragement, and demonstrating fairness. Coaching and preparing the student throughout nursing school will allow the student to have less anxiety and, in turn, perform better. One potential area of concern is that novice faculty can be confused with being friendly with students and “being friends” with students. The ability to support students in a friendly manor while maintaining boundaries is an important skill that successful faculty master.

The Diagnostic and Monitoring Function The expert bedside nurse picks up on subtle changes in their patient. They are able to detect declines or improvements throughout the patient’s care trajectory. As these patient changes are identified the nurse makes changes in the plan of care according to the needs of the patient. The experienced educator will utilize these same assessment skills to pick up on changes or potential issues with their students. The reality of nursing school may not match the student’s expectation of nursing school. Students have the expectation that nursing school content difficulty will be similar to their nursing prerequisite courses. This misperception can cause the students to become quickly discouraged with nursing school, as their expectations do not match their experiences. If the educator can identify and intervene in these cases, they can prevent the student from leaving nursing school and prevent student attrition. The expert educator can assist in formulating a realistic expectation of nursing school as well as beginning to establish other support systems for the struggling student nurse. The educator can also utilize the skill of diagnosis and monitoring to evaluate the courses they teach. Evaluating the effectiveness of the course they are teaching as well as the methods of teaching the content is continually evolving. The course and how it is taught may be revised based on feedback from students, board scores, or the educators identified need to change. It is imperative that the needs of the learners and objectives in the course are met.

Effective Management of Rapidly Changing Situation Bedside nursing requires an expert nurse to act quickly and efficiently. Delays in reacting to a change in patient status can cause detrimental consequences to a patient’s health. As the expert bedside nurse adjusts to changes in patient conditions, this ability to adapt to a changing environment is also useful in educating student nurses. Being flexible and adapting to alternate strategies when things that are not working well in the classroom can be a skill that translates to strong, competent new nurses. There are times in the classroom when the subject or concept is difficult for students to learn. Identifying different ways to present material and engaging the learner is important to ensure that learners obtain and are able to apply content to the clinical setting. The nurse educator must be prepared to revise content delivery or tests based on feedback and test analysis.

Practice and academia are synchronistic within this domain. As the knowledge base and technology changes within nursing practice the need to stay up-to-date and reflective of current practice is essential for nurse educators. The new educator must be able to adapt and stay current with practice, research, as well as educational methods. Staying current with nursing practice ensures the new graduate will have the knowledge necessary to provide quality patient care based on current practice standards.

Monitoring and Ensuring the Quality of Health Care Practices Ensuring the quality of health care practices is the center of all nurse educators’ goals. Quality encompasses many areas of teaching, from tests, lectures, clinical, and graduates. It is imperative that each nurse that graduates is sound and possesses all of the skills necessary to deliver quality patient care. Validating that students are safe to provide care is an essential step that nurse educators perform on a daily basis. The critical thinking skills associated with the multitasking of multiple patients and priorities is mastered by the expert nurse. It is essential for the nurse educator to expose and teach the student nurse critical thinking skills. The ability for the student nurse to be exposed to these necessary skills allows for a more successful transition from the student nurse to practicing nurse. It is through exposure to the expert nurses handling of changing situations and prioritizing needs that the student nurse will be able to apply what is learned to their practice. K. Bain (2004) explained that the best college teachers are able to distinguish from pertinent school work as compared to just work to keep them busy. It is the application of the information by the educator that makes the student understand the context of the assignments. This experience is how the expert clinical nurse can make an exceptional educator.

Organizational and Work-Role Competencies The nurse in clinical practice learns how to organize to provide safe and effective patient care. They assess the current situation, set priorities, and quickly execute their plan of care. To do this requires they have the expertise to not only assess and plan but to perform the basic skills essential for execution of the plan. In academia, constant preparation and planning for the class, the course, and the semester are essential. Proper preparation and planning result in clear expectations and a stable environment for both students and faculty. There should be few surprises. The successful educator must be proficient in the basic skills required for executing their plan and should seek every opportunity to learn these new competencies. For example, if they will be teaching online, they will require expertise in using the institution’s learning management system. If using simulation, they will not only need to learn the complexities of mannequin operation, but also learn how to create, implement, and evaluate these experiences

Research Expert bedside nurses utilize evidence-based practice (EBP) to guide their care. They incorporate relevant research into their practice to continually update their knowledge and skills. Utilizing EBP allows for quality care decisions to be made. The educator also utilizes EBP to teach students quality patient care. In

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 149 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 the classroom, faculty should update content to reflect EBP changes and share with their students the science behind the selection of information delivered. Clinically focused faculty should model EBP for students in their care delivery. Students are then able to care for patients using clinically sound practices that were demonstrated by their clinical faculty. It is through the utilization of EBP in the classroom and clinical teaching that the importance of research and safety are ingrained in students.

Summary New nurse educators sometimes struggle with the transition from expert nurse to novice educator. What not initially realized is that a significant amount of skills nurses use to care for their patients translates to care of their students. What makes an expert educator is the ability to have excellent nursing skills and ability to transfer that knowledge. Part of the transference of knowledge is the ability to build a rapport the students. Building rapport is a similar phenomenon when caring for patients. The patients benefit just the students benefit when they know the nurse is invested in their outcome. Benner’s domains can be a useful structure to assist the novice educator to become an expert educator.

References

Benner P. (1984). From Novice to Expert. Menlo Park, Ca: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company;

Bain K. (2004). What the Best College Teachers Do. Cambridge, Ma: Harvard University Press;

P.J. McDonald (2010). Transitioning from clinical practice to nursing faculty: Lessons learned. Journal of Nursing Education, 49(3), 126-131.

The Effect of Simulation-based Training on Medical Students’ Perceptions, Knowledge, and Skill at Baseline and 6-month Follow-up

Cameron G. Shultz, PhD, MSW (Corresponding author) St. Mary Mercy Livonia Hospital Graduate Medical Education 36475 Five Mile Road, Livonia, MI, 48154, USA Tel: 1-734-655-2303 E-mail: [email protected]

James M. Cooke, MD Department of Family Medicine and Learning Health Sciences, University of Michigan 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, M7300 Med Sci I Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Tel: 1-734-998-7120 E-mail: [email protected]

Keri L. Denay, MD Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, M7300 Med Sci I Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Tel: 1-734-998-7120 E-mail: [email protected]

Mikel Llanes, MD Department of Family Medicine University of Michigan 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, M7300 Med Sci I Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Tel: 1-734-998-7120 E-mail: [email protected]

Philip Zazove, MD, MM Department of Family Medicine University of Michigan 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, M7300 Med Sci I Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Tel: 1-734-998-7120 E-mail: [email protected]

Scott A. Kelley, MD Department of Family Medicine University of Michigan 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, M7300 Med Sci I Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA Tel: 1-734-998-7120 E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The principal goal of most simulation-based learning is enhanced clinical skill, with the desired outcome being skill retention and improved performance over time. While evidence supports simulation-based training at the clerkship, graduate, and post-graduate level, the evidence supporting its long-term benefit at the pre-clerkship level is less well established. Using quantitative methods, this research assessed the effect of skill-based clinical simulation training on all second-year medical students’ enrolled in two simulation courses at the University of Michigan during the 2013-2014 academic year (n=39). Pre-course, post-course, and 6-month follow-up questionnaires were administered, and analysis of variance was used to assess change in students' knowledge, self-reported confidence, and competency. Students in Course 1 (n=12) completed a post-course and 6-month follow-up skills test, and results were compared to faculty controls. Differences between groups were assessed using t-tests. Odds ratios were calculated. Knowledge improved from pre-course to post-course; the gain was retained at follow-up only for students in Course 1. Students perceived the courses as improving knowledge, confidence, and skill, though scores were significantly lower at follow-up. For the subset of students participating in the skills test, the time to complete central line and thoracentesis at follow-up did not significantly differ from post-course; however, an increase was observed for lumbar puncture. Compared to faculty, students took significantly more time to complete the central line procedure. Outcomes for needle redirects and correct sequencing were mixed, with most procedures showing no significant difference between measurement periods. Assessing students’ skill—and the maintenance of that skill over time—using objective and empirically derived measures can be challenging. The evaluation strategy described herein could be adapted to many procedures commonly practiced within primary care and other medical specialties. Brief exposure to clinical simulation early in medical training and prior to clerkships can have a positive and lasting effect on medical students’ knowledge, confidence, and skill for selected procedures.

Keywords: Clinical simulation, education, medical student, knowledge, skill

1. Introduction Creating new opportunities for medical students to develop and practice clinical procedures remains an important priority within undergraduate medical education programs. To address this need, simulation mannequins and other simulation-based teaching methods are growing in popularity due to their low cost, safety, and capacity for repetitive use.(Bradley, 2006; Issenberg, McGaghie, Petrusa, Gordon, & Scalese, 2005; McGaghie, Issenberg, Cohen, Barsuk, & Wayne, 2011; McGaghie, Issenberg, Petrusa, & Scalese,

2010; Passiment, Sacks, & Huang, 2011) Simulation-based instructional programs permit learners to practice and receive focused feedback on clinical skills within a controlled setting, thus preparing learners for experiences with real patients. The principle goal of most simulation-based learning is the enhancement of clinical skill, with the desired outcome being skill retention and improved performance in the clinical setting. While evidence supports the use of simulation-based training at the clerkship level (ie, 3rd and 4th years of undergraduate training) and within graduate and post-graduate training programs,(McGaghie, Issenberg, Barsuk, & Wayne, 2014; McGaghie, et al., 2011; McGaghie, et al., 2010) the evidence supporting its use at the pre-clerkship level (ie, 1st and 2nd year undergraduate medical students) is less well established.(Chou, Abdelshehid, Clayman, & McDougall, 2006; Consoli et al., 2012; Fraser et al., 2009; Fraser et al., 2011; Goulart et al., 2012; Halm, Lee, & Franke, 2010; Heitz, Brown, Johnson, & Fitch, 2009; Karabilgin, Vatansever, Caliskan, & Durak, 2012; Kelly et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2009; Mittal, Morris, & Kelz, 2011; Schubart et al., 2012; van Zuilen, Kaiser, & Mintzer, 2012) A limited but growing number of studies show that learners can also retain simulation-acquired skills over time,(Ahya et al., 2012; Barsuk, Cohen, McGaghie, & Wayne, 2010; Crofts et al., 2007; Didwania et al., 2011; Wayne, Siddall, et al., 2006) with several studies assessing retention among students during pre-clerkship years.(Chou, et al., 2006; Consoli, et al., 2012; Fraser, et al., 2009; Schubart, et al., 2012; van Zuilen, et al., 2012) However, we know of no previous study that systematically assesses retention among pre-clerkship medical students at an interval extending beyond several months. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of skill-based clinical simulation training on second-year medical students’ knowledge, confidence, and skill at baseline, and retention at 6-month follow-up.

1.1 Simulation-based instruction As described by Bradley (2006), simulation is “[t]he technique of imitating the behaviour of some situation or process...by means of a suitably analogous situation or apparatus, especially for the purpose of study or personnel training.” Simulation-based medical training can take many different forms, including life-like mannequins, medical team training, software-based multimedia simulation, and standardized patients (among others). Many procedures, treatments, and clinical scenarios can be modeled using simulation, ranging from the highly specialized (eg, laparoscopic surgery) to the relatively straightforward (eg, hand-washing). A number of factors contribute to fewer opportunities for pre-clerkship medical students to actively participate in procedures performed on real patients, including changing supervision standards for students and residents, the need for residents to perform procedures at the expense of student participation, and concerns over safety and outcomes. For such reasons, alternative learning experiences—eg, medical simulation—that incorporate rigorous evaluation methods are needed.

2. Methods Prior to implementation, this study was evaluated and classified as exempt from ongoing review by the University of Michigan (UM) Institutional Review Board.

2.1 Overview As described by Kneebone (2005), 4 essential constructs exemplify effective simulation based training—knowledge, skill, professional practice, and clinical context. Corresponding to each construct, Kneebone proposed specific criteria for consideration when evaluating training programs: (1) Simulations should allow for sustained, deliberate practice within a safe environment, ensuring that recently acquired skills are consolidated within a defined curriculum which assures regular reinforcement; (2) Simulations should provide access to expert tutors when appropriate, ensuring that such support fades when no longer needed; (3) Simulations should map onto real-life clinical experience, ensuring that learning supports the experience gained within communities of actual practice; and (4) simulation-based learning environments should provide a supportive, motivational, and learner-centered milieu which is conducive to learning. These criteria informed the development and implementation of the skill-based clinical simulation courses targeting second-year medical students at the UM. Given the wide variety of inpatient and outpatient procedures within the practice of family medicine, family physicians are well positioned to provide targeted instruction to preclinical medical students on diagnostic and therapeutic procedures regularly encountered during medical and surgical clerkships. Building off the success of a pilot course using clinical simulation to provide pre-clerkship medical students with hands-on experience in family medicine-related procedures,(Kelley & Cooke, 2013) two simulation-based courses were offered to 2nd year medical students at the UM: Course 1 focused on central line placement, lumbar puncture, and thoracentesis; Course 2 focused on splinting and casting. Course 1 was conducted over three 2-hour sessions, one for each procedure; Course 2 was limited to a single 2-hour session. Both courses were taught by clinical faculty from the UM Department of Family Medicine. The primary goal for each course was to increase students’ knowledge, confidence, and skill.

2.1.1 Simulation Procedures for Course 1 Course 1 utilized several simulation instruments commonly used within academic medical education settings: the Blue Phantom central line mannequin, Kyoto Kagaku lumbar puncture simulator, and Blue Phantom midscapular thoracentesis model. The Blue Phantom central line mannequin offers realistic anatomy of the upper thorax and neck. The model has an internal jugular vein and additional landmarks such as the trachea, manubrium, and clavicle. Veins are compressible, and ultrasound can be utilized to visualize anatomy and needle placement (Blue Phantom, Sarasota, FL). The Kyoto Kagaku lumbar puncture simulator includes life-like skin and tissue resistance to the spinal needle, enabling learners to gain skill in performing epidural and lumbar puncture procedures. Cerebral spinal fluid can be collected, and fluid pressure measured (Kyoto Kagaku, Torrance, CA). The Blue Phantom midscapular thoracentesis model helps learners develop essential skills, such as ultrasound-guided catheter insertions for those with pleural effusions. It contains realistic anatomical features (eg, chest wall, ribs, intercostal spaces, pleural cavity), offers positive fluid flow, and can provide instant feedback when pleural effusion

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 154 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 fluid is accessed (Blue Phantom, Sarasota, FL). With an experienced family medicine faculty instructor for each group, students practiced procedures in small groups of three to four students per simulator.

2.1.2 Simulation Procedures for Course 2 Course 2 focused on applying a volar wrist splint and short arm cast using fiberglass casting material. Students were paired, and each took turns being either the patient or the provider. The family medicine faculty instructor floated from pair to pair.

2.1.3 Course 1 and 2 For both courses, sessions consisted of a presentation (eg, anatomic landmarks, indications, contraindications, technique, etc) and detailed step-by-step demonstration on how to conduct the procedure. This was followed by hands-on practice with one-on-one coaching and in-depth discussion of the finer details of the procedure. Discussion between faculty and students included qualitative feedback on both performance and technique.

2.1.4 Incentive To compensate students for their time, a small financial incentive (up to $25 total) was offered for participation in the pre-course, post-course, and 6-month follow-up assessment activities.

2.2 Measures and Statistical Analyses

2.2.1 Questionnaire Using quantitative research methods, an objective measure of students’ knowledge and a subjective, self-reported measure of knowledge, confidence, and skill were assessed at three time periods: immediately prior to the course (pre-course), immediately after the course (post-course), and 6 months after completing the course (follow-up) using a paper-based (pre- and post-course) or web-based (follow-up) questionnaire. In the absence of a standardized tool assessing knowledge and confidence for the two simulation courses, study investigators employed a multi-step process to develop instruments addressing each course's specific content. Steps included explicit delineation of the measured constructs (eg, knowledge and confidence), an assessment of each question to confirm its face and content validity, piloting the instrument with study team members, and repeating the process over several revision cycles. Using this collaborative and iterative process, each question was reviewed and approved via consensus by at least 3 clinical faculty and a PhD methodologist within the UM Department of Family Medicine.

2.2.2 Knowledge Students in Course 1 were asked a total of 9 knowledge-based questions at each measurement period. With 3 questions for each procedure, possible scores ranged from 0 to 9. Students in Course 2 were asked 3 knowledge-based questions (all for the single procedure) at each measurement period. Possible scores

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 155 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 ranged from 0 to 3. Questions for both courses were designed to resemble those encountered in Step 2 of the US Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). One-way repeated measures ANOVA and pairwise comparisons (paired-samples t-test with Bonferroni adjustment) were employed for each course to assess for differences in students’ knowledge between pre-course, post-course, and follow-up measurement periods; p-values and effects sizes are reported.

2.2.3 Self-reported Knowledge, Confidence, and Skill Student’s self-reported knowledge, confidence, and skill were assessed post-course and at follow-up using a course-specific Likert-type question tailored to each domain (knowledge, confidence, and skill). Students’ agreement with the statement was measured using a 10-point scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. All students from both courses were asked the same questions; hence, results were pooled. One way repeated measures ANOVA were performed to compare self-reported scores between measurement periods; p-values and effect sizes are reported.

2.2.4 Objective Skill Assessment For students in Course 1, skill was assessed post-course and at follow-up using a set of objectively derived performance measures including the time to complete the procedures, the number of needle redirects, and whether or not the student followed the correct sequence of ordered steps for each procedure. Because time to complete the procedures in most cases was not normally distributed, time (in seconds) was transformed to its log. Paired samples t-tests were employed to compare students’ time for each procedure post-course and at follow-up; paired t-tests were also used for comparing student re-directs post-course and at follow-up. Effect sizes and confidence intervals are reported. One-sample t-tests—using faculty mean time as the reference—were used to test for differences between student times and faculty times; effect sizes and confidence intervals are reported. Odds ratios were used to measure the association between correctly following the sequence of ordered steps for each procedure post-course and at follow-up; p-values and confidence intervals are reported.

3. Results

3.1 Sample Twelve students participated in Course 1, and 27 in Course 2. There were no statistically significant differences in the age, gender, or race/ethnicity of the students in each course. Mean age was 25.77 years (standard deviation [SD], 2.03); 19 (48%) students were female.

3.2 Knowledge Test Knowledge test means and SDs for both courses and at each measurement period are indicated in Table 1.

Table 1. Means and standard deviations in knowledge test scores for Courses 1 and 2 Measurement period N Mean score Standard Deviation COURSE 1* Pre-course 12 6.67 1.44 Post-course 11 7.73 1.19 Follow-up 12 7.83 1.19 COURSE 2† Pre-course 27 1.93 0.55 Post-course 27 2.78 0.42 Follow-up 24 2.25 0.61 * The highest possible score for Course 1 is 9. † The highest possible score for Course 2 is 3.

3.2.1 Course 1 Eleven students from Course 1 (92%) completed the knowledge test at all 3 measurement periods. One-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference in scores, Wilks’ Lambda=0.42, F(2, 9)=6.34, p=0.02, effect size (partial eta squared)=0.59. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment show post-course and follow-up scores were significantly higher than pre-course scores (Table 2).

3.2.2 Course 2 Twenty-four students from Course 2 (89%) completed the knowledge test at all 3 measurement periods. One-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference in scores, Wilks’ Lambda=0.43, F(2, 22)=14.667, p<0.0005, effect size (partial eta squared)=0.57. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment show post-course scores were significantly higher than pre-course and follow-up scores (Table 2). Table 2. Change in knowledge test scores for Courses 1 and 2

Mean p (two-tailed)* Effect size Difference (eta squared)†,‡ COURSE 1 Pre-course -vs- Post-course -1.18 0.022 0.53 Pre-course -vs- Post-course -1.17 0.011 0.58 Pre-course -vs- Post-course -0.18 1.000 - COURSE 2 Pre-course -vs- Post-course -0.85 <0.0005 0.56

Pre-course -vs- Post-course -0.33 0.172 -

Pre-course -vs- Post-course 0.50 0.008 0.33 * Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni Ɨ Reported only for pairs reaching statistical significance ‡ Cohen’s (1988) guidelines suggest values of 0.01 indicate a small effect, 0.06 a moderate effect, and 0.14 a large effect.

3.3 Self-reported Knowledge, Confidence, and Skill Thirty-five students (90%) completed the self-reported knowledge, confidence, and skill questions both post-course and at follow-up. As shown in Table 3, post-course and follow-up scores were universally high (>7), though follow-up scores were significantly lower for all three domains (knowledge, confidence, and skill). Self-reported skill had the largest decline, with a mean score of 8.23 (SD=1.50) post-course and 7.03 (SD=1.60) at follow-up. Table 3. Change in self-reported knowledge, confidence, and skill* Mean (SD) Wilks’ F p-value Effect size Lamda (partial eta squared)† Post-course: 8.29 (1.32) Knowledge 0.85 5.921,34 0.02 0.15 Follow-up: 7.69 (1.62)

Post-course: 8.09 (1.58) Confidence 0.79 8.831,34 0.005 0.21 Follow-up: 7.31 (1.62)

Post-course: 8.23 (1.50) Skill 0.59 23.281,34 <0.0005 0.41 Follow-up: 7.03 (1.60) SD = standard deviation * Measured using 10-point scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (10) † Cohen’s (Cohen, 1988) guidelines suggest values of 0.01 indicate a small effect, 0.06 a moderate effect, and 0.14 a large effect.

3.4 Objective Skill Assessment Twelve students (100%) from Course 1 completed the post course skill assessment for lumbar puncture and thoracentesis, and 11 students (92%) completed the post-course skill assessment for central line placement. Nine students (75%) from Course 1 completed the follow-up skill assessment for each of the 3 procedures.

3.4.1 Central Line There was no significant difference between students’ post course time and follow-up time for central line

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 158 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 placement; likewise, the change in the number of needle redirects post course and at follow-up did not significantly differ (Table 4). Students’ mean post-course time for central line placement was significantly longer than faculty’s. The magnitude of the difference was large. Four of 11 students (36%) had a post-course time exceeding 2 SDs beyond that of faculty’s (Table 5). Students’ mean follow-up time for central line placement was significantly longer than faculty’s. The magnitude of the difference was large. Seven of 9 students (78%) had a follow-up time exceeding 2 SDs beyond faculty’s (Table 5). While all 11 students (100%) correctly followed the sequence of ordered steps for central line post course, only 3 of 9 (33%) did so at follow up. The odds of correctly following the sequence of ordered steps at follow-up were 98% less than post-course (OR=0.02, 95% CI=0.001 to 0.53, z=2.362, p=0.018).

3.4.2 Lumbar Puncture Students’ post course time was significantly shorter than follow-up for lumbar puncture; likewise, the change in the number of needle redirects significantly increased from post course to follow-up (Table 4). Students’ post-course time for lumbar puncture did not significantly differ from faculty’s (Table 5). One of 12 students (8%) had a post-course time exceeding 2 SDs beyond faculty’s. Students’ follow-up time for lumbar puncture was significantly longer than faculty’s. Five of 9 students (56%) had a follow-up time exceeding 2 SDs beyond faculty’s (Table 5). All 12 students (100%) correctly followed the sequence of ordered steps for lumbar puncture post-course, and 7 of 9 (78%) did so at follow-up. The odds of correctly following the sequence of ordered steps for lumbar puncture at follow-up were not statistically different than post-course (OR=0.12, 95% CI=0.01 to 2.85, z=1.31, p=0.190).

3.4.3 Thoracentesis Students’ post course time did not significantly differ from follow-up time for thoracentesis; likewise, the number of needle redirects post course did not significantly differ from follow-up (Table 4). Students’ post-course time for thoracentesis did not significantly differ from faculty’s (Table 5). One of 12 students (8%) had a post-course time exceeding 2 SDs beyond faculty’s. Students’ follow-up time for thoracentesis did not significantly differ from faculty’s. One of 9 students (11%) had a time exceeding 2 SDs beyond faculty’s. Seven of 12 students (58%) correctly followed the sequence of ordered steps for thoracentesis post-course, and 3 of 9 (33%) did so at follow-up. The odds of correctly following the sequence of ordered steps at follow-up were not significantly different than at post-course (OR=0.36, 95% CI=0.06 to 2.16, z=1.22, p=0.262).

Table 4. Comparison of student post-course and follow-up time to complete procedures and the number of needle redirects* Mean p (two-tailed) Mean Effect size follow-up post-course t (df) (eta (standard (SD) squared)†,‡ deviation) CENTRAL LINE Time -0.49 0.64 4.11 (0.59) 4.25 (0.53) - (8) Needle redirects -0.22 0.83 1.11 (1.27) 1.22 (1.39) - (8) LUMBAR PUNCTURE Time -3.60 0.007 2.86 (0.74) 4.46 (1.04) 0.62 (8) -3.67 Needle redirects 0.25 (0.62) 3.00 (2.69) 0.006 0.63 (8) THORACENTESIS Time -0.71 0.50 2.60 (0.91) 2.73 (0.53) - (8) Needle redirects 1.41 0.20 1.44 (2.79) 0.11 (0.33) - (8) NOTE: Because time to complete the procedures in most cases was not normally distributed, time (in seconds) was transformed to its log. * Missing cases excluded pairwise † Reported only for pairs reaching statistical significance ‡ Cohen’s (1988) guidelines suggest values of 0.01 indicate a small effect, 0.06 a moderate effect, and 0.14 a large effect. Table 5. Comparison of student time to complete procedures against faculty reference time* Mean Mean faculty t (df) p Effect size Number of student time (SD) (two-tailed) (Cohen’s student time (SD) d) §,** outliers (%)†† CENTRAL LINE Post-course 4.24 4.07 (0.54) 0.002 1.28 4 (36) 3.38 (0.41)† (10) Follow-up 4.25 (0.53) 4.93 (8) 0.001 1.64 7 (78) LUMBAR

PUNCTURE

Post-course -0.46 2.74 (0.71) 0.65 - 1 (8) 2.84 (0.63)† (11) Follow-up 4.46 (1.04) 4.68 (8) 0.002 1.56 5 (56) THORACENTESIS Post-course -0.44 2.44 (0.85) 0.67 - 1 (8) 2.55 (0.50)‡ (11) Follow-up 2.73 (0.53) 1.04 (8) 0.33 - 1 (11) NOTE: Because time to complete the procedures in most cases was not normally distributed, time (in seconds) was transformed to its log. * Missing cases excluded pairwise † Faculty sample size = 3 ‡ Faculty sample size = 4 § Reported only for pairs reaching statistical significance ** Cohen’s (1988) guidelines suggest values of 0.2 indicate a small effect, 0.5 a moderate effect, and 0.8 a large effect. †† An outlier is defined as a student time that is ≥2 standard deviations from the faculty reference time. 4.1 Discussion The objective of this study was to measure the effect of skill-based clinical simulation training on second-year medical students’ knowledge, confidence, and skill between baseline and 6-month follow-up. We found that students’ scores on knowledge tests improved from pre-course to post-course for Course 1 and Course 2. Test scores were also higher at follow-up when compared to pre-course, though the gain fell short of statistical significance for Course 2 (p=0.172). Students self-reported knowledge, confidence, and skill was universally high both post-course and at follow-up, though scores were significantly lower for all three measures at follow-up. The largest decline was observed for self-reported skill. One explanation for this finding may stem from the hands-on and observable nature of skill-based performance. Whereas knowledge and confidence reflects a person’s internal state of mind, skill is an externally observable trait that requires purposeful interaction with one’s environment. Because skill can be readily witnessed by others, the criteria for self-assessing skill may be qualitatively different. Notably, previous research suggests self-perceived confidence and skill—ie, self-assessment—may not be an accurate predictor clinical skill, thus requiring the need for objective skill-based measures.(Barsuk, et al., 2010; Davis et al., 2006; Wayne, Butter, et al., 2006) For both central line and thoracentesis simulations, students’ time to complete the procedure and number of needle redirects did not differ between post-course and follow-up. This finding is consistent with previous research assessing learners in graduate and post-graduate medical education settings.(Crofts, et al., 2007; Wayne, Siddall, et al., 2006) In contrast, students’ time and needle redirects for lumbar puncture worsened at follow-up. It is not clear why skills degraded for this single simulation only, though it may be related to the procedure's relative difficulty. Students were significantly less likely to correctly follow the sequence of ordered steps at follow-up for

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 161 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 the central line simulation only. The observed decline may be a function of the multiple steps inherent in this procedure—whereas both lumbar puncture and thoracentesis had 5 steps assessed, 8 steps were assessed for central line. Compared to faculty, students’ time to complete the simulations took longer for only half of the measurements: central line (post-course and follow-up) and lumbar puncture (follow-up). This finding is quite remarkable given that these 2nd year medical students have had little to no previous experience with the procedures or with using simulation mannequins. An important next step for this line of research would be to measure the effect of the training on student performance in years 3 and 4 when working with real patients. Future research would also benefit from having a larger sample, not only to increase power but to enable use of more sophisticated multivariate techniques that control for potential confounders. Several limitations to this study warrant discussion. First, the number of participating students was small. This was especially true for Course 1, where only 75% participated in the 6-month follow-up skill assessment. Despite the small sample, findings were quite robust: subsequent analyses using non-parametric statistical methods (not shown) resulted in essentially identical findings. Second, while the knowledge test was developed by seasoned clinical faculty using an iterative and consensus-based process, the instruments were course specific and thus may not be generalizable to all simulation-based teaching environments. Third, findings may have been inflated due to testing or maturation bias. To minimize this potential threat, correct responses were never disclosed to students, and students were not given access to the instruments between measurement periods. Fourth, while efforts were made to secure 100% participation—including a small financial incentive (up to $25 total)—a number of students declined to participate at follow-up. The reasons for dropping out were not known; however, several students indicated conflicts stemming from exams, travel, and studying for Step 1 of the USMLE. And fifth, pooling results for some analyses may have introduced error, as both the instructors and content varied between courses. To minimize this risk, each course was taught by faculty from the same institution and department, the courses were structured similarly, the courses adhered to the 4 essential constructs described by Kneebone (2005), and instructors were purposeful in keeping the hands-on and skill-based training the course’s primary focus. Conducting medical procedures is an integral component to the practice of many medical specialties; however, assessing students’ skill—and the maintenance of that skill over time—using objective and empirically derived measures can be challenging. The family medicine clinical simulation courses for second-year medical students’ at the UM employed simple yet robust methods to assess students’ knowledge, confidence, and skill over time. Given their relative simplicity, these methods could be adapted to many procedures commonly practiced within primary care and other medical specialties. Findings showed that brief exposure to clinical simulation early in one’s medical training and prior to clerkships can have a positive and lasting effect on knowledge, confidence, and skill. We anticipate this early exposure will serve as a primer, helping medical students maximize their learning during clerkships years.

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Research on Evaluation of the Under-achievers in College English Learning

Zhang Jing School of Foreign Languages, China West Normal University, China

Abstract Evaluation plays a significant part in the instruction and learning. In the course of education’s development, a great number of evaluation methods have already been proposed by scholars. However, most of them always focus on the whole evaluation system or those researches are only suitable for the majority of students. And studies relevant to the evaluation method of the under-achievers in the foreign language learning are very little. This paper is to overview evaluation of language learning and study the evaluation which is academically and psychologically beneficial to under-achievers’ College English learning.

Key Words: evaluation; college English learning; under-achievers

Introduction Evaluation can ensure the attainment of the curriculum objectives, contributing to monitor, guide, encourage and promote instruction and learning. With the assistance of evaluation, teachers learn about the progress and education status of the students. According to the evolution of language evaluation, in the earliest stage the form of language evaluation is just language testing. At a later time, there are some other evaluation methods without tests that consist of portfolio, observation, conference etc. Generally speaking, during the period of the development of evaluation a great number of assessment theories and methods have been proposed, and numerous studies about evaluation and evaluation method have been done. Nevertheless, previous researches involve little evaluation of the under-achievers in College English learning. In reality, many under-achievers are not necessarily unfit to learn language or they aren’t able make achievement in language learning. The truth is their potential for language can’t be explored under the existed evaluation that is for all the students.

1. The development of evaluation 1.1 The role of evaluation of learning

Many years practice and researches have showed that educational evaluation is an indispensable part in the process of education management, and a sound educational evaluation can improve the quality of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 183 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 instruction and promote the deepening of education reform. In the education evaluation, it is the evaluation of learning that is closely associated with the students’ learning and teachers’ teaching. Black maintains that evaluation and assessment provides foundation for selection, certification of student achievement, accountability of the education system through comparison of results, and the promotion of learning through provision of helpful feedback (Black, 1993). It can diagnose, guide, identify and encourage the students’ further learning. Departments concerned and government consider the results of learning evaluation as important information used to make decisions and plans in relation to education. Therefore, a reasonable and scientific evaluation method of learning needs to be developed.

1.2 Evolution of evaluation Educational evaluation always develops with the main line of instructional evaluation. With the deepening of the researches on educational evaluation, the scope of its study is gradually expanded to teacher evaluation, school evaluation, education manager evaluation etc. The development process of educational evaluation can mainly be divided into the following four stages.

1.2.1 Measurement stage The first stage of evaluation is measurement stage which is from the late 19th to the 1930’s. In this period, evaluation mainly depended on testing， with a value orientation of education noumenon. In the historic background of pursuing the scientification and objectivity of evaluation, a large number of educational tests were widely applied to educational evaluation.

1.2.2 Description stage After the “testing stage”, the following twenty years is description stage which considered as the emerging and formation period. At this stage, Tyler first differentiated testing and evaluation, and proposed goal-based evaluation model.(Yi jianlong&Xu guojiang,2002) What’s more, he also made description and application of evaluation. During this period, education evaluation was objective-targeted, and the value switched into the social needs.

1.2.3 Judgment stage This stage began from 1950 to 1970. The most noticeable things in this period are the emergence of educational objectives classification and new education model. During this time, Bloom’s Taxonomy made up some shortcomings of Tyler Mode in different degrees. Simultaneously, various scholars also criticized the flaws of Tyler Mode such as the goal-free model.(Yi jianglong&Xu guojiang, 2002)

1.2.4 Construction stage The evaluation entered the construction stage from 1970.The evaluation of this period embodies multi-orientation of individual needs which is more humanistic. Due to the reflection of researchers and scholars, evaluation concept changed. Guba and Lincoln first interpreted the core of instructional evaluation is value judgment and proposed negotiative and

psychological constructive model of evaluation. (Yi jianlong & Xu guojiang, 2002)At this stage, the evaluation was deemed to be a process of psychological construction through negotiation of evaluator and the evaluated.

2. Current situation of evaluation in university

2.1 Problems in current situation of evaluation in university Generally speaking, the current evaluation system is incomplete. There are still some flaws and shortcomings in present framework of assessment. In addition, quite a few educators and educational administrators actually have a misunderstanding for the goal of evaluation and its function. In such perspectives as assessment subject, standard of evaluation, evaluation method, the following questions remain.

2.1.1 Unilateral evaluation subject As a matter of fact, the most frequently used evaluation types in instruction and learning are formative evaluation and summative evaluation. On one hand, in terms of formative evaluation, the subject is mainly instruction insiders for a long time. In university, the formative evaluation is all implemented by teachers, ignoring the principal position of students. However, besides the teacher, the more important assessor in formative evaluation should be the students. Hence, formative evaluation should also encourage students to conduct self-assessment and peer-assessment. On the other hand, in the view of summative evaluation, the subject is always mainly made up with education experts and some instructional external members. Thus, it leads to such a phenomenon that government assesses schools, school evaluates teachers and teacher evaluates students. (Wang Min, 2007)

2.1.2 Single standard of evaluation It is not difficult to understand that different regions and cities have different education resources and features. Of course, various students also have various talents. Yet, the evaluation standard is nationally applied to the students all over the country. Compared with the students in rural areas, those from the urban areas or big cities have a greater opportunity to get access to excellent education resources. To make matters worse, a growing number of college graduates’ talent and strength haven’t been exerted as a result of the single standard of evaluation, which is more far away from the primary aim of the evaluation.

2.1.3 Too much emphasis on the summative evaluation Summative evaluation is generally a value judgment of some course after implementation of an educational program. It usually ranks the students in the form of scores, which has a bad influence on the physical and mental development of the students. This sort of examination evaluation system cultivates just a few winners but numerous losers, and violates the law of education and students’ physical and mental development.(Wang Min, 2007) Most of the previous assessors only emphasis the summative

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 185 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 evaluation, focus more on the testing scores. Teachers and even the students themselves consider the grade as their achievement of the course. In that case, the instruction and learning gradually turns to be a test-oriented activity, losing the meaningless of the evaluation.

2.1.4 Reflection of the evaluation of college students in China Based on the evolution of evaluation and the problems in current situation of evaluation, there comes a very critical and serious thing that a good evaluation of students should, at least, pay more attention to the physical and mental development of the students. A scientific assessment and evaluation system should not only focus on the intelligent development of students but also their emotional experience. Beyond that, it’s particularly noteworthy that students play a dual role of assessors and assesses in the process of the formative evaluation. Additionally, in perspective of evaluation standard, due to the regional differences and individual differences among students, a more multi-oriented standard is terribly needed, which is beneficial to develop the students’ talent which is useful to their future work, and to contribute to realizing education equity.

3. Evaluation of the under-achievers in college English learning

3.1 Definition of under-achiever In 1960s, American scholar S.Kirk first put forward the concept of “under-achiever”. OuYang jianwei, a famous Chinese educator also gives following definitions of under-achiever. In his eye, the tradition definition of under-achiever refers to those students who are deficient in some aspect. In some cases, they are also called “backward students”. Another definition sounds more euphemistic, saying that an under-achiever means one who just temporarily drops behind with potential to make progress. (Chen xiaochan, 2011)In this sense, under-achievers in English learning are the students who are backward for the moment in English learning but able to make further progress.

3.2 Causes of underachievement in college English learning In general, the underachievement in college English learning has subjective internal factors and objective external ones. The internal reasons are mainly relevant to the students’ attitude, motivation, and strength of will and character etc. And the external causes principally manifested in the English learning environment of students, teaching concept of teachers and teaching methods.

Through the analysis of internal causes, the under-achievers in college English learning didn’t lay a solid foundation of English before. What’s more, such students usually fail to find an effective learning method which is suitable to them. To make matters worse, they even feel that the elementary knowledge and skills are that boring and tedious. Consequently, they will lose confidence and enthusiasm of study in the course of time. Later, after entering university, they are less likely to learning English actively in that English has nothing to do with their majors in their eyes. Similarly, according to the analysis of the external reasons, it’s not difficult to find that the exam-oriented

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 186 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 education mode and college entrance examination system have both seriously had bad effects on their further English study in college. In junior and high school, teachers simply make knowledge training and adopt excessive assignments tactic in pursuit of enrollment quotas and grade, which eventually causes students have learning-weariness mind in college English study. Besides, since the studying in university is relatively easy and flexible, the students with low self-control ability easily tend to be slack off.

3.3 Enlightenment on the evaluation of under-achievers in college English learning As previously said, under-achievers are merely temporarily backward. They do have, to some extent, a great potential to make progress. Moreover, the reasons of their underachievement in learning partly attribute to the incomplete evaluation. Yet, it is a complex and time-consuming reform to establish a new evaluation system which is suitable to all the students. Hence, a better choice to solve the problem is the establishment of a scientific one that is special for those under-achievers in college English learning.

In perspective of the students’ primary motivation of English learning, the evaluation should pay more attention to the emotional experience of the students rather than simply emphasize the academic achievement. A scientific and reasonable evaluation is beneficial to the physical and mental development of students. According to the educational viewpoints of Humanism, teaching must have real individual meaning. The humanists propose that students’ individual needs and feelings are supposed to be respected and the learning with real individual meaning should be emphasized.(Williams & Burden, 1997) Only when the students aren’t reluctant to study can they develop their maximum potential to catch up others. In fact, the majority of the under-achievers in English learning do not hate English in the beginning. They just can’t stand the ways of teaching or tasks which they aren’t good at. Therefore, the evaluation of under-achievers in college learning should take the primary motivation into consideration.

From the point of employment, not all the jobs associated with English demand sophisticated skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. For instance, an excellent translator may don’t do well in speaking or listening. Similarly, a student who fails to pass the final English exam or CET4/CET6 doesn’t mean he/she can’t be a good interpreter. In this sense, the evaluation of under-achievers in college English should consider to focus on such single aspect of English ability as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Thus, it isn’t only able to build their confidence but also to arouse their enthusiasm of English learning.

Conclusion This study briefly reviews the development of evaluation, and analyses the current situation of evaluation in university. Apart from that, in the third part of this paper, it gives some enlightenment on the evaluation of under-achievers in college English learning. From the study, it’s easy to find that the current evaluation still has some problems which badly need to be solved. Besides, the previous researches involve little the evaluation of under-achievers in College English learning. Nevertheless, the under-achievers are the group of people who are full of potential. Given more attention to them, the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 187 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 overall level of college English will be increased. In the process of instruction, the educators should be concerned about both the academic achievement and the emotional experience. In the view of humanistic, schools and teachers should focus on the physical and mental development of students. More importantly, the objective of evaluation is actually not selection but realization of promoting the individual development. Therefore, it’s necessary to establish an evaluation especially for under-achievers in English learning.

References： [1]Black,P.1993.Formative and summative assessment by teachers. Studies in Science Education,21:49-97

[2]William,M&L.Burden.1997.Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

[3]Yi jianlong. Xu guojiang. Reviewed on the Historical Development of Education Evaluation[J]. Shandong Agricultural Administrators’ Collage. 2002. (6)

[4]Wangmin. Research on the Development of Undergraduate Curriculum Evaluation in China. Central South University. 2007

[5]Chen xiaochan. The Transfomation of Underachiever about Collage English[J]. Journal of Nanchang Collage of Education. Foreign Language Study. 2011. (4):143

Implementing Short-Format Podcasts for Preview on Mathematics Self-efficacy and Mathematical Achievement in Undergraduate Mathematics

Minsu Kim Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, University of North Georgia, United States

Abstract The aims of this study were to examine the impact of the educational use of short-format podcasts before class and to investigate students’ responses to the short-format podcasts regarding mathematics self-efficacy and mathematical achievement. Data was collected from 128 students in 6 sections of Intermediate and College Algebra for two semesters through pre- and post-tests, questionnaires including the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale, and semi-structured interviews. The data were analyzed by the two subgroups regarding students who do not watch the short-format podcast lectures (NSPL) before class and students who watch the short-format podcast lectures (SPL) before class, and intermediate- low and intermediate- high students. The results of this study showed that short-format podcasts before class were vital to enhancing intermediate students’ mathematics self-efficacy and their achievement and an appropriate format on the preview section of the study cycle. In addition, this study contributed to the knowledge of student learning with technology and applications of short-format podcasts before class in mathematics education.

Keywords: Short-format Podcasts before class, Mathematics Self-Efficacy, Mathematical Achievement, Intermediate Students

1. Introduction Mathematics instructors at colleges and universities have improved the pedagogical environment both inside and outside classrooms through technology. Using the technologies such as class websites and educational software, mathematics instructors have developed their resources in terms of how content is reinforced after their lectures. In addition, the rapid development of mobile devices and Internet speed increases the opportunities for students to access electronic educational materials on class websites or use education software everywhere by utilizing mobile devices, such as smart phones and tablets (Copley, 2007).

While podcasting has become a popular media on the Internet, researchers and instructors in higher education have been interested in the applications of podcasts as a potential pedagogical technology. In 2004, Duke University evaluated the effectiveness of mobile learning through iPods by analyzing teaching and learning data from more than 1600 students (Belanger, 2005). Belanger (2005) and Sutton-Brady, Scott, Taylor, Carabetta, and Clark (2009) reported that students’ achievement improved in quality at the same time as the students’ motivation and use of resources online increased. Several studies showed that streaming video significantly influenced students’ achievement in higher education

(McGrann, 2006). In addition, instructors used podcasting in order to provide their dynamic resources as streaming videos and distribute them in order to help students learn materials (Laing, Wootton, & Irons, 2006; Sharples, 2000).

Research also noted several advantages for students’ learning in terms of the use of podcasting in higher education. Students were able to revisit and study content through replaying podcast episodes on diverse devices (Laing, Wootton, & Irons, 2006; Shannon, 2006). In addition, students had opportunities to manage their time in order to learn content instead of only scheduled lecture times (Sharples, 2000). Other researchers studied supplementary podcasts, which are short podcasts including 5-minute summaries of presentations (Calder, 2006), interviews for past and upcoming lecture content, and announcements (Bell, Cockburn, Wingkvisit, & Green, 2007). Studies revealed that short-format podcast design would be a successful model in education (Sutton-Brady, Scott, Taylor, Carabetta, & Clark, 2009). Even though researchers raised concerns regarding applications of podcasting in education, there are still limited evidences to support relationships between the use of short-format podcasts for upcoming core-lecture content and student mathematical achievement and between the short-format podcasts for upcoming core-lecture content and student mathematical self-efficacy.

Each short-format podcast include upcoming core-content of a lecture, represent problem solving, and important announcements as a 5-minute preview video. The purposes of this study were to examine the impact of the educational use of short-format podcasts before class and to investigate students’ responses of short-format podcasts for preview in mathematics at a university. There were three research questions with the following three sub-questions to the first question: I. How do short-format podcasts before class affect student mathematics self-efficacy and student achievement in mathematics? - Are there significant differences in mathematics self-efficacy and mathematical achievement between the control and treatment groups? - Are there significant differences between intermediate-low (IL) and intermediate- high (IH) students each group based on incoming level of mathematics regarding mathematics self-efficacy and mathematical achievement? II. What are students’ perspectives on the short-format podcasts before class? III. Do short-format podcasts before class fit the preview section in the study cycle? For the first question, four hypotheses were tested in this study: 1) The mean of mathematics self-efficacy scores of students who watch the short-format podcast lectures (SPL) before class is significantly different from the mean of mathematics self-efficacy scores of students who do not watch the short-format podcast lectures (NSPL) before class. 2) The post-test mean of the students who watch the short-format podcast lectures (SPL) before class is significantly different from the post-test mean of the students who do not watch the short-format podcast lectures (NSPL). 3) Intermediate-low students’ mathematics self-efficacy means and their post-test means in SPL are significantly different from intermediate-low students’ mathematics self-efficacy means and their post-test means in NSPL. 4) Intermediate-high students’ mathematics self-efficacy means and their post-test means in SPL are significantly different from intermediate-high students’ mathematics self-efficacy means and their post-test means in NSPL.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Innovative Technology in Higher Education The more students use technology, the more researchers and instructors have been interested in the application of technology in higher education because innovative technology is a potential tool to develop diverse pedagogical methods and learning environments. Instructors adopt technology as an education aid to improve students’ conceptual understanding and motivation (Ruhven & Hennessy, 2002). Using technology in education helps students make connections and engage in activities and lead to student-centered instruction (Almeqdadi, 2000; Funkhouser, 2002; Hannafin, Burruss, & Little, 2001; Serhan, 2004). Furthermore, technology in education has changed few interactions between students and instructors, and interactions between students and students to close interactions between them because of instant feedback (Galbraith, 2006).

Researchers also revealed important factors to adopt technology in education. Galbraith (2006) pointed out that instructors’ abilities to deal with technology and their roles were vital components to determine the impact of student learning and teaching. If students are the primary users instead of instructors, then the effect of using technology is further amplified (Drier, Harper, Timmerman, Garofalo, & Shockey, 2000). Therefore, the utilization of technology becomes a vital topic to improve student learning and teaching in higher education.

As one of innovative technology, podcasts are a series of multimedia files distributed through the Internet or downloaded through web syndication on computers or mobile devices. The word podcast is derived from “broadcast” and “pod” from iPod, Apple’s mobile device. Podcasts have become a common mean to create and disseminate information, for example, lecture contents, interviews, and presentations (Richardson & Mancabelli, 2007).

Podcasts have significantly changed teaching and learning environments in higher education as the number of users of mobile technologies increased. With the advancements in mobile technologies, podcasts allow instructors and students to improve communication, interactions, exchange, and engagement anywhere (Reid-Martinez, Groom, & Bocarnea, 2009). In 2004, Duke University distributed more than 1600 iPods to freshmen to evaluate the effectiveness of iPods in education (Belanger, 2005). This project revealed that the number of students and faculty using iPods was increased, improved student engagement, and supported individual learning preferences (Belanger, 2005). In addition, Belanger (2005) reported that the use of multimedia developed students’ motivation and their quality of work. Belanger (2005), Evans (2008), Fernandez, Simo, and Sallan (2009), Hew (2009), Vogt, Scaffner, Ribar, and Chavez (2010) pointed out the general benefits of using podcasts were the convenience and time management for students. Students were able to study content through replaying podcast episodes on various devices (Laing, Wootton, & Irons, 2006; Shannon, 2006). In addition, students had opportunities to manage their time in order to learn content instead of only scheduled lecture times (Sharples, 2000). These benefits provide flexible learning opportunities for students and increase students’ responsibility for their own learning.

On the other hand, several researchers have been concerned of the utilization of podcasts in education. Because of the significant growth of mobile, Internet, and web technologies, the number of challenges regarding the utilization of podcasts’ such as technical problems in terms of accessing, downloading, unfamiliarity, and limitations of the mobile devices have been decreased. However, there are still issues regarding pedagogical approaches using podcasts due to a lack of understanding the effects of mobile

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 168 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 technologies (Bell, Cockburn, Wingkvist, & Green, 2007; Belanger, 2005; Edirisingha & Salmon, 2007; Lane, 2006; Ogawa & Nickels, 2006; Tynan & Colbran, 2006). Ashley Deal (2007) reported that students were not interested in the supplementary materials through podcasts due to the length of the podcasts, which were approximately one hour long. Chan and Lee (2005) and Chan, Lee, and McLoughlin (2006) reported that students preferred short podcast episodes rather than an hour-long recorded lecture because of less time to download and consume. Other researchers have studied supplementary podcasts, which were short podcasts including 5-minute summaries of presentations, interviews for past and upcoming lecture contents, and announcements (Calder, 2006; Bell, Cockburn, Wingkvisit, & Green, 2007). Moreover, short-format podcast design would be a successful model in education (Sutton-Brady, Scott, Taylor, Carabetta, & Clark, 2009).

2.2 Mathematics Self-efficacy Researchers have studied and used the concept of students’ self-efficacy beliefs in capability because students’ self-efficacy beliefs are one of the vital components to understanding and predicting students’ behavioral choices, performance, and persistence (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1986; Pajares, 1996b; Schunk, 1991). Bandura (1977) defined students’ self-efficacy beliefs in capability are essential to successfully performing a given task or behavior. Low self-efficacy expectations cause avoidance behavior. On the other hand, high self-efficacy expectations lead to increasing the frequency of approach behavior. Bandura (1977) categorized perceptions of self-efficacy beliefs into four sources of information: 1) performance accomplishments, for example, successful experience; 2) vicarious learning or modeling, recognizing students’ own math abilities based on others’ successful problem solving; 3) verbal persuasion; and 4) emotional arousal, for instance, anxiety. Even though there are common factors to influence academic outcomes such as self-concept beliefs, anxiety, and self-regulatory practice, several researchers suggested that self-efficacy is a significant element to predict mathematics performances (Pajares & Miller, 1995; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-pons, 1992). Collins (1982) reported that students who had high self-efficacy showed better outcomes and persistence than students who had low self-efficacy. In addition, Bandura (1977) and Patrick and Hicks (1997) indicated that self-efficacy was a mediator to affect academic outcomes, cognitive engagement, and performance.

3. Theoretical Framework The theoretical rationale of this study was built from Mayer’s (2001) cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) and the study cycle (LSU Center for Academic Success, 2015) as constructivist views. Mayer and Johnson (2008) stated:

Meaningful learning occurs when learners are able to pay attention to relevant portions of the words and graphics as they are registered in sensory memory, mentally organize them into coherent cognitive structures in working memory, and connect the verbal and pictorial representations with each other and with relevant knowledge retrieved from long-term memory. (p. 380)

The three assumptions of Mayer’s CTML are 1) “Humans possess two separate channels for processing visual and auditory information”; 2) “Humans are limited in the amount of information that they can process in each channel at one time”; and 3) “Humans engage in active learning by attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representations, and integrating mental representations with other knowledge” (Mayer, 2001, p. 44). With the three assumptions of the CTML, instructors help students improve their learning abilities in three areas: 1)

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 169 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 selecting relevant words and pictures during instruction; 2) organizing vital information into working memory; and 3) integrating new knowledge with prior knowledge (Mayer, 2001). In addition, essential processing and generative processing in Mayer’s instructional design principles described that students learn better when multimedia presentations are divided into short bursts (5-7 minutes) as opposed to longer modules and students learn better from pictures and spoken words than from words alone (Mayer, 2009). The three assumptions of Mayer’s CTML and essential processing and generative processing in Mayer’s instructional design principles formed the length and the components of short-format podcast lectures before class.

The study cycle formed the basis for why the short-format podcasts lectures would be provided before class (see Figure 1). The preview section in the study cycle suggested to “look over bold and italicized print, headings, outlines, formulas, images and graphs. Read over the summary and other material offered at the end of the chapter” (LSU Center for Academic Success, 2015). Students can efficiently review the important contents before class through the short-format podcasts. Thus, the three assumptions of Mayer’s CTML, the essential and the generative processing in Mayer’s instructional design principles, and the study cycle supported this study as a theoretical roadmap.

4. Methods As a mixed project, this study employed three different data sources: the pre- and post-tests, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires including Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale (Betz & Hackett, 1993). The pre- and post-tests were the same question formats with different numerical values

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 170 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-05, 2016 between the NSPL and SPL groups. The qualitative data explored the students’ perspectives for the short-format podcasts before class and supported the findings of the quantitative data. The participants were 128 students in 6 sections, 3 Intermediate Algebra and 3 College Algebra courses with the same instructor during two semesters at an educational public university with about 16,000 students in the Southeast (see Table 1). The participants enrolled in daytime classes to fit their schedule and other preferences. Sixty-four participants served as the control group and did not watch the short-format podcast lectures (NSPL) in a Fall semester. After a drop date, the number of the NSPL group was 59 from 64. The 59 participants consisted of 39 in 2 Intermediate Algebra courses and 20 in 1 College Algebra course. As treatment groups, sixty-nine participants watched the short-format podcast lectures before class (SPL) in a Spring semester. 69 out of 71 students in the SPL group participated in this study after a drop date. The 69 participants consisted of 19 in 1 Intermediate Algebra course and 50 in 2 College Algebra courses. In addition, the intermediate-low (IL) and high (IH) groups were divided by the median (73) of the all participants’ pre-test scores.

Table 1. Participants Intermediate College N Intermediate-Low Intermediate-High Algebra Algebra Control Groups 59 39 20 22 37 (NSPL) Treatment Groups 69 19 50 38 31 (SPL)

The data was collected from the first exam as a pre-test and the final exam as a post-test each semester in order to measure the students’ mathematical achievement. After the first exam, the participants completed the first questionnaire with a consent form. The first questionnaire consisted of background information and the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES_1). In addition, the second questionnaire included students’ perspectives of the short-format podcasts and the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES_2) at the end of the semester. The Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES), developed by Betz and Hackett (1993), consists of 18 items of mathematics tasks and problems subscales and 16 items of a mathematics course subscale with a 10-point scale. The mathematics task subscales assess students’ confidence in their ability to perform mathematics problem solving. The mathematics course subscale is used to measure students’ confidence in their ability to pass a college level course with a grade of “B” or better. The 10-point scale ranges from 0 (No confidence at all) to 9 (Complete confidence). Sixteen voluntary participants were interviewed in the treatment groups within 30 minutes to develop the findings of the quantitative data. The interviews were 7 open-ended questions about students’ learning for the next class, engagement in class, and perspectives for the short-format podcast lectures. To improve the validity for this study, the interviewees checked their transcriptions and peer researchers reviewed the data and results, which were questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, critical themes, categories, and code books.

For the hypotheses of the research questions, two sample t-tests were conducted to compare the mathematical achievement and the mathematics self-efficacy between the control (NSPL) and treatment (SPL) groups, and between the IL students in NSPL and the IL students in SPL, and between the IH student in NSPL and the IH students in SPL, using Minitab, software for statistics. Similarly to Cohen (1988), a significance level of 0.05 was used for this study. The independent variables were class types: non-short-format podcast lectures (NSPL) and short-format podcast lectures (SPL); the pre-test score, in

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 171 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 order to measure incoming level of mathematics: intermediate- low (IL) and high (IH) groups. The dependent variables were mathematical achievement by the post-test and the mathematics self-efficacy. For the qualitative data, the transcripts were analyzed in order to find tentative codes based on the strategy of Miles and Huberman (1994). Through the derived codes, initial categories with the labels or codes were constructed. Refining the categories led to find critical themes.

5. Results This section consists of two main categories, the results of the quantitative data and the results of the qualitative data. To find the research answers from the qualitative data, two sample t-tests were employed. The findings of the quantitative data were broken into two categories, the mathematics self-efficacy and mathematical achievement. From there, the mathematics self-efficacy findings were analyzed based on two parameters: students who did not watch the short-format podcast lectures (NSPL) and students who watched the podcast lectures before class (SPL) groups and incoming levels of mathematic abilities, intermediate- low (IL) and intermediate- high (IH) groups. In addition, student achievement was analyzed using the same categories. Semi- structured interviews and two questionnaires were analyzed for the qualitative data. The findings of the qualitative date supported the results of the quantitative data and explored the participants’ perspectives of the short podcasts before class.

5.1 Mathematics Self-Efficacy

5.1.1 NSPL and SPL groups in Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scores To find the answer for the first null hypothesis, the NSPL and SPL groups were compared by the means of the first and second mathematics self-efficacy scores (MSES) in the NSPL group to the means of the first and second MSES in the SPL group respectively. In addition, the paired t-tests were conducted to discover the change in the mathematics self-efficacy scores and mathematical achievement of each group. The two groups’ first and second mathematics self-efficacy (MSES_1 and _2) means were not significantly different by the two-sample t-tests ( and respectively) (see Table 2). Although each group’s mean of MSES_1 and MSES_2 was not statistically different, Table 2 showed that the SPL’s mean of MSES_2 slightly increased whereas the NSPL’s mean of MSES_2 decreased ( ).

Table 2. Mean Differences in MSES Both Groups Each Group

NSPL SPL Value MSES_1 MSES_2 Value

MSES_1 5.79 5.40 0.099 NSPL 5.79 5.75(1.23) 0.771 (1.23) (1.51) (1.23) MSES_2 5.75 5.52 0.364 SPL 5.40 5.52 0.278 (1.23) (1.57) (1.51) (1.57) IL students in Both Groups IL students in Each Group

NSPL SPL MSES_1 MSES_2 Value Value

MSES_1 5.55 5.38(1.28) 0.624 NSPL 5.55 5.36 0.492 (1.19) (1.19) (1.01) MSES_2 5.35 5.43 0.810 SPL 5.38 5.43 0.768 (1.01) (1.45) (1.28) (1.45) IH students in Both Groups IH students in Each Group NSPL SPL MSES_1 MSES_2 Value Value

MSES_1 5.95 5.41 0.162 NSPL 5.95 5.98 0.876 (1.25) (1.77) (1.25) (1.30) MSES_2 5.98 5.64 0.360 SPL 5.41 5.64 0.194 (1.30) (1.73) (1.77) (1.73) IL and IH students in NSPL IL and IH students in SPL IL IH IL IH Value Value

MSES_1 5.55 5.95 0.221 MSES_1 5.38 5.41 0.940 (1.19) (1.25) (1.28) (1.77) MSES_2 5.35 5.98 0.043 MSES_2 5.43 5.64 0.603 (1.01) (1.30) (1.45) (1.73) Standard deviations are in parentheses.

5.1.2 Intermediate-Low Students and Intermediate-High Students Based on the median (73/100) of all participants’ pre-tests, the data were divided by two subgroups, intermediate-low (IL) and intermediate-high (IH). The intermediate-low (IL) students’ MSES_1 and _2 in

NSPL and SPL were not significantly different ( ) (see Table 2).

The IL students’ MSES_2 in each group was no significantly different from the students’ MSES_1 by the paired t-tests ( ). The IH students’ MSES_1 and _2 means in NSPL and SPL were not statistically different ( ). In addition, the two groups’ IH students’ mathematics self-efficacy was not significantly different respectively by the paired t-tests ( ). These results indicated that the IL and IH students’ mathematics self-efficacy of each group was not changed during the semester. To find the differences in the MSES_1 and _2 between the IL and IH students each group, the two sample t-tests were performed. Table 2 shows that the IL students’ MSES_1 mean was not significantly different from the IH students’ MSES_1 mean ( ) in the NSPL group. However, the

IL students’ MSES_2 mean was different from the IH students’ MSES_2 mean in the NSPL group

( ). The IL NSPL students’ mean (5.35) of the MSES_2 slightly decreased from the mean (5.55) of the IL NSPL students’ MSES_1 whereas the IH NSPL students’ means of the

MSES_1 and _2 were not different ( ). In the SPL group, the IL students’ MSES_1 and MSES_2 means were not significantly different from the IH students’ MSES_1 and MSES_2 means

( ).

5.2 Mathematical Achievement 5.2.1 NSPL versus SPL groups To discover the differences in student mathematical achievements between the NSPL and SPL groups, two-sample t-tests were used for the pre-test and post-test (see Table 3). The results indicated that the students in both the NSPL and SPL groups were similar performance. In addition, the students’ incoming math abilities in both groups were not statistically different at the beginning of the semester and the students in the groups were similar in achievement at the end of the semester

( ).

Table 3. Mean Differences in Mathematical Achievement Both Groups Each Group

NSPL SPL Value Pre-test Post-test Value

Pre-test 72.7 68.7 0.180 NSPL 72.7 70.9 0.494 (15.9) (17.6) (15.9) (22.2) Post-test 70.9 67.8 0.362 SPL 68.7 67.8 0.689 (22.2) (14.1) (17.6) (14.1) IL students in Both Groups IL students in Each Group NSPL SPL Value Pre-test Post-test Value

Pre-test 55.5 57.3 0.580 NSPL 55.5 58.4 0.633 (10.3) (14.7) (10.3) (28.6) Post-test 58.4 63.7 0.419 SPL 57.3 63.7 0.047 (28.6) (14.6) (14.7) (14.6) IH students in Both Groups IH students in Each Group NSPL SPL Value Pre-test Post-test Value

Pre-test 83.0 82.8 0.907 NSPL 83.0 78.4 0.042 (7.52) (8.18) (7.52) (12.7) Post-test 78.4 72.9 0.068 SPL 82.8 72.9 0.000 (12.7) (11.7) (8.18) (11.7)

Standard deviations are in parentheses.

5.2.2 Intermediate-Low and Intermediate-High Groups The pre-test and post-tests were used to discover the difference in mathematical achievement between the IL students in NSPL and the IL students in SPL. The means of the pre-test and post-test between the IL students in NSPL and the IL students in SPL were not significantly different

( ) (see Table 3). The comparison between the pre-test and post-test means of the IL students in the NSPL group was not changed ( ). However, the post-test mean with SD 14.6 of the IL students in the SPL group increased from the pre-test mean with SD 28.6 of the IL students in the SPL group ( ). These results indicated that the short-format podcasts before class were one of the factors to enhance the IL students’ achievements. The pre-test and post-test means of the IH students in the NSPL and SPL groups were compared to find the differences in the IH student achievement between the two groups. The pre-test and post-test means of the IH students in NSPL was not significantly different from the pre-test and post-test means of the IH students in SPL ( and ). To find the improvement for the IH student achievement each group, the paired t-tests were used. The results revealed that the pre-test and post-test means of the IH students in both groups were significantly different ( ). Unlike the increased post-tests’ means of the IL students in both groups, the IH students’ post-test means were less than the IH students’ pre-test means in both groups.

5.3 Perspectives for Short-Format Podcasts for Preview From the second questionnaire, the students in the SPL group believed that the short-format podcasts were an effective tool to learn materials because the mean of the effectiveness was 3.867 out of 5 with SD .5. Five themes emerged from the 22 semi structured-interviews. The five themes were classified as “Before Class” and “In Class” (see Table 4).

Table 4. Categories and Themes Categories Themes

Before Preparation (Being better prepared for class Class and the material) 1) Preparation A good overview An idea of the material A brief overview for the next class

Comfort in attending class Less overwhelming 2) Reducing anxiety about new Familiarizing lecture material beforehand materials Class enjoyment Mental preparation for new material Demanding more examples 3) Increasing interest Practicing different examples In Class Understanding of the material in class 4) Improving students’ understanding Learning better by practicing implementing the formulas and equations Reinforcing skills 5) Improving student engagement in Asking better questions to understand class Helping students to understand and engage in problem solving in class

5.3.1 Before Class The short-format podcasts were used as an educational tool to develop students’ readiness for new materials. First of all, the short-format podcasts helped the SPL students improve their preparations for the next class. According to the brief overview on what topics students would encounter in the next class, the students believed that they were better prepared for class and the new material:

The short video lectures prepared me for the material covered in class. I like that they are short and straight to the point. That always satisfies students who are in a rush to learn things. The short video lectures were fine the way they are.

It helps students get prepared so they are not as confused in class. So I didn’t come into class not knowing what we were going to do. Once I figured out why it works or is that way instead of just memorizing formulas, I did much better.

The preparation of the up-coming material reduced the students’ anxiety about new topics and activities in class because the students were familiar with the lectures beforehand through the short format lectures: “It helps me get ready and feel comfortable when I come to class. It mentally prepares me on what I am going to learn. Also, the next class was less overwhelming because of the short podcast lectures.” In addition, the short-format podcasts increased the students’ interest in problem-solving of the new materials and motivated them to solve more problems according to simple examples on the podcast video lectures. For examples, some students noted, “Give some problems for the students to practice on their own or provide those solutions at the end of the short video lectures” and “I needed to see more example.” Since the length of the short-format podcasts is about 5 minutes, the short podcasts could not include more examples. However, the factor of the short length of the podcasts encouraged the students’ desire to see and solve different examples. Therefore, a brief description and short problem solving of the up-coming materials before class through short-format podcasts reduced the students’ anxiety about and increased their interests in the new materials (Categories 1, 2, & 3).

5.3.2 In Class Previewing the new topics through the short-format podcasts encouraged the students to enhance learning new topics by repetition and to promote conceptual understanding of the new materials in class. The students believed that they had opportunities to understand new theorems and definitions, as well as to apply new formulas and properties in class, because they watched problem solving beforehand: “When you complete an example on the podcasts and then did it again in class, it really helped me to understand the material.” In addition, the students often participated in problem solving because they saw similar problem solving from the short-format podcasts: “The podcast lectures give ideas of the material for the next class. Plus, if I didn’t understand something, it was reinforced in class or I could ask better questions to understand.” Thus, the students believed that the short podcasts helped their conceptual understanding and improved their engagement in class (Categories 4 & 5). In addition, the students actively engaged in problem solving in class because the short-format podcasts helped the students recall solutions of similar problems (Category 5). To answer the third research question, the results from the quantitative and qualitative data were combined. The findings, category 1 (preparation), 2 (reducing anxiety), and 3 (increasing interest), indicated that short-format podcasts for preview promoted students’ readiness for up-coming materials and the stages of vicarious experiences and emotional states. Finally, the short-format podcasts affected students’ mathematics self-efficacy before class (Figure 2). These results from the qualitative data were consistent with the results, improving or keeping the IL students’ mathematics self-efficacy. Therefore, short-format podcasts fit the preview step in the study cycle as a clear guide to learn new materials and enhance students’ engagement.

5. Conclusion and Discussion As a mixed methods research design, this study conducted comparisons between students who watched the short-format podcasts before class (SPL) and students who did not watch the podcasts (NSPL) in order to find the pedagogical impact of short-format podcasts for preview in student mathematics self-efficacy and mathematical achievement,

The findings from the quantitative and qualitative data answered three research questions. The results of comparisons in mathematics self-efficacy between two groups rejected the first null hypothesis. There

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 177 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 May 2016 were no significant differences in the first and second means of the MSES between the NSPL and SPL groups. In addition, the mathematics self-efficacy of both groups was not changed. The data was classified into two middle-level topics to find the answer for the second null hypothesis “Are there significant differences between intermediate-low (IL) and intermediate-high (IH) students each group based on incoming level of mathematics regarding mathematics self-efficacy and mathematical achievement?” The IL and IH students in the SPL group were not significantly different in their mathematical self-efficacy score means between the beginning and the end of semester. In the NSPL group, the IL and IH students’ MSES means were not statistically different at the beginning of semester. However, the IL and IH students’ MSES means in the NSPL group were significantly different at the end of semester because the IL students’ MSES_2 mean in NSPL was decreased from their MSES_1 mean. As a result, the MSES_2 mean of the IL students in the SPL group was higher than the MSES_2 mean of the IL students in the NSPL group, though the MSES_1 means of the IL students in both groups were not significantly different (see Table 2). This result of the IL students’ mathematics self-efficacy in NSPL was consistent in researchers’ findings that student mathematics self-efficacy was diminished at end of year or semester (Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989; Pajares & Graham, 1999; Wigfield et al., 1991, 1996). However, the researchers’ results did not apply to the IH students in both groups and IL students’ mathematics self-efficacy in SPL because their MSES means were not dropped at the end of the semesters. Therefore, the short-format podcasts for preview had more influence on IL students than IH students in mathematics self-efficacy and helped the IL students keep or develop their mathematics self-efficacy.

The results in mathematical achievement indicated that the students in both the NSPL and SPL groups were not significantly different in mathematical achievement. For the IH students in both groups, the short-format podcasts did not affect their achievement. In particular, the means of the IH students’ post-tests in both groups significantly decreased from the means of their pre-tests because the IH students’ pre-test means were much higher than the IL students’ pre-test means and the comprehensive post-tests might affect the IH students’ post-test means. On the other hand, the IL students’ post-test mean in SPL was significantly higher than their pre-test mean, although the IL students’ pre-test and post-test means in NSPL were not statically different.

Although there are several components that affect students’ achievement, the results of this study supported the fact that mathematics self-efficacy is a critical factor to improving students’ achievement (Chen, 2003). In addition, the results showed the relationships between IL students’ mathematics self-efficacy and their mathematical achievement through short-format podcasts. From the finding of this study, the mean of the IL students’ MSES_2 in NSPL decreased from the mean of their MSES_1, and the means of the IL students’ pre-test and post-test in NSPL was not different. On the contrary, the mean of the IL students’ MSES_2 in SPL slightly improved from their MSES_1, and the mean of the IL students’ post-test in SPL was significantly increased from the mean of their pre-test. The results were consistent with many researchers’ reports that students who have high mathematics self-efficacy were better performers than students who have low mathematics self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Chen, 2003; Collins, 1982; Pajares & Graham, 1999; Pajares & Miller, 1994).

The findings from the qualitative data explained how the short-format podcasts affected the IL students’ mathematics self-efficacy and their mathematical achievement in order to help the students increase their preparation for new topics before class and to improve their understanding and engagement in class.

Researchers reported that mathematics self-efficacy may be influenced by vicarious experiences, physical and emotional states, verbal persuasions, and past performance (Lent, Brown, Gover, & Nijjer, 1996; Lopez & Lent, 1992; Randhawa, Beamer, & Lundberg, 1993; Usher, 2009). The results of this study showed that the students could reduce their anxiety about and increase their preparation for the up-coming materials because of watching the short-format podcasts before class. Therefore, the short-format podcasts before class are a tool for the preview section of the study cycle to maintain or improve the IL students’ mathematics self-efficacy as promoting the stages of vicarious experiences and emotional states for reducing students’ anxiety, and finally, their developed mathematics self-efficacy enhanced their achievement. There were limitations of this study in term of the number of participants and the periods of collecting data. Even though the total number of 126 participants was sufficient for valuable results, there was a lack in the number of IL students and IH students because of dividing the groups based on incoming level. There were potential differences between students in the Fall semester and students in the Spring semester, although there were not statistical differences in the mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics ability between the NSPL and SPL groups at the beginning of semesters. Even if there were limitations, this study showed the relationships among students’ achievement, their mathematics self-efficacy, and short-format podcasts before class. In addition, the results of this study indicated that short-format podcasts before class are a vital tool in the preview section to enhance intermediate-low students’ mathematics self-efficacy and their achievement. Therefore, this study will contribute to the knowledge and applications of short-format podcasts before class in mathematics education. Future research is needed to examine the impact of short-format podcasts before class in upper level mathematics courses and to explore the relationships between mathematics self-efficacy and short-format podcasts before class with a large number of participants.

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