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University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln The aH ndbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for Damage

11-29-1994 WILDLIFE DISEASES AND HUMANS Robert G. McLean Chief, Ecology Section, Medical Entomology & Ecology Branch, Division of Vector-borne Infectious, Diseases National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado

McLean, Robert G., "WILDLIFE DISEASES AND HUMANS" (1994). The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage. Paper 38. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/38

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in The aH ndbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Robert G. McLean Chief, Vertebrate Ecology Section Medical Entomology & Ecology Branch WILDLIFE DISEASES Division of Vector-borne Infectious Diseases National Center for Infectious Diseases AND HUMANS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins, Colorado 80522

INTRODUCTION GENERAL PRECAUTIONS Precautions against acquiring fungal diseases, especially histoplasmosis, Diseases of wildlife can cause signifi- Use extreme caution when approach- should be taken when working in cant illness and death to individual ing or handling a wild animal that high-risk sites that contain contami- animals and can significantly affect looks sick or abnormal to guard nated soil or accumulations of animal wildlife populations. Wildlife species against those diseases contracted feces; for example, under large bird can also serve as natural hosts for cer- directly from wildlife. Procedures for roosts or in buildings or caves contain- tain diseases that affect humans (zoo- basic personal hygiene and cleanliness ing bat colonies. Wear protective noses). The disease agents or parasites of equipment are important for any masks to reduce or prevent the inhala- that cause these zoonotic diseases can activity but become a matter of major tion of fungal spores. be contracted from wildlife directly by health concern when handling animals Protection from vector-borne diseases bites or contamination, or indirectly or their products that could be infected in high-risk areas involves personal through the bite of vectors with disease agents. Some of the measures such as using mosquito or such as mosquitoes, , , and important precautions are: repellents, wearing special cloth- that have previously fed on an 1. Wear protective clothing, particu- ing, or simply tucking pant cuffs into infected animal. These zoonotic dis- larly disposable rubber or plastic socks to increase the chance of finding eases are primarily diseases acquired gloves, when dissecting or skinning crawling ticks before they attach. Ad- within a specific locality, and second- wild animals. ditional preventive methods include arily, diseases of occupation and avo- checking your clothing and body and cation. Biologists, field assistants, 2. Scrub the work area, knives, other your pets for ticks and removing the hunters, and other individuals who tools, and reusable gloves with soap ticks promptly after returning from in- work directly with wildlife have an in- or detergent followed by disinfec- fested sites. If possible, avoid tick-in- creased risk of acquiring these diseases tion with diluted household bleach. fested areas or locations with intense directly from animal hosts or their ec- 3. Avoid eating and drinking while mosquito activity during the transmis- toparasites. , , and handling or skinning animals and sion season. Reduce outdoor exposure have been acquired in the wash hands thoroughly when fin- to mosquitoes especially in early handling and skinning of , rab- ished. evening hours to diminish the risk of bits, and carnivores. Humans have with mosquito-borne dis- usually acquired diseases like Colo- 4. Safely dispose of carcasses and tis- eases. rado tick , Rocky Mountain spot- sues as well as any contaminated ted fever, and because disposable items like plastic gloves. Equally important preventive mea- they have spent time in optimal habi- sures are knowledge of the diseases 5. Cook meat from wild game thor- tats of disease vectors and hosts. present in the general area and the spe- oughly before eating. Therefore, some general precautions cific habitats and times of year that should be taken to reduce risks of 6. Contact a physician if you become present the greatest risk of exposure. exposure and prevent infection. sick following exposure to a wild Knowledge of and recognition of the animal or its ectoparasites. Inform early symptoms of the diseases and the physician of your possible expo- the conditions of exposure are essen- sure to a zoonotic disease. tial in preventing severe illness. Also

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE — 1994 Cooperative Extension Division Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources University of Nebraska - Lincoln United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Animal Damage Control A-25 Great Plains Agricultural Council Wildlife Committee 9 40 81 4 5 236 5 125 56 982 108 34 336 16 92 11 17 VT-1 17 31 29 NH-4 27 34 55 242 MA-14 25 40 496 RI-0 23 CT-200 56 40 134 110 NJ-960 6 44 DE-190 4 73 244 MD-584 367 7

73

Fig. 1. Reported human cases of wildlife rabies in the United States, 1991.

important are medical evaluation and disease. Vaccination of wildlife hosts Australia and Antarctica are free of it. treatment with proper antibiotics. For as a means of reducing zoonotic dis- Most human cases have been con- example, if you become ill following eases is currently being investigated tracted from rabies-infected dogs. In some field activity in a known plague- and may soon be available for diseases the United States, human cases have endemic area and you recognize the like rabies. decreased to an average of one person early symptoms of the disease, seeking per year (75% of cases are acquired medical care and informing the attend- outside the United States). Reduction ing physician of your possible expo- WILDLIFE DISEASES in human rabies is likely linked with sure to plague will aid in the correct OF PUBLIC HEALTH the intensive control of dog rabies treatment of your illness and reduce CONCERN during the 1950s and 1960s through the risk of complications or even massive vaccination campaigns, stray death. Directly Transmitted dog control programs, and improve- ment in human treatment following In addition to taking personal precau- Diseases exposure. Nevertheless, thousands of tions, risk of acquiring vector-borne people in the United States continue to diseases can be reduced in specific receive treatment every year for pos- locations through area-wide applica- Rabies sible exposure to rabies by ani- tions of insecticides to control mos- Rabies is an acute disease, caused by a mal bites. Most of the treatments are quito or vectors or acaricides to virus (rhabdovirus), that can infect all still due to dog and cat bites; however, control tick vectors. Reduction in host warm-blooded animals, and is usually these pet species have the lowest populations (for example, rodents) and fatal. Certain carnivorous mammals occurrence of reported rabies among their ectoparasites (fleas or ticks) may and bats are the usual animal hosts all animal species tested. be needed to control transmission of (Fig. 1; Table 1). Rabies occurs such diseases as plague or Lyme throughout most of the world; only

A-26 Rabies in wildlife increased dramati- that moves (including inanimate for only a few days before clinical cally during the 1960s and now objects), bewilderment, and aimless signs appear. Exceptions occur in a accounts for most of the reported ani- wandering. Unusual barking, crying, few species of bats and in a unique Af- mal rabies cases (91% in 1991). Some of and frothing at the mouth are addi- rican virus strain found in dogs. The the increase in reporting was due to tional signs, which are the result of length of the incubation period (from real increases in the number of cases, paralysis of the throat muscles. Occa- the time the animal is bitten until clini- and some was due to an increased sionally, rabid bats are encountered cal rabies appears) is usually 2 to 3 awareness of wildlife rabies, particu- prostrate or fluttering on the ground, weeks, but varies from 10 days to larly in striped skunks, raccoons, and unable to fly; they should be handled several months. bats. In 1991, 6,975 cases of animal with care because they can still bite Handling of Suspect Animals and rabies were reported in 49 states, the and transmit rabies. Some rabid bats, Diagnosis. Use caution when District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. particularly solitary species like the approaching a suspected rabid animal Raccoons (44.2%), striped skunks hoary bat, are aggressive and have since many are still aggressive and can (29.7%), and various species of bats been known to attack people. In bite even if paralyzed. If the animal is (9.9%) continued to be the major hosts. domestic animals, rabies should be still alive, it should be killed humanely Red and gray foxes (4.6%), other wild- suspected if there is any change in nor- without damaging the head. To con- life species (2.8%), and domestic ani- mal habits, such as sudden change in firm whether an animal is infected mals (8.9%) comprise the remainder of disposition, failure to eat or drink, run- with rabies, the animal must be sub- hosts. During the last 2 years, raccoons ning into objects, or paralysis. mitted to the local health department replaced striped skunks as the major Transmission. Rabies virus is trans- or state diagnostic laboratory for wildlife host in the United States mitted primarily via the saliva during testing. because of the continued expansion of the bite of a rabid animal. However, raccoon rabies in the northeastern Avoid exposure to any sick or dead other methods of transmission are pos- United States. Animal cases are animals that are suspected to have sible. Accidental exposure of wounds reported throughout the year, rabies. Handle any dead animal with or cuts to the saliva or tissues of in- although the number of cases reported gloves or with a plastic bag that can be fected animals can occur. The virus is reaches a seasonal peak for skunks in turned inside-out to cover and contain also present in various body organs of March and April, for raccoons in the animal. Avoid direct skin contact infected animals, especially the brain April, and for bats in August. with the animal. For large animals and salivary glands, which poses a such as skunks and raccoons, remove Clinical Signs. Rabies is considered health hazard to persons who are field the head cautiously and seal it in a almost 100% fatal once clinical signs dressing or performing necropsies on plastic bag, avoiding contact or aerosol develop. The disease progresses rap- these animals. In addition, aerosol ex- exposure. Seal the whole animal or idly following the appearance of clini- posure has occurred, although rarely, head inside an additional plastic bag cal signs, and the animal dies within a in caves containing very large popula- (double) and keep it cool at all times. few days. Although abnormal behav- tions of infected bats. Transmission Do not freeze the specimen unless a ior is not diagnostic for rabies (other between animals also occurs by inges- delay of several days is anticipated diseases, like distemper, cause similar tion of infected tissues and by trans- before it is examined for rabies. Disin- behavioral changes), atypical behavior placental passage to offspring. fect gloves or knives that were in con- and signs develop following brain When the virus enters the tissue of a tact with the animal with a strong infection, and rabies should be sus- susceptible animal or human, it multi- detergent or bleach or dispose of them. pected whenever wild animals display plies at the bite or inoculation site and unusual behavior. For transport to the laboratory, place travels slowly up nerve fibers to the the double-wrapped specimen in a Infected animals usually display either part of the brain that controls the bit- leak-proof container with a coolant “furious” or “dumb” rabies, although ten area. The virus multiplies there (not wet ice). Send the container by some animals progress through both and spreads to other parts of the brain bus or other prearranged transporta- stages. Skunks, raccoons, foxes, and and eventually produces a variety of tion. Include information about the other canids usually have furious signs in the infected animal or person. specimen (species, date, geographic rabies and are unduly aggressive The virus also spreads from the brain data, behavior) and the names, before convulsions and paralysis set in. to other tissues, particularly to the sali- addresses, and telephone numbers of Some animals, however, have dumb vary glands, where it multiplies and is the person submitting the specimen rabies and proceed to tremors and released into the saliva. The virus is and of anyone exposed to the animal. convulsions without agitation or perpetuated in nature when an in- aggression. Other behavioral changes fected animal with virus in its saliva To test for rabies, a fluorescent anti- include friendliness or loss of fear, bites another animal. body (FA) test is performed directly on appearance in the daytime for some brain tissue to distinguish rabies virus The virus is rarely present in the sali- typically nocturnal species (skunks, from other disease agents (like distem- vary glands without first occurring in bats), unprovoked attacks on anything per virus) that could be present in the the brain and is present in the saliva animal’s brain. In some states, brain A-27 material is inoculated into mice to rodents are the natural reservoirs for and neurological symptoms may demonstrate virus for those specimens in this group and these viruses appear if treatment is delayed. that resulted in human exposure. are found worldwide. Infected rodents Trichinosis is contracted by eating shed virus in their urine, feces, and/or If a person or pet is exposed to an ani- infected meat which contains the saliva and can remain chronically mal suspected of having rabies but encysted parasites. The parasites may infected. The contaminated excreta that has not been captured, record a remain infectious in meat which is raw from infected rodents are thought to description of the suspect animal (spe- or poorly cooked. be the source of virus for aerosol and cies, behavior) and provide the direct (animal bite) transmission to Trichinosis is caused by a nematode description to public health officials or other rodents and humans. parasite which produces the disease in the attending physician to determine humans and domestic and wild ani- possible treatment. The recent discovery of a possible new mals. Evidence indicates that nearly all hantavirus in the southwestern United Prevention and Treatment. The mammals are susceptible to States and its apparent increased viru- best treatment for rabies is prevention. with this parasite, which encysts in the lence, has heightened the awareness of Individuals at high risk of exposure to muscle of the host and is then trans- and concern for -associated dis- rabies, such as wildlife biologists, mitted through consumption of eases. It produces produces respira- game wardens, animal control officers, infected flesh. As would be expected, tory distress and potential death in animal handlers, and veterinarians the disease is most common in wild humans. Human cases and deaths should be vaccinated before potential carnivores and scavengers. exposure. Safe and highly effective from this viral infection were first vaccines are available through a physi- reported in 1993 in the Four Corners As with other wildlife diseases, cian or the local health department. area of Arizona, Colorado, New trichinosis is difficult to control in Mexico, and Utah and, more recently, nature. However, certain steps can be First aid should immediately be pro- throughout the United States. Prelim- taken to decrease the problem. Car- vided to a person who has been bitten inary information has incriminated the casses of carnivores and other meat- by or had contact with a potentially deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) eating species should not be discarded rabid animal. Scrub the exposed site, as the natural reservoir and source of in the fields or woods, but should be including bite wounds, with soap and human infection in that region. Indi- made unavailable by burying or other water or water alone and flush thor- viduals trapping and handling small means. These carcasses also should not oughly. Then apply a strong first aid rodents in this region should take be fed to swine, dogs, or other domes- solution (iodine) or cream. First aid increased precautions to reduce their tic animals. Open garbage dumps treatment is the most effective method exposure to this virus. They should at should be replaced by the landfill type of preventing infection by the rabies least wear surgical gloves and masks or other methods of disposal where virus but should not preclude medical when processing rodents (contact wildlife will not have access to meat attention from a physician, hospital CDC Hotline for more detailed and scraps. If open garbage dumps cannot emergency room, or the local health thorough safety information). Rodent be eliminated, rodent control pro- department. Contact your physician or control with careful handling and dis- grams should be initiated and the health department as soon as possible posal of carcasses should be instituted areas fenced to prevent scavenging by to determine dosage of rabies vaccine at campsites or in cabins before they larger animals such as foxes. These and whether antirabies serum is are occupied. The premises should be steps would markedly reduce the required. Inform the health care pro- sprayed with detergents or diluted problem of trichinosis in wildlife in the fessionals about the rabid animal and bleach before thorough cleaning. Wet- United States. the circumstances of the exposure mopping is recommended. Dry If carnivorous or omnivorous wildlife (species of animal involved and its sweeping and vacuuming may such as bears, bobcats, opossums, behavior, if the attack or bite from the increase risk of producing airborne raccoons, or feral pigs are consumed animal was provoked, and what type particles. Rodent harborage should be by humans, the meat should be of first aid was administered). removed from premises and from the properly prepared by cooking, surrounding area. Exclude rodents freezing, or curing to destroy any Hantavirus where possible. viable trichinae. Cooking to an internal Hantavirus includes a group of viruses o Trichinosis temperature of 137 F is deemed that can cause a febrile illness in hu- sufficient for pork, while freezing at mans which can be accompanied by Trichinosis may result in diahrrea, 5oF for 20 days, -10oF for 10 days, or - kidney, blood, or respiratory ailments sudden edema of the upper eyelids, 20oF for 6 days will kill trichinae. and can sometimes be fatal. The febrile photophobia, muscle soreness and Curing should follow approved illness includes fever, , pain, skin lesions, thirst, sweating, government regulations. muscle aches, , , and chills, and weakness. Other respiratory lower back pain. Field and commensal

A-28 Mosquito-borne the Mississippi River, EEE occurs east other exotic game birds, house spar- Encephalitis of the Mississippi River but mostly rows, red-winged blackbirds, whoop- along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and ing cranes, and other species. The Encephalitis is a disease caused by north-central states, and CE occurs in wildlife hosts for LAC virus are the mosquito-borne viruses () California and the eastern United eastern chipmunk, tree squirrels, and that affect the central nervous system. States (LAC type). Human cases of foxes. The natural hosts for the other Infections range from unapparent to infection have a seasonal three viruses are mostly songbirds, mild, nonspecific illnesses (fever, head- occurrence from mid- to late summer. although squirrels and jackrabbits may be involved in WEE transmission. ache, musculoskeletal pain, and mal- These distinct viruses naturally infect a aise) to occasionally severe illness of variety of birds and mammals and are No treatment or commercial vaccine is the central nervous system resulting in transmitted between animals by mos- available for humans, but vaccines for permanent neurologic damage and quito vectors. Occasionally, infected WEE and EEE are readily available for possibly death. The four major types of mosquitoes will feed on human or horses. The best preventive measures encephalitis in the United States equine hosts that are “dead ends” for are personal protection against mos- include St. Louis encephalitis (SLE), the viruses, with little or no chance of quito bites, especially avoiding expo- California encephalitis (CE primarily subsequent transmission to other mos- sure to mosquitoes during early includes the LaCrosse virus [LAC]), quitoes. These viral infections may, evening hours, and the use of repellents. eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), and however, result in severe illness or Mosquito populations can be reduced western equine encephalitis (WEE). death in humans or horses (EEE and in an area by eliminating breeding sites The distribution of these arboviruses WEE). Only EEE and occasionally for vector species. Killing adult mos- varies (Fig. 2). SLE occurs throughout WEE viruses adversely affect wild ver- quitoes with areawide applications of the United States (an epidemic oc- tebrates; for example, EEE causes insecticides has been most effective in curred in central Florida in 1990 and death in ring-necked pheasants and preventing epidemics. Arkansas in 1991), WEE occurs west of

SLE CE

EEE WEE

Fig. 2. Distribution of mosquito-borne encephalitis in the United States, 1964 to 1992; (a) St. Louis encephalitis (SLE); (b) California encephalitis (CE); (c) eastern equine encephalitis (EEE); and (d) western equine encephalitis (WEE).

A-29 130 14 17 6 88

255 907

21

Fig. 3. Distribution of (human cases) in the United States, 1980 to 1988. (Solid line outlines distribution of .)

Tick-borne Diseases of the Rocky Mountain wood tick Rocky Mountain (Dermacentor andersoni) or by D. (Tick-borne ) Colorado Tick Fever occidentalis in California. The virus is Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) maintained in nature through trans- Colorado tick fever (CTF) is an acute is a moderate to severe illness caused mission by immature stages of ticks to and rather benign disease caused by a by a (). The various species of small mammals, virus (coltivirus) that is transmitted to disease is distinguished by a sudden particularly chipmunks, ground squir- humans by ticks. Symptoms are usu- onset of high fever, severe headache, rels, and deer mice during the spring ally limited to high fever, headache, muscle pain, and a red rash starting on and summer months. The virus sur- muscle aches, and lethargy, but the the extremities about 3 to 6 days after vives the winter in infected tick symptoms are frequently biphasic and onset of symptoms and extending to nymphs and adults. The habitats that recurring. The disease is confined to the palms of hands and soles of feet support the rodent hosts and tick vec- the mountains or highland regions of and then to the rest of the body. Delir- tors of the virus in the disease endemic eight western states and western ium, coma, and death occur in about region contain rocky surfaces with Canada (Fig. 3). About 150 to 200 cases 1% to 2% of cases (15% to 20% in moderate shrub cover and scattered are reported each year; 1,438 cases untreated cases). The disease is trans- pines. were reported from 1980 to 1988 in mitted to humans in the United States eight western states, 63% of them in Avoid tick-infested habitats during by several hard tick (Ixodidae) species; Colorado. CTF is transmitted to spring and early summer and use per- D. andersoni in the Rocky Mountain humans during the spring and early sonal protection against ticks. No vac- region, D. variabilis in the east and summer by the bite of the adult stage cines or treatment are available. southeast, and

A-30 in the south-central states. In 1990, 649 Lyme Disease symptoms, including heart, nervous cases of RMSF were reported from all system, and joint manifestations, may Lyme disease is caused by a spirochete regions of the United States, although develop in untreated individuals. The bacterium ( burgdorferi) that is more cases were reported in the south- joint pain and swelling usually occur transmitted to humans by hard ticks. Atlantic and south-central states (Fig. one or more months after infection, Early symptoms include a flu-like ill- 4). The natural hosts for the rickettsia may involve one or more joints, and ness with headache, slight fever, mus- are a variety of wild rodents, although may recur in different joints; the knee cle or joint pain, neck stiffness, swollen rabbits and wild and domestic carni- joint is most frequently affected. Do- glands, jaw discomfort, and inflamma- vores are involved in some cases. The mestic animals may be affected as tion of the eye membranes. A diagnos- rickettsia survive the winter months in well. tic rash, (EM), the tick vector and may be maintained occurs in 65% to 75% of the cases. The In 1992, 9,695 cases of Lyme disease by transovarial transmission from the rapidly expanding red rash starts at were reported in 44 states (Fig. 5). female adult tick to its offspring. the tick bite site and expands to a Most cases were reported in the north- Avoid tick-infested areas and use per- nearly circular lesion of about 1 to 8 eastern and upper midwestern states sonal measures to protect against tick inches (2 to 20 cm). It often has a bulls- where the vector is the deer tick (Ixodes bites. No vaccine is presently licensed eye appearance with central clearing scapularis) and where transmission is for public use, but antibiotic treatment and/or darkening around the edge. predominately in residential commu- is effective and should be initiated Additional smaller skin lesions may nities. Other vectors are I. pacificus on without waiting for laboratory confir- appear at other sites of the body and the West Coast and possibly A. mation of clinical diagnosis. may last for days or weeks. Later americanum in the Southeast and in

2 4 1 1 2 17 1 5 NH-1 1 2 MA-17 3 3 2 RI-0 1 1 1 13 25 CT-2 36 11 NJ-8 DE-1 58 178 1 70 MD-23 1 22 43 6 13 18 6 3

3

Fig. 4. Distribution of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (human cases) in the United States, 1990.

A-31 14 0 1 1 201 13 525 2 1 5 3370 33 1119 NH-49 1 15 32 41 21 VT-9 6 0 14 CT-1760 231 18 150 28 123 MA-212 85 RI-274 26 33 NJ-681 0 2 21 2 DE-218 MD-186 10 23 0 73 7

24

Fig. 5. Distribution of Lyme disease (human cases) in the United States, 1992.

south-central states. Transmission in cycle. The engorged nymphs drop to knowledgeable about the symptoms of these other regions of the United States the ground and molt into adult ticks Lyme disease, and seek medical care may be more sporadic and occur dur- which are active during the fall and and treatment if infected. ing outdoor activities related to recre- following spring and feed on large ation and occupation. Acquisition of mammals, primarily deer. Deciduous Tularemia Lyme disease by humans peaks during forest is the predominant habitat for Tularemia is caused by the the summer months when the tick the tick vector and vertebrate hosts in and is character- nymphs are feeding on hosts. Because the Northeast and Midwest. Other ized by sudden onset of high fever and of its small size, the attached nymph prime habitats include forested areas chills, joint and muscle pain, and pros- frequently goes unnoticed and is not interspersed with residential develop- tration. Slow-healing sores or lesions removed. The transmission cycle of ment and grass and shrub areas, par- develop at the site of entry of the bac- Lyme disease begins when larvae ticularly along forest edges. teria (or arthropod bite). Inflammation acquire spirochetes while feeding on Patients treated with appropriate anti- and swelling of nearby lymph nodes infected white-footed mice, chip- biotics during the early stages of the follow. munks, other rodents, and birds. disease usually have rapid and com- Engorged larvae drop to the ground, Tularemia is endemic throughout plete recovery. Even patients treated molt to the nymphal stage, and wait North America (Fig. 6). Most of the during later stages generally respond until the following summer to attach to 100 to 300 cases reported each year are well and recover. No vaccine is avail- and transmit spirochetes to susceptible from the area between the Rocky able except for domestic dogs. Avoid rodents, birds, larger mammals, and Mountains and the Mississippi River locations with ticks during seasonal humans. Uninfected larvae subse- (especially Arkansas and Missouri). activity periods, use personal mea- quently feed on these wild vertebrate Most cases are acquired during the sures to protect against ticks, become hosts to complete the transmission summer months from vector transmis-

A-32 sion; however, a second peak of cases ments; and scratches or bites from ticks. This species of tick is active at occurs during the winter and is prob- infected animals. Use personal protec- night. Since it feeds rapidly and its bite ably associated with rabbit hunting tion measures against ticks and prac- is relatively painless, it may go unno- and carnivore trapping. tice good sanitation procedures when ticed. The ticks feed on humans when handling wild animals, especially rab- the rodents disappear from the cabin The bacteria is maintained in rabbits, bits. Promptly seek medical care and nests because of rodent control mea- hares, rodents, and birds by tick trans- treatment if symptoms develop. sures or death from other diseases. mission. The natural reservoir for the Most human cases occur during the bacteria includes infected ticks and summer months when the cabins are animal species that are less susceptible in use. Sporadic cases are reported pri- and thus survive acute infections. Relapsing fever can be caused by sev- marily in the mountainous regions of Hard ticks, primarily D. andersoni, D. eral Borrelia spirochete bacteria, which the western United States and British variabilis, and Haemaphysalis leporis- are related to the Lyme disease spiro- Columbia; 159 cases were reported palustris, and some flies, especially the chete and are transmitted by soft ticks during 1985 to 1991 in 10 western deerfly (Chrysops discalis), can subse- (Argasidae). Symptoms resemble states (Fig. 7). Two outbreaks occurred quently transmit the disease to Lyme disease except for the absence of among tourists and staff staying in humans. Tularemia can also be trans- the diagnostic rash and the presence of cabins at the Grand Canyon in Arizona mitted directly to humans. Transmis- recurring fever. The most common in 1973 and 1990. Inspect cabins for ro- sion routes include drinking contami- type is caused by B. hermsii. Most hu- dent use and nests, promptly remove nated water; eating contaminated food man cases of this type of relapsing nests, and treat cabins with insecti- or improperly cooked game meat; fever have been associated with log cides or fumigate to kill any remaining inhaling aerosols contaminated with cabins or houses containing rodent ticks. Rodent-proof cabins to prevent rodent urine, feces, or dust; cuts from nests (particularly of chipmunks and rodent entry. contaminated knives or other instru- pine squirrels) and

Incidence rate per 100,000 people.

no cases

0.01 to 0.24

0.25 to 0.74

> 0.75

Fig. 6. Distribution of tularemia (human cases) in the United States, 1991 (191 cases reported).

A-33 26

15 14

6 3 18 60

9 2

6

Fig. 7. Distribution of relapsing fever (human cases) in the United States, 1985 to 1991.

Two other species of relapsing fever appears less frequently and for a much is a protozoan disease with spirochetes are transmitted occasion- shorter duration. From 1986 to 1991, gradual onset of fever, sweating, loss ally to humans in the western United 262 cases and 4 fatalities were reported of appetite, fatigue, general muscle States by Ornithodoros ticks. The spiro- in 23 states, the majority occurring in ache, and possibly prolonged anemia. chete B. parkeri is transmitted by O. Missouri and Oklahoma. Use personal The disease can be severe and some- parkeri, mostly in California, and B. protection against ticks and seek medi- times fatal. A protozoan, Babesia turicatae by the tick O. turicata. Five cal care and treatment if sick. microti, is transmitted among wild humans were infected with B. turicatae rodents, particularly white-footed is caused by a in Texas in 1990 following exploration mice, by the tick I. scapularis along the virus (flavivirus) which is transmitted of a cave containing infected ticks. For coastal areas of New England and on by the ticks I. cookei, D. andersoni, and prevention, use personal protection adjacent offshore islands. This tick other Ixodes spp. Symptoms include against tick exposure. If sick with may be infected occasionally with both the sudden onset of fever, sore throat, relapsing fever, seek medical care and B. microti and the Lyme disease spiro- sleepiness, headache, and disorienta- appropriate antibiotic treatment. chete. Use personal protection mea- tion. Encephalitis, , and, sures to prevent tick exposure and occasionally, partial paralysis may seek medical care if sick. Other Tick-borne Diseases develop. Natural hosts are marmots, Three other tick-borne diseases occur sciurid rodents, rabbits, hares, carni- Personal Protection in the United States. Human ehrlichio- vores, and possibly birds. Only 19 The following personal measures can sis is a recently recognized disease cases have been reported, all in New protect against tick-transmitted caused by a rickettsia, Ehrlichia chaf- York, Pennsylvania, Ontario, and Que- diseases: feensis. It is probably transmitted by bec. Use personal protection to reduce ticks. Symptoms are similar to those of exposure to ticks. No treatment is 1. When possible, avoid tick-infested RMSF: an acute fever with headache, available. areas. muscle ache, and nausea. A rash

A-34 2. To better see crawling ticks, tuck Flea-borne Diseases form, with 25% to 60% fatality in pant legs into socks and tape the untreated cases. In the United States, tops of socks over pant legs. Wear Plague plague is maintained in wild rodent light-colored clothes. populations in the western states by Plague is an acute disease caused by flea transmission between rodents. Syl- 3. Use tick repellent on exposed skin the bacteria . Humans vatic plague may persist in these ani- (DEET) or treat clothes with usually become infected by the bites of mal populations with varying severity, permethrin. Follow label instruc- infected fleas but also directly from depending on the species’ resistance. tions for use. exposure to tissues or body fluids Prairie dogs are susceptible to sudden from diseased animals, especially 4. Check yourself frequently for ticks die-offs. Outbreaks of plague have when skinning animals. The disease is and remove them. decimated prairie dog colonies in less characterized by the sudden onset of than 1 to 2 years. Rabbits, hares, carni- 5. After outdoor activity, remove and fever and chills, followed by the devel- vores, and wild ungulates have also wash field clothing promptly and opment of swollen and painful lymph been infected occasionally. Human dry clothes at a high temperature. nodes (buboes) in the armpits, groin, cases of plague are reported most fre- and other areas 2 to 6 days following 6. Inspect your body carefully and quently in New Mexico, Arizona, Cali- exposure. In addition to the bubonic remove attached ticks with a fornia, Colorado, and Oregon (Fig. 8). form, septicemic infection may pointed tweezers. Grasp ticks as More than 50% of the 284 cases in the develop and involve other organs. close to the skin as possible and pull United States reported from 1970 to Secondary infection of the lungs may them loose with a slow, steady 1990 were in New Mexico. Use insect lead to primary plague , motion. repellents on skin or treat field clothes which then can be transmitted from 7. Inspect pets carefully for ticks and with permethrin. Practice good sanita- person to person by aerosol. The dis- remove ticks soon after returning tion procedures when handling ani- ease may be only mild and short-lived from the outdoors. mals. Seek medical care and treatment but frequently progresses to a severe if sick.

1 1 10 1 2

4 6 27 28

40 161

3

Fig. 8. Distribution of plague (human cases) in the United States, 1970 to 1990.

A-35 Fever ers, and fish or poultry dealers. In a sanguineus). In this country rickettsial- recent study in Hawaii, Norway , pox has been reported in Boston, West Murine typhus fever is caused by Rick- roof rats, and house mice were found Hartford, New York, Cleveland, and ettsia typhi, a rickettsial organism that to have high L. icterohemorrhagiae Philadelphia. occurs throughout the southeastern carrier rates. and Gulf Coast states and southern California. Rats are the reservoir ani- Symptoms of leptospirosis infection Bird-borne Diseases mals from which the disease reaches range from none to severe, with acute many humans by way of fleas. The fatalities. Many infections are charac- Large roosting concentrations of birds oriental rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, is terized by diarrhea, chills, vomiting, can be noisy, and the associated drop- considered the most important vector , and kidney damage. Preven- pings can be a nuisance because of the of the disease. The causative organism tion is the most important means of objectionable odor and mess. In addi- enters the bloodstream when feces of dealing with this disease. Proper sani- tion, birds may carry and transmit infected fleas are scratched or rubbed tation, rodent-proofing, and food stor- diseases to livestock and humans. Col- into a flea-bite wound or other breaks age and handling are essential. lections of droppings may provide a in the skin. Murine typhus is similar to Medical attention is typically required. medium for bacterial and fungal epidemic or louse-borne typhus, but growth that could pose a potential illness is much milder and the fatality public health problem. Birds should be rate in untreated cases is much lower. dispersed or controlled when they The Salmonella group of bacteria exists form large concentrations near human nearly everywhere in the environment habitations and are judged to pose a Commensal Rodent-borne and, unfortunately, several serotypes threat to public health or livestock. Diseases are pathogenic to humans and other Concentrations of birds that do not animals. Salmonellosis can lead to threaten human health or agriculture Rats and mice are responsible for the severe cases of gastroenteritis (food are usually better left undisturbed. spread of over 35 diseases, either poisoning), enteric fever septicemia directly, through contamination of (blood poisoning), and death. Food Histoplasmosis human food with their urine or feces, poisoning, the most common malady, or indirectly, by way of rodent fleas is characterized by a sudden onset of Histoplasmosis is a respiratory disease and mites. Following are brief descrip- abdominal pain, diahrrea, nausea, and in humans caused by inhaling spores tions of the more common of these vomiting. Due to the severity of this from the fungus Histoplasma capsula- diseases. disease, medical attention is typically tum. Birds do not spread the disease required. directly — spores are spread by the Rat-bite Fever wind and the disease is contracted by Salmonella bacteria recognize few host inhalation. Bird droppings enrich the Rat-bite fever is caused by the bacteria barriers and are transmitted in many soil and promote growth of the fun- moniliformis, which is ways. One common form of transmis- gus. Notable sources for histoplasmo- found on the teeth and gums of rats. It sion is through food contaminated by sis infection include: (1) traditional is transferred from rats to humans by rat or mouse feces that contain Salmo- bird roosts, (2) poultry farms, (3) the bite of the rat. The most frequently nella (especially S. typhimurium) organ- enclosed buildings where birds or bats occurring rat-bite fever in the United isms. It may also be spread by birds, have roosted, and (4) natural or States is called . It is which contaminate food with their organic fertilizers. In addition, the fun- similar to the rat-bite fever of the feces or bacteria carried on their feet. gus can grow in various natural soils, Orient called (caused by with or without droppings. In some Spirillus minus). As with leptospirosis, the most impor- tant means of reducing the potential of areas, such as the Ohio Valley, histo- Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) this disease is through proper sanita- plasmosis is so widespread that 95% of tion, rodent-proofing, and food storage the human population becomes Leptospirosis is a mild to severe infec- and handling. Rodent control through infected, whether associated with tion that is seldom fatal. Human cases trapping and appropriate use of toxi- birds or not. of the disease result from direct or cants may also be necessary. indirect contact with infected urine of Infection by only a few spores gener- ally produces a mild case in humans rodents and other animals. The spiro- chetes ( spp., primarily L. and people are often unaware that icterohemorrhagiae) are found in con- Rickettsialpox is a mild nonfatal dis- they have contracted the disease taminated water or on food, and may ease resembling chicken pox. It is (unless it is detected later through a enter humans through mucous mem- caused by a rickettsia (), skin reactivity test or lung X ray that branes or minute cuts or abrasions of which is transmitted from house mice reveals healed lesions). A more severe the skin. Thus, Weil’s disease is often to humans by the bite of an infected infection may result in an acute respi- found in sailors, miners, sewer work- (Liponyssoides ratory illness with flu-like symptoms

A-36 (in fact, histoplasmosis is often misdi- formaldehyde before clearing, but this disease spread by pigeons and agnosed as flu). The most serious option is very expensive. starlings that results in chronic, usually infections, usually resulting from mas- fatal, meningitis. Various species of sive spore inhalation, may involve a Ornithosis ( psittaci, birds may also play a part in the dissemination of the fungus through ) transmission of encephalitis, the blood stream. Such cases may Ornithosis is an infectious respiratory Newcastle disease, aspergillosis, become chronic, recurring at later disease caused by , a toxoplasmosis, pseudotuberculosis, times, and affect organs other than the viruslike organism that affects avian tuberculosis, and coccidiosis. lungs. Treatment with an antifungal humans, pets, and livestock. It usually agent such as amphotericin B or imi- leads to a mild pneumonia- or flu-like Conclusion dazole ketoconazole may be pre- infection, but it can be a rapidly fatal scribed in more severe cases. disease (less than 1% of the cases Wildlife workers tend to ignore the reported in the United States). In Not all blackbird or starling roosts risks associated with handling wildlife humans many cases occur that are pose immediate public health prob- species and working in natural envi- undetected or incorrectly diagnosed. lems related to histoplasmosis. The ronments. Diseases of wildlife or Pigeons are most commonly associ- histoplasmosis fungus grows readily diseases present in their habitats can ated with the transmission of orni- in the soil beneath bird roosts, but it infect humans and some can cause thosis to humans. Birds have adapted cannot form spores under the acidic serious illness or even death. Becom- to the disease and show no symptoms, conditions of fresh droppings. An ing aware of the potential diseases but act as healthy carriers, shedding active, undisturbed roost may only present and taking precautions to the organism in their feces, which later give off a few spores. Old or aban- decrease exposure will greatly reduce may become airborne as dust. The dis- doned roosts, however, can pose a sig- chances of becoming infected with one ease may also be contracted from para- nificant threat to human health. After of these diseases. This section provides keets, farm poultry, or waterfowl. the droppings have dried out or been a description of the major zoonotic leached by the rain, the right condi- People working in dry, dusty areas diseases of wildlife in the United States tions develop for spore release. If the where bird droppings are present, that can also infect humans and gives soil is stirred up under dusty condi- should wear face masks or respirators information on disease prevention. tions, as may be the case in land clear- to avoid inhaling airborne avian fecal Other diseases are briefly listed in ing or bulldozing, massive amounts of material. Spray work areas with water Table 1 or can be found in one of the spores may be released. Severe epi- and/or disinfectants to minimize the selected references. demics have occurred in association potential for airborne infections par- You can prevent infection with zoo- with bird roosts under such condi- ticles. Medical attention, including notic diseases and reduce the serious- tions. antibiotic treatments are recom- ness of an illness by observing the mended for disease treatment. Birds in large roosts can be dispersed following recommendations: by the use of various frightening Salmonellosis devices or by roost thinning or clearing 1. Become aware of which zoonotic (see Bird Dispersal Techniques). Pre- The Salmonella group of bacteria can diseases are present in your area cautions should be taken when work- also be transmitted by birds. Refer to and their clinical symptoms. ing around an old or abandoned roost Commensal Rodent-borne Diseases 2. Obtain any preexposure vaccina- site. It is wise to test for the presence of (above) for additional information. tions that are available, particularly histoplasmosis before beginning any for rabies. work. Wear a self-contained breathing Other Bird-borne Diseases 3. Take personal precautions to reduce apparatus or face mask with a dust fil- Pigeons, starlings, sparrows, black- exposure to disease agents and ter (less than 2 microns) to prevent in- birds, and other types of birds have vectors such as ticks, mosquitoes, halation of the spores. Wear protective been implicated in the transmission of and fleas. clothing, gloves, and boots that can be various diseases of significance to removed and disinfected with forma- humans or livestock. Starlings have 4. Practice good sanitation procedures lin and washed. If an area that was been shown to be vectors of transmis- when handling or processing once a bird roost is going to be cleared sible gastroenteritis (TGE) of swine. animals or their products. or bulldozed, the area should be The virus can be carried in an infective 5. If you become ill, promptly seek dampened with water or work should state in the birds’ intestines or on their proper medical treatment and be done when the weather is wet or feet for up to 30 hours. It is generally inform the physician about possible cold or both. Avoid working under fatal to baby pigs and causes weight exposures. dry, dusty conditions in late summer. loss in adults. Starlings may also be A roost may be decontaminated by involved in the transmission of hog spraying it with a 3% to 5% solution of . Cryptococcosis is a fungal

A-37 Acknowledgments

Portions of this chapter were derived from F. R. Henderson. 1983. Wildlife diseases and man. in R. M. Timm, Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage. Univ. Nebraska Coop. Ext. Lincoln.

For Additional Information

For further information, consult the local or state health department or contact the CDC Voice Information System, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, at (404) 332-4555.

Acha, P. N., and B. Szyfres. 1987. Zoonoses and communicable diseases common to man and animals, 2d ed. Pan Am. Health Org. Washington, DC. 963 pp. Adrian, W. J., ed. 1981. Manual of common wildlife diseases in Colorado. Colorado Div. Wildl. Denver. 139 pp. Benenson, A. S., ed. 1990. Control of communicable diseases in man, 15th ed. Am. Public Health Assoc. Washington, DC. 532 pp. Thorne, E. T., N. Kingston, W. R. Jolley, and R. C. Bergstrom eds. 1982. Diseases of wildlife in Wyoming, 2d ed. Wyoming Game Fish Dep. Cheyenne. 353 pp. Weeks, R. J., and A. R. Stickley, Jr. 1984. Histoplasmosis and its relation to bird roosts: a review. Denver Wildl. Res. Center. Bird Damage Res. Rep. No. 330. Denver, Colorado. 23 pp.

Editors Scott E. Hygnstrom Robert M. Timm Gary E. Larson

A-38 Table 1. Some important wildlife diseases that affect humans. Disease Parasite Method of Wildlife Type of Human (Agent) Transmission Hosts Illness Direct Rabies Virus Animal bite, Striped skunk, raccoon, Paralysis, convulsions, (rhabdovirus) aerosol foxes, bats, and other coma, death mammals Hantavirus Virus Aerosol, Deer mice, other Fever, headache, muscle (hantavirus) animal bite wild and commensal aches, nausea, vomiting, rodents back pain, respiratory syndrome Leptospirosis Bacteria Urine contamination, Commensal and wild Fever; jaundice; neuro- (Leptospira spp.; ingestion rodents, rabbits, fox, logic; pain in abdomen, icterohemorrhagiae) skunk, raccoon, joints, or muscles; opossum, deer nausea; may be fatal Bacteria Contamination, Hoofed animals Intermittent fever, chills, (Brucella spp.; ingestion (coyote) headache, body aches, abortus) (milk, etc.) weakness, weight loss Rat-bite fever Bacteria Rodent bite Commensal rodents Abrupt onset with chills (Streptobacillus and fever, headache, moniliformis) muscle ache, followed by rash on legs and arms, arthritis Salmonellosis Bacteria Ingestion of bacteria Rodents, swine, cattle, Sudden onset of head- (Salmonella spp.) in food contaminated wild birds, poultry, ache, fever, abdominal with feces pet turtles pain, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting Ornithosis Chlamydia Inhalation of Parrot and sparrow- Fever, chills, headache, (Psittacosis) (Chlamydia contaminated air like birds, pigeons, muscle pain, loss of psittaci) waterfowl, domestic appetite, sweating, birds pneumonia Histoplasmosis Fungus Inhalation of None, grows in soil Mild fever and (Histoplasma spores enriched by feces influenza-like illness, capsulatum) under bird and bat pneumonia, , roosts , death Cryptococcosis Fungus Inhalation None, grows in Meningitis; lung, liver, (Cryptococcus is suspected droppings in and bone infection; skin neoformans) pigeon nests lesions or ulcers Trichinosis Nematode worm Ingestion of uncooked Swine, bear, wild and Nonspecific gastroenter- (Trichinella spiralis) meat containing larval domestic carnivores, itis, loss of appetite, cysts wild and domestic nausea, diarrhea, swollen rodents eyelids, fever, chills, muscle aches Ascarid Nematode Ingestion of nematode Raccoon Larval stage invades and roundworm (Baylisascaris eggs (raccoon feces damages body organs, procyonis) contamination) including brain

Direct and Indirect Plague Bacteria Contamination from Wild rodents (prairie Fever, headache, severe (Yersinia pestis) skinning animals, dogs, ground and tree discomfort, shaking fleas squirrels, chipmunks), chills, pain in groin or rabbits, carnivores arm pits (swollen lymph nodes), death

A-39 Table 1. Some important wildlife diseases that affect humans (continued). Disease Parasite Method of Wildlife Type of Human (Agent) Transmission Hosts Illness Direct and Indirect Tularemia Bacteria Contamination from Wild rodents, rabbits, Mild illness to severe (Francisella skinning animals, hares, carnivores, meningitis, pneumonia, tularensis) ticks, biting insects birds, hoofed animals ulcer at inoculation site, swollen lymph nodes, death Indirect Tick-borne Colorado tick fever Virus (coltivirus) Tick, Dermacentor Wild rodents (sciurids, High fever, headache, andersoni, D. porcupine), hares, muscle ache, lethargy, occidentalis rabbits, marmots, biphasic symptoms carnivores Rocky Mountain Rickettsia Tick, D. andersoni, Wild rodents, rabbits, Rapid onset, fever, head- spotted fever (Rickettsia rickettsii) D. variabilis, hares, carnivores, ache, muscle aches, Amblyomma birds nausea, vomiting, americanum, abdominal pain, rash, Haemaphysalis loss of muscle control, leporispalustris possibly fatal Rickettsia Tick, species Unknown, possibly Fever, headache, nausea, (Ehrlichia unknown dogs and other vomiting, muscle aches, chaffeensis) carnivores fleeting rash Lyme disease Bacteria Tick, , Wild rodents Skin lesion (EM), fever, (Borrelia I. pacificus, A. (Peromyscus, chip- headache, fatigue, burgdorferi) americanum munks), raccoon, deer, muscle ache, stiff neck, rabbits, birds cardiac and neurologic manifestations, arthritis Relapsing Bacteria Tick, Ornithodoros Wild rodents (chip- Rapid onset, severe fever (, B. hermsi, O. parkeri, munks, tree squirrels), headache, muscle weak- parkeri, B. turicatae) O. turicata particularly in cabins ness, rigor, joint pain, and caves recurring fever Babesiosis Protozoa Tick, I. scapularis Wild rodents (white- Gradual onset, loss of () footed mice, meadow appetite, fever, sweating, vole) fatigue, general muscle aches, prolonged anemia, sometimes fatal Tularemia (listed above)

Mosquito-borne St. Louis Virus Mosquito, Culex pipiens Birds (mostly song- Fever, headache, encephalitis (flavivirus) complex, Cx. tarsalis, birds and waterbirds), musculoskeletal aches, Cx. nigripalpus some rodents , low fatality Eastern equine Virus Mosquito, Culiseta Birds (mostly song- Fever, intense headache, encephalitis () melanura, Aedes spp. birds and waterbirds), nausea, vomiting, bats muscle, aches, confusion, coma, high fatality

A-40 Table 1. Some important wildlife diseases that affect humans (continued). Disease Parasite Method of Wildlife Type of Human (Agent) Transmission Hosts Illness Indirect Western equine Virus Mosquito Birds (mostly song- Fever, headache, nausea, encephalitis (alphavirus) Cx. tarsalis birds and waterbirds), vomiting, malaise, loss jackrabbits, rodents of appetite, convulsions, low fatality California Virus Mosquito Eastern chipmunk, Fever, irritability, head- encephalitis (bunyavirus) Ae. triseriatus tree squirrel, red fox, ache, nausea, vomiting, (LaCrosse) deer mouse loss of muscle control, confusion, coma, low fatality Louse-borne Louse-borne Rickettsia Body louse Humans, flying Onset variable, fever, typhus (Rickettsia Pediculus humanus, squirrels headache, chills, general prowazekii) animal contact pains, prostration, skin rash after 5 to 6 days Flea-borne Flea-borne typhus Rickettsia Rat flea Domestic rats, wild Fever, severe headache, (Murine) () Xenopsylla cheopis rodents, opossum chills, general pains, possibly skin rash

Plague (listed above)

A-41