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'Figure it out!' Psychological Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art Torill Christinelindstrømand Siv Kristoffersen

To cite this Article Kristoffersen, Torill Christinelindstrømand Siv(2001) ''Figure it out!' Psychological Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art', Norwegian Archaeological Review, 34: 2, 65 — 84 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/00293650127468 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00293650127468

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‘Figure it out!’ P sychological P erspectives on P erceptionof Migration P eriod Animal Art TORILL CHRIST INELINDSTRØM AND SIV KRISTOFFERSEN Department of Psychosocial Psychology, Bergen; Museum of Archaeology, Stavanger/Department of Archaeology, Bergen, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] In thisarticlewe explore some percept ual-psychologicaland semioticaspects of t heMigrationP eriod‘animalart’from thenorthernGermanicculturalarea. Primarily,it is suggested that this art, which has been described as using symmet ry and ‘split representations’,is laden with ‘ambiguous figures’ (including ‘embedded figures’ and ‘reversible figures’). T he ambiguous qualityof theartis suggest edto be presenton a perceptuallevel, but also on a compositional (structural) and iconographic level. P sychological (and neurological) processes involved in the percept ion of ambiguous figures and their effect s are presented:Gestalt formation, unconscious processing, subliminal perception, motivated perception, and changed states of consciousness. It is suggested that this art inst igated,or at least referred to such processes. In addit ion,on a semiot iclevel, t heartis suggestedtocontain information-condensat ion(‘hyper-texts’),cryptic information, and to have had other semiotic functions.

INTRODUCTION on this kind of art — and consequently,our collaborationstarted. The MigrationP eriod animalart has inspired Primarily, we sought to explore to what numerous archaeological analyses of the extent the term ‘ambiguousŽ gures’ could be Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 historical-cultural contexts of this art, its applied to the Migration P eriod animal art. socioeconomic contexts, religious-symbolic Furthermore, the psychological processes content and references — not forgetting the connected to the perception of such Ž gures many treatiseson its content:interpretations fascinated us because they could have rele- of what the art depicts. However, from a vance for the social functions of this art. psychological point of view, the immediate Therefore, we ended up by relating simple perceptualpropertiesof the art seem largely perceptionand neurology to complex semio- to have been ignored, or at least excluded tic and social functions, and to a particular from analysis in its own right. This is cultural-political context. This span may intriguing for a psychologist, because it seem pretentious,but it should be not ed that immediately strikes the eye that this art this project is explorativeand not conclusive. contains ambiguous Ž gures, and the percep- tion of such Ž gures has been thoroughly studied in psychological research. For an Migration Period animal art archaeologist,thisopensup a new perspective This paper focuses on the Migration P eriod 66 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

‘animal art’ from the northern Germanic culturalarea. Norwegian relief brooches and scabbard mountings from the Migration P eriod represent some of the Ž nest and most developed examples of Germanicanimal art, the so-called Style I (Nissen Meyer 1934:86, Hougen 1936:8–14, Kristoffersen 1995:1–3). This style existed during the 5t h and 6th centuries in the northern Germanic cultural area, which includes the northernpart of the European continent, parts of England and Scandinavia (Salin 1935 [1904], Haseloff 1981). T hedevelopmentof thisart took place withina particularand relativelyshort period, and rapidly grew into a highly sophisticated artistic expression. An important source of inspiration for the techniques and motifs Fig. 1. Ambiguous figures, here: reversible figures. (a) A vase/two profiles. (b) Duck/rabbit. which led to the development of the style (c) The ‘Necker cube’. (d) ‘The reversible was drawn from late imperial Roman and staircase’. (a): Drawing by T. C. Lindstrøm; (c) provincial Roman small-scale metal work, & (d): from Krech, Crutchfield & Livson (1969: for example belt-clasps and other items of 166, fig. 11.1). Roman military equipment (Bo¨hme 1974, 1986). Initially,the art was producedwith,at least, a touch of naturalism. Through the animal forms altogether (Kristoffersen development of Style I, the animals under- 1995:8). In short, the Roman animals are went a processof abstractionandvery quickly deŽ ned and easy to identify, whereas the developed into a unique, Germanic, artistic Germanic animals are more ‘hidden’. Put expression that can still be traced in the another way, one could say that the Roman portals of the Medieval Norwegian stave animalsstandout as a clear ‘text’,whereasthe churches. T he way in which the Roman and Germanicanimalsresemble a cryptic,hidden, GermanicanimalŽ gures differ, and what this perhapssecret ‘text’. Crypticfunctionsof this may mean, is an interestingarea for investi- arthavebeen suggestedbefore (Nissen Meyer gation. 1934:87). We sought to elaborate on the

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 One of the most strikingdifferences is the possible functions and meanings of this Germanic non-naturalismas opposed to the ‘cryptic’ art. Roman naturalism.In Roman art the animal species are recognizable. Although muscles Figures that are ambiguous, embedded, and and sinews are no longer visible in thesmall- reversible scale provincialRomanart,thelimbs, at least, As mentioned above, from a psychological are in their properplace and organic position. point of view, it is obvious thattheMigration The plasticityof the animals is also typical. Period animal art contains ‘ambiguous Ž g- The Germanicanimals in Style I are, with a ures’. The terms‘ambiguousŽ gures’, ‘rever- few exceptions (in the late brooches from sible Ž gures’, and ‘embedded Ž gures’ are Sogn), impossible to specify with regard to closely related concepts, the Ž rst two in species. In addition, they are intricately particular often being used interchangeably mingled and entangled.Details are omitted, (Krech et al. 1969:153, 166, 176). T he terms the limbs are often sketchily outlined, in come from thepsychology of perception,and awkwardpositions,or even detachedfrom the may need some explanation. ‘Ambiguous Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art 67

Ž gures’ generally means that the stimulus materialis structured(or rather:unstructured) in such a way thatseveral interpretationsare possible. In the‘reversible Ž gures’ thestimuli are seen as (usually) two objects, or sets of objects,which seem to alternatein the visual Ž eld. All the contoursof one object are used to form the other(s). T ypical examples of reversible Ž gures are the vase/ twoproŽ les alternation (Fig. 1a) and the duck/ rabbit alternation(Fig. 1b). Classical examples are also the ‘Necker cube’ (Fig. 1c) and ‘the reversible staircase’ (Fig. 1d). ‘Embedded Ž gures’ are closely related to reversible Ž gures in the sense that several discrete objects may be perceived within the same stimulusmaterialand may seem to alternate as we focus on one or the other.1 However, whereas all the contour lines are used in the ‘reversible Ž gures’, in the‘embeddedŽ gures’ just partsof, some of, or noneof thelines may be used to make up theŽ gures which are seen Fig. 2. Ambiguous figures, here: embedded to be ‘embedded’ in the larger stimulus figures. Within a landscape, a man with a cap complex. T his means that several Ž gures and a rabbit are embedded. The faces of the man may be seen within another one, sometimes and the rabbit also function as reversible figures. using partsfrom anot her,and extendingtheir (From Leeper 1935:53, fig. 1.) forms beyond the boundariesof other Ž gures (Fig. 2). In this article, because of the similaritybetweenthem,theterm‘ambiguous Ž gures’ will be used for all ‘ambiguous’, 1995). In addition to recognizing the sym- ‘reversible’, and ‘embedded’ Ž gures, except bolic functionsof thesplit representationst,he when ‘reversible’ or ‘embedded’ Ž gures are discussion here will point to and focus on the treated separately. We demonstratethat the visual propertiesof the split representations.

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 Migration P eriod animal art contains a considerable amount of ambiguous Ž gures, Split representations and Gestalt formations in various ways and on several levels. In so-called ‘primitive art’, (‘primitive’ Furthermore, we point to processes and according to Le´vi-Strauss1963), animals are effects that are connected to the perception often depictedas ‘split representations’.Even of ambiguousŽ gures,anddiscuss thepossible though not all the ‘splits’ of the Migration functionsof theartfrom thisperspective.Yet, Periodart meet the criteriaof ‘split represen- thereis also anot herpropertyof thisart which tations’as deŽ ned by Le´vi-Strauss,the term is relevant:the presence of ‘split representa- Ž ts to a large extent.This approximationof tions’ and their approximates(Kristoffersen term usage has been discussed before by Kristoffersen (Kristoffersen 1995) and will not be elaborated upon here. A split repre-

1 sentationlooks as if theanimalis cut open and The portraits,comprising fruits, vegetables, etc., by the Dutch painter Hieronymus Bosch (1450–1516) represent  attenedout,and therebyis shown from both examples of embedded figures. sides simultaneously (Le´vi-Strauss 1963: 68 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

246–247). Split representationsgive pictures some ot her body forms are relatively clearly thatare ‘formally correct’in thesense thatall deŽ ned, obvious contents on the brooches. parts of the animal are presented. Young Still, our point is that,beyond the more overt children also produce such formally correct Ž gures, there are also latent Ž gures that representationswhen they make drawings. demand more of the observers’ Gestalt- Childrenoften meticulouslydraw all partsof forming processes to ‘see’. We suggest that the body thatthey know are ‘supposed to be this art,with its symmetricaland ot her visual there’, even when they are ‘hidden’ from the properties,may contributeto instigatecertain perspective of the drawer: a phenomenon perceptual-cognitiveprocesses, in particular called ‘intellectual realism’ (P iaget & In- creative cognitive processes connected to helder 1974:60). Such drawings and ‘split Gestaltformation. representations’give pictures that are ‘logi- Yet, symmetrymay be relative.‘P rimitive cally correct’,butnot ‘visually correct’,in the art’ is often symmetrical in the overall sense thattheydepict creaturesas nobodyhas composition, but may involve asymmetric ever seen them. One could argue, however, details (Le´vi-Strauss 1963:246–247). Sym- that  ayed skins and  attenedanimal car- metrical Ž gures give an impression of order casses may have provided the ‘primitive’ and balancethatis often a vitalaspect in what artist with the idea of making this kind of we call ‘aesthetics’.Aestheticsappealsto the representationye, t thepervasivenessof itsuse senses, evokes positive emot ionalresponses, points to other associations, far beyond fur and interest (Morphy 1996:181). However, and food. also the small asymmetrical details, in this Le´vi-Straussinterpretsthesplit representa- study called ‘broken symmetry’, may have tions as expressions of transformationsby had particulareffects and functions.We seek which the decorated object ‘becomes’ or to elaborateupon the effects and functionsof ‘merges’ with the creature/ animal it is these aesthetic objects, and to relate the decorated with (Le´vi-Strauss 1963:258– discussion to their various forms of ambi- 261). However, on a more immediate level guity. of perceptual analysis, it is striking how symmetry is a typical characteristicof the Aims of this study split representationsAs. we see it,focusing on To sum up: Assuming thatart may deal with the symmetricalpropertiesof this art yields issues that are connected to, or in some way other interpretativeopportunitiesin addition relatedto, otheraspectsof a culturalsituation, to the concept of ‘split representations’with we explore what this particular art could

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 its direct allegorical referral to transforma- express on a level beyond a descriptionof its tions. more overt characteristics.Considering the From a perceptual-psychological view, level of abstractionof the motifs, we do not symmetrical Ž gures may be visually per- regardidentiŽ cationof thedepictedcreatures ceived in a way thatcomprises thetwo halves in theMigrationP eriodanimalartas a project into a Gestalt (a ‘whole’; German, pl.: that would increase our understanding,at Gestalten) (Ko¨hler 1969). Peopleare perhaps least not of Style I. In a sense, we want to do particularlyproneto‘see’ faces in ambiguous the opposite: we focus on the fact that the stimuli, for instance in clouds. The split Ž gures are ambiguous, mingled and hard to representations,but also ot her symmetrical discern. With this in mind, we seek to elementson thebrooches,can readilybe seen discover what perceptual-cognitiveand neu- as faces or masks (human- or animal-like) rological processes thesequalitiesmight have (Fig. 3). More or less complete Ž gures of evoked, andtherebyhavereferredto. Possible animals or humans are in fact very latent semiotic functions of the art are suggested. interpretationsof the patterning.Faces and Finally,we relate these qualities(perceptual- Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art 69

Fig. 3. Ambiguity within motifs, here: animal profiles in en-face masks. (a) Relief brooch with detail from AÊ gedal, Audnedal k., Vest-Agder (B3410). Scale 3/4, enlarged detail. (b) Detail of clasp from Melberg, Strand k., Rogaland (S7577). (c) Animal legs as beard-like parts of mask on end lobe of relief brooch from Syre, Karmøy k., Rogaland (S9269). Enlarged scales. Drawings by S. Kristoffersen. Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010

cognitiveand semiotic) to thedemandsof the represents a main area concerning the dis- particular political and cultural period in tributionof Migration P eriod art and relief which the art developed. brooches. Althoughthe quality varies, many works are of high quality,artisticallyas well as for workmanship. Of importance is the P RESENTATIONOF MAT ERIAL: experimentationof form that seems to have MIGRAT IONP ERIODART taken place in the decorationof the brooches CONTAININGAMBIGUOUSFIGURES from this area, during the period in which Our presentationand discussion will concen- Style I was developed; an experimentation trate on the relief brooches decorated with which indicates that the style developed in ornamentsin Style I from the counties along small-scale metalwork such as the brooches. the southern and western Norwegian coast, This means, as also suggested by Nissen from Vestfold to Sogn & Fjordane. This Meyer (1934:86), that the art in these small 70 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

metal objects is not to be seen as a re ection can be perceived en-face (French:‘full face’) of simultaneousor antecedentdevelopments is built up of twoproŽ les,andeithermotifcan in larger objects or other materials. be perceived alternatingly. Examples are Ambiguityis expressed in theartin various furtherpresentedin the‘split representations’. ways and on different levels — in the Well-executedsplit representationswith such execution of the single motifs as well as in qualities are found in the golden ‘scabbard the overall compositionand structureof each mountings’ (Kristoffersen 1995, with refer- object. Even when it comes to interpretation ences). and understandingof the motifs (the icono- A striking example of ambiguity within graphical level), the art is pervaded by motifs is presented in the ornamentationon ambiguity. Next, we describe the different the AÊ gedal brooch from the inner part of ways in which ambiguity is expressed, in Vest-Agder (B3410) (Fig. 3a). On the upper order to connect the psychological concepts partof thefootplate,just below thebow, there and the archaeologicalmaterial.(For a more aretwoeyes witha smallen-face mask placed thorough description of the material, see like a nose between them. The two eyes can Kristoffersen 2000a). also be seen as eyes belonging to two bird- Ambiguity is expressed on the following like creaturesin proŽ le,withtheirbeaksin the threelevels: panels on either side of the eyes. In the clasp from Melberg, Rogaland (S7577), a similar — Ambiguity within motifs. Figures are effect is achieved (Fig.3b). Here two proŽ les composed of elements that together can be with beaks or beak-like jaws are joined in a seen as wholes (Gestalten). Theelementscan mask, seen en-face. Thebeaks are changedto also be extracted from the whole and be an element resembling a beard, in the mask. perceived as separate Ž gures, which are The effect is actually created in the act of different from the Ž gure presented by the closing theclasp. Themotifis changedagain, whole. into two proŽ les, by opening the clasp. — Ambiguity on a compositional or structural Further,in the brooch from AÊ gedal, there is level: Broken symmetry. T hebroochesandthe a motif of a similar ambiguous characterin ornamentationhave an overall symmetrical theheadplateinner panel where two bird-like compositional scheme. This scheme, how- proŽ les constitutetheeyes in an en-face mask ever, can be interrupted or broken by witha nose resemblingan animalsnout,and a asymmetricaldetails or minor deviations in wavy mouth (Fig. 3a). A similar, but more the composition. vague, motif is presentedon the headplateof — Ambiguity on an iconographic level: Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 the closely related brooch from Fristad, Mingled species. There are ambiguous rela- Rogaland(S1969) (Kristoffersen2000a, plate tionshipsbetweenŽ gures withhuman,animal 22:5). or bird-like characteristics.Motifs frequently In a group of six brooches, Hovland occur in which elements of these species are (S2276) (Kristoffersen 2000a, plate 14:4) mingled. and Syre (S9269) (Fig. 3c), Rogaland and Nornes (B9688), Holum (B8045), KvaÊ le Ambiguity within motifs (B6516) and Sandal (B6656), Sogn og Elementsof, or whole animals,often depicted Fjordane (Kristoffersen 2000a, plate 34:1, from different perspectives, may build up a 33:1, 35:1, 38:1), ambiguitywithin mot ifs is heador face, humanor animal.TheŽ gurecan found in the masks in the footplateside and be perceived reversibly as a whole, as a face; terminallobes. In all these examples, animal or one can perceive the separateelements as legs with paws constitutebeard-likeelements an animal, an animal’s head or an animal’s of the masks. leg (Figs. 3 and 5). Often,a head or face that We might add that a relation between Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art 71

proŽ les and en-face masks is often expressed in theart,in ambiguousŽ gures,butalso in the general use of motifs. Often, opposing heads or faces in thetwo perspectives(a proŽ le and an en-face) create the composition. The en- faces are often human in character,but the proŽ les are more easily understood as ani- mals. T he motifs may be seen in connection withthehumanheadopposedby twoanimals, a motif generally used on the Roman provincial belt buckles, like the one found in Fosse, Rogaland (S6697) (Kristoffersen 2000a, plate 17:2). T he peculiar perspective of the ‘half en-faces’ underlinesthis relation expressed betweenen-faces and proŽ les. T his is found, perhapsin its clearest expression,in the headplateinner panel of the small brooch from Høyland,Vest-Agder(B5037) (Fig.4a), in the smiling faces on the brooches from Fig. 4. Ambiguity in perspectives of profiles and en-faces, here: ‘half en-faces’ on headplates of Nord-Braut,Roagaland,(S2451) (Fig.4b),on relief brooches from (a) Høyland, Farsund k., the smaller brooch from Trygsland, Vest- Vest-Agder (B5037); (b) Nord-Braut, Klepp k., Agder (KDCCCXXXIII)(Fig. 4c) as well as Rogaland (S2451); c–d) Trygsland, Marnardal k., on the larger brooch from the same Ž nd Vest-Agder (KDCCCXXXIII and KDCCCXXXII). (KDCCCXXXII) (Fig. 4d). Finally, this Various scales. Drawings by S. Kristoffersen. perspective is present in the ornaments of the large brooch from Hauge, Rogaland (B4000). This relation between proŽ les and Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010

Fig. 5. Ambiguity within motifs, here: two pairs of animals embedded in an en-face mask on a side lobe. Relief brooch from Hauge, Klepp k., Rogaland (B4000). Details: (a) eyebrows, eyes and nose of the mask; (b) animal in high relief (sculpture) in the extension of the nose; (c) animal on both sides of the nose; and (d) bird-like creature framing the mask on both sides. Enlarged scale. Drawings by S. Kristoffersen. 72 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

en-faces expressed in the half en-faces can also be seen as an expression of ambiguity. Manyof theexamplespresentedabovealso contain examples of ‘embeddedness’. For instance, an animal or animal’s head or leg embeddedin a face, or a proŽ le embeddedin an en-face (Fig. 3). The large brooch from Hauge, Rogaland (B4000) (Fig. 5) offers a good example of embeddedness. T he one preserved footplate lobe of thebrooch representsa face or a mask in which two pairs of animalsand one single animal are embedded. The eyebrows, eyes, and nose belong only to the mask and are not partsof any of the animals (Fig. 5a). In the extension of the nose, in thelower end of the Fig. 6. Embedded figures: (a) profiles with beaks mask, however, an animal in high relief in the panels which constitute the necks of the bending profile animals on the relief brooch from stands out like a sculpturefrom the brooch AÊ gedal, Audnedal k., Vest-Agder (B3410). (b) (Fig. 5b). A similar animal, in the same Animal legs within the corresponding panels of position, is found in a footplate lobe from the relief brooch from KvaÊ le, Sogndal k., Sogn og Gyland, Vest-Agder (C7455) (Kristoffersen Fjordane (B6516). (c) Animal legs in the masks on 2000a, plate13:6). In thebroochfrom Hauge, the side lobes of the relief brooch from AÊ gedal. two crouching animals are symmetrically Reduced scales. Drawings by S. Kristoffersen. placed on both sides of the nose, legs, and lower partof thebody in thelower end of the mask, their heads just below the eyes of the selves. One example is found on the brooch mask,and long beak-like jaws are  ungalong from AÊ gedal (B3410) (Fig. 3a), where beaks the outside of the eyebrows of the mask areplaced withinthenecks of thelargeproŽ le (Fig. 5c). T he animal heads are bent in an heads, which bend down towards the foot- anatomically impossible position, probably plate side lobes (Fig. 6a). But the beaks to Ž t the space under and outside the themselves do not have an ambiguous rela- mentioned elements of the mask. Further, tionshipwith theproŽ les, as theydo not make the mask is framed by two creaturesresem- up any particularpart of them.T he beaks are

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 bling birds (Fig. 5d). Their claws, or paws, just placed within the proŽ les. In a similar are placed in the upper end of the mask, at panel in the brooch from KvaÊ le (B6516), a the level of the eyebrows. Their heads are pair of legs with hooves is placed within the placed where the bodies of the inner animals necks of birds (Fig. 6b). Finally, there are meet their legs, in the lower corners of the animals’ legs within masks which do not mask. T heir long jaws, or beaks, are  ung function as any deŽ ned part of the mask; for underneaththe legs of the inner animals and instance,as in the footplateside lobes of the meet the sculptured animal, which forms AÊ gedal brooch (B3410) (Fig.6c). Embedded- the lower end of the mask. Apart from ness in thisrespect may be an expression of a making out the contour, and in an impres- wish to Ž ll up all open spaces. The art in its sionistic way being partof the mask, none of developed form generally expresses a clear these animals constitutesa deŽ nable part of wish to Ž ll out the entiresurface with Ž gures the mask. — even the space within the Ž gures. Some motifs create ambiguity by being To sum up, the Migration P eriod art embedded, but are not ambiguous in them- contains ambiguous Ž gures. They are am- Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art 73

plate inner panel on the brooch from KvaÊ le (B6516) (Fig. 7a). An examplefrom a golden ‘scabbard mounting’, AÊ mdal, Vest-Agder (C25077), is also presented,in Fig. 7b. The strict symmetryof the ornamentationin this object is broken by the different positions of the hands of the rear Ž gures (here drawn as the outermost Ž gures). This is most clearly expressedby theupperhands.Thismight also be expressed by the lower hands,but the left hand is so badly executed that we are not convinced this was intendedby the smith. Lack of symmetry might also be present, not so much by being ‘broken’, as by simply not being carried through consistently. For instance,the general patternof the ornamen- tationand structureof the brooch from Syre, Rogaland(S9269) is made up of symmetrical Fig. 7. Ambiguity as broken symmetry: (a) The design. Yet, the general symmetricaldesign symmetric composition is broken by the ears and of the brooch is broken by the animalsin the curls of the animal heads in the headplate central panel of the brooch from KvaÊ le, Sogndal k., Sogn headplate inner panel. T he two entangled og Fjordane (B6516), by the different position animals are placed in an antitheticalposition of the hands on the ‘scabbard mounting’ from (Fig.7b),and one might expect a symmetrical AÊ mdal, Farsund k., Vest-Agder (C25077) and the composition. However, neither the way the lack of symmetrical composition of the antitheti- entanglementis carriedout (and thedirection cal figures in the headplate inner panel of the of thebodylinesand limbs), nor thedetailsin brooch from Syre, Karmøy k., Rogaland (S9269). theexecution of theheads, are symmetrically Reduced scales. Drawings by S. Kristoffersen. composed. Broken symmetry may be re- garded as an expression of: ‘what is, and yet is not’ — ‘something in between’ (Kris- biguous, embedded and/ or reversible in a toffersen 2000b:271). T he motif gives an strict perceptual-psychological sense. Yet, immediate impression of symmetry, but on ‘the ambiguity’of the art can also be traced closer inspection, it does not. This may also

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 on other levels, which will be discussed next. be interpretedas an expression of ambiguity: the patternsare both symmetrical and non- Ambiguity on a compositional or structural symmetricalin very subtle ways. T hey offer level: broken symmetry surprisesfor thevigilant observer,and attract The compositionof the ornamentationon the attention. brooches is generally symmetrical,as is the form of the brooches. T he symmetry is, Ambiguity on an iconographic level: however, not always carried out consistently. mingled species There are examples which show that this In most cases, it is difŽ cult to give an breakin symmetryis a clear intentionalact on unequivocalinterpretationof a Ž gureas being the part of the smith (Kristoffersen 1995, human, animal or bird. T he Ž gures are 2000b). The symmetryis broken in the small compositions of elements from these three details of the Ž gures. A good example is different groups of species, resulting in an found in the ears and curls of the, ot herwise, iconographic ambiguity. This ambiguous symmetricallycomposed animalsin thehead- mingling of species must be intentional. 74 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

concept of ‘the soul’ and represent transfor- mations which are fundamentalto ecstatic techniquesinvolved in ‘seid’ and shamanism (Vierck 1967, Mundal1974, Roth1986a & b, Steinsland 1990, Kristoffersen 1995). The ‘Tiermenschen’ are artisticallyexpressed as animals with a human head, often with a helmnose. Yet, it is not absolutely clear whether all of these faces are human.Some- times they are difŽ cult to deŽ ne because it is unclearwhetherthelimbs are animallimbs or stylized humanlimbs. T hecrouchingposition makes the bodies and limbs easier, or more likely, to interpret as belonging to animals. The headplate of the smaller brooch from Trygsland (KDCCCXXXII) (Fig. 4d) may Fig. 8. Ambiguity in iconography, here: mingled species in (a) the side lobes of the small brooch represent one example. Therefore, instead of from Nornes, Sogndal k., Sogn og Fjordane imposing an uncertain identiŽ cation on the (B9688); (b) the headplate inner panel on the motifs, it might be more precise to accept brooch from Trygsland, Audnedal k., Vest-Agder them as an intendedmingling of the species, (KDCCCXXXII); and (c) the large heads on the andthroughtheambiguousmingling,a strong lower side of the headplate of the brooch from potentialfor expressingritualtransitionsfrom Hauge, Klepp k., Rogaland (B4000). Reduced one to the other is created. scales. Drawings by S. Kristoffersen. There are a number of convincing exam- ples of Ž gures that can change from ‘being’ animal to human simply by adding or There even seems to be a development removingsome of theelementsof theŽ gures. towardsincreasingambiguityin thebrooches A typicalexampleis thebendingproŽ le heads over time. In the earlier brooches there are on thebrooch from Nornes(B9688) (Fig.8a). relatively readily deŽ nable animals, humans, Withoutthebeaks,theheadsarehuman.With and birds placed together, such as, for the beaks, they can be seen as birds’ heads, example, in the lower partsof the footplates with the human nose as a part of the outline of the two brooches from T veitane,Vestfold of the bird’s head. Likewise, in the head-

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 (Kristoffersen2000a, plates3:2 & 4). In later plate of the larger brooch from Trygsland brooches, similar mot ifs become increasingly (KDCCCXXXII)(Fig.8b), theheadsbecome mingled and ambiguous, as in the brooches human if one excludes the beak when discussed below and presentedin Fig. 8. perceiving the Ž gure. Simultaneously, it is The ambiguityof such Ž gures (in Style I) an animal,an animalwitha beak,a birdwitha has been interpretedas ‘Tiermenschen’(‘ani- beak, or a human being. Similarly, in the mal-humans’)(Haseloff 1981:111–133, Roth brooch from Hauge (B4000) (Fig. 8c) the 1986:21–22). T he motifs are suggested to large headson thelower side of theheadplate express different forms of transformations may ‘change’ and become human when (Vierck 1967:137–139, Kristoffersen 1995: perceived withoutthe beak. 12–13), or, rather,thepotentialof transforma- tions between humanand animal form. Such Exceptions transformationsand their different expres- The later brooches from Vest-Agder, Roga- sions — ‘hamskifte’, ‘dyrefølge’, ‘alter ego’, land and Sogn og Fjordane are where the ‘Seelentier’ — are related to the Germanic ambiguity, reversibility and embeddedness Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art 75

reach their ultimate expression. This took tion of ambiguousstimuli,we suggest thatthe place duringthe development of Style I with MigrationP eriodart,with its ambiguity,split its progressive alienation from classical representationsandothersymmetricalproper- naturalistic expression. It is, however, not ties, may have activated,or at least referred present, or equally present, in all the to, these creative Gestalt-formingprocesses brooches. There are brooches and motifs during the Migration Period, particularlyin within brooches in which there is no ambi- themore ‘gifted’ observers.It seems possible, guityto be traced.Thereare also examplesin even likely, thatthiseffect and/ orreferralwas which the ambiguity may not be totally intended. convincing. One example where none of the Ž gures is ambiguous is the younger KvaÊ le Neurological mechanisms brooch (Kristoffersen 2000a, plate 35:1), Perception of ambiguous Ž gures has been which is one of the best-executedbrooches, neurologically located within the brain. The where the smith seems to have had full switchingbetweendifferent objectsperceived control over the Ž gures he created. Here in ambiguousŽ gures probablytakes place in ambiguity is present in the form of broken the frontoparietal cortex, and interhemi- symmetryonly, whereas none of the Ž gures spheric switching mediates the perceptual have any other aspectsof ambiguity. rivalry between the two objects seen. The right frontoparietalcortex is responsible for thevisual selection process, and each cortical DISCUSSION hemisphere representsone of the two alter- Gestalt formations nating/ rivalling objects seen (Sengpiel Higher-order mental processes are involved 2000:482, Miller et al. 2000:383). P erception in the perceptionof ambiguousŽ gures (Long of ambiguous Ž gures may be affected by & Toppino1994:605). Gestaltformationis a voluntary control (Liebert & Burk 1985: creative perceptual process that is highly 1307), fatigue and set effects (Long et al. activated when one is confronted with 1992:609); but basically, the ‘reversion’ or ambiguous stimuli. Simply explained, it is ‘alternation’of the Ž gures takes place auto- the process of ‘making sense’ of something matically and involuntarily.Electrophysiolo- that is unclear. Gestalt formation is perhaps gical correlates of unconscious stimulus best known from the Rorchach inkblot test processing have been found to be similar in (Rorschach 1921). This psychological test different age groups, which is interpretedto implies thatone must createinterpretationsof account for a basic, and general, neurophy-

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 symmetrical inkblots. The ambiguity of the siological mechanismin unconsciousproces- stimulus material (inkblots) stirs a creative sing (Beteleva 1996:582). cognitive process in the perceiver (observer). The more complex the reversible Ž gures The creationof the objects‘seen’ takesplace are, the more time they require to be in the observer’s mind. During that process perceived (Masulli& Riani1989:501). Curvi- the whole stimulus,or partsof it, is ‘used’ to linear shapes are more difŽ cult to re ectin create one or several objects. This ability to the brain and require more time to be perceive Ž gures in the Rorschach inkblots is manipulatedmentally (Radilova et al. 1997: regarded as indicative of importantpsycho- 129). Similarly, cognitive perceptual pro- logical resources: the ability to see mean- cesses require more steps in the perception ingful ‘wholes’ or entitiesin a chaoticworld, of three-dimensionalreversible Ž gures than problem-solving ability and ego strength perceptionof two-dimensionalŽ gures (Radi- (Killingmo 1988:149–232, Klopfer & David- lova 1983:76). T his may give a clue to son 1962:146–150). Based on the knowledge explaining why the brooches are so fascinat- of cognitiveprocesses involved in thepercep- ing: thepatterningis not only ambiguous,but 76 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

also abounds in curvilinear shapes and the Iron Age (Magnus 1988, Kristoffersen three-dimensional reversible Ž gures (the 1995:12–13, Hedeager 1997a:100–115, deep relief), and therefore requires time and 1997b, Høilund Nielsen 1999:332). It may attentionto be perceived. We believe that seem far-fetched, but not impossible, to the attention-requirngi quality of this art suggest thatthe prominentuse of ambiguous could be used for several purposes, which Ž gures in the MigrationPeriod art may refer will be elaborated below. We Ž nd every to practices of entering altered states of reason to believe that the same, general consciousness(mental‘transformations’)dur- neurological mechanisms were involved in ing religious or semi-religious situations(for the perception of ambiguous Ž gures in the instance:initiation,healing, prophesying,and Migration P eriod, as today. We believe that preparationsfor battle). these perceptiveprocesses, with their neuro- Thealternationof ambiguousŽ gures gives logical concomitants,played a role in catch- an impression of movement. It may be felt ing and focusing the observers’ attention, that the different Ž gures compete for atten- which, in turn,could in uencetheir stateof tion,and thereforea ‘perceptualrivalry’(also consciousness. called ‘perceptualcon ict’(Bokander 1967: 10)) takes place. This illusion of movement Changed states of consciousness, between rivalling Ž gures is fascinating and particularly ‘flow’ and ‘aesthetic arrest’ attractsattention,and is here suggested to Neurophysiological correlates to different play an essential role in the psychological statesof consciousness have been documen- effect of such Ž gures. If these Ž gures ted (Fischer 1971:897). A considerablenum- fascinate us today, they must have had an ber of mental states are available to even stronger fascination in a period when consciousness over a short period of time television, movies, and computers did not (Fischer 1971:898, Gisiger et al. 2000:255). exist. T he activation of cognitive creative Amongthemore peculiar are trances,ecstatic (andplayful) processes to form Gestalten and states, meditativestates, hypnosis, and hyp- to Ž nd new ‘hidden’ forms may also be nomanticthought.(Fischer1971:898, Obeye- experienced as stimulating and rewarding. sekere 1981:169, Camino et al. 1999:24); One may therefore speak of a ‘motivated but also ‘lighter’ states such as ‘ ow’ and perception’ (Gisiger et al. 2000:251) where ‘aesthetic arrest’ may be counted among the task by itself becomes rewarding: to them. discern more Ž gures and Ž gurative connec- The degree of imaginativeinvolvement in tions within the stimulus material. Such

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 ambiguous, reversible Ž gures is positively playful, creative ‘problem-solving’ tends to related to hypnotizability(Pettigrew et al. induce a particularmentalstateof conscious- 1982:68). It has even been suggested thatthe ness, called ‘ ow’ (Csikszentmihalyi1975: experience of obsession (possession by a 40), also termed ‘type B-state’(Koch 1956). supernaturalbeing) is interpretableas a form This state is characterized by fascination, of the reversible-Ž gure phenomenon (Figge concentration,focused but relaxed attention, 1972:149). During obsessions, the medium’s joy, absence of self-awareness, and complete experience ranges from the normal person- absorptionin an activitywhich requiressome, alityandcontinuityof ego-consciousness,toa but not too much, effort, and which is total elimination of ego-consciousness and intrinsically motivated (self-reinforcing) replacementby thespirit possessing thebody (Eckblad 1981). This mental state may — and back again.Fromlaterliterarysources happen any time, whenever one becomes it is known that ecstatic practices and absorbedin an activity,and can be character- prophecy (prophetic ‘seeing’: ‘seid’) were ized as a semi-hypnotic (or light hypnotic) importantin bothreligion and warfareduring state.‘Flow’ or ‘typeB-state’,thusdescribed, Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art 77

seems to be an important aspect of the Unconscious cognitive processing and phenomenonof ‘aestheticarrest’. subliminal perception The brooches are conspicuous and aes- Thereare multiplelevels of cognitive proces- thetic.Their great size, intricatepatterns,the sing, also within those cognitive processes glimmering gilded surfaces with a relief so that contribute to emot ional experiences. deep thatit gives an almost three-dimensional Without going too deeply into the difŽ cult impression, all these characteristics may distinction between conscious and uncon- contributeto an experience of aestheticarrest scious processes, we simply state that it is when these objects are perceived (Kristoffer- commonlyacceptedthatsubstantialcognitive sen 2000:267). Aesthetic arrest is described processingtakesplace on an ‘unconscious’ or as: ‘subconscious’ level (Spitz1993:231, Gisiger et al. 2000:255). Unconsciousprocessingmay The instant wherein that supreme quality of take place after subliminal perception. That beauty,the clear radianceof the aesthet icimage, is, when a stimulusis presentedslightlybelow is apprehendedluminouslyby themind which has the threshold for ordinary attention and been arrestedby it s wholeness and fascinated by conscious perception.It is possible thatsome its harmony is the luminous silent stasis of of the switching between the ambiguous aesthet icpleasure (Campbell1976:350) . Ž gures, the perceptual rivalry (described When the fascination is strong, ‘one gives above), takes place so swiftly as to approach over the whole force of one’s spirit to the act the thresholdfor conscious processing of the of perceiving,. . . losing oneself in theobject. stimulusmaterial:‘It is there,and it is that— . . .’ (Campbell1976:351). A related feeling but in an instance, it is something else, or is ‘the sense of awe’: a feeling of perceiving gone!’ Subliminal perception has been re- something wonderful, powerful, particular, garded as a subtype of implicit perception ineffable, and out-of-this-world (Campbell (Kihlstrøm 1996:23). Implicit perception 1976:352–353). The loss of self-awareness means an unconscious perception, and has and thestrongattention-consumingproperties been proposed to contributeto the develop- of ‘aesthetic arrest’ also qualify it to be ment of abstract knowledge (Berry 1996: described as a semi-hypnoticstate.Needless 203). Unconscious cognitive processing is a to say, such perceptual qualities are often partof unconscious,implicit learning(Vinter found in objects (including buildings) that & Perruchet1999:871) and plays an impor- have a religious, magical, and/ or political tantrole in complex mentalprocesses such as function.Such objectsare designed to induce problem-solvingand creativity(Bowers et al.

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 respect and devotion. 1990:73, Spitz 1993:233). We suggest that the discrete perceptual Unconscious processing of stimuli, also qualitiesand theoverall aestheticqualitiesof subliminal stimuli, has been suggested to this art join forces to invite the observer to accountfor thephenomenoncalled ‘intuition’ involvementand fascination.Thistakesplace (Spitz 1993:234). Women seem to have a bothat close handand,toa certainextent,at a greater ability for unconscious processing of distance. Earlier, we suggested that the art environmentalstimulithanmen (McGivernet referred to practicesinvolving changed states al. 1998:223). This may explain why women of consciousness. Here, we even suggest that are traditionally regarded as having more the art has perceptualqualities that actually intuitiveabilities— abilitiesconnectedto the serve to induce such changed states of functionsof ‘seid’, foretelling of the future. consciousness, althoughperhapson a smaller Only women used the relief brooches scale — theobserver may actuallyhave been (Nissen Meyer 1934). Women seemed to be unaware of it — it may have taken place the gender to which the animal art was unconsciously. particularlyconnected.These women’s roles 78 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

in connectionwith ‘seid’ (prophetic‘seeing’), one of the perceived objects is strengthened shamanism, and other religious functions (or reinforced), it becomes the preferred have not been, and can probably never be, percept; ambiguity diminishes, and it be- completely proven beyond any doubt.How- comes more difŽ cult for the person to restate ever, there are strong indications,both from the alternative percept through perceptual their grave equipmentand from later literary mechanisms(Rianiet al. 1986:191). Yet, this sources, that these powerful women, ‘hus- may not have been theonly possible motivat- fruer’ (literally: ‘housewives’) did indeed ing factor in perceiving certainŽ gures. have such importantroles in the Migration The visual information processing may P eriod society (Kristoffersen 2000a:130– also be in uenced by instructions. The 142). These roles not only demanded, but instructionsgiven or the particularsituation were also based on the role-bearer’s intuitive the person is involved in may produce a abilities. Yet, intuitive abilities may well ‘perceptual set’ which in uences the way coincide with other creative and problem- objects are perceived and interpreted(Krech solving abilities. The importantrole of the et al. 1969:172). In addition, the visual ‘husfrue’ was not restricted to religious, or information processing is also largely deter- semi-religious domains. The role was also mined by previousperceptualexperience,and closely connectedto thecomplicatedtechnol- stored in some type of long-term memory ogy of textileproduction,which, in turn,was (Radilova 1983:76). T his means that if connected to economy. The ‘husfrue’ role instructionson how to perceive and interpret deŽ nitelyrelied on intellectualcapacity.Yet, the patternson the brooches in a particular paradoxicallyfor us today,textileproduction way were given, this would have strongly was also metaphoricallyconnected to ‘seid’. in uencedthe perception of them and their Therefore, a combinationof intellectualand interpretation.It seems probable that such intuitiveabilitiesseems tohavebeen required instructions (if present) may have been of the ‘husfrue’ — and more importantlyfor related to a content pertainingto mythology, our analysis,thesedifferent realmsof abilities ritual, or to the social structure. Thus the seem to have been conceptualizedas a unity identiŽ cation of certain objects may have duringthe period in question.T hese abilities been rewardedthroughsocial reinforcements gave statusto those who possessed them,and (such as verbal approval); for instance in were represented and activated in their connection with initiation rites. This means objects of art and ornaments. that the perception may also have been socially motivated (Bokander 1967:10). It

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 Motivated perception may be far-fetched, but not impossible, that The percepts (the Ž gures or objects per- the ability to ‘see’ many Ž gures and thereby ceived) may in themselves reinforce the be able to‘read out’thecontentor message of perceptualact (Soudkova1969:89). In simple theobject may have been a socially attractive terms: it is exciting to perceive them. T hus, and reinforced ability — particularlyif the one may, for one reason or another,enter a content was intentionally hidden in the psychological‘set’ to see reversals(Leppman complexityof the patterning. & Mefferd 1968:1167). As statedabove, the reversion of the reversible Ž gures is an Condensation of information automatic process; the percepts seem to The objects are cast in bronze or silver, and ‘rival’ all by themselves. Yet, a certain gilded (Kristoffersen 2000a:266). They are voluntarycontrol is possible, and thereseem strikingly dazzling and beautiful to behold to be stable individual differences in the today,and may have had even strongerawe- ability to control this perception voluntarily inspiringeffects at thetimewhen theywere in (Liebert & Burk1985:1307). However, when use. In those days, people were not sur- Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art 79

rounded by as many colourful objects as we determinant: the brooches should convey, are today, and particularly not shining, and therefore contain, certain symbols and glittering,sparklingobjects. In the Migration symbolic messages. Despite the intricate P eriod, such objects were rare and always compression (through ambiguous Ž gures), exclusive. Most of the brooches have sizes the semiotics still needed ample space for thatclearly exceed thesize of theirpurposeas their expression. clothes-fasteningdevices (thelargest is more What all ambiguous Ž gures have in than 20 cm long). Therefore, one gets the common is that there is not necessarily one impression that the purpose of these objects correct and complete interpretationof the must have gone beyond their practicaluse. stimulusmaterial.Several, perhapsmultiple, We can thinkof at least threereasons why interpretationsare possible. When several certain objects exceed the size necessary for Ž gures, in this way, are located in the same their practical function. One is their ‘show- small area, this implies an enormous com- off’ effect, their status-representingfunction. pression of information within the stimulus Certainobjects are ‘statussymbols’, and the material.We could call this a ‘condensation ‘amount of’ statusof the owner is shown in of information’. T he opposite takes place thesize of theobjects.(Modernexamplesare: when all the informationis ‘unfolded’, when cars, and (in Norway) holiday homes (hyt- the Ž gures are ‘seen’ or ‘interpreted’.T hen ter)). Another reason for extraordinarily the interpretations cause a considerable large-sized objects is when they have to be expansion of the ‘text’ that lies in the seen by large groups of observers — objects stimulus material. Therefore, we could say used in (religious) ceremonies, processions, that such stimuli may function as a sort of and ot her public display are often ‘over- ‘hyper-text’ where (additional)information sized’, simply to be seen. However, the size is hidden ‘between the lines’ of the more may also in this case be connected to the apparentand obvious patterningand within statusof thebeareror owner, and thereforebe thebrokensymmetry.T hus,it is possible that doubly determined.(Examplesare: chalices, the patterns on the brooches referred to Bibles for use in churches, regalia,  ags, myths, legends and stories, to symbols and masks, and processional costumes.) A third rites, social structuresand roles, which the reason for ‘over-sizing’ an object is when it observers could ‘read’ from the pattern,just must contain a certain number of symbols, as Medieval people could ‘read’ the Biblical either conveyed as text, pictures or other stories from the icons in the church, and symbols. T hespace needed for thesesymbols interpretother Christianvisual symbols and

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 may make enlargementof the objects neces- sacred objects. sary. (Examples are: cruciŽ xes with ‘T he On a more subtle level, such patternings Lord’s prayer’on thereverse side, buttonson may express archetypicalsymbols and con- uniforms, and ritual objects such as candle- tent(Jung1959). To‘see’ a mixtureof human holders.) and animal forms has been suggested to be All threereasonsfor ‘oversizing’ an object characteristic of the processes that relate maypertaintotheMigrationPeriodbrooches. archetypalcontent to an ambiguousstimulus Two of them are obvious: the brooches were material(Lewis & McCully 1994:1). Arche- ‘status symbols’, worn solely by women of typical symbols may trigger subconscious or high prestige. They were used, at least, in unconscious cognitive processing and emo- connection with ritual ceremonial occasions tionalreactions(J ung1959). Therefore,when when a relatively ‘great public’ was as- expressed in costumes and personal orna- sembled and the paraphernalia had to be ments, archetypicalsymbols may be used to seen. In addition, we suggest that the third supportliving mythson an unconsciouslevel reason may also have been a relevant (Morgado1993:37). 80 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

Cryptification of information ship. In traditionalNorwegian folk costumes The condensationof informationalso opens (which were partof a living traditionuntilthe up for thepossibilityof conveying coded and latterpart of the 19th century),patterningin cryptic information. Multiple interpretations the females’ costumes could tell us which of ambiguousstimulimay be used to convey region the woman came from. The males’ several layers of meanings. Some of them costumes, however, were of a more ‘over- may be coded, or cryptic,hiddenmessages or regional’ design. Surprisingly,the patterning symbols, intendedfor the selected ‘informed on the Migration Period brooches, worn observers’ and not for theignorant(Morgado exclusively by women, similarly shows 1993:36). These‘informed observers’may be regional variations compatible with the hy- special because they are members of a pothesis of a regional (perhapseven family- speciŽ c rank, gender, or particular group or clan) association of patterns,whereas the (initiated persons, a profession, or a secret patterning on the male objects (scabbard society). Even today, membership in certain mountings) does not have this regional organizations (such as Freemasonry) or a differentiation(Kristoffersen1995:3). particular status (such as having attained a In this way, the patterning,let alone the doctoral degree) is signalled by Ž nger-rings brooches themselves, could function as sym- which only the informed observer can under- bols of thesocial structure,particularlyof the standthesigniŽ cance of. For the‘ignorant’,it privileged prestigiousgroups and their ideo- is ‘just another ring’. Certain fashions and logy. The ambiguous Ž gures could have trademark emblems function as signals of contained symbols of their propaganda. class membershipstoday(Morgado1993:36). Throughtheir ambiguousdesigns, they could Similarly, a particularlocation of an earring haveevoked a processingof subliminalvisual on males was, until recently, a sign of stimuli which may have been effective in homosexuality,intendedtoinform othermale exerting an unconscious in uence on the homosexuals. It took some time before this people (Theus 1994:282). Needless to say, sign was generally known, but in the mean- this was in fact the art and objects of the time it functioned as a cryptic message. It is highly in uential people and groups in the possible that some of the Ž gures in the MigrationPeriod. patterningon the brooches were just such cryptic signals of secret group memberships CONCLUSIONS (priestesses, women involved in ‘seid’, ma- gicians, shamans),fully interpretableonly by Primarily,we have suggested thatthe Migra-

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 the ot her group members. tion P eriodanimalart is ambiguousbothon a It is, however, also possible that the literal,perceptual-psychologicallevel, and on patterningreferred not to secret, but simply a compositional and iconographical level. to overt and well-known group memberships Psychological research has shown that our such as rank, profession, religious role or perception of ambiguous Ž gures instigates afŽ liation; or it might have demonstrated certain cognitive (and neurophysiological) political or social relationships established processes such as Gestaltformation,changed through mechanisms of gift-giving/ gift-ex- statesof consciousness, unconscious proces- change (Kristoffersen 2000a). T he viewers sing, subliminal perception, and mot ivated could understandthe social code, which also perception, which, in turn, are variously signiŽ ed their exclusion from, or inclusion in related to learning, problem-solving, intui- that social group (Morgado 1993:36). And tion, and ego strength. Ambiguous stimuli there is yet another possibility: ‘group must have evoked the same processes during membership’signalled by thebroochesmight the Migration P eriod as they do today. It is simply havebeen thefamily- or clan member- possible thatthe art was designed to instigate Perspectives on Perception of Migration Period Animal Art 81

these processes. We will not insist on able political and cultural changes in that claiming this, but the idea is tempting. region. Although we may be accused of Another tentativeconclusion is that the art pushing our argumentationtoo far from its ‘referred’ to such processes and abilities,just perceptual-psychologicalfoundations,we are as art from other periods has referred to temptedto use the term ‘ambiguous Ž gures’ important aspects of their contemporary metaphorically to describe the Migration ‘Zeitgeist’, or ‘cultural situation’ (to use a Period: the structuresof society, or rather more discreet term). lack of stable structures,created situations Secondly, we claim that the art and ‘les that were indeed ambiguous. The period object d’art’ on which it was expressed was offered opportunitiesfor social advancement strikinglyaestheticand captivatingand thatit for people with initiative: the strong, ambi- referred to‘transformations’of variouskinds. tious, opportunistic,those who could ‘create The patterningitself was executed in such a Gestalten’ out of the chaos of the period. way thatit required considerableattentionin Those persons were rewarded:new powerful order to be properly perceived. This quality entities were established, new e´lites and could, as mentionedearlier, both induce and power conŽ gurations. refer to altered statesof consciousness. Such Withoutwantingto be too conclusive, we alteredstates(mental‘transformations’)were Ž nd it interestingand astonishingthatthe art part of the religious practice (Eliade 1974, of thisperiod seems bothto activateand refer Steinsland 1990, Kristoffersen 1995:13). to psychological processes known to be ‘Transformations’are also suggested by the relatedto problem-solving,intuition,creativ- ambiguityof the Ž gures themselves,showing ity, ego strength, etc., abilities that were animals metamorphosing into people, legs greatly needed and highly rewarded during into beards, and birds into a mask, to theturmoilsof theMigrationP eriod.Wasthis recapitulatea few examples. a coincidence? When the social structure Finally, we claim that the art, and its stabilized again, the intricacy of the art objects, could serve semiotic functions. degeneratedand lost its structure.We make Sociopolitical propaganda,mythologicaland the tentativeclaim that there seems to be a ritual references may have been conveyed, connection. along with, or parallel to, signs of member- To integratepsychology into archaeologi- ships in certain social groups, certain rela- cal research is a new trend. For us, our tions,alliances, clans, secret societies, certain cooperative enterprise has been fascinating, professions, and so on. T he semiotic mes- challenging, and profoundlyrewarding.Sim-

Downloaded By: [Universitetsbiblioteket i Bergen] At: 14:16 25 May 2010 sages mayhavebeen publicor secret,or both. ply put:Neither of us could have writtenthis The dense ornamentationwith the entangling paper alone! of Ž gures and therelativelylarge objectsthey were placed on, clearly give the opportunity NOTE for a considerablenumber of messages to be conveyed in this way. Seen from a semiotic 1. The port raits, comprising fruits, vegat ables,etc., by the Dutch painterHieronymu sBosch (1450–1516) represent examples of point of view, the art may contain both embeddedŽ gures. condensed information (‘hyper-texts’) and cryptic(secret) information. The Migration P eriod was a time of great REFERENCES social, cultural and political upheaval and Berry, D. C. 1996. How implicit is implicit changes (we are temptedto say ‘transforma- learning? In Underwood, G. D. M. (ed.), tions’). Whetherthere were any ‘migrations’ Implicit Cognition, 203–225. Oxford University in western Norway is difŽ cult to assess, but P ress, Oxford. thereis ample evidence to indicateconsider- Beteleva, T. G. 1996. Age-related differences of 82 Torill Christine Lindstrøm and Siv Kristoffersen

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